different kinds of research reports

Types of Research Reports

What is a Research Report?

A research report is a concise document that summarizes the findings, methods, and conclusions of a research study or investigation. There are various types of research reports available for different purposes.

It typically includes details on the research question, methodology, data analysis, and results, providing a structured and informative account of the research process and outcomes.

Market Research
Experimental
Descriptive
Exploratory
Explanatory

Types of Research Report Writing

Limitations, key highlights.

A research report is a document that gives a quick overview of a research study.
Types of research reports offer a standardized format and structure, making it easier for readers to navigate and comprehend the information.
They are useful in fields like academia, business, healthcare, social sciences, and more.
Different types of report writing determine the report’s primary purpose, i.e., if it should be short, long, or for internal purposes, etc.

Different Types Of Research Reports

1. technical or scientific reports.

Technical and scientific reports communicate research findings to experts and professionals in a particular field.

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Characteristics:

These reports include technical jargon, detailed methodologies, and in-depth analysis.
They often have a standardized format for peer review.

2. Popular Reports

Popular reports are designed for a general audience and aim to inform, educate, or entertain on a wide range of topics.

Includes clear and jargon-free language
Uses storytelling, visuals, and anecdotes to engage readers
Prioritizes readability over deep analysis.

3. Survey Reports

Survey reports include data collected through surveys and focus on presenting insights and opinions on specific issues or questions.

Contains information on survey methodology, including sample size and data collection methods.
Presents statistical summaries like percentages and charts.

4. Market Research Reports

Market research reports provide insights into consumer behavior, market trends, and industry analysis.

Includes market surveys, competitor analysis, and consumer demographics.
Helps businesses in making strategic decisions.

5. Case Study Reports

Case study reports focus on an in-depth examination of a single entity, often to explore complex, real-life situations.

Includes detailed descriptions of the case, data collection methods, and analysis.
Common in business and psychology fields.

6. Analytical Research Reports

Analytical research reports involve a deep analysis of data to uncover patterns, trends, or relationships.

Uses statistical tools and software to analyze data comprehensively
Common in fields like economics and social sciences.

7. Review or Literature Survey Reports

Literature review reports provide an overview of existing research on a specific topic, highlighting gaps and trends.

Synthesizes findings from various sources and provides a historical context
Often offers recommendations for future research.

8. Experimental Research Reports

Experimental research reports involve controlled experiments to test hypotheses and determine if the results support or reject the hypothesis.

Uses random sampling and control groups to minimize bias.
Includes detailed descriptions of the experiment, hypothesis, methods, and statistical analyses.

9. Descriptive Research Reports

Descriptive research reports aim to provide a comprehensive picture of a phenomenon, group, or situation. They seek to answer the “what” and “how” questions.

Typically, it relies on observations, surveys, and content analysis.
Focuses on describing and summarizing data.

10. Exploratory Research Reports

Exploratory research reports are conducted when there is little prior knowledge about a subject. They aim to identify key variables and research questions.

Involves open-ended interviews, focus groups, and literature reviews.
Findings are preliminary, serving as a basis for further research.

11. Explanatory Research Reports

Explanatory research reports seek to understand the relationships between variables and explain why certain phenomena occur.

Uses experimental designs, surveys, and statistical analyses.
Provides in-depth insights into the research problem.

12. Policy or White Papers

Policy or white papers aim to inform policymakers, stakeholders, and the public about specific issues and recommend actions.

Presents research findings in a concise and accessible manner
Often consists of policy recommendations.

Components of Research Reports

These are some common components you must know while writing different types of research reports.

1. Title Page:

Title of the Report
Institutional Affiliation

2. Abstract: Add a concise summary of the research, including the research question or objective, methodology, key findings, and implications. Typically, it should be no more than 150-250 words.

3. Table of Contents: Include a list of sections and subsections with page numbers.

4. List of Figures and Tables: If your research includes numerical data, add all the statistics and tables along with their corresponding page numbers. It is similar to a table of contents for quantitative data.

5. List of Abbreviations and Symbols: Include any abbreviations or symbols you have used in the report and their meanings.

6. Introduction:

Provide background information on the topic.
State the research question or objective.
Explain the significance and purpose of the study.
Provide an outline of the report’s structure.

7. Literature Review:

Review relevant literature and previous research on the topic.
Identify gaps in existing knowledge.
Explain how your study contributes to the field.

8. Methodology:

Describe the research methods and techniques that you used.
Explain the sampling methods, data collection, and data analysis procedures.
Discuss any ethical considerations.

9. Results:

Present the findings of your research.
Use tables, figures, charts, and graphs to illustrate key points.
Include descriptive and inferential statistics as needed.

10. Discussion:

Interpret the results and relate them to the research question.
Discuss the implications of your findings.
Compare your results to previous research.
Address any limitations of your study.

11. Conclusion:

Summarize the main findings and their significance.
Restate the research question and how it was addressed.
Suggest areas for future research.

12. References: Include a list of all the sources cited in your report in a standardized citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).

Let us see an example of a research report.

Research Report: The Impact of Artificial Intelligence on the Labor Market

This research study explores the profound changes occurring in the labor market due to the increasing adoption of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies. The study examines the potential benefits and challenges AI poses for the workforce, job displacement, and the skills required in the future job market.

List of Figures and Tables

Introduction, literature review, methodology.

Figure 1: Trend in AI Adoption by Industry (Page 7)
Table 1: Summary of Job Displacement Data (Page 9)
Figure 2: Projected Growth of AI-Related Occupations (Page 11)

The introduction section provides an overview of the research topic. It explains the significance of studying the impact of AI on the labor market, outlines the research questions, and previews the structure of the report.

The literature review section reviews existing research on the effects of AI on employment and the labor market. It discusses the different perspectives on whether AI will create new jobs or lead to job displacement. It also explores the skills and education required for the future workforce.

This section explains the research methods used, such as data collection methods, sources, and analytical techniques. It outlines how data on AI adoption, job displacement, and future job projections were gathered and analyzed.

The results section presents the key findings of the study. It includes data on the extent of AI adoption across industries, job displacement rates, and projections for AI-related occupations.

The discussion section interprets the results in the context of the research questions. It analyzes the potential benefits and challenges AI poses for the labor market, discusses policy implications, and explores the role of education and training in preparing the workforce for the AI era.

In conclusion, this research highlights the transformative impact of artificial intelligence on the labor market. While AI brings opportunities for innovation and efficiency, it also presents challenges related to job displacement and workforce adaptation. Preparing for this evolving job landscape is crucial for individuals and policymakers.

Given below are various types of research reports writing that researchers and organizations use to present findings, progress, and other information.


	Outlines a plan for a project or research for approval or funding.	Research proposal submitted to study the impact of climate change on local ecosystems.
	Generated at regular intervals to provide project updates.	Weekly sales reports summarizing product sales figures.
	Detailed, structured reports often used in academic, scientific, or business settings.	Formal business report analyzing a company’s financial performance for the year.
	Less structured reports for quick internal communication.	Email summarizing key takeaways from a team meeting.
	Concise documents offering a brief overview of a specific topic.	A one-page summary of customer feedback from a product launch.
	Comprehensive reports with in-depth analysis and information.	100-page research report on the effects of a new drug on a medical condition.
	Focus on data analysis and provide insights or recommendations.	Market research report analyzing consumer behavior trends and recommending marketing strategies.
	Convey information without providing analysis or recommendations.	Report detailing the steps of a manufacturing process for new employees.
	Flow within the organizational hierarchy, moving up or down.	Report from a department manager to the company’s vice president on department performance.
	Sent between individuals or departments at the same organizational level.	Report from one project manager to another project manager in a different department.
	Created and distributed within an organization for internal purposes.	Internal audit report examining the company’s financial records for compliance.
	Prepared for external audiences, such as clients, investors, or regulators.	A publicly traded company publishes an annual report for shareholders and the general public.

Here is why the different types of research reports are important.

Research reports are a primary means of sharing new knowledge and insights with the academic and scientific community. They contribute to the growth of human understanding in various fields.
They provide a detailed and structured account of the research process, including methods, data, analysis, and conclusions. This documentation is crucial for transparency, replication, and future reference.
These reports hold researchers accountable for their work. They provide a transparent record of the study, allowing others to assess the validity and reliability of the research.
These often influence policy decisions, business strategies, and practical applications. For instance, medical research informs healthcare practices, while market research guides business decisions.

Listed below are some limitations of different types of research reports.

Research reports can be influenced by the researcher’s biases, preferences, or the funder’s interests. It’s essential to assess the methodology critically.
Findings in research reports may not always be directly applicable to other contexts or populations.
Certain research reports are not available to everyone due to several barriers, making it hard for people to access important information.
The process of conducting research, writing a report, and getting it published can be time-consuming.

Final Thoughts

Different types of research reports are important for sharing knowledge, making smart choices, and moving forward in different areas of study. It’s vital for both researchers and those who use research to grasp the different kinds of reports, what goes into them, and why they matter.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. Are research reports the same as research papers? Answer: Research reports and research papers share similarities but have distinct purposes and structures. Research papers are often more academic and can vary in structure, while research reports are typically more structured and cater to a broader audience.

Q2. How do I choose the right type of research report for my study? Answer: The choice of research report type depends on your research goals, audience, and the nature of your study. Consider whether you are conducting scientific research, market analysis, academic research, or policy analysis, and select the format that aligns with your objectives.

Q3. Can research reports be used as references in other research reports? Answer: Yes, research reports can be cited and used as references in other research reports as long as they are credible sources. Citing previous research reports adds depth and credibility to your work.

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Research report guide: Definition, types, and tips

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From successful product launches or software releases to planning major business decisions, research reports serve many vital functions. They can summarize evidence and deliver insights and recommendations to save companies time and resources. They can reveal the most value-adding actions a company should take.

However, poorly constructed reports can have the opposite effect! Taking the time to learn established research-reporting rules and approaches will equip you with in-demand skills. You’ll be able to capture and communicate information applicable to numerous situations and industries, adding another string to your resume bow.

What are research reports?

A research report is a collection of contextual data, gathered through organized research, that provides new insights into a particular challenge (which, for this article, is business-related). Research reports are a time-tested method for distilling large amounts of data into a narrow band of focus.

Their effectiveness often hinges on whether the report provides:

Strong, well-researched evidence

Comprehensive analysis

Well-considered conclusions and recommendations

Though the topic possibilities are endless, an effective research report keeps a laser-like focus on the specific questions or objectives the researcher believes are key to achieving success. Many research reports begin as research proposals, which usually include the need for a report to capture the findings of the study and recommend a course of action.

A description of the research method used, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, or other

Statistical analysis

Causal (or explanatory) research (i.e., research identifying relationships between two variables)

Inductive research, also known as ‘theory-building’

Deductive research, such as that used to test theories

Action research, where the research is actively used to drive change

Importance of a research report

Research reports can unify and direct a company's focus toward the most appropriate strategic action. Of course, spending resources on a report takes up some of the company's human and financial resources. Choosing when a report is called for is a matter of judgment and experience.

Some development models used heavily in the engineering world, such as Waterfall development, are notorious for over-relying on research reports. With Waterfall development, there is a linear progression through each step of a project, and each stage is precisely documented and reported on before moving to the next.

The pace of the business world is faster than the speed at which your authors can produce and disseminate reports. So how do companies strike the right balance between creating and acting on research reports?

The answer lies, again, in the report's defined objectives. By paring down your most pressing interests and those of your stakeholders, your research and reporting skills will be the lenses that keep your company's priorities in constant focus.

Honing your company's primary objectives can save significant amounts of time and align research and reporting efforts with ever-greater precision.

Some examples of well-designed research objectives are:

Proving whether or not a product or service meets customer expectations

Demonstrating the value of a service, product, or business process to your stakeholders and investors

Improving business decision-making when faced with a lack of time or other constraints

Clarifying the relationship between a critical cause and effect for problematic business processes

Prioritizing the development of a backlog of products or product features

Comparing business or production strategies

Evaluating past decisions and predicting future outcomes

Features of a research report

Research reports generally require a research design phase, where the report author(s) determine the most important elements the report must contain.

Just as there are various kinds of research, there are many types of reports.

Here are the standard elements of almost any research-reporting format:

Report summary. A broad but comprehensive overview of what readers will learn in the full report. Summaries are usually no more than one or two paragraphs and address all key elements of the report. Think of the key takeaways your primary stakeholders will want to know if they don’t have time to read the full document.

Introduction. Include a brief background of the topic, the type of research, and the research sample. Consider the primary goal of the report, who is most affected, and how far along the company is in meeting its objectives.

Methods. A description of how the researcher carried out data collection, analysis, and final interpretations of the data. Include the reasons for choosing a particular method. The methods section should strike a balance between clearly presenting the approach taken to gather data and discussing how it is designed to achieve the report's objectives.

Data analysis. This section contains interpretations that lead readers through the results relevant to the report's thesis. If there were unexpected results, include here a discussion on why that might be. Charts, calculations, statistics, and other supporting information also belong here (or, if lengthy, as an appendix). This should be the most detailed section of the research report, with references for further study. Present the information in a logical order, whether chronologically or in order of importance to the report's objectives.

Conclusion. This should be written with sound reasoning, often containing useful recommendations. The conclusion must be backed by a continuous thread of logic throughout the report.

How to write a research paper

With a clear outline and robust pool of research, a research paper can start to write itself, but what's a good way to start a research report?

Research report examples are often the quickest way to gain inspiration for your report. Look for the types of research reports most relevant to your industry and consider which makes the most sense for your data and goals.

The research report outline will help you organize the elements of your report. One of the most time-tested report outlines is the IMRaD structure:

Introduction

...and Discussion

Pay close attention to the most well-established research reporting format in your industry, and consider your tone and language from your audience's perspective. Learn the key terms inside and out; incorrect jargon could easily harm the perceived authority of your research paper.

Along with a foundation in high-quality research and razor-sharp analysis, the most effective research reports will also demonstrate well-developed:

Internal logic

Narrative flow

Conclusions and recommendations

Readability, striking a balance between simple phrasing and technical insight

How to gather research data for your report

The validity of research data is critical. Because the research phase usually occurs well before the writing phase, you normally have plenty of time to vet your data.

However, research reports could involve ongoing research, where report authors (sometimes the researchers themselves) write portions of the report alongside ongoing research.

One such research-report example would be an R&D department that knows its primary stakeholders are eager to learn about a lengthy work in progress and any potentially important outcomes.

However you choose to manage the research and reporting, your data must meet robust quality standards before you can rely on it. Vet any research with the following questions in mind:

Does it use statistically valid analysis methods?

Do the researchers clearly explain their research, analysis, and sampling methods?

Did the researchers provide any caveats or advice on how to interpret their data?

Have you gathered the data yourself or were you in close contact with those who did?

Is the source biased?

Usually, flawed research methods become more apparent the further you get through a research report.

It's perfectly natural for good research to raise new questions, but the reader should have no uncertainty about what the data represents. There should be no doubt about matters such as:

Whether the sampling or analysis methods were based on sound and consistent logic

What the research samples are and where they came from

The accuracy of any statistical functions or equations

Validation of testing and measuring processes

When does a report require design validation?

A robust design validation process is often a gold standard in highly technical research reports. Design validation ensures the objects of a study are measured accurately, which lends more weight to your report and makes it valuable to more specialized industries.

Product development and engineering projects are the most common research-report examples that typically involve a design validation process. Depending on the scope and complexity of your research, you might face additional steps to validate your data and research procedures.

If you’re including design validation in the report (or report proposal), explain and justify your data-collection processes. Good design validation builds greater trust in a research report and lends more weight to its conclusions.

Choosing the right analysis method

Just as the quality of your report depends on properly validated research, a useful conclusion requires the most contextually relevant analysis method. This means comparing different statistical methods and choosing the one that makes the most sense for your research.

Most broadly, research analysis comes down to quantitative or qualitative methods (respectively: measurable by a number vs subjectively qualified values). There are also mixed research methods, which bridge the need for merging hard data with qualified assessments and still reach a cohesive set of conclusions.

Some of the most common analysis methods in research reports include:

Significance testing (aka hypothesis analysis), which compares test and control groups to determine how likely the data was the result of random chance.

Regression analysis , to establish relationships between variables, control for extraneous variables , and support correlation analysis.

Correlation analysis (aka bivariate testing), a method to identify and determine the strength of linear relationships between variables. It’s effective for detecting patterns from complex data, but care must be exercised to not confuse correlation with causation.

With any analysis method, it's important to justify which method you chose in the report. You should also provide estimates of the statistical accuracy (e.g., the p-value or confidence level of quantifiable data) of any data analysis.

This requires a commitment to the report's primary aim. For instance, this may be achieving a certain level of customer satisfaction by analyzing the cause and effect of changes to how service is delivered. Even better, use statistical analysis to calculate which change is most positively correlated with improved levels of customer satisfaction.

Tips for writing research reports

There's endless good advice for writing effective research reports, and it almost all depends on the subjective aims of the people behind the report. Due to the wide variety of research reports, the best tips will be unique to each author's purpose.

Consider the following research report tips in any order, and take note of the ones most relevant to you:

No matter how in depth or detailed your report might be, provide a well-considered, succinct summary. At the very least, give your readers a quick and effective way to get up to speed.

Pare down your target audience (e.g., other researchers, employees, laypersons, etc.), and adjust your voice for their background knowledge and interest levels

For all but the most open-ended research, clarify your objectives, both for yourself and within the report.

Leverage your team members’ talents to fill in any knowledge gaps you might have. Your team is only as good as the sum of its parts.

Justify why your research proposal’s topic will endure long enough to derive value from the finished report.

Consolidate all research and analysis functions onto a single user-friendly platform. There's no reason to settle for less than developer-grade tools suitable for non-developers.

What's the format of a research report?

The research-reporting format is how the report is structured—a framework the authors use to organize their data, conclusions, arguments, and recommendations. The format heavily determines how the report's outline develops, because the format dictates the overall structure and order of information (based on the report's goals and research objectives).

What's the purpose of a research-report outline?

A good report outline gives form and substance to the report's objectives, presenting the results in a readable, engaging way. For any research-report format, the outline should create momentum along a chain of logic that builds up to a conclusion or interpretation.

What's the difference between a research essay and a research report?

There are several key differences between research reports and essays:

Research report:

Ordered into separate sections

More commercial in nature

Often includes infographics

Heavily descriptive

More self-referential

Usually provides recommendations

Research essay

Does not rely on research report formatting

More academically minded

Normally text-only

Less detailed

Omits discussion of methods

Usually non-prescriptive

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Types of Research Report

Meaning research report.

Research report is simply a structure compilation of data founded by analysist and researcher after concluding their research study. It consists of data that is collected after analyzing a large set of relevant data acquired through surveys and qualitative methods. It is systematic written document that defines key aspects of research project and serves a medium of communicating it with relevant individuals. It is designed in such a way that facilitate the easy understanding of all findings and recommendations to users. Preparation of research report requires a good knowledge, experience, expertise and imagination by individual. A considerable amount of money and time need to be invested for designing a proper report.

Research report is mainly of 2 types: Technical report and Popular report.

Technical Report

Outline of a Technical report may not be same in all case and may vary in all technical reports.

Popular Report

Related posts:, add commercemates to your homescreen.

Reference management. Clean and simple.

Types of research papers

Analytical research paper

Argumentative or persuasive paper, definition paper, compare and contrast paper, cause and effect paper, interpretative paper, experimental research paper, survey research paper, frequently asked questions about the different types of research papers, related articles.

There are multiple different types of research papers. It is important to know which type of research paper is required for your assignment, as each type of research paper requires different preparation. Below is a list of the most common types of research papers.

➡️ Read more: What is a research paper?

In an analytical research paper you:

pose a question
collect relevant data from other researchers
analyze their different viewpoints

You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic. It is important to stay neutral and not show your own negative or positive position on the matter.

The argumentative paper presents two sides of a controversial issue in one paper. It is aimed at getting the reader on the side of your point of view.

You should include and cite findings and arguments of different researchers on both sides of the issue, but then favor one side over the other and try to persuade the reader of your side. Your arguments should not be too emotional though, they still need to be supported with logical facts and statistical data.

Tip: Avoid expressing too much emotion in a persuasive paper.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information. You should include facts from a variety of sources, but leave those facts unanalyzed.

Compare and contrast papers are used to analyze the difference between two:

Make sure to sufficiently describe both sides in the paper, and then move on to comparing and contrasting both thesis and supporting one.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students write. They trace probable or expected results from a specific action and answer the main questions "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes.

In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

An interpretative paper requires you to use knowledge that you have gained from a particular case study, for example a legal situation in law studies. You need to write the paper based on an established theoretical framework and use valid supporting data to back up your statement and conclusion.

This type of research paper basically describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like:

Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions. You need to describe your experiment with supporting data and then analyze it sufficiently.

This research paper demands the conduction of a survey that includes asking questions to respondents. The conductor of the survey then collects all the information from the survey and analyzes it to present it in the research paper.

➡️ Ready to start your research paper? Take a look at our guide on how to start a research paper .

In an analytical research paper, you pose a question and then collect relevant data from other researchers to analyze their different viewpoints. You focus on the findings and conclusions of other researchers and then make a personal conclusion about the topic.

The definition paper solely describes facts or objective arguments without using any personal emotion or opinion of the author. Its only purpose is to provide information.

Cause and effect papers are usually the first types of research papers that high school and college students are confronted with. The answer questions like "Why?" and "What?", which reflect effects and causes. In business and education fields, cause and effect papers will help trace a range of results that could arise from a particular action or situation.

This type of research paper describes a particular experiment in detail. It is common in fields like biology, chemistry or physics. Experiments are aimed to explain a certain outcome or phenomenon with certain actions.

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Home Market Research

Research Reports: Definition and How to Write Them

Reports are usually spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on communicating information about a particular topic and a niche target market. The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for marketers to consider while designing new strategies.

Certain events, facts, and other information based on incidents need to be relayed to the people in charge, and creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and conclusion. These reports should have a clean and structured format to relay information effectively.

What are Research Reports?

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after analyzing the information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form of surveys or qualitative methods .

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research. It is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner specificities of research.

The various sections of a research report are:

Background/Introduction
Implemented Methods
Results based on Analysis
Deliberation

Learn more: Quantitative Research

Components of Research Reports

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are seven main components of a productive research report:

Research Report Summary: The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the research are explained in brief under the report summary. It should be interesting enough to capture all the key elements of the report.
Research Introduction: There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report. In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail. This section should answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?”. After the research design was conducted, did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they are still a work in progress – provide such details in the introduction part of the research report.
Research Methodology: This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies. The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers . Thus, this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in detail. Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained information from existing techniques.
Research Results: A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried out in the discussion part of the report.

Learn more: Quantitative Data

Research Discussion: The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section. While writing research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will be applicable in the real world.
Research References and Conclusion: Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author, article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Learn more: Qualitative Observation

15 Tips for Writing Research Reports

Writing research reports in the manner can lead to all the efforts going down the drain. Here are 15 tips for writing impactful research reports:

Prepare the context before starting to write and start from the basics: This was always taught to us in school – be well-prepared before taking a plunge into new topics. The order of survey questions might not be the ideal or most effective order for writing research reports. The idea is to start with a broader topic and work towards a more specific one and focus on a conclusion or support, which a research should support with the facts. The most difficult thing to do in reporting, without a doubt is to start. Start with the title, the introduction, then document the first discoveries and continue from that. Once the marketers have the information well documented, they can write a general conclusion.
Keep the target audience in mind while selecting a format that is clear, logical and obvious to them: Will the research reports be presented to decision makers or other researchers? What are the general perceptions around that topic? This requires more care and diligence. A researcher will need a significant amount of information to start writing the research report. Be consistent with the wording, the numbering of the annexes and so on. Follow the approved format of the company for the delivery of research reports and demonstrate the integrity of the project with the objectives of the company.
Have a clear research objective: A researcher should read the entire proposal again, and make sure that the data they provide contributes to the objectives that were raised from the beginning. Remember that speculations are for conversations, not for research reports, if a researcher speculates, they directly question their own research.
Establish a working model: Each study must have an internal logic, which will have to be established in the report and in the evidence. The researchers’ worst nightmare is to be required to write research reports and realize that key questions were not included.

Learn more: Quantitative Observation

Gather all the information about the research topic. Who are the competitors of our customers? Talk to other researchers who have studied the subject of research, know the language of the industry. Misuse of the terms can discourage the readers of research reports from reading further.
Read aloud while writing. While reading the report, if the researcher hears something inappropriate, for example, if they stumble over the words when reading them, surely the reader will too. If the researcher can’t put an idea in a single sentence, then it is very long and they must change it so that the idea is clear to everyone.
Check grammar and spelling. Without a doubt, good practices help to understand the report. Use verbs in the present tense. Consider using the present tense, which makes the results sound more immediate. Find new words and other ways of saying things. Have fun with the language whenever possible.
Discuss only the discoveries that are significant. If some data are not really significant, do not mention them. Remember that not everything is truly important or essential within research reports.

Learn more: Qualitative Data

Try and stick to the survey questions. For example, do not say that the people surveyed “were worried” about an research issue , when there are different degrees of concern.
The graphs must be clear enough so that they understand themselves. Do not let graphs lead the reader to make mistakes: give them a title, include the indications, the size of the sample, and the correct wording of the question.
Be clear with messages. A researcher should always write every section of the report with an accuracy of details and language.
Be creative with titles – Particularly in segmentation studies choose names “that give life to research”. Such names can survive for a long time after the initial investigation.
Create an effective conclusion: The conclusion in the research reports is the most difficult to write, but it is an incredible opportunity to excel. Make a precise summary. Sometimes it helps to start the conclusion with something specific, then it describes the most important part of the study, and finally, it provides the implications of the conclusions.
Get a couple more pair of eyes to read the report. Writers have trouble detecting their own mistakes. But they are responsible for what is presented. Ensure it has been approved by colleagues or friends before sending the find draft out.

Learn more: Market Research and Analysis

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Subject Guides

Academic writing: a practical guide

Academic writing
The writing process
Academic writing style
Structure & cohesion
Criticality in academic writing
Working with evidence
Referencing
Assessment & feedback
Dissertations
Reflective writing
Examination writing
Academic posters
Feedback on Structure and Organisation
Feedback on Argument, Analysis, and Critical Thinking
Feedback on Writing Style and Clarity
Feedback on Referencing and Research
Feedback on Presentation and Proofreading

Objective, evidence-based writing commonly used in the sciences and some social science subjects.

Introduction to reports

Reports are found within many subjects, particularly sciences and some social sciences. They present factual-based information for a specified audience, with each academic discipline area having its own report types (many of which are based on real-world reports).

This guide explores what an academic report is as a concept and offers practical advice about the completion of academic reports:

Reports: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [interactive slides] | Reports: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [Google Doc]

Features of reports

Reports present and (usually) critically analyse data and other factual evidence.
There are different types of reports , which each have a specific purpose.
There is often a specific structure that must be followed - see our general structure advice and guidance for each report type.
The writing style is concise and objective - for more detail, see our academic writing style advice.

The report writing process

Writing a good report isn't just about the final product - much of the thinking and hard work is done before you start writing.

Before your first report, work through the introductory guide to reports above to get an idea of what's expected of you: Reports: a Conceptual and Practical Guide [interactive tutorial]

Read the assessment instructions carefully. Which type of report is it? Is there an expected structure? Do you need to analyse data? What's the word count? When's the deadline?

Look at the assignment writing process and think about how you'll plan your approach to your report.

Make a schedule: how much time do you need to research, think, plan, draft, write and edit your report? Add in some extra time for a buffer.

Follow the steps in the writing process to prepare and write your report. Try to stick to your schedule.

Check and proofread your report carefully - check your citations and references too!

Submit your report. Maybe celebrate with some cake?

Read your feedback carefully. How can you use it to improve your next report?

For more detail, see our dedicated advice pages:

Note taking for synthesising information

In many types of academic writing, you need to compare and synthesise information from numerous sources. This process much is quicker and easier using an effective note-taking technique.

Grid notes is a useful note taking technique to synthesise information. You collect information under specific headings in a grid or table, which helps you to:

pull all your notes together in one place.
focus on finding just the information you need in sources.
identify patterns in source information.
plan structure and write.

Find out more:

Grid notes [YouTube] | Grid notes [Google Doc]

More advice about other note-taking methods:

Using evidence in reports

Sources of evidence.

Reports are based on factual evidence and data, found in sources such as:

your own research findings (quantitative or qualitative)
findings from research papers (quantitative or qualitative)
published governmental or organisational datasets
reports from companies or organisations
business case studies

Tips on finding appropriate sources of evidence for your reports:

Reading academic journals

Writing a report usually requires reading lots of journal papers. This can seem like a massive task, but you usually don't need to read every word of a paper to get the information you need!

Find tips and strategies to read papers effectively:

Using evidence critically

It's not enough to describe or summarise the evidence - to access higher grades you'll also need to critically analyse it. What does the evidence mean in relation to your overall point or argument?

There are many ways that you could use evidence critically, such as:

evaluate or justify methodological choices
consider how your findings fit into previous research
compare findings, models or frameworks
evaluate different solutions or applications and select the most effective one
make evidence-based recommendations

For more advice, see our dedicated criticality resources:

Research reports

Research or experimental reports present and discuss the outcomes of your research: what did you do , what did you find out , and what does it mean?

They're very common in science subjects and sometimes used in Education, Management or other subjects.

Research reports usually follow a set structure:

introduction

Writing a research report

This tutorial introduces what's expected in each section, with advice and examples:

Writing a research report [interactive tutorial] | Writing a research report [Google Doc]

Many dissertations also follow this structure, so these tips also apply to research reports:

Example research reports

Example research reports may be available on your module VLE sites or from your tutors.

Research-based journal papers are also usually based on the same principles, so reading papers from your field is also a good way to see what's expected. Note that the referencing style used by the journal might be different to your department's referencing style!

This ecology paper is a well-structured example of a research paper:

Other support for report writing

Online resources.

The general writing pages of this site offer guidance that can be applied to all types of writing, including reports. Also check your department guidance and VLE sites for tailored resources.

Other useful resources for report writing:

Appointments and workshops

As well as advice within your department, you can access central writing and skills support:

Have questions about planning or interpreting quantitative data analysis? You can book a statistics appointment with the Maths Skills Centre or explore the workshops and online resources:

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Next: Dissertations >>
Last Updated: Sep 16, 2024 3:31 PM
URL: https://subjectguides.york.ac.uk/academic-writing

Uncomplicated Reviews of Educational Research Methods

Writing a Research Report

.pdf version of this page

This review covers the basic elements of a research report. This is a general guide for what you will see in journal articles or dissertations. This format assumes a mixed methods study, but you can leave out either quantitative or qualitative sections if you only used a single methodology.

This review is divided into sections for easy reference. There are five MAJOR parts of a Research Report:

1. Introduction 2. Review of Literature 3. Methods 4. Results 5. Discussion

As a general guide, the Introduction, Review of Literature, and Methods should be about 1/3 of your paper, Discussion 1/3, then Results 1/3.

Section 1 : Cover Sheet (APA format cover sheet) optional, if required.

Section 2: Abstract (a basic summary of the report, including sample, treatment, design, results, and implications) (≤ 150 words) optional, if required.

Section 3 : Introduction (1-3 paragraphs) • Basic introduction • Supportive statistics (can be from periodicals) • Statement of Purpose • Statement of Significance

Section 4 : Research question(s) or hypotheses • An overall research question (optional) • A quantitative-based (hypotheses) • A qualitative-based (research questions) Note: You will generally have more than one, especially if using hypotheses.

Section 5: Review of Literature ▪ Should be organized by subheadings ▪ Should adequately support your study using supporting, related, and/or refuting evidence ▪ Is a synthesis, not a collection of individual summaries

Section 6: Methods ▪ Procedure: Describe data gathering or participant recruitment, including IRB approval ▪ Sample: Describe the sample or dataset, including basic demographics ▪ Setting: Describe the setting, if applicable (generally only in qualitative designs) ▪ Treatment: If applicable, describe, in detail, how you implemented the treatment ▪ Instrument: Describe, in detail, how you implemented the instrument; Describe the reliability and validity associated with the instrument ▪ Data Analysis: Describe type of procedure (t-test, interviews, etc.) and software (if used)

Section 7: Results ▪ Restate Research Question 1 (Quantitative) ▪ Describe results ▪ Restate Research Question 2 (Qualitative) ▪ Describe results

Section 8: Discussion ▪ Restate Overall Research Question ▪ Describe how the results, when taken together, answer the overall question ▪ ***Describe how the results confirm or contrast the literature you reviewed

Section 9: Recommendations (if applicable, generally related to practice)

Section 10: Limitations ▪ Discuss, in several sentences, the limitations of this study. ▪ Research Design (overall, then info about the limitations of each separately) ▪ Sample ▪ Instrument/s ▪ Other limitations

Section 11: Conclusion (A brief closing summary)

Section 12: References (APA format)

A tutorial on methodological studies: the what, when, how and why

Lawrence mbuagbaw.

1 Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence and Impact, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON Canada

2 Biostatistics Unit/FSORC, 50 Charlton Avenue East, St Joseph’s Healthcare—Hamilton, 3rd Floor Martha Wing, Room H321, Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6 Canada

3 Centre for the Development of Best Practices in Health, Yaoundé, Cameroon

Daeria O. Lawson

Livia puljak.

4 Center for Evidence-Based Medicine and Health Care, Catholic University of Croatia, Ilica 242, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia

David B. Allison

5 Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health – Bloomington, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405 USA

Lehana Thabane

6 Departments of Paediatrics and Anaesthesia, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON Canada

7 Centre for Evaluation of Medicine, St. Joseph’s Healthcare-Hamilton, Hamilton, ON Canada

8 Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton Health Sciences, Hamilton, ON Canada

Associated Data

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

Methodological studies – studies that evaluate the design, analysis or reporting of other research-related reports – play an important role in health research. They help to highlight issues in the conduct of research with the aim of improving health research methodology, and ultimately reducing research waste.

We provide an overview of some of the key aspects of methodological studies such as what they are, and when, how and why they are done. We adopt a “frequently asked questions” format to facilitate reading this paper and provide multiple examples to help guide researchers interested in conducting methodological studies. Some of the topics addressed include: is it necessary to publish a study protocol? How to select relevant research reports and databases for a methodological study? What approaches to data extraction and statistical analysis should be considered when conducting a methodological study? What are potential threats to validity and is there a way to appraise the quality of methodological studies?

Appropriate reflection and application of basic principles of epidemiology and biostatistics are required in the design and analysis of methodological studies. This paper provides an introduction for further discussion about the conduct of methodological studies.

The field of meta-research (or research-on-research) has proliferated in recent years in response to issues with research quality and conduct [ 1 – 3 ]. As the name suggests, this field targets issues with research design, conduct, analysis and reporting. Various types of research reports are often examined as the unit of analysis in these studies (e.g. abstracts, full manuscripts, trial registry entries). Like many other novel fields of research, meta-research has seen a proliferation of use before the development of reporting guidance. For example, this was the case with randomized trials for which risk of bias tools and reporting guidelines were only developed much later – after many trials had been published and noted to have limitations [ 4 , 5 ]; and for systematic reviews as well [ 6 – 8 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, studies that report on research differ substantially in how they are named, conducted and reported [ 9 , 10 ]. This creates challenges in identifying, summarizing and comparing them. In this tutorial paper, we will use the term methodological study to refer to any study that reports on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary or secondary research-related reports (such as trial registry entries and conference abstracts).

In the past 10 years, there has been an increase in the use of terms related to methodological studies (based on records retrieved with a keyword search [in the title and abstract] for “methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study” in PubMed up to December 2019), suggesting that these studies may be appearing more frequently in the literature. See Fig. 1 .

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is 12874_2020_1107_Fig1_HTML.jpg

Trends in the number studies that mention “methodological review” or “meta-

epidemiological study” in PubMed.

The methods used in many methodological studies have been borrowed from systematic and scoping reviews. This practice has influenced the direction of the field, with many methodological studies including searches of electronic databases, screening of records, duplicate data extraction and assessments of risk of bias in the included studies. However, the research questions posed in methodological studies do not always require the approaches listed above, and guidance is needed on when and how to apply these methods to a methodological study. Even though methodological studies can be conducted on qualitative or mixed methods research, this paper focuses on and draws examples exclusively from quantitative research.

The objectives of this paper are to provide some insights on how to conduct methodological studies so that there is greater consistency between the research questions posed, and the design, analysis and reporting of findings. We provide multiple examples to illustrate concepts and a proposed framework for categorizing methodological studies in quantitative research.

What is a methodological study?

Any study that describes or analyzes methods (design, conduct, analysis or reporting) in published (or unpublished) literature is a methodological study. Consequently, the scope of methodological studies is quite extensive and includes, but is not limited to, topics as diverse as: research question formulation [ 11 ]; adherence to reporting guidelines [ 12 – 14 ] and consistency in reporting [ 15 ]; approaches to study analysis [ 16 ]; investigating the credibility of analyses [ 17 ]; and studies that synthesize these methodological studies [ 18 ]. While the nomenclature of methodological studies is not uniform, the intents and purposes of these studies remain fairly consistent – to describe or analyze methods in primary or secondary studies. As such, methodological studies may also be classified as a subtype of observational studies.

Parallel to this are experimental studies that compare different methods. Even though they play an important role in informing optimal research methods, experimental methodological studies are beyond the scope of this paper. Examples of such studies include the randomized trials by Buscemi et al., comparing single data extraction to double data extraction [ 19 ], and Carrasco-Labra et al., comparing approaches to presenting findings in Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations (GRADE) summary of findings tables [ 20 ]. In these studies, the unit of analysis is the person or groups of individuals applying the methods. We also direct readers to the Studies Within a Trial (SWAT) and Studies Within a Review (SWAR) programme operated through the Hub for Trials Methodology Research, for further reading as a potential useful resource for these types of experimental studies [ 21 ]. Lastly, this paper is not meant to inform the conduct of research using computational simulation and mathematical modeling for which some guidance already exists [ 22 ], or studies on the development of methods using consensus-based approaches.

When should we conduct a methodological study?

Methodological studies occupy a unique niche in health research that allows them to inform methodological advances. Methodological studies should also be conducted as pre-cursors to reporting guideline development, as they provide an opportunity to understand current practices, and help to identify the need for guidance and gaps in methodological or reporting quality. For example, the development of the popular Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were preceded by methodological studies identifying poor reporting practices [ 23 , 24 ]. In these instances, after the reporting guidelines are published, methodological studies can also be used to monitor uptake of the guidelines.

These studies can also be conducted to inform the state of the art for design, analysis and reporting practices across different types of health research fields, with the aim of improving research practices, and preventing or reducing research waste. For example, Samaan et al. conducted a scoping review of adherence to different reporting guidelines in health care literature [ 18 ]. Methodological studies can also be used to determine the factors associated with reporting practices. For example, Abbade et al. investigated journal characteristics associated with the use of the Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (PICOT) format in framing research questions in trials of venous ulcer disease [ 11 ].

How often are methodological studies conducted?

There is no clear answer to this question. Based on a search of PubMed, the use of related terms (“methodological review” and “meta-epidemiological study”) – and therefore, the number of methodological studies – is on the rise. However, many other terms are used to describe methodological studies. There are also many studies that explore design, conduct, analysis or reporting of research reports, but that do not use any specific terms to describe or label their study design in terms of “methodology”. This diversity in nomenclature makes a census of methodological studies elusive. Appropriate terminology and key words for methodological studies are needed to facilitate improved accessibility for end-users.

Why do we conduct methodological studies?

Methodological studies provide information on the design, conduct, analysis or reporting of primary and secondary research and can be used to appraise quality, quantity, completeness, accuracy and consistency of health research. These issues can be explored in specific fields, journals, databases, geographical regions and time periods. For example, Areia et al. explored the quality of reporting of endoscopic diagnostic studies in gastroenterology [ 25 ]; Knol et al. investigated the reporting of p -values in baseline tables in randomized trial published in high impact journals [ 26 ]; Chen et al. describe adherence to the Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) statement in Chinese Journals [ 27 ]; and Hopewell et al. describe the effect of editors’ implementation of CONSORT guidelines on reporting of abstracts over time [ 28 ]. Methodological studies provide useful information to researchers, clinicians, editors, publishers and users of health literature. As a result, these studies have been at the cornerstone of important methodological developments in the past two decades and have informed the development of many health research guidelines including the highly cited CONSORT statement [ 5 ].

Where can we find methodological studies?

Methodological studies can be found in most common biomedical bibliographic databases (e.g. Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, Web of Science). However, the biggest caveat is that methodological studies are hard to identify in the literature due to the wide variety of names used and the lack of comprehensive databases dedicated to them. A handful can be found in the Cochrane Library as “Cochrane Methodology Reviews”, but these studies only cover methodological issues related to systematic reviews. Previous attempts to catalogue all empirical studies of methods used in reviews were abandoned 10 years ago [ 29 ]. In other databases, a variety of search terms may be applied with different levels of sensitivity and specificity.

Some frequently asked questions about methodological studies

In this section, we have outlined responses to questions that might help inform the conduct of methodological studies.

Q: How should I select research reports for my methodological study?

A: Selection of research reports for a methodological study depends on the research question and eligibility criteria. Once a clear research question is set and the nature of literature one desires to review is known, one can then begin the selection process. Selection may begin with a broad search, especially if the eligibility criteria are not apparent. For example, a methodological study of Cochrane Reviews of HIV would not require a complex search as all eligible studies can easily be retrieved from the Cochrane Library after checking a few boxes [ 30 ]. On the other hand, a methodological study of subgroup analyses in trials of gastrointestinal oncology would require a search to find such trials, and further screening to identify trials that conducted a subgroup analysis [ 31 ].

The strategies used for identifying participants in observational studies can apply here. One may use a systematic search to identify all eligible studies. If the number of eligible studies is unmanageable, a random sample of articles can be expected to provide comparable results if it is sufficiently large [ 32 ]. For example, Wilson et al. used a random sample of trials from the Cochrane Stroke Group’s Trial Register to investigate completeness of reporting [ 33 ]. It is possible that a simple random sample would lead to underrepresentation of units (i.e. research reports) that are smaller in number. This is relevant if the investigators wish to compare multiple groups but have too few units in one group. In this case a stratified sample would help to create equal groups. For example, in a methodological study comparing Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews, Kahale et al. drew random samples from both groups [ 34 ]. Alternatively, systematic or purposeful sampling strategies can be used and we encourage researchers to justify their selected approaches based on the study objective.

Q: How many databases should I search?

A: The number of databases one should search would depend on the approach to sampling, which can include targeting the entire “population” of interest or a sample of that population. If you are interested in including the entire target population for your research question, or drawing a random or systematic sample from it, then a comprehensive and exhaustive search for relevant articles is required. In this case, we recommend using systematic approaches for searching electronic databases (i.e. at least 2 databases with a replicable and time stamped search strategy). The results of your search will constitute a sampling frame from which eligible studies can be drawn.

Alternatively, if your approach to sampling is purposeful, then we recommend targeting the database(s) or data sources (e.g. journals, registries) that include the information you need. For example, if you are conducting a methodological study of high impact journals in plastic surgery and they are all indexed in PubMed, you likely do not need to search any other databases. You may also have a comprehensive list of all journals of interest and can approach your search using the journal names in your database search (or by accessing the journal archives directly from the journal’s website). Even though one could also search journals’ web pages directly, using a database such as PubMed has multiple advantages, such as the use of filters, so the search can be narrowed down to a certain period, or study types of interest. Furthermore, individual journals’ web sites may have different search functionalities, which do not necessarily yield a consistent output.

Q: Should I publish a protocol for my methodological study?

A: A protocol is a description of intended research methods. Currently, only protocols for clinical trials require registration [ 35 ]. Protocols for systematic reviews are encouraged but no formal recommendation exists. The scientific community welcomes the publication of protocols because they help protect against selective outcome reporting, the use of post hoc methodologies to embellish results, and to help avoid duplication of efforts [ 36 ]. While the latter two risks exist in methodological research, the negative consequences may be substantially less than for clinical outcomes. In a sample of 31 methodological studies, 7 (22.6%) referenced a published protocol [ 9 ]. In the Cochrane Library, there are 15 protocols for methodological reviews (21 July 2020). This suggests that publishing protocols for methodological studies is not uncommon.

Authors can consider publishing their study protocol in a scholarly journal as a manuscript. Advantages of such publication include obtaining peer-review feedback about the planned study, and easy retrieval by searching databases such as PubMed. The disadvantages in trying to publish protocols includes delays associated with manuscript handling and peer review, as well as costs, as few journals publish study protocols, and those journals mostly charge article-processing fees [ 37 ]. Authors who would like to make their protocol publicly available without publishing it in scholarly journals, could deposit their study protocols in publicly available repositories, such as the Open Science Framework ( https://osf.io/ ).

Q: How to appraise the quality of a methodological study?

A: To date, there is no published tool for appraising the risk of bias in a methodological study, but in principle, a methodological study could be considered as a type of observational study. Therefore, during conduct or appraisal, care should be taken to avoid the biases common in observational studies [ 38 ]. These biases include selection bias, comparability of groups, and ascertainment of exposure or outcome. In other words, to generate a representative sample, a comprehensive reproducible search may be necessary to build a sampling frame. Additionally, random sampling may be necessary to ensure that all the included research reports have the same probability of being selected, and the screening and selection processes should be transparent and reproducible. To ensure that the groups compared are similar in all characteristics, matching, random sampling or stratified sampling can be used. Statistical adjustments for between-group differences can also be applied at the analysis stage. Finally, duplicate data extraction can reduce errors in assessment of exposures or outcomes.

Q: Should I justify a sample size?

A: In all instances where one is not using the target population (i.e. the group to which inferences from the research report are directed) [ 39 ], a sample size justification is good practice. The sample size justification may take the form of a description of what is expected to be achieved with the number of articles selected, or a formal sample size estimation that outlines the number of articles required to answer the research question with a certain precision and power. Sample size justifications in methodological studies are reasonable in the following instances:

Comparing two groups
Determining a proportion, mean or another quantifier
Determining factors associated with an outcome using regression-based analyses

For example, El Dib et al. computed a sample size requirement for a methodological study of diagnostic strategies in randomized trials, based on a confidence interval approach [ 40 ].

Q: What should I call my study?

A: Other terms which have been used to describe/label methodological studies include “ methodological review ”, “methodological survey” , “meta-epidemiological study” , “systematic review” , “systematic survey”, “meta-research”, “research-on-research” and many others. We recommend that the study nomenclature be clear, unambiguous, informative and allow for appropriate indexing. Methodological study nomenclature that should be avoided includes “ systematic review” – as this will likely be confused with a systematic review of a clinical question. “ Systematic survey” may also lead to confusion about whether the survey was systematic (i.e. using a preplanned methodology) or a survey using “ systematic” sampling (i.e. a sampling approach using specific intervals to determine who is selected) [ 32 ]. Any of the above meanings of the words “ systematic” may be true for methodological studies and could be potentially misleading. “ Meta-epidemiological study” is ideal for indexing, but not very informative as it describes an entire field. The term “ review ” may point towards an appraisal or “review” of the design, conduct, analysis or reporting (or methodological components) of the targeted research reports, yet it has also been used to describe narrative reviews [ 41 , 42 ]. The term “ survey ” is also in line with the approaches used in many methodological studies [ 9 ], and would be indicative of the sampling procedures of this study design. However, in the absence of guidelines on nomenclature, the term “ methodological study ” is broad enough to capture most of the scenarios of such studies.

Q: Should I account for clustering in my methodological study?

A: Data from methodological studies are often clustered. For example, articles coming from a specific source may have different reporting standards (e.g. the Cochrane Library). Articles within the same journal may be similar due to editorial practices and policies, reporting requirements and endorsement of guidelines. There is emerging evidence that these are real concerns that should be accounted for in analyses [ 43 ]. Some cluster variables are described in the section: “ What variables are relevant to methodological studies?”

A variety of modelling approaches can be used to account for correlated data, including the use of marginal, fixed or mixed effects regression models with appropriate computation of standard errors [ 44 ]. For example, Kosa et al. used generalized estimation equations to account for correlation of articles within journals [ 15 ]. Not accounting for clustering could lead to incorrect p -values, unduly narrow confidence intervals, and biased estimates [ 45 ].

Q: Should I extract data in duplicate?

A: Yes. Duplicate data extraction takes more time but results in less errors [ 19 ]. Data extraction errors in turn affect the effect estimate [ 46 ], and therefore should be mitigated. Duplicate data extraction should be considered in the absence of other approaches to minimize extraction errors. However, much like systematic reviews, this area will likely see rapid new advances with machine learning and natural language processing technologies to support researchers with screening and data extraction [ 47 , 48 ]. However, experience plays an important role in the quality of extracted data and inexperienced extractors should be paired with experienced extractors [ 46 , 49 ].

Q: Should I assess the risk of bias of research reports included in my methodological study?

A : Risk of bias is most useful in determining the certainty that can be placed in the effect measure from a study. In methodological studies, risk of bias may not serve the purpose of determining the trustworthiness of results, as effect measures are often not the primary goal of methodological studies. Determining risk of bias in methodological studies is likely a practice borrowed from systematic review methodology, but whose intrinsic value is not obvious in methodological studies. When it is part of the research question, investigators often focus on one aspect of risk of bias. For example, Speich investigated how blinding was reported in surgical trials [ 50 ], and Abraha et al., investigated the application of intention-to-treat analyses in systematic reviews and trials [ 51 ].

Q: What variables are relevant to methodological studies?

A: There is empirical evidence that certain variables may inform the findings in a methodological study. We outline some of these and provide a brief overview below:

Country: Countries and regions differ in their research cultures, and the resources available to conduct research. Therefore, it is reasonable to believe that there may be differences in methodological features across countries. Methodological studies have reported loco-regional differences in reporting quality [ 52 , 53 ]. This may also be related to challenges non-English speakers face in publishing papers in English.
Authors’ expertise: The inclusion of authors with expertise in research methodology, biostatistics, and scientific writing is likely to influence the end-product. Oltean et al. found that among randomized trials in orthopaedic surgery, the use of analyses that accounted for clustering was more likely when specialists (e.g. statistician, epidemiologist or clinical trials methodologist) were included on the study team [ 54 ]. Fleming et al. found that including methodologists in the review team was associated with appropriate use of reporting guidelines [ 55 ].
Source of funding and conflicts of interest: Some studies have found that funded studies report better [ 56 , 57 ], while others do not [ 53 , 58 ]. The presence of funding would indicate the availability of resources deployed to ensure optimal design, conduct, analysis and reporting. However, the source of funding may introduce conflicts of interest and warrant assessment. For example, Kaiser et al. investigated the effect of industry funding on obesity or nutrition randomized trials and found that reporting quality was similar [ 59 ]. Thomas et al. looked at reporting quality of long-term weight loss trials and found that industry funded studies were better [ 60 ]. Kan et al. examined the association between industry funding and “positive trials” (trials reporting a significant intervention effect) and found that industry funding was highly predictive of a positive trial [ 61 ]. This finding is similar to that of a recent Cochrane Methodology Review by Hansen et al. [ 62 ]
Journal characteristics: Certain journals’ characteristics may influence the study design, analysis or reporting. Characteristics such as journal endorsement of guidelines [ 63 , 64 ], and Journal Impact Factor (JIF) have been shown to be associated with reporting [ 63 , 65 – 67 ].
Study size (sample size/number of sites): Some studies have shown that reporting is better in larger studies [ 53 , 56 , 58 ].
Year of publication: It is reasonable to assume that design, conduct, analysis and reporting of research will change over time. Many studies have demonstrated improvements in reporting over time or after the publication of reporting guidelines [ 68 , 69 ].
Type of intervention: In a methodological study of reporting quality of weight loss intervention studies, Thabane et al. found that trials of pharmacologic interventions were reported better than trials of non-pharmacologic interventions [ 70 ].
Interactions between variables: Complex interactions between the previously listed variables are possible. High income countries with more resources may be more likely to conduct larger studies and incorporate a variety of experts. Authors in certain countries may prefer certain journals, and journal endorsement of guidelines and editorial policies may change over time.

Q: Should I focus only on high impact journals?

A: Investigators may choose to investigate only high impact journals because they are more likely to influence practice and policy, or because they assume that methodological standards would be higher. However, the JIF may severely limit the scope of articles included and may skew the sample towards articles with positive findings. The generalizability and applicability of findings from a handful of journals must be examined carefully, especially since the JIF varies over time. Even among journals that are all “high impact”, variations exist in methodological standards.

Q: Can I conduct a methodological study of qualitative research?

A: Yes. Even though a lot of methodological research has been conducted in the quantitative research field, methodological studies of qualitative studies are feasible. Certain databases that catalogue qualitative research including the Cumulative Index to Nursing & Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) have defined subject headings that are specific to methodological research (e.g. “research methodology”). Alternatively, one could also conduct a qualitative methodological review; that is, use qualitative approaches to synthesize methodological issues in qualitative studies.

Q: What reporting guidelines should I use for my methodological study?

A: There is no guideline that covers the entire scope of methodological studies. One adaptation of the PRISMA guidelines has been published, which works well for studies that aim to use the entire target population of research reports [ 71 ]. However, it is not widely used (40 citations in 2 years as of 09 December 2019), and methodological studies that are designed as cross-sectional or before-after studies require a more fit-for purpose guideline. A more encompassing reporting guideline for a broad range of methodological studies is currently under development [ 72 ]. However, in the absence of formal guidance, the requirements for scientific reporting should be respected, and authors of methodological studies should focus on transparency and reproducibility.

Q: What are the potential threats to validity and how can I avoid them?

A: Methodological studies may be compromised by a lack of internal or external validity. The main threats to internal validity in methodological studies are selection and confounding bias. Investigators must ensure that the methods used to select articles does not make them differ systematically from the set of articles to which they would like to make inferences. For example, attempting to make extrapolations to all journals after analyzing high-impact journals would be misleading.

Many factors (confounders) may distort the association between the exposure and outcome if the included research reports differ with respect to these factors [ 73 ]. For example, when examining the association between source of funding and completeness of reporting, it may be necessary to account for journals that endorse the guidelines. Confounding bias can be addressed by restriction, matching and statistical adjustment [ 73 ]. Restriction appears to be the method of choice for many investigators who choose to include only high impact journals or articles in a specific field. For example, Knol et al. examined the reporting of p -values in baseline tables of high impact journals [ 26 ]. Matching is also sometimes used. In the methodological study of non-randomized interventional studies of elective ventral hernia repair, Parker et al. matched prospective studies with retrospective studies and compared reporting standards [ 74 ]. Some other methodological studies use statistical adjustments. For example, Zhang et al. used regression techniques to determine the factors associated with missing participant data in trials [ 16 ].

With regard to external validity, researchers interested in conducting methodological studies must consider how generalizable or applicable their findings are. This should tie in closely with the research question and should be explicit. For example. Findings from methodological studies on trials published in high impact cardiology journals cannot be assumed to be applicable to trials in other fields. However, investigators must ensure that their sample truly represents the target sample either by a) conducting a comprehensive and exhaustive search, or b) using an appropriate and justified, randomly selected sample of research reports.

Even applicability to high impact journals may vary based on the investigators’ definition, and over time. For example, for high impact journals in the field of general medicine, Bouwmeester et al. included the Annals of Internal Medicine (AIM), BMJ, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Lancet, the New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM), and PLoS Medicine ( n = 6) [ 75 ]. In contrast, the high impact journals selected in the methodological study by Schiller et al. were BMJ, JAMA, Lancet, and NEJM ( n = 4) [ 76 ]. Another methodological study by Kosa et al. included AIM, BMJ, JAMA, Lancet and NEJM ( n = 5). In the methodological study by Thabut et al., journals with a JIF greater than 5 were considered to be high impact. Riado Minguez et al. used first quartile journals in the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) for a specific year to determine “high impact” [ 77 ]. Ultimately, the definition of high impact will be based on the number of journals the investigators are willing to include, the year of impact and the JIF cut-off [ 78 ]. We acknowledge that the term “generalizability” may apply differently for methodological studies, especially when in many instances it is possible to include the entire target population in the sample studied.

Finally, methodological studies are not exempt from information bias which may stem from discrepancies in the included research reports [ 79 ], errors in data extraction, or inappropriate interpretation of the information extracted. Likewise, publication bias may also be a concern in methodological studies, but such concepts have not yet been explored.

A proposed framework

In order to inform discussions about methodological studies, the development of guidance for what should be reported, we have outlined some key features of methodological studies that can be used to classify them. For each of the categories outlined below, we provide an example. In our experience, the choice of approach to completing a methodological study can be informed by asking the following four questions:

What is the aim?

A methodological study may be focused on exploring sources of bias in primary or secondary studies (meta-bias), or how bias is analyzed. We have taken care to distinguish bias (i.e. systematic deviations from the truth irrespective of the source) from reporting quality or completeness (i.e. not adhering to a specific reporting guideline or norm). An example of where this distinction would be important is in the case of a randomized trial with no blinding. This study (depending on the nature of the intervention) would be at risk of performance bias. However, if the authors report that their study was not blinded, they would have reported adequately. In fact, some methodological studies attempt to capture both “quality of conduct” and “quality of reporting”, such as Richie et al., who reported on the risk of bias in randomized trials of pharmacy practice interventions [ 80 ]. Babic et al. investigated how risk of bias was used to inform sensitivity analyses in Cochrane reviews [ 81 ]. Further, biases related to choice of outcomes can also be explored. For example, Tan et al investigated differences in treatment effect size based on the outcome reported [ 82 ].

Methodological studies may report quality of reporting against a reporting checklist (i.e. adherence to guidelines) or against expected norms. For example, Croituro et al. report on the quality of reporting in systematic reviews published in dermatology journals based on their adherence to the PRISMA statement [ 83 ], and Khan et al. described the quality of reporting of harms in randomized controlled trials published in high impact cardiovascular journals based on the CONSORT extension for harms [ 84 ]. Other methodological studies investigate reporting of certain features of interest that may not be part of formally published checklists or guidelines. For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described how often the implications for research are elaborated using the Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe (EPICOT) format [ 30 ].

Sometimes investigators may be interested in how consistent reports of the same research are, as it is expected that there should be consistency between: conference abstracts and published manuscripts; manuscript abstracts and manuscript main text; and trial registration and published manuscript. For example, Rosmarakis et al. investigated consistency between conference abstracts and full text manuscripts [ 85 ].

In addition to identifying issues with reporting in primary and secondary studies, authors of methodological studies may be interested in determining the factors that are associated with certain reporting practices. Many methodological studies incorporate this, albeit as a secondary outcome. For example, Farrokhyar et al. investigated the factors associated with reporting quality in randomized trials of coronary artery bypass grafting surgery [ 53 ].

Methodological studies may also be used to describe methods or compare methods, and the factors associated with methods. Muller et al. described the methods used for systematic reviews and meta-analyses of observational studies [ 86 ].

Some methodological studies synthesize results from other methodological studies. For example, Li et al. conducted a scoping review of methodological reviews that investigated consistency between full text and abstracts in primary biomedical research [ 87 ].

Some methodological studies may investigate the use of names and terms in health research. For example, Martinic et al. investigated the definitions of systematic reviews used in overviews of systematic reviews (OSRs), meta-epidemiological studies and epidemiology textbooks [ 88 ].

In addition to the previously mentioned experimental methodological studies, there may exist other types of methodological studies not captured here.

2. What is the design?

Most methodological studies are purely descriptive and report their findings as counts (percent) and means (standard deviation) or medians (interquartile range). For example, Mbuagbaw et al. described the reporting of research recommendations in Cochrane HIV systematic reviews [ 30 ]. Gohari et al. described the quality of reporting of randomized trials in diabetes in Iran [ 12 ].

Some methodological studies are analytical wherein “analytical studies identify and quantify associations, test hypotheses, identify causes and determine whether an association exists between variables, such as between an exposure and a disease.” [ 89 ] In the case of methodological studies all these investigations are possible. For example, Kosa et al. investigated the association between agreement in primary outcome from trial registry to published manuscript and study covariates. They found that larger and more recent studies were more likely to have agreement [ 15 ]. Tricco et al. compared the conclusion statements from Cochrane and non-Cochrane systematic reviews with a meta-analysis of the primary outcome and found that non-Cochrane reviews were more likely to report positive findings. These results are a test of the null hypothesis that the proportions of Cochrane and non-Cochrane reviews that report positive results are equal [ 90 ].

3. What is the sampling strategy?

Methodological reviews with narrow research questions may be able to include the entire target population. For example, in the methodological study of Cochrane HIV systematic reviews, Mbuagbaw et al. included all of the available studies ( n = 103) [ 30 ].

Many methodological studies use random samples of the target population [ 33 , 91 , 92 ]. Alternatively, purposeful sampling may be used, limiting the sample to a subset of research-related reports published within a certain time period, or in journals with a certain ranking or on a topic. Systematic sampling can also be used when random sampling may be challenging to implement.

4. What is the unit of analysis?

Many methodological studies use a research report (e.g. full manuscript of study, abstract portion of the study) as the unit of analysis, and inferences can be made at the study-level. However, both published and unpublished research-related reports can be studied. These may include articles, conference abstracts, registry entries etc.

Some methodological studies report on items which may occur more than once per article. For example, Paquette et al. report on subgroup analyses in Cochrane reviews of atrial fibrillation in which 17 systematic reviews planned 56 subgroup analyses [ 93 ].

This framework is outlined in Fig. 2 .

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Object name is 12874_2020_1107_Fig2_HTML.jpg

A proposed framework for methodological studies

Conclusions

Methodological studies have examined different aspects of reporting such as quality, completeness, consistency and adherence to reporting guidelines. As such, many of the methodological study examples cited in this tutorial are related to reporting. However, as an evolving field, the scope of research questions that can be addressed by methodological studies is expected to increase.

In this paper we have outlined the scope and purpose of methodological studies, along with examples of instances in which various approaches have been used. In the absence of formal guidance on the design, conduct, analysis and reporting of methodological studies, we have provided some advice to help make methodological studies consistent. This advice is grounded in good contemporary scientific practice. Generally, the research question should tie in with the sampling approach and planned analysis. We have also highlighted the variables that may inform findings from methodological studies. Lastly, we have provided suggestions for ways in which authors can categorize their methodological studies to inform their design and analysis.

Acknowledgements

Abbreviations.

CONSORT	Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials
EPICOT	Evidence, Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe
GRADE	Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations
PICOT	Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe
PRISMA	Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses
SWAR	Studies Within a Review
SWAT	Studies Within a Trial

Authors’ contributions

LM conceived the idea and drafted the outline and paper. DOL and LT commented on the idea and draft outline. LM, LP and DOL performed literature searches and data extraction. All authors (LM, DOL, LT, LP, DBA) reviewed several draft versions of the manuscript and approved the final manuscript.

This work did not receive any dedicated funding.

Availability of data and materials

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Competing interests.

DOL, DBA, LM, LP and LT are involved in the development of a reporting guideline for methodological studies.

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Exploring different types of reports

Create beautiful charts & infographics get started, 09.11.2023 by anete ezera.

Reports are great for conveying complex information and data in a structured and organized manner. And there are many different types of reports that are widely used in business, education, healthcare, and other sectors. For example, in business, reports are used for performance analysis, financial statements, and project updates. However, in education, reports are vital for research findings and academic assessments. Overall, reports enable effective decision-making and communication within organizations. However, not all types of reports are created equally. To create a truly compelling and useful report , it’s essential to understand the different types of reporting and best practices for creating and designing reports. Also, it’s helpful to recognize how Infogram can elevate your reports through engaging visualizations.

In this article, we’re going to explore what are the different types of reports and what are the best practices for each of them. Also, we’re going to discuss how Infogram can help you create reports faster and better.

Click to jump ahead: Informative reports Analytical reports Research reports Progress reports Different types of reporting Elevating different types of reports with Infogram

Different types of reports

Informative reports.

Informative reports represent one of the most prominent and essential types of documentation across various fields. These reports are structured to offer a clear and direct presentation of information, making them highly valuable in academic, scientific, and business contexts.

Key characteristics

Objective presentation: Informative reports maintain objectivity by presenting information in a straightforward, unbiased manner. They avoid the use of opinion, focusing solely on verifiable facts and data.

Concise summarization: These reports aim to transform large amounts of information into a concise, easily digestible format. They are a valuable tool for shortening extensive research or complex data into a manageable form.

Structured format: Informative reports often follow a standardized structure, including sections such as an introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. This structure helps to locate and understand key information efficiently.

Supporting visuals: The inclusion of charts, graphs, tables, and other visual aids can improve the clarity and impact of an informative report. Visual elements help readers understand complex data more quickly.

Use cases

Informative reports serve various purposes across different domains:

Academic: In education, informative reports are commonly used to present research findings, summarize experiments, or provide data analysis. Students and researchers use these reports to communicate their work to peers and the academic community.

Scientific: In science, informative reports are vital for sharing research results, observations, and discoveries. Scientific journals often feature these reports to showcase new knowledge and advancements within a particular field.

Business: In business, informative reports are instrumental in decision-making. Market research, financial analysis, and performance reports are all examples of informative reports that help business leaders make informed choices and strategies.

Government and policy: Government agencies use informative reports to share data and insights with the public, legislators, and policymakers. These reports can influence important decisions, laws, and policies.

Healthcare and medicine: In healthcare, informative reports are crucial for presenting clinical trial results, medical research, and patient data. These reports inform healthcare professionals, researchers, and the public about medical advancements and best practices.

Best practices for creating informative reports

Clear language: Use clear, jargon-free language that your target audience can easily understand. Avoid technical terms or jargon that might be unfamiliar to your readers.

Logical structure: Follow a well-defined structure, typically starting with an introduction, followed by the main body, conclusions, and any necessary appendices.

Visual aids: Incorporate relevant visuals, such as graphs, charts, or images, to illustrate key points and enhance comprehension. To create highly effective visuals, use Infogram .

Citations and references: Properly cite all sources and references used to maintain credibility and avoid plagiarism.

Proofreading: Thoroughly proofread your report to eliminate errors in grammar, spelling, and formatting.

Analytical reports

Analytical reports delve deeper into data analysis to draw conclusions and offer recommendations. These reports are vital for decision-makers across different fields, providing a profound understanding of complex issues and the insights necessary for making informed choices.

Key characteristics

Data examination: Analytical reports begin with a thorough examination of data, often involving complex datasets. The aim is to convey information, identifying patterns, trends, and relationships among variables.

Conclusions and recommendations: Unlike informative reports, analytical reports don’t just present facts and data; they go further to draw conclusions and offer recommendations. These recommendations are grounded in data analysis and are crucial for informing decision-makers.

Multiple perspectives: Analytical reports often present multiple perspectives on an issue. They consider various factors and viewpoints, offering a holistic understanding of the subject matter.

Actionable insights: The primary goal of an analytical report is to provide insights that can guide decision-making. These insights should be practical and actionable, empowering stakeholders to make informed choices.

Contextualization: Analytical reports often provide context for the data presented. They explain why certain findings are significant and how they relate to the broader context or problem under consideration.

Analytical reports serve a wide range of purposes across different sectors:

Business and management: In the corporate world, analytical reports are useful for assessing market trends, financial performance, and operational efficiencies. They provide management with the insights needed to improve processes and make strategic decisions.

Policy and government: Government agencies use analytical reports to inform policy decisions. These reports assess the impact of existing policies, explore potential alternatives, and recommend the best course of action for societal issues.

Healthcare and medicine: In healthcare, analytical reports help healthcare administrators and policymakers make informed decisions about resource allocation, patient care, and public health strategies.

Environmental and scientific research: Analytical reports play an important role in analyzing research findings and drawing scientific conclusions. They are crucial for peer-reviewed publications and for advancing scientific knowledge.

Education: Educational institutions and policymakers use analytical reports to assess the effectiveness of teaching methods, educational programs, and policies.

Best practices for creating analytical reports

Data quality: Ensure that the data used in the report is accurate, reliable, and relevant. The analysis is only as good as the data it’s based on.

Clear structure: Organize the report logically, with a clear introduction, data analysis, conclusions, and actionable recommendations. Each section should flow smoothly, guiding the reader through the report.

Visual representation: Use visual aids, such as charts, graphs, and tables, to enhance data presentation and make complex information more accessible.

Causal relationships: If applicable, explore causal relationships and correlations within the data, providing a nuanced understanding of the subject matter.

Research reports

Research reports play an important role in communicating the outcomes of a research process or scientific experiments. These reports serve as a reservoir of knowledge, storing the details of a research process, from methodology to data analysis, and ultimately leading to well-communicated conclusions.

Methodology detailing: Research reports outline the methods used in the research. This includes research design, data collection techniques, and any tools or instruments used. A clear methodology section is vital for understanding the study’s credibility and replicability.

Data analysis and interpretation: These reports offer a well-rounded analysis of the collected data. Researchers often use statistical or qualitative methods to interpret the information, providing insights into the relationships between variables and the significance of findings.

Conclusions and implications: Research reports present conclusions drawn from the data and analysis. These conclusions provide valuable insights into the research question or problem, shedding light on its implications for theory, practice, or further research.

Citations and references: Proper citations and references are crucial for the study. This enhances the credibility and scholarly integrity of the report.

Peer review and publication: Many research reports undergo rigorous peer review before being published in academic journals. Peer review ensures the quality and validity of the research, making it accessible to the wider scientific community.

Research reports serve a multitude of purposes across various domains:

Academic advancement: In academia, research reports are the backbone of knowledge. They contribute to the gathering of scientific knowledge, advance theories, and inform future research directions.

Scientific discovery: In the scientific community, research reports are crucial for documenting groundbreaking discoveries, experimental results, and innovations. These reports fuel scientific progress and underpin the development of new technologies.

Policy formation: Research reports provide evidence and insights that policymakers and government agencies use to formulate and revise policies. They inform decisions related to public health, education, environmental regulations, and more.

Corporate research and development: In the corporate world, research reports drive innovation and strategic decision-making. They help businesses identify market trends, improve products, and optimize operations.

Healthcare and medicine: Research reports in healthcare and medicine contribute to the development of medical treatments, inform clinical guidelines, and shape public health interventions.

Best practices for creating research reports

Comprehensive methodology: Describe the research methodology in precise detail, ensuring that other researchers can replicate the study. Transparency is essential for the credibility of the report.

Data integrity: Ensure the data collected is reliable and that the analysis methods are appropriate for the research question.

Logical structure: Follow a structured format with sections for the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. This provides a clear path for readers to follow.

Contributions to knowledge: Clearly outline how the research contributes to the existing body of knowledge. Discuss the theoretical and practical implications of the findings.

Peer review: Consider submitting the research report to peer-reviewed journals or seeking feedback from colleagues and mentors. Peer review helps ensure the quality and accuracy of the research.

Progress reports

Progress reports are key in project management, offering a dynamic snapshot of ongoing activities, projects, or initiatives. These reports are instrumental in tracking and communicating the status of a venture, helping stakeholders stay informed and make informed decisions.

Regular updates: Progress reports are typically issued at regular intervals, such as weekly, monthly, or quarterly. They serve as a means of consistent communication, ensuring that stakeholders are well-informed throughout the project’s duration.

Status overview: These reports provide a comprehensive overview of the project’s status, summarizing achievements, challenges, and milestones reached during the reporting period.

Issues and challenges: Progress reports include information about any issues, bottlenecks, or challenges that have arisen during the project. This transparency is essential for addressing problems in a timely manner.

Next steps: They outline the planned actions and goals for the next reporting period. This helps to understand the project’s trajectory and future objectives.

Visual representation: Using charts, graphs, and visuals can make the report more engaging and help stakeholders quickly grasp key information.

Progress reports serve a range of purposes across different spheres:

Project management: In project management, these reports help project managers keep stakeholders updated on the progress of various tasks and activities. This, in turn, supports effective decision-making and the timely resolution of issues.

Business operations: Businesses use progress reports to monitor the development of strategic initiatives, product launches, and performance metrics. These reports help leadership teams assess the effectiveness of their strategies.

Government and public projects: Government agencies use progress reports to inform the public and policymakers about the advancement of infrastructure projects, public programs, and policy implementations.

Academic and research projects: In the academic world, progress reports are critical for tracking research projects, grant-funded studies, and academic initiatives. They help researchers and institutions remain accountable for their work.

Nonprofit and NGO activities: Nonprofit organizations and NGOs use progress reports to demonstrate the impact of their work to donors, volunteers, and the communities they serve.

Best practices for creating progress reports

Clarity: Ensure the report is clear, concise, and easily understood. Use plain language and avoid unnecessary jargon or technical details.

Timeliness: Deliver progress reports on schedule to maintain trust and accountability.

Transparent reporting: Be honest about challenges and setbacks. Transparency fosters trust and allows stakeholders to offer support and guidance when needed.

Visual aids: Incorporate visuals like Gantt charts , progress bars , or infographics to make data more visually appealing and digestible. Interested in discovering how Infogram can enhance your team’s work? Join a brief Zoom session with our Customer Success Manager to explore key features, get answers to your questions, and understand how we can assist. It’s quick, informative, and just like a coffee-break chat. Schedule your call now!

The delivery methods: Different types of reporting

While reports themselves come in various formats depending on their content (informational, analytical, etc.), the way we deliver that information can also be categorized. Here’s a closer look at different types of reporting, along with examples:

Frequency-based reporting

Scheduled reporting: This is the bread and butter of reporting, delivering information at predefined intervals. Think of it like clockwork – you get your weekly sales report every Monday or your monthly inventory report on the first day of each month. For example, a company receives a quarterly financial performance report that analyzes revenue, expenses, and profitability.

Real-time reporting: This type of reporting provides up-to-the-minute insights, crucial for situations where immediate action is necessary. Imagine monitoring website traffic during a product launch – real-time reporting shows how many people are visiting and interacting with the site.

Woman working at home office hand on keyboard. Home workspace - wooden table laptop. Beautiful workspace - online remote work from home concept. close up

Target audience-based reporting

Internal reporting: Internal type of reporting keeps colleagues within an organization informed. It might include project updates for team members or departmental performance reviews for managers.

External reporting: This reporting disseminates information to people outside the organization, such as investors, regulators, or the public. External reports often adhere to stricter formatting guidelines and may require legal or financial disclosures.

Ad-hoc vs. scheduled reporting

Ad-hoc reporting: This type of reporting responds to specific needs or situations and isn’t tied to a predetermined schedule. For example, imagine needing to analyze data for a specific product launch – you’d generate an ad-hoc report to answer your questions.

Scheduled reporting (as mentioned above): This reporting delivers information at regular intervals, providing a consistent flow of data for analysis and decision-making.

Choosing the right type of reporting method

The best reporting method depends on the information you’re presenting and who you’re presenting it to. Scheduled reports keep everyone on the same page, while real-time reporting allows for immediate action. Internal reports can be more informal, while external reports need to adhere to specific standards.

By understanding these different types of reporting, you can choose the method that ensures your information reaches the right people at the right time, ultimately leading to better communication and informed decisions.

Elevating different types of reports with Infogram

Infogram is a powerful tool for creating visually appealing and engaging reports. Here’s how it can help:

Easy-to-use templates: Infogram offers a range of customizable templates for different report types, saving you time and ensuring a professional look. Also, make sure to take a look at the best report examples and get inspired to create your own!

Data visualization: Infogram enables you to create interactive and impactful data visualizations , including charts, maps , and infographics . The interactivity and visual appeal help convey complex information in a comprehensible and highly engaging manner.

Real-time updates: With real-time data integration , you can keep your reports up-to-date, making them even more valuable for decision-making.

Collaboration features: Collaborate with team members and stakeholders in real-time, streamlining the report creation process and ensuring input from all relevant parties.

Note: To collaborate in real-time, you’ll need to have a team or higher plan. Check out what other features you can easily unlock with Infogram plans.

Shareability: Infogram makes it easy to share your reports online, embed them in websites, or export them in various formats, improving their accessibility and reach.

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Different types of reports – one solution

Reports are vital tools for conveying information, insights, and data. Understanding the different types of reports and following best practices for creating and designing them is crucial for their effectiveness. Infogram takes report creation to the next level by offering tools for visually engaging and impactful data visualizations. By integrating Infogram into your report creation process, you can create reports that not only inform but also captivate your audience. So, harness the power of reports and elevate your data storytelling with Infogram. Start creating today!

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Research Report
Post last modified: 11 January 2022
Reading time: 25 mins read
Post category: Research Methodology

What is Research Report?

Research reporting is the oral or written presentation of the findings in such detail and form as to be readily understood and assessed by the society, economy or particularly by the researchers.

As earlier said that it is the final stage of the research process and its purpose is to convey to interested persons the whole result of the study. Report writing is common to both academic and managerial situations. In academics, a research report is prepared for comprehensive and application-oriented learning. In businesses or organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making.

Table of Content

1 What is Research Report?
2 Research Report Definition
3.1 Preliminary Part
3.2 Introduction of the Report
3.3 Review of Literature
3.4 The Research Methodology
3.5 Results
3.6 Concluding Remarks
3.7 Bibliography
4 Significance of Report Writing
5 Qualities of Good Report
6.1 Analysis of the subject matter
6.2 Research outline
6.3 Preparation of rough draft
6.4 Rewriting and polishing
6.5 Writing the final draft
7 Precautions for Writing Research Reports
8.1.1 Technical Report
8.1.2 Popular Report
8.2.1 Written Report
8.2.2 Oral Report

Research Report Definition

According to C. A. Brown , “A report is a communication from someone who has information to someone who wants to use that information.”

According to Goode and Hatt , “The preparation of report is the final stage of research, and it’s purpose is to convey to the interested persons the whole result of the study, in sufficient detail and so arranged as to enable each reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusions.”

It is clear from the above definitions of a research report, it is a brief account of the problem of investigation, the justification of its selection and the procedure of analysis and interpretation. It is only a summary of the entire research proceedings.

In other words, it can be defined as written documents, which presents information in a specialized and concise manner.

Contents of Research Report

Although no hard and fast rules can be laid down, the report must contain the following points.

Acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of tables
List of graphs
Introduction
Background of the research study
Statement of the problem
Brief outline of the chapters
Books review
Review of articles published in books, journals, periodicals, etc
Review of articles published in leading newspapers
Working papers / discusssion paper / study reports
Articles on authorised websites
A broad conclusion and indications for further research
The theoretical framework (variables)
Model / hypothesis
Instruments for data collection
Data collection
Pilot study
Processing of data
Hypothesis / model testing
Data analysis and interpretation
Tables and figures
Conclusions
Shortcomings
Suggestions to the problems
Direction for further research

Preliminary Part

The preliminary part may have seven major components – cover, title, preface, acknowledgement, table of contents, list of tables, list of graphs. Long reports presented in book form have a cover made up of a card sheet. The cover contains title of the research report, the authority to whom the report is submitted, name of the author, etc.

The preface introduces the report to the readers. It gives a very brief introduction of the report. In the acknowledgements author mention names of persons and organisations that have extended co-operation and helped in the various stages of research. Table of contents is essential. It gives the title and page number of each chapter.

Introduction of the Report

The introduction of the research report should clearly and logically bring out the background of the problem addressed in the research. The purpose of the introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. A clear statement of the problem with specific questions to be answered is presented in the introduction. It contains a brief outline of the chapters.

Review of Literature

The third section reviews the important literature related to the study. A comprehensive review of the research literature referred to must be made. Previous research studies and the important writings in the area under study should be reviewed. Review of literature is helpful to provide a background for the development of the present study.

The researcher may review concerned books, articles published in edited books, journals and periodicals. Researcher may also take review of articles published in leading newspapers. A researcher should study working papers/discussion papers/study reports. It is essential for a broad conclusion and indications for further research.

The Research Methodology

Research methodology is an integral part of the research. It should clearly indicate the universe and the selection of samples, techniques of data collection, analysis and interpretation, statistical techniques, etc.

Results contain pilot study, processing of data, hypothesis/model testing, data analysis and interpretation, tables and figures, etc. This is the heart of the research report. If a pilot study is planned to be used, it’s purpose should be given in the research methodology.

The collected data and the information should be edited, coded, tabulated and analysed with a view to arriving at a valid and authentic conclusion. Tables and figures are used to clarify the significant relationship. The results obtained through tables, graphs should be critically interpreted.

Concluding Remarks

The concluding remarks should discuss the results obtained in the earlier sections, as well as their usefulness and implications. It contains findings, conclusions, shortcomings, suggestions to the problem and direction for future research. Findings are statements of factual information based upon the data analysis.

Conclusions must clearly explain whether the hypothesis have been established and rejected. This part requires great expertise and preciseness. A report should also refer to the limitations of the applicability of the research inferences. It is essential to suggest the theoretical, practical and policy implications of the research. The suggestions should be supported by scientific and logical arguments. The future direction of research based on the work completed should also be outlined.

Bibliography

The bibliography is an alphabetic list of books, journal articles, reports, etc, published or unpublished, read, referred to, examined by the researcher in preparing the report. The bibliography should follow standard formats for books, journal articles, research reports.

The end of the research report may consist of appendices, listed in respect of all technical data. Appendices are for the purpose of providing detailed data or information that would be too cumbersome within the main body of the research report.

Significance of Report Writing

Report writing is an important communication medium in organisations. The most crucial findings might have come out through a research report. Report is common to academics and managers also. Reports are used for comprehensive and application oriented learning in academics. In organisations, reports are used for the basis of decision making. The importance of report writing can be discussed as under.

Through research reports, a manager or an executive can quickly get an idea of a current scenario which improves his information base for making sound decisions affecting future operations of the company or enterprise. The research report acts as a means of communication of various research findings to the interested parties, organisations and general public.

Good report writing play, a significant role of conveying unknown facts about the phenomenon to the concerned parties. This may provide new insights and new opportunities to the people. Research report plays a key role in making effective decisions in marketing, production, banking, materials, human resource development and government also. Good report writing is used for economic planning and optimum utilisation of resources for the development of a nation.

Report writing facilitates the validation of generalisation. A research report is an end product of research. As earlier said that report writing provides useful information in arriving at rational decisions that may reform the business and society. The findings, conclusions, suggestions and recommendations are useful to academicians, scholars and policymakers. Report writing provides reference material for further research in the same or similar areas of research to the concerned parties.

While preparing a research report, a researcher should take some proper precautions. Report writing should be simple, lucid and systematic. Report writing should be written speedily without interrupting the continuity of thought. The report writing should sustain the interest of readers.

Qualities of Good Report

Report writing is a highly skilled job. It is a process of analysing, understanding and consolidating the findings and projecting a meaningful view of the phenomenon studied. A good report writing is essential for effective communication.

Following are the essential qualities of good report:

A research report is essentially a scientific documentation. It should have a suggestive title, headings and sub-headings, paragraphs arranged in a logical sequence.
Good research report should include everything that is relevant and exclude everything that is irrelevant. It means that it should contain the facts rather than opinion.
The language of the report should be simple and unambiguous. It means that it should be free from biases of the researchers derived from the past experience. Confusion, pretentiousness and pomposity should be carefully guarded against. It means that the language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words, idioms and expressions.
The report must be free from grammatical mistakes. It must be grammatically accurate. Faulty construction of sentences makes the meaning of the narrative obscure and ambiguous.
The report has to take into consideration two facts. Firstly, for whom the report is meant and secondly, what is his level of knowledge. The report has to look to the subject matter of the report and the fact as to the level of knowledge of the person for whom it is meant. Because all reports are not meant for research scholars.

Steps in Writing Research Report

Report writing is a time consuming and expensive exercise. Therefore, reports have to be very sharply focused in purpose content and readership. There is no single universally acceptable method of writing a research report.

Following are the general steps in writing a research report:

Analysis of the subject matter

Research outline, preparation of rough draft, rewriting and polishing, writing the final draft.

This is the first and important step in writing a research report. It is concerned with the development of a subject. Subject matter should be written in a clear, logical and concise manner. The style adopted should be open, straightforward and dignified and folk style language should be avoided.

The data, the reliability and validity of the results of the statistical analysis should be in the form of tables, figures and equations. All redundancy in the data or results presented should be eliminated.

The research outline is an organisational framework prepared by the researcher well in advance. It is an aid to logical organisation of material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report. In the process of writing, if need be, outline may be revised accordingly.

Time and place of the study, scope and limitations of the study, study design, summary of pilot study, methods of data collection, analysis interpretation, etc., may be included in a research outline.

Having prepared the primary and secondary data, the researcher has to prepare a rough draft. While preparing the rough draft, the researcher should keep the objectives of the research in mind, and focus on one objective at a time. The researcher should make a checklist of the important points that are necessary to be covered in the manuscript. A researcher should use dictionary and relevant reference materials as and when required.

This is an important step in writing a research report. It takes more time than a rough draft. While rewriting and polishing, a researcher should check the report for weakness in logical development or presentation. He should take breaks in between rewriting and polishing since this gives the time to incubate the ideas.

The last and important step is writing the final draft. The language of the report should be simple, employing appropriate words and expressions and should avoid vague expressions such as ‘it seems’ and ‘there may be’ etc.

It should not used personal pronouns, such as I, We, My, Us, etc and should substitute these by such expressions as a researcher, investigator, etc. Before the final drafting of the report, it is advisable that the researcher should prepare a first draft for critical considerations and possible improvements. It will be helpful in writing the final draft. Finally, the report should be logically outlined with the future directions of the research based on the work completed.

Precautions for Writing Research Reports

A research report is a means of conveying the research study to a specific target audience. The following precautions should be taken while preparing a research report:

Its hould belong enough to cover the subject and short enough to preserve interest.
It should not be dull and complicated.
It should be simple, without the usage of abstract terms and technical jargons.
It should offer ready availability of findings with the help of charts, tables and graphs, as readers prefer quick knowledge of main findings.
The layout of the report should be in accordance with the objectives of the research study.
There should be no grammatical errors and writing should adhere to the techniques of report writing in case of quotations, footnotes and documentations.
It should be original, intellectual and contribute to the solution of a problem or add knowledge to the concerned field.
Appendices should been listed with respect to all the technical data in the report.
It should be attractive, neat and clean, whether handwritten or typed.
The report writer should refrain from confusing the possessive form of the word ‘it’ is with ‘it’s.’ The accurate possessive form of ‘it is’ is ‘its.’ The use of ‘it’s’ is the contractive form of ‘it is.
A report should not have contractions. Examples are ‘didn’t’ or ‘it’s.’ In report writing, it is best to use the non-contractive form. Therefore, the examples would be replaced by ‘did not’ and ‘it is.’ Using ‘Figure’ instead of ‘Fig.’ and ‘Table’ instead of ‘Tab.’ will spare the reader of having to translate the abbreviations, while reading. If abbreviations are used, use them consistently throughout the report. For example, do not switch among ‘versus,’ and ‘vs’.
It is advisable to avoid using the word ‘very’ and other such words that try to embellish a description. They do not add any extra meaning and, therefore, should be dropped.
Repetition hampers lucidity. Report writers must avoid repeating the same word more than once within a sentence.
When you use the word ‘this’ or ‘these’ make sure you indicate to what you are referring. This reduces the ambiguity in your writing and helps to tie sentences together.
Do not use the word ‘they’ to refer to a singular person. You can either rewrite the sentence to avoid needing such a reference or use the singular ‘he or she.’

Types of Research Report

Research reports are designed in order to convey and record the information that will be of practical use to the reader. It is organized into distinct units of specific and highly visible information. The kind of audience addressed in the research report decides the type of report.

Research reports can be categorized on the following basis:

Classification on the Basis of Information

Classification on the basis of representation.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of information contained:

Technical Report

A technical report is written for other researchers. In writing the technical reports, the importance is mainly given to the methods that have been used to collect the information and data, the presumptions that are made and finally, the various presentation techniques that are used to present the findings and data.

Following are main features of a technical report:

Summary: It covers a brief analysis of the findings of the research in a very few pages.
Nature: It contains the reasons for which the research is undertaken, the analysis and the data that is required in order to prepare a report.
Methods employed: It contains a description of the methods that were employed in order to collect the data.
Data: It covers a brief analysis of the various sources from which the data has been collected with their features and drawbacks
Analysis of data and presentation of the findings: It contains the various forms through which the data that has been analysed can be presented.
Conclusions: It contains a brief explanation of findings of the research.
Bibliography: It contains a detailed analysis of the various bibliographies that have been used in order to conduct a research.
Technical appendices: It contains the appendices for the technical matters and for questionnaires and mathematical derivations.
Index: The index of the technical report must be provided at the end of the report.

Popular Report

A popular report is formulated when there is a need to draw conclusions of the findings of the research report. One of the main points of consideration that should be kept in mind while formulating a research report is that it must be simple and attractive. It must be written in a very simple manner that is understandable to all. It must also be made attractive by using large prints, various sub-headings and by giving cartoons occasionally.

Following are the main points that must be kept in mind while preparing a popular report:

Findings and their implications : While preparing a popular report, main importance is given to the findings of the information and the conclusions that can be drawn out of these findings.
Recommendations for action : If there are any deviations in the report then recommendations are made for taking corrective action in order to rectify the errors.
Objective of the study : In a popular report, the specific objective for which the research has been undertaken is presented.
Methods employed : The report must contain the various methods that has been employed in order to conduct a research.
Results : The results of the research findings must be presented in a suitable and appropriate manner by taking the help of charts and diagrams.
Technical appendices : The report must contain an in-depth information used to collect the data in the form of appendices.

Following are the ways through which the results of the research report can be presented on the basis of representation:

Writtenreport
Oral report

Written Report

A written report plays a vital role in every business operation. The manner in which an organization writes business letters and business reports creates an impression of its standard. Therefore, the organization should emphasize on the improvement of the writing skills of the employees in order to maintain effective relations with their customers.

Writing effective written reports requires a lot of hard work. Therefore, before you begin writing, it is important to know the objective, i.e., the purpose of writing, collection and organization of required data.

Oral Report

At times, oral presentation of the results that are drawn out of research is considered effective, particularly in cases where policy recommendations are to be made. This approach proves beneficial because it provides a medium of interaction between a listener and a speaker. This leads to a better understanding of the findings and their implications.

However, the main drawback of oral presentation is the lack of any permanent records related to the research. Oral presentation of the report is also effective when it is supported with various visual devices, such as slides, wall charts and whiteboards that help in better understanding of the research reports.

Business Ethics

( Click on Topic to Read )

What is Ethics?
What is Business Ethics?
Values, Norms, Beliefs and Standards in Business Ethics
Indian Ethos in Management
Ethical Issues in Marketing
Ethical Issues in HRM
Ethical Issues in IT
Ethical Issues in Production and Operations Management
Ethical Issues in Finance and Accounting
What is Corporate Governance?
What is Ownership Concentration?
What is Ownership Composition?
Types of Companies in India
Internal Corporate Governance
External Corporate Governance
Corporate Governance in India
What is Enterprise Risk Management (ERM)?
What is Assessment of Risk?
What is Risk Register?
Risk Management Committee

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

Theories of CSR
Arguments Against CSR
Business Case for CSR
Importance of CSR in India
Drivers of Corporate Social Responsibility
Developing a CSR Strategy
Implement CSR Commitments
CSR Marketplace
CSR at Workplace
Environmental CSR
CSR with Communities and in Supply Chain
Community Interventions
CSR Monitoring
CSR Reporting
Voluntary Codes in CSR
What is Corporate Ethics?

Lean Six Sigma

What is Six Sigma?
What is Lean Six Sigma?
Value and Waste in Lean Six Sigma
Six Sigma Team
MAIC Six Sigma
Six Sigma in Supply Chains
What is Binomial, Poisson, Normal Distribution?
What is Sigma Level?
What is DMAIC in Six Sigma?
What is DMADV in Six Sigma?
Six Sigma Project Charter
Project Decomposition in Six Sigma
Critical to Quality (CTQ) Six Sigma
Process Mapping Six Sigma
Flowchart and SIPOC
Gage Repeatability and Reproducibility
Statistical Diagram
Lean Techniques for Optimisation Flow
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
What is Process Audits?
Six Sigma Implementation at Ford
IBM Uses Six Sigma to Drive Behaviour Change
Research Methodology
What is Research?
What is Hypothesis?
Sampling Method
Research Methods
Data Collection in Research
Methods of Collecting Data
Application of Business Research

Levels of Measurement

What is Sampling?
Hypothesis Testing
What is Management?
Planning in Management
Decision Making in Management
What is Controlling?
What is Coordination?
What is Staffing?
Organization Structure
What is Departmentation?
Span of Control
What is Authority?
Centralization vs Decentralization
Organizing in Management
Schools of Management Thought
Classical Management Approach
Is Management an Art or Science?
Who is a Manager?

Operations Research

What is Operations Research?
Operation Research Models
Linear Programming
Linear Programming Graphic Solution
Linear Programming Simplex Method
Linear Programming Artificial Variable Technique
Duality in Linear Programming
Transportation Problem Initial Basic Feasible Solution
Transportation Problem Finding Optimal Solution
Project Network Analysis with Critical Path Method
Project Network Analysis Methods
Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
Simulation in Operation Research
Replacement Models in Operation Research

Operation Management

What is Strategy?
What is Operations Strategy?
Operations Competitive Dimensions
Operations Strategy Formulation Process
What is Strategic Fit?
Strategic Design Process
Focused Operations Strategy
Corporate Level Strategy
Expansion Strategies
Stability Strategies
Retrenchment Strategies
Competitive Advantage
Strategic Choice and Strategic Alternatives
What is Production Process?
What is Process Technology?
What is Process Improvement?
Strategic Capacity Management
Production and Logistics Strategy
Taxonomy of Supply Chain Strategies
Factors Considered in Supply Chain Planning
Operational and Strategic Issues in Global Logistics
Logistics Outsourcing Strategy
What is Supply Chain Mapping?
Supply Chain Process Restructuring
Points of Differentiation
Re-engineering Improvement in SCM
What is Supply Chain Drivers?
Supply Chain Operations Reference (SCOR) Model
Customer Service and Cost Trade Off
Internal and External Performance Measures
Linking Supply Chain and Business Performance
Netflix’s Niche Focused Strategy
Disney and Pixar Merger
Process Planning at Mcdonald’s

Service Operations Management

What is Service?
What is Service Operations Management?
What is Service Design?
Service Design Process
Service Delivery
What is Service Quality?
Gap Model of Service Quality
Juran Trilogy
Service Performance Measurement
Service Decoupling
IT Service Operation
Service Operations Management in Different Sector

Procurement Management

What is Procurement Management?
Procurement Negotiation
Types of Requisition
RFX in Procurement
What is Purchasing Cycle?
Vendor Managed Inventory
Internal Conflict During Purchasing Operation
Spend Analysis in Procurement
Sourcing in Procurement
Supplier Evaluation and Selection in Procurement
Blacklisting of Suppliers in Procurement
Total Cost of Ownership in Procurement
Incoterms in Procurement
Documents Used in International Procurement
Transportation and Logistics Strategy
What is Capital Equipment?
Procurement Process of Capital Equipment
Acquisition of Technology in Procurement
What is E-Procurement?
E-marketplace and Online Catalogues
Fixed Price and Cost Reimbursement Contracts
Contract Cancellation in Procurement
Ethics in Procurement
Legal Aspects of Procurement
Global Sourcing in Procurement
Intermediaries and Countertrade in Procurement

Strategic Management

What is Strategic Management?
What is Value Chain Analysis?
Mission Statement
Business Level Strategy
What is SWOT Analysis?
What is Competitive Advantage?
What is Vision?
What is Ansoff Matrix?
Prahalad and Gary Hammel
Strategic Management In Global Environment
Competitor Analysis Framework
Competitive Rivalry Analysis
Competitive Dynamics
What is Competitive Rivalry?
Five Competitive Forces That Shape Strategy
What is PESTLE Analysis?
Fragmentation and Consolidation Of Industries
What is Technology Life Cycle?
What is Diversification Strategy?
What is Corporate Restructuring Strategy?
Resources and Capabilities of Organization
Role of Leaders In Functional-Level Strategic Management
Functional Structure In Functional Level Strategy Formulation
Information And Control System
What is Strategy Gap Analysis?
Issues In Strategy Implementation
Matrix Organizational Structure
What is Strategic Management Process?

Supply Chain

What is Supply Chain Management?
Supply Chain Planning and Measuring Strategy Performance
What is Warehousing?
What is Packaging?
What is Inventory Management?
What is Material Handling?
What is Order Picking?
Receiving and Dispatch, Processes
What is Warehouse Design?
What is Warehousing Costs?

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A Guide To The Top 14 Types Of Reports With Examples Of When To Use Them

What Is The Report Definition?

What are the different types of reports, what does a report look like, what you should look for in a reporting tool, types of reporting for every business & purpose.

Businesses have been producing reports forever. No matter what role or industry you work in, chances are that you have been faced with the task of generating a tedious report to show your progress or performance.

While reporting has been a common practice for many decades, the business world keeps evolving, and with more competitive industries, the need to generate fast and accurate reports becomes critical. This presents a problem for many modern organizations today, as building reports can take from hours to days. In fact, a survey about management reports performed by Deloitte says that 50% of managers are unsatisfied with the speed of delivery and the quality of the reports they receive.

With this issue in mind, several BI tools, such as RIB BI+ , have been developed to assist businesses in generating interactive reports with just a few clicks, enhancing the way companies make critical decisions and service insights from their most valuable data.

But, with so many types of reports used daily, how can you know when to use them effectively? How can you push yourself ahead of the pack with the power of information? Here, we will explore the 14 most common types of reports in business and provide some examples of when to use them to your brand-boosting advantage. In addition, we will see how online dashboards have overthrown the static nature of classic reports and given way to a much faster, more interactive way of working with data.

Let’s get started with a brief report definition.

Construction Dashboard For Project Controlling

A report is a document that presents relevant business information in an organized and understandable format. Each report is aimed at a specific audience and business purpose, and it summarizes the development of different activities based on goals and objectives.

That said, there are various types of reports that can be used for different purposes. Whether you want to track the progress of your strategies or stay compliant with financial laws, there is a different report for each task. To help you identify when to use them, we will cover the top 14 most common report formats used for businesses today.

1. Informational Reports

The first in our list of reporting types is informational reports. As their name suggests, this report type aims to give factual insights about a specific topic. This can include performance reports, expense reports, and justification reports, among others. A differentiating characteristic of these reports is their objectivity; they are only meant to inform but not propose solutions or hypotheses. Common informational reports examples are for performance tracking, such as annual, monthly, or weekly reports.

2. Analytical Reports

This report type contains a mix of useful information to facilitate the decision-making process through a mix of qualitative and quantitative insights as well as real-time and historical insights. Unlike informational reports that purely inform users about a topic, this report type also aims to provide recommendations about the next steps and help with problem-solving. With this information in hand, businesses can build strategies based on analytical evidence and not simple intuition. With the use of the right BI reporting tool, businesses can generate various types of analytical reports that include accurate forecasts via predictive analytics technologies. Let’s look at it with an analytical report example.

The example above is the perfect representation of how analytical reports can boost a business’s performance. By getting detailed information such as sales opportunities, a probability rate, as well as an accurate pipeline value forecast based on historical data, sales teams can prepare their strategies in advance, tackle any inefficiencies, and make informed decisions for increased efficiency.

3. Operational Reports

These reports track every pertinent detail of the company’s operational tasks, such as its production processes. They are typically short-term reports as they aim to paint a picture of the present. Businesses use this type of report to spot any issues and define their solutions or to identify improvement opportunities to optimize their operational efficiency. Operational reports are commonly used in manufacturing, logistics, and retail as they help keep track of inventory, production, and costs, among others.

4. Industry Reports

Next in our list of the most common kinds of reports, we have industry-specific reports. As its name suggests, these types of reports are used in specific industries and provide valuable information about KPIs and goals that are unique to that industry. For instance, construction reports are invaluable tools to track project progress and extract valuable conclusions to optimize processes.

The example below is a report for a construction company that has multiple active projects. The template offers a complete overview of performance with KPIs related to contract value, budget, and profit margins, among other things. That said, the most valuable part of this report is the detailed overview of finishing projects and projects in execution, where we see that industry-specific KPIs like the SPI and CPI are tracked for each project with color to understand the status at a glance. Templates like this one play a fundamental role in efficient project management in construction as they offer the necessary overview to make smart decisions with fresh data.

5. Product Reports

As its name suggests, this report type is used to monitor several aspects related to product development. Businesses often use them to track which of their products or subscriptions are selling the most within a given time period, calculate inventories, or see what kind of product the client values the most. Another common use case of these reports is to research the implementation of new products or develop existing ones. Let’s see it in more detail with a visual example.

The image above is a product report that shows valuable insights regarding usage intention, purchase intention, willingness to pay, and more. In this case, the report is based on the answers from a survey that aimed to understand how the target customer would receive a new product. Getting this level of insight through this report type is very useful for businesses as it allows them to make smart investments in new products and set realistic pricing based on their clients’ willingness to pay.

6. Department Reports

These reports are specific to each department or business function. They serve as a communication tool between managers and team members who must stay connected and work together for common goals. Whether it is the sales department, customer service, logistics, or finances, this specific report type helps track and optimize strategies on a deeper level. Let’s look at it with an example of a team performance report.

Department Report Template For Customer Service

The image above is a department report created with an online data analysis tool, and it tracks the performance of a support team. This insightful report displays relevant metrics such as the top-performing agents, net promoter score, and first contact resolution rate, among others. Having this information in hand not only helps each team member to keep track of their individual progress but also allows managers to understand who needs more training and who is performing at their best.

7. Progress Reports

From the branch of informational reports, progress reports provide critical information about a project’s status. Employees or managers can produce these reports daily, weekly, or monthly to track performance and fine-tune tasks for the project’s better development. Progress reports are often used as visual materials to support meetings and discussions. A good example is a KPI scorecard.

8. Internal Reports

A type of report that encompasses many others on this list, internal reports refer to any type of report that is used internally in a business. They convey information between team members and departments to keep communication flowing regarding goals and business objectives.

Internal Report Example For Hospital Management

As mentioned above, internal reports are useful communication tools to keep every relevant person in the organization informed and engaged. This healthcare report aims to do just that. By providing insights into the performance of different departments and areas of a hospital, such as in and outpatients, average waiting times, treatment costs, and more, healthcare managers can allocate resources and plan the schedule accurately, as well as monitor any changes or issues in real-time.

9. External Reports

Although most of the report types listed here are used for internal purposes, not all reporting is meant to be used behind closed doors. External reports are created to share information with external stakeholders such as clients or investors for budget or progress accountability, as well as for governmental bodies to stay compliant with the law requirements.

The image above is the perfect example of an external client report from an IT project. This insightful report provides a visual overview of every relevant aspect of the project’s development. From deadlines, budget usage, completion stage, and task breakdown, clients can be fully informed and involved in the project.

10. Vertical & Lateral Reports

Next, in our rundown of types of reports, we have vertical and lateral reports. This reporting type refers to the direction in which a report travels. A vertical report is meant to go upward or downward the hierarchy, for example, a management report. A lateral report assists in organization and communication between groups that are at the same level of the hierarchy, such as the financial and marketing departments.

11. Research Reports

Without a doubt, one of the most vital reporting types for any modern business is centered on research. Being able to collect, collate, and drill down into insights based on key pockets of your customer base or industry will give you the tools to drive innovation while meeting your audience’s needs head-on.

Research Report For Customer Demographics

The image above is a market research analytics report example for customer demographics. It serves up a balanced blend of metrics that will empower you to boost engagement as well as retention rates. Here, you can drill down into your audience’s behaviors, interests, gender, educational levels, and tech adoption life cycles with a simple glance.

What’s particularly striking about this dashboard is the fact that you can explore key trends in brand innovation with ease, gaining a working insight into how your audience perceives your business. This invaluable type of report will help you get under the skin of your consumers, driving growth and loyalty in the process.

12. Strategic Reports

Strategy is a vital component of every business, big or small. Strategic analytics tools are perhaps the broadest and most universal of all the different types of business reports imaginable.

These particular tools exist to help you consistently understand, meet, and exceed your most pressing organizational goals by providing top-level metrics on various initiatives or functions.

By working with strategic-style tools, you will:

Improve internal motivation and engagement
Refine your plans and strategies for the best possible return on investment (ROI)
Enhance internal communication and optimize the way your various departments run
Create more room for innovation and creative thinking

13. Project Reports

Projects are key to keeping a business moving in the right direction while keeping innovation and evolution at the forefront of every plan, communication, or campaign. But without the right management tools, a potentially groundbreaking project can become a resource-sapping disaster.

A project management report serves as a summary of a particular project’s status and its various components. It’s a visual tool that you can share with partners, colleagues, clients, and stakeholders to showcase your project’s progress at multiple stages. Let’s look at our example and dig a little deeper.

Our example above is a construction project management dashboard that offers a 360-degree view of a project’s development. This invaluable construction collaboration tool can help keep every relevant project stakeholder involved and informed about the latest developments to ensure maximum efficiency and transparency.

Work and budget development and cost breakdown charts can help develop efficient construction cost control strategies to ensure the project remains profitable and on schedule. On the other hand, progress metrics like the SPI and the CPI can help assess construction productivity issues that can lead to delays and costly overruns.

14. Statutory Reports

It may not seem exciting or glamorous, but keeping your business’s statutory affairs in order is vital to your ongoing commercial health and success.

When it comes to submitting vital financial and non-financial information to official bodies, one small error can result in serious repercussions. As such, working with statutory report formats is a watertight way of keeping track of your affairs and records while significantly reducing the risk of human error.

Armed with interactive insights and dynamic visuals, you will keep your records clean and compliant while gaining the ability to nip any potential errors or issues in the bud.

Now that we’ve covered the most relevant types of reports, we will answer the question: what does a report look like?

As mentioned at the beginning of this insightful guide, static reporting is a thing of the past. With the rise of modern technologies like self-service BI tools, the use of interactive reports in the shape of business dashboards has become more and more popular among companies.

Unlike static reports that take time to be generated and are difficult to understand, modern reporting tools are intuitive. Their visual nature makes them easy to understand for any type of user, and they provide businesses with a central view of their most important performance indicators for an improved decision-making process. Here, we will cover 20 useful dashboard examples from different industries, functions, and platforms to put the value of dashboard reporting into perspective.

1. Financial Report

Keeping finances in check is critical for success. This financial report offers an overview of the most important financial metrics that a business needs to monitor its economic activities and answer vital questions to ensure healthy finances.

With insights about liquidity, invoicing, budgeting, and general financial stability, managers can extract long and short-term conclusions to reduce inefficiencies, make accurate forecasts about future performance, and keep the overall financial efficiency of the business flowing. For instance, getting a detailed calculation of the business’s working capital can allow you to understand how liquid your company is. If it’s higher than expected, it means you have the potential to invest and grow—definitely one of the most valuable types of finance reports.

2. Construction Report

Our next example is a construction report offering the perfect overview for efficient construction bid management . In this case, the template is tracked for an enterprise that has multiple projects working simultaneously and needs a general view of how everything is performing to ensure maximum efficiency.

The key metric highlighted in this report is the net bid value, which shows the value of all submitted bids, including canceled ones. As seen in the net bid value by status chart, only a small amount is accounted for canceled bids, which means this organization’s construction bidding process is efficient. The rest of the charts displayed in the template help provide a deeper understanding of bids to make informed decisions.

Another valuable aspect of this construction report is its interactivity. The filters on top allow the user to visualize only data for a specific category, project classification, or bid status, making it possible to answer any questions that arise during meetings or discussions. This was not possible in the past as the construction industry relied heavily on static reporting. Luckily, with the rise of digital construction tools, like interactive real-time reporting, they no longer need to rely solely on intuition or outdated information. Instead, they have fresh insights at all times.

3. Marketing Report

Our following example is a marketing report that ensures a healthy return on investment from your marketing efforts. This type of report offers a detailed overview of campaign performance over the last 12 weeks. Having access to this information enables you to maximize the value of your promotional actions, keeping your audience engaged by providing a targeted experience.

For instance, you can implement different campaign formats as a test and then compare which one is most successful for your business. This is possible thanks to the monitoring of important marketing metrics such as the click-through rate (CTR), cost per click (CPC), cost per acquisition (CPA), and more.

The visual nature of this report makes it easy to understand important insights at a glance. For instance, the four gauge charts at the top show the total spending from all campaigns and how much of the total budget of each campaign has been used. In just seconds, you can see if you are on target to meet your marketing budgets for every single campaign.

4. Sales Report

An intuitive sales dashboard like the one above is the perfect analytical tool to monitor and optimize sales performance. Armed with powerful high-level metrics, this report type is especially interesting for managers, executives, and sales VPs as it provides relevant data to ensure strategic and operational success.

The value of this sales report lies in the fact that it offers a complete and comprehensive overview of relevant insights needed to make smart sales decisions. For instance, at the top of an analysis tool, you get important metrics such as the number of sales, revenue, profit, and costs, all compared to a set target and to the previous time period. The use of historical data is fundamental when building successful sales strategies as they provide a picture of what could happen in the future. Being able to filter the key metrics all in one screen is a key benefit of modern reporting.

5. HR Report

Our next report example concerns human resources analytics. The HR department needs to track various KPIs for employee performance and effectiveness. However, it must also ensure that employees are happy and working in a healthy environment since an unhappy workforce can significantly damage an organization. This intuitive dashboard makes this possible.

Providing a comprehensive mix of metrics, this employee-centric report drills down into every major element needed to ensure successful workforce management. For example, the top portion of the dashboard covers absenteeism in 3 different ways: yearly average, absenteeism rate with a target of 3.8%, and absenteeism over the last five years. Tracking absenteeism rates in detail is helpful as it can tell you if your employees are skipping workdays. If the rate is over the expected target, then you have to dig deeper into the reasons and find sustainable solutions.

On the other hand, the second part of the dashboard covers the overall labor effectiveness (OLE). This can be tracked based on specific criteria that HR predefined, and it helps them understand if workers are achieving their targets or if they need extra training or help.

6. Management Report

Managers must monitor big amounts of data to ensure that the business is running smoothly. One of them being investor relationships. This management dashboard focuses on high-level metrics that shareholders need to look at before investing, such as the return on assets, return on equity, debt-equity ratio, and share price, among others.

By getting an overview of these important metrics, investors can easily extract the needed insights to make an informed decision regarding an investment in your business. For instance, the return on assets measures how efficiently are the company’s assets being used to generate profit. With this knowledge, investors can understand how effectively your company deploys available resources compared to others in the market. Another great indicator is the share price; the higher the increase in your share price, the more money your shareholders are making from their investment.

7. IT Report

Just like all the other departments and sections covered in this list, the IT department is one that can especially benefit from these types of reports. With so many technical issues to solve, the need for a visual tool to help IT specialists stay on track with their workload becomes critical.

As seen in the image above, this IT dashboard offers detailed information about different system indicators. For starters, we get a visual overview of the status of each server, followed by a detailed graph displaying the uptime & downtime of each week. This is complemented by the most common downtown issues and some ticket management information. Getting this level of insight helps your IT staff to know what is happening and when it is happening and find proper solutions to prevent these issues from repeating themselves. Keeping constant track of these metrics will ensure robust system performance.

8. Procurement Report

The following report example was built with intuitive procurement analytics software. It gives a general view of various metrics that any procurement department needs to manage suppliers efficiently.

With the possibility to filter, drill down, and interact with KPIs, this intuitive procurement dashboard offers key information to ensure a healthy supplier relationship. With metrics such as compliance rate, the number of suppliers, or the purchase order cycle time, the procurement team can classify the different suppliers, define the relationship each of them has with the company and optimize processes to ensure it stays profitable.

One of the industries that could truly benefit from this template is construction. Managing procurement in construction projects is not easy, as suppliers must be picked carefully to ensure they meet the project’s needs. An overview like this one can help assess the abilities of each supplier to choose the ones that best meet the requirements. In construction, supplier selection is more than just about pricing, it also involves availability, certifications, quality, etc.

9. Customer Service Report

Following our list of examples of reports is one from the support area. Armed with powerful customer service KPIs, this dashboard is a useful tool for monitoring performance, spotting trends, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and improving the overall effectiveness of the customer support department.

Covering aspects such as revenue and costs from customer support as well as customer satisfaction, this complete analysis tool is the perfect tool for managers who have to keep an eye on every little detail from a performance and operational perspective. For example, by monitoring your customer service costs and comparing them to the revenue, you can understand if you are investing the right amount into your support processes. This can be directly related to your agent’s average time to solve issues; the longer it takes to solve a support ticket, the more money it will cost and the less revenue it will bring. If your agents take too long to solve an issue, you can think of some training instances to help them reduce this number.

10. Market Research Report

This list of report types would not be complete without a market research report. Market research agencies deal with a large amount of information coming from surveys and other research sources. Considering that, reports that can be filtered for deeper interaction become more necessary for this industry than for any other.

The image above is a brand analytics dashboard that displays the survey results about how the public perceives a brand. This savvy tool contains different charts that make it easy to understand the information visually. For instance, the map chart with the different colors lets you quickly understand in which regions each age range is located. The charts can be filtered further to see the detailed answers from each group for a deeper analysis.

11. Social Media Report

Last but not least, we have a social media report. This scorecard-format dashboard monitors the performance of four main social media channels: Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and YouTube. It serves as a perfect visual overview to track the performance of different social media efforts and achievements.

Tracking relevant metrics such as followers, impressions, clicks, engagement rates, and conversions, this report type serves as a perfect progress report for managers or clients who need to see the status of their social channels. Each metric is shown in its actual value and compared to a set target. The colors green and red from the fourth column let you quickly understand if a metric is over or under its expected target.

12. Logistics Report

Logistics are the cornerstone of an operationally fluent and progressive business. If you deal with large quantities of goods and tangible items, in particular, maintaining a solid logistical strategy is vital to ensuring you maintain your brand reputation while keeping things flowing in the right direction.

A prime example designed to improve logistical management, our warehouse KPI dashboard is equipped with metrics required to maintain strategic movement while eliminating any unnecessary costs or redundant processes. Here, you can dig into your shipping success rates across regions while accessing warehouse costs and perfect order rates in real-time. If you spot any potential inefficiencies, you can track them here and take the correct course of action to refine your strategy. This is an essential tool for any business with a busy or scaling warehouse.

13. Manufacturing Report

Next, in our essential types of business reports examples, we’re looking at tools made to improve your business’s various manufacturing processes.

Our clean and concise production tool is a sight to behold and serves up key manufacturing KPIs that improve the decision-making process regarding costs, volume, and machinery.

Here, you can hone in on historical patterns and trends while connecting with priceless real-time insights that will not only enable you to make the right calls concerning your manufacturing process at the moment but will also allow you to formulate predictive strategies that will ultimately save money, boost productivity, and result in top-quality products across the board.

14. Retail Report

As a retailer with so many channels to consider and so many important choices to make, working with the right metrics and visuals is absolutely essential. Fortunately, we live in an age where there are different types of reporting designed for this very reason.

Our sales and order example, generated with retail analytics software, is a dream come true for retailers as it offers the visual insights needed to understand your product range in greater detail while keeping a firm grip on your order volumes, perfect order rates, and reasons for returns.

Gaining access to these invaluable insights in one visually presentable space will allow you to track increases or decreases in orders over a set timeframe (and understand whether you’re doing the right things to drive engagement) while plowing your promotional resources into the products that are likely to offer the best returns.

Plus, by gaining an accurate overview of why people are returning your products, you can omit problem items or processes from your retail strategy, improving your brand reputation as well as revenue in the process.

15. Digital Media Report

The content and communications you publish are critical to your ongoing success, regardless of your sector, niche, or specialty. Without putting out communications that speak directly to the right segments of your audience at the right times in their journey, your brand will swiftly fade into the background.

To ensure your brand remains inspiring, engaging, and thought-leading across channels, working with media types of a business report is essential. You must ensure your communications cut through the noise and scream ‘quality’ from start to finish—no ifs, no buts, no exceptions.

Our content quality control tool is designed with a logical hierarchy that will tell you if your content sparks readership, if the language you’re using is inclusive and conversational, and how much engagement-specific communications earn. You can also check your most engaging articles with a quick glance to understand what your users value most. Armed with this information, you can keep creating content that your audience loves and ultimately drives true value to the business.

16. Energy Report

In the age of sustainability and in the face of international fuel hikes, managing the energy your business uses effectively is paramount. Here, there is little room for excess or error, and as such, working with the right metrics is the only way to ensure successful energy regulation.

If your company has a big HQ or multiple sites that require power, our energy management analytics tool will help you take the stress out of managing your resources. One of the most striking features of this dashboard is the fact that it empowers you to compare your company’s energy usage against those from other sectors and set an accurate benchmark.

Here, you can also get a digestible breakdown of your various production costs regarding energy consumption and the main sources you use to keep your organization running. Regularly consulting these metrics will not only allow you to save colossal chunks of your budget, but it will also give you the intelligence to become more sustainable as an organization. This, in turn, is good for the planet and your brand reputation—a real win-win-win.

17. FMCG Report

The fast-moving consuming goods (FMCG) industry can highly benefit from a powerful report containing real-time insights. This is because the products handled in this sector, which are often food and beverages, don’t last very long. Therefore, having a live overview of all the latest developments can aid decision-makers in optimizing the supply chain to ensure everything runs smoothly and no major issues happen.

Our report format example above aims to do just that by providing an overview of critical performance indicators, such as the percentage of products sold within freshness date, the out-of-stock rate, on-time in full deliveries, inventory turnover, and more. What makes this template so valuable is the fact that it provides a range of periods to get a more recent view of events but also a longer yearly view to extract deeper insights.

The FMCG dashboard also offers an overview of the main KPIs to aid users in understanding if they are on the right track to meet their goals. There, we can observe that the OTIF is far from its target of 90%. Therefore, it should be looked at in more detail to optimize it and prevent it from affecting the entire supply chain.

18. Google Analytics Report

Regardless of your industry, if you have a website, you probably require a Google Analytics report. This powerful tool helps you understand how your audience interacts with your website while helping you reach more people through the Google search engine. The issue is that the reports the tool provides are more or less basic and don’t give you the dynamic and agile view you need to stay on top of your data and competitors.

For that reason, we generated a range of Google Analytics dashboards that take your experience one step further by allowing you to explore your most important KPIs in real-time. That way, you’ll be able to spot any potential issues or opportunities to improve as soon as they occur, allowing you to act on them on the spot.

Among some of the most valuable metrics you can find in this sample are the sessions and their daily, weekly, and monthly development, the average session duration, the bounce rate by channel and by top 5 countries, among others.

19. LinkedIn Report

Another very important platform that companies use, no matter their size or industry, is LinkedIn. This platform is the place where companies develop and showcase their corporate image, network with other companies, and tell their clients and audience about the different initiatives they are developing to grow and be better. Some organizations also use LinkedIn to showcase their charity or sustainability initiatives.

The truth is LinkedIn has become an increasingly relevant platform, and just like we discussed with YouTube, organizations need to analyze data to ensure their strategies are on the right path to success.

The template above offers a 360-degree view of a company page’s performance. With metrics such as the followers gained, engagement rate, impressions vs unique impressions, CTR, and more. Decision-makers can dive deeper into the performance of their content and understand what their audience enjoys the most. For instance, by looking at the CTR of the last 5 company updates, you can start to get a sense of what topics and content format your audience on the platforms interact with the most. That way, you’ll avoid wasting time and resources producing content without interaction.

20. Healthcare Report

Healthcare Report For Patient Satisfaction

Moving on from platform-related examples, we have one last monthly report template from a very relevant sector, the healthcare industry. For decades now, hospitals and healthcare professionals have benefited from data to develop new treatments and analyze unknown diseases. But data can also help to ensure daily patient care is of top quality.

Our sample above is a healthcare dashboard report that tracks patient satisfaction stats for a clinic named Saint Martins Clinic. The template provides insights into various aspects of patient care that can affect their satisfaction levels to help spot any weak areas.

Just by looking at the report in a bit more detail, we can already see that the average waiting time for arrival at a bed and time to see a doctor are on the higher side. This is something that needs to be looked into immediately, as waiting times are the most important success factors for patients. Additionally, we can see those lab test turnarounds are also above target. This is another aspect that should be optimized to prevent satisfaction levels from going down.

As you learned from our extensive list of examples, different reports are widely used across industries and sectors. Now, you might wonder, how do I get my hands on one of these reports? The answer is a professional online reporting tool. With the right software in hand, you can generate stunning reports to extract the maximum potential out of your data and boost business growth in the process.

But, with so many options in the market, how do make sure you choose the best tool for your needs? Below we cover some of the most relevant features and capabilities you should look for to make the most out of the process.

1. Pre-made reporting templates

To ensure successful operations, a business will most likely need to use many reports for its internal and external strategies. Manually generating these reports can become a time-consuming task that burdens the business. That is why professional reporting software should offer pre-made reporting templates. At RIB, we offer an extensive template library for the construction industry that allows users to generate reports in a matter of seconds—allowing them to use their time on actually analyzing the information and extracting powerful insights from it.

2. Multiple visualization options

If you look for report templates on Google, you might run into multiple posts about written ones. This is not a surprise, as written reports have been the norm for decades. That being said, a modern approach to reporting has developed in the past years where visuals have taken over text. The value of visuals lies in the fact that they make the information easier to understand, especially for users who have no technical knowledge. But most importantly, they make the information easier to explore by telling a compelling story. For that reason, the tool you choose to invest in should provide you with multiple visualization options to have the flexibility to tell your data story in the most successful way possible.

3. Customization

While pre-made templates are fundamental to generating agile reports, being able to customize them to meet your needs is also of utmost importance. At RIB Software, we offer our users the possibility to customize their construction reports to fit their most important KPIs, as well as their logo, business colors, and font. This is an especially valuable feature for external reports that must be shown to clients or other relevant stakeholders, giving your reports a more professional look. Customization can also help from an internal perspective to provide employees who are uncomfortable with data with a familiar environment to work in.

4. Real-time insights

In the fast-paced world we live in today, having static reports is not enough. Businesses need to have real-time access to the latest developments in their data to spot any issues or opportunities as soon as they occur and act on them to ensure their resources are spent smartly and their strategies are running as expected. Doing so will allow for agile and efficient decision-making, giving the company a huge competitive advantage.

5. Sharing capabilities

Communication and collaboration are the basis of a successful reporting process. Today, team members and departments need to be connected to ensure everyone is on the right path to achieve general company goals. That is why the tool you invest in should offer flexible sharing capabilities to ensure every user can access the reports. For instance, we offer our users the possibility to share reports through automated emails or password-protected URLs with viewing or editing rights depending on what data the specific user can see and manipulate. A great way to keep everyone connected and boost collaboration.

As we’ve seen throughout our journey, businesses use different report formats for diverse purposes in their everyday activities. Whether you’re talking about types of reports in research, types of reports in management, or anything in between, these dynamic tools will get you where you need to be (and beyond).

In this post, we covered the top 14 most common ones and explored key examples of how different report types are changing the way businesses are leveraging their most critical insights for internal efficiency and, ultimately, external success.

With modern tools and solutions, reporting doesn’t have to be a tedious task. Anyone in your organization can rely on data for their decision-making process without needing technical skills. Rather, you want to keep your team connected or show progress to investors or clients. There is a report type for the job. To keep your mind fresh, here are the top 14 types of data reports covered in this post:

Informational reports
Analytical reports
Operational reports
Product reports
Industry reports
Department reports
Progress reports
Internal reports
External reports
Vertical and lateral reports
Strategic reports
Research reports
Project reports
Statutory reports

At RIB Software , we provide multiple solutions to make construction companies’ lives easier. Our construction data analytics software, RIB BI+, offers powerful business intelligence and reporting capabilities to help businesses in the building sector manage their data and make data-driven decisions to boost the quality of their projects. If you are ready to benefit from automated, interactive analytics, get a demo of RIB BI+ today!

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17 Types of Reports for Reporting and Decision Making

Written by: Danesh Ramuthi Dec 22, 2023

Reports are indispensable tools for communication and analysis, providing structured and clear presentations of data, findings, and insights.

The spectrum of report types is as diverse as their applications, ranging from analytical reports that offer deep insights into data, to informational reports that present facts in a straightforward manner. Other common types include feasibility reports, research reports, and progress reports, each designed to fulfill specific objectives in different professional contexts.

Recognizing the myriad types of reports and their applications is essential for effective communication and decision-making. While it’s challenging to pinpoint an exact number, the variety of reports is vast and continuously evolving to meet the dynamic needs of different industries and technological advancements.

For professionals seeking to master the art of report writing, Venngage offers report maker and customizable report templates . These tools are tailored to facilitate the creation of professional, visually compelling reports, suitable for a wide range of report types.

Table of content:

Formal reports

InFormal reports

Internal reports

External reports, annual reports, monthly reports, weekly reports, daily reports, financial reports, incident reports, marketing reports, sales reports, progress reports, project status reports, survey reports, informational reports, analytical reports, final thoughts.

Formal reports are comprehensive documents often used in business and academic settings to convey detailed information, research findings, or recommendations. These reports are characterized by a structured format, including elements like a title page, table of contents, executive summary, and bibliography.

Precision and clarity in language are essential, as formal reports are typically intended for stakeholders who make key decisions based on the data presented. They often include charts, graphs, and other visual aids to support the text, providing a thorough analysis of the topic at hand.

Informal reports

Informal reports are typically shorter and less structured than formal reports. They are used for routine communication within an organization, such as updates, brief summaries, or informal proposals .

These reports are usually more conversational in tone, making them more accessible and easier to read. Informal reports may not require extensive data or research and often bypass elements like the title page or table of contents. They are an effective tool for quick and efficient communication of essential information within teams or departments.

Internal reports are documents used within an organization to share information, analyze operations, or make recommendations. They are intended for an internal audience, such as management, employees, or departments, and are not typically shared outside the organization.

These reports can be formal or informal, depending on their purpose and audience. Internal reports play a crucial role in decision-making, problem-solving, and strategy development, providing valuable insights into various aspects of the organization’s functioning.

External reports are prepared with the intent of sharing information with parties outside of the organization, such as investors, clients, regulatory bodies, or the general public. These reports must be meticulously crafted, as they reflect the organization’s professionalism and credibility.

They often include annual reports, financial statements, compliance reports, and research findings. External reports require accuracy and transparency, often following specific guidelines or standards set by external entities.

The language and presentation of these reports are tailored to meet the expectations and requirements of the external audience.

Financial Income Statement Report Template

Annual reports are comprehensive reflections of a year’s accomplishments, challenges, and financial health for businesses and organizations. These reports, often crafted with a blend of informational and analytical insights, provide a detailed overview of the year’s activities, including achievements, financial performance, and future projections.

Key components like an executive summary, financial statements, and marketing strategies are presented in a formal report format, offering stakeholders an in-depth look at the organization’s progress. Annual reports not only serve as statutory documents but also as tools for strategic planning and investor relations, often accompanied by engaging graphics and narratives to highlight the year’s milestones.

Monthly reports offer a regular pulse check on a business’s operations, giving insights into ongoing projects, sales performance, and financial health. These reports typically combine data analysis and narrative to present a clear picture of the month’s activities.

Key performance indicators (KPIs) are often highlighted to track progress against goals. Whether it’s a monthly end-close sales report, financial overview, or inventory status, these reports provide essential feedback to management, allowing for timely adjustments in strategies or operations.

In businesses where rapid changes occur, such as sales or marketing departments, monthly reports and dashboards are invaluable tools for staying aligned with short-term objectives and long-term goals.

Weekly reports serve as a compass for short-term progress and immediate action in various business contexts. These brief yet insightful documents focus on key developments, challenges, and accomplishments over a week.

They often include updates on project milestones, team performance, and any immediate issues needing attention. In fast-paced environments, weekly reports are crucial for maintaining momentum and ensuring team alignment.

Typically informal in nature, these reports are designed for quick consumption and prompt decision-making, often utilized by teams to stay connected and informed about ongoing activities and impending deadlines.

Daily reports are snapshots of day-to-day operations, crucial for industries and roles where real-time information is pivotal. These reports , often succinct and to-the-point, cover essential activities, key metrics, and immediate concerns.

From a daily sales report in a bustling retail environment to a project status update in a dynamic construction site, these reports provide a continuous stream of information for timely decision-making. They are instrumental in managing daily workflows, addressing urgent issues, and keeping all stakeholders in the loop.

Daily reports, usually brief and focused, play a significant role in ensuring smooth daily operations and immediate response to any arising challenges.

In business, numbers tell a compelling story, particularly through financial reports . These documents are crucial in painting a detailed picture of a company’s financial health. They encompass various statements, including income, cash flow, and balance sheets, offering a window into profitability, liquidity, and financial stability.

Key for stakeholders, from investors to managers, these reports inform critical decisions, shape financial strategies, and ensure regulatory compliance. The precision and detail in these reports are paramount, as they not only reflect current fiscal standing but also guide future financial planning.

When unexpected events occur, the clarity and detail provided in incident reports become invaluable. These documents meticulously record incidents, outlining the specifics of when, where, and how they unfolded, and the immediate response enacted.

Essential in risk management, these reports aid in identifying causes, enhancing safety protocols, and preventing recurrence.

Their factual and objective nature ensures a clear understanding of each incident, making them integral in maintaining safety standards and complying with legal and regulatory requirements.

The pulse of a company’s marketing efforts is captured in marketing reports . These analytical tools evaluate the effectiveness of marketing strategies, from consumer engagement to campaign returns.

By tracking key metrics such as web traffic, lead generation, and social media activity, these reports offer a comprehensive view of marketing successes and areas for improvement. Regular analysis through these reports is crucial for adapting to market dynamics, optimizing marketing strategies, and ensuring effective allocation of marketing resources.

Within the world of commerce, sales reports serve as a navigator, guiding through the complex seas of sales data. These reports offer a panoramic view of sales performance, highlighting trends, customer preferences, and revenue streams.

Businesses rely on these reports to gauge product performance, identify market opportunities, and strategize for future sales growth. The insights gained from sales reports are instrumental in target setting, forecasting, and formulating tactics to enhance sales effectiveness.

The journey of a project, with its triumphs and challenges, is chronicled in progress reports . These documents offer a periodic snapshot of ongoing projects, detailing accomplishments, pending tasks, and hurdles encountered along the way. They serve as a communication bridge between project teams and stakeholders, ensuring transparency and alignment on project objectives and timelines.

Effective progress reports are key in steering projects towards their successful completion, keeping all parties informed and engaged in the project’s journey.

When navigating the complexities of project management, project status reports act as essential beacons, illuminating the current state of affairs. These documents offer a snapshot of progress, detailing milestones achieved, upcoming tasks, and any roadblocks encountered.

Vital for keeping stakeholders informed, they enable proactive decision-making and ensure that everyone involved has a clear understanding of the project’s trajectory.

Professional Project Status Progress Report

Survey reports are invaluable tools, translating responses into meaningful insights. These reports compile and analyze survey data, providing a clear picture of public opinions, customer satisfaction, or market trends. The findings in these reports guide strategic planning, product development, and customer engagement strategies, making them crucial for informed decision-making in various sectors.

Serving as the foundation of effective communication in organizations, informational reports present facts and data in a straightforward manner. They are designed to inform, rather than persuade, providing clear and concise information on a specific topic, event, or situation.

These reports are essential for keeping team members, management, and stakeholders updated on various aspects of business operations, without the inclusion of analysis or recommendations.

Analytical reports stand at the crossroads of data and decision-making. These documents delve deep into data, examining patterns, trends, and correlations to provide a comprehensive analysis. They play a pivotal role in guiding business, HR strategies , policy-making, and problem-solving.

By offering insights and recommendations based on thorough analysis, these reports are instrumental in enabling organizations to make well-informed decisions.

Related: 50+ Essential Business Report Examples with Templates

There are many types of reports, encompassing everything from formal to informal, internal to external, and from financial to marketing reports. Each type serves a unique purpose, catering to different needs within a business or educational context. Understanding these differences is key to creating reports that are not just informative but also impactful.

Financial reports require meticulous detail, while marketing reports thrive on creativity and analytics. Similarly, progress and project status reports are essential in keeping stakeholders informed and projects on track.

Creating these reports doesn’t have to be a daunting task. Venngage offers a versatile report maker and a variety of report templates , making it easier to design reports that are both professional and visually appealing. With Venngage’s tools at your disposal, you can transform data and information into compelling narratives that resonate with your audience.

Remember, the right report can not only convey essential information but also inspire action, guide decision-making, and reflect the health and progress of your endeavors. So, take advantage of the resources available to you and elevate your reporting to the next level with Venngage.

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Methodology

Research Methods | Definitions, Types, Examples

Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your research methods is an integral part of your research design . When planning your methods, there are two key decisions you will make.

First, decide how you will collect data . Your methods depend on what type of data you need to answer your research question :

Qualitative vs. quantitative : Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
Primary vs. secondary : Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that has already been collected by someone else?
Descriptive vs. experimental : Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will you perform an experiment?

Second, decide how you will analyze the data .

For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships between variables.
For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns and meanings in the data.

Methods for collecting data, examples of data collection methods, methods for analyzing data, examples of data analysis methods, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research methods.

Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question . The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.

Qualitative vs. quantitative data

Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you want to develop.

For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be described numerically, collect qualitative data .

If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research involves hypothesis testing , collect quantitative data .


Qualitative		to broader populations. .
Quantitative		.

You can also take a mixed methods approach , where you use both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

Primary vs. secondary research

Primary research is any original data that you collect yourself for the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys , observations and experiments ). Secondary research is data that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).

If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data . But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.


Primary	.	methods.
Secondary

Descriptive vs. experimental data

In descriptive research , you collect data about your study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method .

In experimental research , you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design .

To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable , precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables . If it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.


Descriptive		. .
Experimental

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Research methods for collecting data
Research method	Primary or secondary?	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Primary	Quantitative	To test cause-and-effect relationships.
	Primary	Quantitative	To understand general characteristics of a population.
Interview/focus group	Primary	Qualitative	To gain more in-depth understanding of a topic.
Observation	Primary	Either	To understand how something occurs in its natural setting.
	Secondary	Either	To situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends within a research topic.
	Either	Either	To gain an in-depth understanding of a specific group or context, or when you don’t have the resources for a large study.

Your data analysis methods will depend on the type of data you collect and how you prepare it for analysis.

Data can often be analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. For example, survey responses could be analyzed qualitatively by studying the meanings of responses or quantitatively by studying the frequencies of responses.

Qualitative analysis methods

Qualitative analysis is used to understand words, ideas, and experiences. You can use it to interpret data that was collected:

From open-ended surveys and interviews , literature reviews , case studies , ethnographies , and other sources that use text rather than numbers.
Using non-probability sampling methods .

Qualitative analysis tends to be quite flexible and relies on the researcher’s judgement, so you have to reflect carefully on your choices and assumptions and be careful to avoid research bias .

Quantitative analysis methods

Quantitative analysis uses numbers and statistics to understand frequencies, averages and correlations (in descriptive studies) or cause-and-effect relationships (in experiments).

You can use quantitative analysis to interpret data that was collected either:

During an experiment .
Using probability sampling methods .

Because the data is collected and analyzed in a statistically valid way, the results of quantitative analysis can be easily standardized and shared among researchers.

Research methods for analyzing data
Research method	Qualitative or quantitative?	When to use
	Quantitative	To analyze data collected in a statistically valid manner (e.g. from experiments, surveys, and observations).
Meta-analysis	Quantitative	To statistically analyze the results of a large collection of studies. Can only be applied to studies that collected data in a statistically valid manner.
	Qualitative	To analyze data collected from interviews, , or textual sources. To understand general themes in the data and how they are communicated.
	Either	To analyze large volumes of textual or visual data collected from surveys, literature reviews, or other sources. Can be quantitative (i.e. frequencies of words) or qualitative (i.e. meanings of words).

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Chi square test of independence
Statistical power
Descriptive statistics
Degrees of freedom
Pearson correlation
Null hypothesis
Double-blind study
Case-control study
Research ethics
Data collection
Hypothesis testing
Structured interviews

Research bias

Hawthorne effect
Unconscious bias
Recall bias
Halo effect
Self-serving bias
Information bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts and meanings, use qualitative methods .
If you want to analyze a large amount of readily-available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how it is generated, collect primary data.
If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

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14 Types of Reports and When to Use Them (+ Templates)

Written by: Raja Mandal

An illustration showcasing report pages in a printed off document.

Reporting is an essential part of business. In order to provide sophisticated and innovative reporting and analysis for your business or organization, you need to understand the various types of reports and when you'll need to use them.

Simply knowing how to write a report isn't enough. The right types of reports significantly impact an organization, fundamentally changing the way people perform their activities and make decisions.

However, deciding on a report is still a daunting task for many organizations. In this guide, we've put together a list of 14 types of reports and when you should use them.

Since you're here reading this, we're assuming you likely need to write a report. So, before we dive into the various types of reports, you can check out our handy guide on the proper report writing format to get started with your report writing process.

Here’s a short selection of 8 easy-to-edit report templates you can edit, share and download with Visme. View more templates below:

Type #1: Annual Report

An annual report template available to customize in Visme.

An annual report is an in-depth, comprehensive report on a business's achievements and financial statements from the preceding year. The first few pages of the report contain an eye-catching design and an overview of the organization's past year's activities and include future schemes.

Organizations use this report to give shareholders and other interested people information about the company's activities and financial performance.

Sometimes, jurisdictions require organizations to create and disclose annual reports, making it the most important one in this list.

You can use this type of report to:

Share an overview of the recent financial performance of your company
Market and promote your business to prospective customers as well as investors and stakeholders
Set goals and strategies for your business
Build trust between your customers, suppliers and employees

Type #2: Weekly Report

A weekly report template available to customize in Visme.

A weekly report reviews a workweek that includes the works you have completed and ones that are still in progress to help you outline your workflow for the upcoming week.

So, a weekly report is similar to an annual report. But while annual reports give an overview of a year, weekly reports provide a snapshot of a week.

It allows the management team to take a quick look at what the employees are doing, including their challenges, strengths and weaknesses. On the flip side, the report can give the employees an idea of their role in the organization.

Use this report when you want to:

Get a clear picture of your organization on a weekly basis
Help your team members learn how to do their work in the best way possible
Improve communication by regularly checking on people
Make your annual reports less stressful to prepare
Set your goals and achieve them easily

A project status weekly report available to customize on Visme.

Type #3: Sales Report

As the name suggests, sales reports are submitted by salespeople to the team to inform them about the on-field scenarios. In other words, a sales report is a document that summarizes the sales performance of a company over a specific period.

The report includes data on leads generated, new accounts, revenue, sales volume, KPIs and many other crucial ones. Furthermore, it helps you take out the guesswork from your business decisions, giving you a clear view of the sales process of your business.

One of the crucial benefits these types of reports provide is that you can set them to various frequencies and key performance indicators. Here are some examples:

Daily Sales Reports

Track KPIs such as daily sales calls, leads generated and many others. Here is an example template:

A daily sales report template available to customize in Visme.

Monthly Sales Report

A monthly sales report helps you share the highlights, metrics and insights about your customer base with your stakeholders.

Quarterly Sales Report

With a quarterly sales report , you can summarize your weekly and monthly sales report on a quarterly basis.

Yearly Sales Report

A yearly sales report is a lengthy, detailed version of your quarterly sales report. Use this to summarize your business' yearly sales performance, just like an annual report.

Type #4: Analytical Report

An analytical report template available to customize in Visme.

Over the past few decades, data analysis has become a vital part of business intelligence and standard industry practice. Statistics show that the annual revenue from the global big data analytics industry is expected to reach $68 billion by 2025 . This is because the majority of businesses are adjusting their strategies based on data-driven insights.

So, in this digital era, one can not imagine business growth without data analytics. This is where analytical reports come into the picture. An analytical report helps you evaluate business performance based on data insights.

The best thing about these types of reports is that they provide you with recommendations instead of playing with numbers.

Use this report when you need:

A better understanding of your business performance
To analyze and summarize a large amount of data about your business through data visualization
To share complex data easily using charts and graphs
To identify problems in your business and explain how the problem affects

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Type #5: Marketing Report

A marketing report template available to customize in Visme.

If you're a marketer, you know that no matter how extraordinary your marketing campaign performed, you need to monitor every single aspect of your campaign. It will not only help you shape your marketing strategy but give the upper management all the relevant information they are looking for.

Thus, making a marketing report is one of the key elements of every marketing strategy. A marketing report includes data from the marketing channels to visualize the overall performance of your campaign.

In simple words, these types of reports help you understand whether the marketing strategies you currently use are doing well or not.

Use marketing reports when you need to:

Make marketing data-driven decisions
Measure performance from all marketing campaigns
Present the data to the senior management and other team members
Highlight areas to improve

Type #6: Trends Report

A trends report template available to customize in Visme.

Trends report, also known as trend analysis report, allows you to report on the standard up-to-the-minute state of business. Also, it helps you analyze day-to-day forecasts, cases and opportunities in your business process.

It can tell you where your brand message is being heard, who is listening and how it affects your marketing efforts. These types of reports rely on statistics, surveys and sometimes electronic analytics.

Trends reports can help you:

Identify the areas where your business is performing well
Identify the underperforming areas of your business
Improve your decision making by providing real-time data

Type #7: Informal Report

An informal report template available to customize in Visme.

As the name suggests, an informal report doesn't have any specific structure. They include a brief and unstructured description that can be crucial for a business. The primary purpose of these types of reports is to convey critical information quickly.

Therefore, neglecting any formal structure in favor of efficient and effective communication motivates writing an informal report. These types of reports may include letters, emails, digital postings and many others.

Use an informal report when you need to:

Convey information to help in decision making quickly
Focus on the data rather than the structure of the report
Share critical information internally
Share information to change operational decisions quickly

Annual budget reports, monthly financial reports, scientific research and employee appraisals are some of the examples of informal reports.

Type #8: Formal Report

A formal report template available to customize in Visme.

Formal reports also have a similar purpose, but they can not sacrifice the structural format of business reports. They focus on objectivity, organization and contain detailed information, making them more time-consuming to prepare than the informal reports.

Due to their precise nature often includes sections like a table of contents, executive summary, an overview of key findings, and others for easier reference. Also, unlike informal reports, these types of reports include conveying information to external parties.

Share critical and detailed information
Educate your team members
Provide information to stakeholders to make decisions

Type #9: Budget Report

A budget report template available to customize in Visme.

A budget report compares the actual spending and the pre-established budget. It helps businesses greatly in making accurate and informed financial decisions. Creating a budget report is typically creating financial goals for the organization.

Once businesses hit a specific accounting period, they can use a budget report to compare these milestones. However, the budget reports are only estimations and differ from the financial results.

Use these types of reports to:

Track spending variances
Ensure you don't overspend
Prepare yourself for emergencies
Identify the losing holes
Keep your eye on the financial goals

Type #10: Event Report

An event report template available to customize in Visme.

An event report is one of the essential tools to measure whether an event was successful by comparing the results with the objectives. If you are an event manager or event planner, an event report should be in your toolbox.

Though an event report may have many forms, the primary purpose is to make the event successful. Moreover, you can think of it as a follow-up to an event proposal to know about the event goals, purpose, budget and many more.

You can use this report to:

Get a clear picture of how to close out the event
Stay consistent with meeting and event goals
Create a predictable revenue stream
Better focus on marketing
Get a bird's eye view of your entire event

Type #11: Project Report

A project report template available to customize in Visme.

Project reports contain information about the proposed project and all the relevant information. It provides a project's feasibility by detailing all the necessary information.

It includes information about the project like introduction, executive summary, organization summary, project description, marketing plan, management plan, budget and many more.

These types of reports are most useful when you want to show project stakeholders all the information relevant to your project to help them understand the benefits and drawbacks of the project.

Use this report to:

Get approval of the project
Identify the risks and expected profitability
Test business soundness
Monitor the current progress and measure against the original schedule

Type #12: Research Report

A research report template available to customize in Visme.

A research report is a document prepared by experts to share their research findings. The primary purpose of a research report is to convey to the interested people the total result of the study. It's an effective way to document the research processes and find any gaps needing attention.

Research reports include a summary of the research process, findings, recommendations and conclusions. A research report will help you quickly understand the market needs and peculiarities in marketing.

Use this report when you want to:

Share knowledge
Spot business opportunities
Present information in a precise and concise manner
Use objective data to make informed decisions
Strengthen your credibility and reputation

Type #13: Meeting Minutes Report

A meeting minutes report template available to customize in Visme.

Meeting minutes reports are the notes of actions taken during a business and organizational meeting. They are created by a person from the organization, such as a secretary or a manager and become a crucial meeting document.

In some cases, meeting minutes reports are considered a legal document by the legal authorities. The primary purpose of these types of reports is to describe the actions taken by the meeting attendees.

You can provide structure, offer legal protection, measure progress, determine ownership and many others with the help of these reports.

Additionally, you can use these documents to:

Inform the absent team members about the discussions and decisions made during the meeting
Keep a record of the conversations for future reference
Provide reminders of action steps
Give an overview of the key takeaways from the information meetings

Type #14: Evaluation Report

An evaluation report template available to customize in Visme.

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Fears and Worries at Nighttime in Young Children: Development and Psychometric Validation of a Parent-Report Measure (FAWN-YC)

Open access
Published: 16 September 2024

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Amy Shiels ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6147-7388 1 ,
Laura Uhlmann ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6282-9736 1 ,
Lara J. Farrell ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4231-2227 1 , 2 ,
Erinn Munro-Lee 1 &
Caroline L. Donovan ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6380-635X 1 , 2

This paper outlines the development and psychometric evaluation of the Fears and Worries at Nighttime—Young Children (FAWN-YC) scale; a parent-rated measure for children aged 3–5 years. Based on previous literature, it was hypothesised that the measure would be represented by a six-factor solution, with four clusters of fear types and two behavioural manifestations of fears. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA; N = 436) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; N = 383), resulted in a final 17 items that loaded onto 3 factors: Nighttime Fear Focus (8 items, α = 0.92), Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference (5 items, α = 0.90), and Dark Fear (4 items, α = 0.88). Evidence of convergent validity was found through strong associations between the total score and subscales of the FAWN-YC with measures of child anxiety, fear, sleep, externalizing and conduct problems. Furthermore, there was support for divergent validity (through a very weak to no relationship with a measure of prosocial behaviours), and evidence for temporal stability was also established with 2-week test–retest reliability. Overall, the results provide strong preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of the FAWN-YC total score and subscales. Implications for the use of the measure in research and clinical practice are discussed.

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Introduction

Nighttime fears are a heterogenous group of fears that include separation fears, personal safety fears, imagination-based fears, and darkness fears [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]. Nighttime fears are particularly prevalent in young children and are often considered developmentally normal, with almost 60% of 4- to 6-year-olds experiencing difficulties with fear at night [ 4 ]. Although nighttime fears are transient for many children, approximately 10 to 30% experience fear at night that is severe, persistent, interferes substantially with sleep, and requires significant family accommodation [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Cross-sectional literature indicates that compared to controls, preschool aged children with severe nighttime fears demonstrate increased general fears, internalising and externalising behaviours, and lower effortful control [ 8 ]. Similarly, El Rafihi-Ferreira et al. [ 9 ] found that internalising behaviours were positively associated with parent-reported child nighttime fear in a sample of preschool aged children whose parents attended a nighttime fear treatment program.

Indeed, severe nighttime fears are impairing, reaching diagnostic thresholds for an anxiety disorder (i.e., specific phobia and/or separation anxiety), and/or a sleep disorder (most commonly insomnia [ 10 , 11 ]. Anxiety and behavioural sleep disorders in the preschool developmental period can lead to numerous problematic consequences in both the short- and long-term. Anxiety in the preschool years frequently endures into later childhood and beyond, and predicts lower school engagement, poorer peer relations and functional impairment during the school-age years, as well as sleep difficulties and psychopathology into adulthood [ 4 , 12 , 13 ]. Similarly, behavioural sleep problems in the preschool period have been shown to persist into adolescence if untreated, with numerous deleterious social, emotional and educational consequences [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ].

Nighttime fears have recently gained renewed attention in the paediatric sleep literature as an important contributor to behavioural insomnia symptoms during the preschool developmental period [ 12 , 21 ]. In a recently published 25-year review of nighttime fears in children, Lewis et al. [ 21 ] analysed studies employing behavioural, and cognitive-behavioural interventions. It was concluded that treating nighttime fears resulted not only in significant reductions in nighttime fears and dark phobias, but also significantly improved sleep and reduced general fears, anxiety, internalising and externalising behaviour problems in children aged 3–12 years. Thus, for many young children, nighttime fears are at the root of difficulties with sleep and problems at bedtime. Given the high prevalence and deleterious consequences associated with nighttime fears, it is crucial that we comprehensively understand them and have a measure to screen for them early in life.

Nighttime fears vary both in terms of their focus and the behavioural difficulties resulting from them. With respect to focus, some children experience one specific fear, while others experience multiple fears, with nighttime fears generally clustering into presentations of separation fears (being away from parents), darkness-related fears (sounds, shadows), personal safety fears (being harmed by an intruder) and fears of the imagination (e.g., ghosts; [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ]). With respect to behavioural difficulties manifesting as a result of nighttime fears, children may demonstrate resistance and refusal to participate in activities leading up to bedtime, they may cry and call out at bedtime, they may be unable to stay in a darkened bedroom or leave their room for other reasons [ 9 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ].

In order to effectively treat nighttime fears, clinicians must consider both the type of nighttime fear and the behavioural outcomes they produce. For example, a child who cries and repeatedly comes out of their room because they are afraid of the dark and therefore cannot remain alone in their darkened bedroom, will require a specific intervention. The treatment plan would include an exposure hierarchy which gradually exposes the child to being comfortable in the dark. This intervention would also include parenting strategies such as parent-mediated child relaxation skills, and effective praise. Alternatively, a young child who tantrums and refuses to take part in the bedtime routine because they are worried about being separated from their family at bedtime will require an alternative intervention. This treatment plan would likely begin with parenting strategies such as behaviour management skills (i.e., a bedtime routine reward chart, effective praise, how to negotiate with a young child, etc.) followed by an exposure hierarchy focused on gradually separating from their caregiver at night [ 6 ]. A comprehensive measure of nighttime fears and the behavioural outcomes they lead to, may assist in the development of an individual case formulation and evidence-based treatment plan. However, to date, such a measure has not been developed.

Despite nighttime fears being an important factor in the development and maintenance of sleep problems in young children, their assessment is notably absent from the vast majority of both paediatric anxiety and sleep measures developed to date. In fact, a validated measure for this vulnerable, preschool aged developmental period (i.e., ages 3–5 years) is yet to be developed. Within the paediatric anxiety literature, there are a few psychometrically validated measures assessing dark or night fears, however there is currently no measure for use in preschool aged populations. For instance, the self-report Fear of the Dark Scale [ 26 ], was designed for use with adults and adolescents. The child self-report Nighttime Fears Scale [ 27 ] and the child self-report and parent-report Children’s Nighttime Fear Survey [ 3 ] were developed for children over 7 and 8 years of age respectively. Turning to the paediatric sleep literature there exists only two measures that have been validated with a population which includes preschool aged children that include aspects of nighttime fears: the parent-report Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire [ 28 ] and the parent-report Manifestations and Vulnerabilities of Behavioural Insomnia in Childhood Scale [ 29 , 30 ]. However, both of these are comprehensive sleep measures with minimal items pertaining to fears and anxiety at night. For clinical and research purposes, both sleep measures provide insufficient detail on the type of nighttime fears and the particular behavioural manifestations that may result from them.

Both self-report and parent-report rating scales are limited by the amount and type of information that can be collected. Additionally, when it comes to parent-reports, Muris et al.’s [ 4 ] study of 4- to 12-year-olds concluded that parents provided a remarkable underestimation of the frequency of their child’s nighttime fears. Indeed, when examining the results reported separately by age group (4–6 years, 7–9 years and 10–12 years), there was a vast difference between child and parent reported fear frequency in the two older age groups. However, in the youngest group, there was a much smaller difference between the percentage of children (58.8%) and their parent (44.3%) reporting nighttime fears (operationalised in Muris et al. [ 31 ] as frequency). As for nighttime fear content in childhood, studies have found that children and their parents report very similar results [ 3 , 4 ]. Most scales assessing anxiety and sleep in preschool aged children are parent-report [ 32 , 33 ]. Designing a parent-report measure of nighttime fears allows for clinicians and researchers to easily include the measure in a relevant survey battery. Furthermore, when comparing parent-report measures with other methods of data collection for dark and nighttime fears (e.g., interviews, tests of passive approach, psychophysiological records, see Orgilés et al. [ 27 ], psychometrically validated parent-report scales offer a reliable, standardised, time efficient and cost-effective method to collect data on young children.

Given the lack of a validated measure of nighttime fears in preschoolers, researchers examining the treatment of nighttime fears in young children have instead relied on adapted interviews [ 8 , 25 , 34 , 35 ], checklists [ 2 ], modifications of other valid measures (such as general fear measures), or unvalidated measures [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. A psychometrically validated parent-report measure of nighttime fears for children in the preschool developmental period is therefore warranted for both research and clinical purposes.

The aim of this research was to develop and psychometrically validate, a parent-rated measure of nighttime fears in preschool aged children titled Fears and Worries at Nighttime – Young Children (FAWN-YC). Based on previous research [ 1 , 2 , 4 ] it was hypothesised that the FAWN-YC would best be explained by a 6-factor solution including four nighttime fear clusters (1) personal safety fears, (2) separation fears, (3) imaginal/fantasy fears, and (4) inherent characteristics of the dark fears), and two avoidance and interference clusters (5) at bedtime/sleep and (6) in the dark/at nighttime). It was also hypothesised that these factors would be correlated with each other and may represent a general factor structure of overall nighttime fears and worries.

It was further hypothesised that scores on the FAWN-YC would demonstrate strong internal consistency, strong convergent validity (i.e., positive correlations) with theoretically related constructs including measures of fear, anxiety, sleep problems, sleep anxiety, conduct problems and emotional problems, as well as divergent validity (i.e., low, weak to no relationship) with the theoretically unrelated construct of prosocial behaviour. Finally, it was hypothesised that the test–retest reliability of the FAWN-YC would be strong over a 2-week period.

General Method

Godfred et al.’s [ 39 ] three phase approach for scale development in health, social, and behavioural sciences was used to guide scale development in conjunction with Spruyt and Gozal’s [ 40 ] steps in paediatric sleep tool development. The three phases include: Phase (1) Item development ; aimed to generate items and assess the measure content through use of an expert panel. Phase (2) Scale development ; aimed to pilot test the measure, conduct item reduction analyses and conduct an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to examine the factor structure. Phase (3) Scale evaluation ; aimed to confirm the factor structure using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and examine the psychometric properties of validity (convergent validity and divergent validity) and reliability (internal consistency and test–retest reliability).

For all phases, participants (i.e., parents of children aged 3–5 years) were recruited internally at the university through a staff and student call for research and the first-year psychology research pool, and externally through advertisement on social media and in private childcare centres, primary schools and early childhood groups and associations. Data for all phases were collected online using Lime Survey, hosted by the University’s research survey centre. Participants were excluded if their child was outside the age range (< 3 years or > 5 years) or if their child had been diagnosed with a neurodevelopmental or intellectual disorder. All measures (with the exception of demographic questions) required a response to prevent missing data. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and participants were free to withdraw from the study at any time. Participants were first presented with an electronic copy of information and consent forms, and only those who provided digital consent went on to complete the online survey. Following survey completion, participants could choose to be directed to a separate survey to enter a prize draw for the chance to win $AU20–$50 gift cards and to provide student details to gain course credit for participation (if applicable).

Phase 1: Item Development

The aims of Phase 1 were to generate items and assess the measure content through use of an expert panel. The item pool was designed to capture the six theoretically derived nighttime fear domains. The domains included sub-types of nighttime fear (including (1) personal safety fears, (2) separation fears, (3) imaginal/fantasy fears, and (4) inherent characteristics of the dark fears), as well as associated avoidance and interference behaviours, at (5) bedtime/sleep and (6) in the dark).

The hypothesised factor structure served as a framework for item creation [ 41 ] with items specifically generated to tap into each content area (i.e., factor). The instructions, factors and initial 62 item pool were generated based on a scientific literature review [ 1 , 2 , 4 ], as well as contribution from field professionals (three academics, two clinical psychologists, two PhD psychology candidates studying sleep and child anxiety, four provisional psychologists, two early primary school teachers, and a case manager from a large psychology clinic) and end users (two fathers and three mothers of preschoolers with nighttime fears).

It has been suggested that a minimum of 3 items, and preferably 5—6 items, are required to represent a factor [ 42 ]. As subsequent psychometric analyses were designed to reduce the final number of items, and as EFA performs better when factors are overdetermined, it was decided to be over inclusive (i.e., by a minimum of 50%) when generating items [ 41 , 42 , 43 ]. Therefore, for a proposed 6-factor solution with 5–7 items per factor as the desired scale size, between 48 to 66 items (8–11 per factor) was determined to be ideal. The response format used a 6-point Likert scale requiring parents to rate how true each item is of their child (0 = not at all true, 1 = rarely true, 2 = sometimes true, 3 = often true, 4 = very often true and 5 = always true), with reference to the previous week, or most recent regular week.

A neutral midpoint option was not provided in order to avoid complacency and indecisiveness. A greater number of options (i.e., 6) were included in order to increase precision and variability in measurement, as well as to increase internal consistency and dependability [ 40 , 44 , 45 ]. Items were written according to the basic principles described by Clark and Watson [ 43 ], Spruyt and Gozal [ 40 ], which highlight the importance of avoiding dated phrases, double-barrelled questions, complex wording and colloquialisms.

To examine the measure content, the scale was then sent for review to an expert panel from the USA and Australia (N = 7) with expertise in paediatric anxiety, sleep, and scale development. Experts were asked to provide feedback on clinical and research relevance, comprehensiveness, comprehensibility of individual items, the hypothesised factor structure, instructional blurb and rating scale. Following expert feedback, minor wording edits were made, and five items were removed.

Phase 2: Scale Development

This phase aimed to pilot test the measure and conduct item reduction analysis before conducting an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to examine the factor structure.

The resulting pool of 57 items were then pilot tested with 120 parents of children aged 3 to 5 years. The aim of the pilot was to gain anecdotal feedback on the wording of the instructions and items, and to psychometrically examine the items for purposes of item reduction and refinement. Spruyt and Gozal [ 40 ] recommend that pilot trials are an important step before factor analysis to determine whether or not items, scale or layout need to be changed in any way (rather than simple deletion). The minimum N required to conduct a pilot test is generally the number of items on the scale plus one [ 41 ], with more than 100 participants being considered ideal [ 43 ]. Therefore, the 120 participants for the pilot test was deemed sufficient.

Pilot Test Participants

Detailed demographic information for each sample used in this research is outlined in Supplementary Table 1. The participants for the pilot test were 120 parents aged between 22 and 55 years ( M = 36.10, SD = 5.47), who reported being either the mother (99.2%), or father (0.8%) of a child aged between 3 and 5 years old ( M = 3.91, SD = 0.78). The majority of adult respondents were Caucasian (88.3%), married (79.2%) had a household income over AUD$100, 001 (67.5%), and had completed a bachelor degree (34.2%). The majority of children were male (59.2%) and lived with both parents (91.7%).

Pilot Test Item Reduction Analysis and Results

Items were considered for removal if they met both of the following criteria: (1) item redundancy or low correlations with other items (i.e., inter-item correlations of r > 0.80 or < 0.30 respectively); (2) poor item statistics (i.e., if all response options were not utilised, or there were corrected item-total correlations of r < 0.40). Using these criteria, the item pool was reduced to 37 items. There were no changes made to the wording of items, instructions or general layout based on participant feedback.

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Efa participants.

The participants for the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) were 436 parents aged between 19 and 56 years ( M = 33.88, SD = 6.65), who reported being either the mother (79.7%), father (14.5%), or primary caregiver (5.8%) of a child aged between 3 and 5 years old ( M = 3.99, SD = 0.85). The majority of adult respondents were Caucasian (80.2%), married (64.1%) had a household income over AUD$100, 001 (45.8%), and had completed a bachelor degree (29.1%). Just over half of the children were female (50.2%) and the majority lived with both parents (76.6%). Refer to Supplementary Table 1 for further demographic details.

EFA Data Analysis

Prior to conducting the EFA, items were removed if they met two or more of the following criteria: (1) item redundancy or insufficient correlations with other items (i.e., inter-item correlations of r > 0.80 or < 0.30 respectively), (2) poor item statistics (i.e., if all response options were not utilised), or if there were corrected item-total correlations of r < 0.40, and/or (3) age bias (i.e., if a singular item correlated (r > 0.35) with the reported age of the child or parent [ 41 , 43 ]. Eight items were excluded based on these criteria, leaving 29 items for the EFA, none of which required reverse scoring.

The R package ‘psych’ (v. 4.3.0) [ 46 ] was used to conduct a series of EFAs, using polychoric correlations and specifying principal axis factoring with oblique rotation (i.e., direct oblimin). This rotation technique was selected as factors were likely to be correlated [ 47 ]. The number of factors retained was established using parallel analysis [ 48 ], examination of the scree plot [ 49 ], the Kaiser–Guttman criterion (i.e., retention of factors with eigenvalues ≥ 1.0, [ 50 , 51 ], and inspection of the pattern matrix. During factor extraction, items were assessed for poor primary-factor loading (i.e., < 0.40) or small communalities (i.e., < 0.40), cross-loading (i.e., secondary factor loadings of ≥ 0.30), lack of conceptual/face validity (i.e., loading of an item on a factor that did not align with theory or hypothesised factor), and whether or not they formed part of a non-robust factor (i.e., a factor with less than three items). Decisions regarding item exclusion and retention were both data- and theoretically driven [ 41 , 43 ].

EFA Results

Barlett’s test of sphericity was significant (χ 2 = 9711.95, df = 406, p < 0.001) and the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin value was 0.96, indicating that the initial 29 items were appropriate for factor analysis. Additionally, all measures of sampling adequacy taken from the diagonal of the anti-image correlation table, were = > 0.80, and all assumptions were met. The scree plot, Kaiser–Guttman criterion, and parallel analysis converged on a four-factor solution, rather than the hypothesised 6-factor solution. Upon inspection of the pattern matrix, it was identified that the four types of nighttime fears (personal safety fears, separation fears, imaginal/fantasy fears, and inherent characteristics of the dark fears), collapsed onto a single factor, representing ‘Nighttime Fear Focus’. The second factor contained items pertaining to the avoidance and interference behaviours at bedtime/sleep representing ‘Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference’. The third factor pertained to both fear of the dark itself and the manifesting behaviours in the dark representing ‘Dark Fear’. The fourth factor consisted of three unrelated items that did not align with theory or the proposed factor structure and were consequently removed from the scale. Nine additional items were removed from the scale due to cross loading (5 items), misalignment with theory (one item), and redundancy (3 items).

A final EFA was conducted with the 17 remaining items, revealing a three-factor solution that explained 70% of the total variance. The final 17 items and scale statistics are presented in Table 1 , with all items loading strongly onto their primary factor with no cross-loadings. The first factor (‘Nighttime Fear Focus’) consisted of eight items pertaining to various fears at nighttime (including personal safety fears, separation fears, imaginal/fantasy fears), with loadings ranging between 0.52 and 0.93. The second factor (‘Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference’) consisted of five items capturing bedtime/sleep avoidance behaviour and interference, with loadings between 0.63 and 0.96. The third factor (‘Dark Fear’) consisted of four items reflecting both fear of the dark and specific avoidance behaviour and interference of darkness, with loadings ranging between 0.75 and 0.87. The factors were moderately to strongly correlated with each other (r = 0.62–0.78).

Phase 3: Scale Evaluation

Phase 3 aimed to confirm the factor structure of the 17-item FAWN-YC, examine the possibility of a general factor structure and examine the psychometric properties of validity (convergent validity and divergent validity) and reliability (internal consistency and test–retest reliability over a 2-week period).

Phase 3 Procedure and Participants

The same recruitment methods were used as those outlined in the General Methods except that, at the end of the survey, participants were given the opportunity to provide their unique participant identification code and email address in order to be contacted to complete an additional, later survey for the purpose of test–retest reliability.

The participants were 383 parents and primary caregivers aged between 21 and 66 years ( M = 35.39, SD = 6.11), who reported being either the mother (96.3%), father (2.1%) or primary caregiver (0.5%) of a child aged between 3 and 5 years old ( M = 4.33, SD = 0.79). Fifteen participants began the questionnaire but were excluded due to having children with neurodevelopmental disorders, and another 5 were excluded due to having children outside the selected age range. The majority of adult respondents were Caucasian (90%), married (65%) had a household income over AUD$100, 001 (57.2%), and had completed a bachelor degree (34.5%). Just over half of the children were male (52.0%) and the majority lived with both parents (79.4%). Refer to Supplementary Table 1 for further demographic details.

Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Cfa data analysis.

Prior to analysis, descriptive statistics were examined for outliers, and assumptions were all checked and met. The data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 29) analytic software and Amos Graphics (Version 29). Amos Graphics was used to conduct a CFA with a robust maximum likelihood estimation to confirm the factor structure identified in the EFA. To evaluate model fit, several commonly used indices were considered (χ 2 , χ 2 relative to sample size, adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and root mean square error of association (RMSEA)). While a non-significant χ 2 is indicative of “good” model fit, it is sensitive to large sample sizes, such as that used in the current study. For a large sample size, it is therefore recommended to divide χ 2 by the degrees of freedom with ratios of 2–3 indicative of “good” model fit [ 52 ]. Adequate model fit can also be determined by an AGFI greater than 0.90 and a CFI greater than 0.95. A RMSEA less than 0.05 is also considered “good” model fit, values between 0.05 and 0.08 indicative of “fair” and “acceptable” fit, and values between 0.08 and 0.10 indicative of “mediocre fit” [ 53 ]. The model was also compared to a general-factor model (i.e., whereby all 17 items were allowed to load onto a single latent factor) using the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC). Lower AIC values indicate a model that is more parsimonious and better-fitting [ 54 ].

CFA Results

A CFA was performed with items constrained to load onto their respective factors, and factors allowed to covary as per the EFA results and a-priori theory. According to model fit indices, the hypothesised measurement model had acceptable to good fit to the data in this sample, χ 2 (114, N = 383) = 275.51, p < 0.001, χ 2 / df = 2.42, AGFI = 0.90, CFI = 0.96, RMSEA = 0.06 (CI90 = 0.05, 0.07) and AIC = 353.51 and explained a total of 70% of the variance. The standardised confirmatory factor loadings for each item are presented in Table 1 . The Cronbach alphas for each subscale (α = 0.86–0.90) and the total score (α = 0.92) were acceptable, with moderate to strong correlations between each subscale (r = 0.54–0.83).

A general factor model was also examined, whereby all 17 items were allowed to load onto a single latent factor. This model had poor fit, χ 2 (119, N = 383) = 1228.00, p < 0.001, χ 2 /df = 10.319, AGFI = 0.55, CFI = 0.70, RMSEA = 0.16 (CI90 = 0.15, 0.16) and AIC = 1296.00 While the AIC revealed that the general factor model had poorer fit compared to the measurement model, the standardized loadings for each item in the general factor model were moderate to strong (0.55 to 0.75). There were also strong positive correlations found between the total score and the three subscales and furthermore, the total score demonstrated acceptable internal consistency in both EFA and CFA (α = 0.95 and 0.92 respectively). Therefore, while model fit suggests the 3-factor model is a considerably better fit that the general factor model, the strength in the other psychometric properties provide preliminary evidence for use of a total FAWN-YC score.

Psychometric Tests of Validity and Reliability

IBM SPSS Statistics (Version 29) analytic software was used to conduct all tests of validity and reliability.

Validity: Convergent and Divergent Validity

Convergent and divergent validity measures, sleep problems.

The total score and Sleep Anxiety subscale score of the Children’s Sleep Habits Questionnaire (CSHQ; [ 28 ] were used to examine the convergent validity of the FAWN-YC. The CSHQ is a 33-item (e.g. “ Child needs parent in the room to fall asleep ”) parent-report instrument that contains items related to common sleep behaviours in children. Items are rated on a three-point Likert scale (1 = rarely [0–1 night per week] to 3 = usually [5–7 nights per week]), with each question asked in relation to the previous week. The total score, calculated by summing all items, may range from 33 to 99, with higher scores indicating more problematic child sleep behaviours, and total scores over 41 being indicative of a clinical level paediatric sleep problem [ 28 ]. The 4-item Sleep Anxiety subscale is calculated by summing the 4 component items, and may range from 4 to 12, with higher scores indicative of greater sleep anxiety.

The CSHQ has been used with parents of children from early childhood to early adolescence [ 33 ] and has shown acceptable total internal consistency with both community (α = 0.72; [ 55 ]) and clinical (α = 0.77; [ 29 , 30 ]) samples of parents of young children aged 3 to 5 years. The CSHQ total score has also demonstrated acceptable test–retest reliability (range between 0.62 and 0.79 [ 28 ]). The Sleep Anxiety subscale has demonstrated slightly lower than acceptable internal consistency with both community (0.63) and clinical (0.68) samples [ 28 ].

The Preschool Anxiety Scale (PAS; [ 56 ]) measures child anxiety and was used to examine convergent validity. The PAS is a 28-item (e.g. “ Is tense, restless or irritable due to worrying ”) parent-report instrument designed for children aged 3 to 5 years. The items are rated on a 5-point scale from 0 = not at all true to 4 = very often true . Items are summed to produce a total score that may range from 0 to 112, with higher scores indicating greater anxiety. The PAS has a strong evidence base, including evidence of convergent and divergent validity in clinical and community populations, and evidence of sensitivity to intervention effects and strong inter-assessor agreement [ 13 ]. Internal consistency in previous studies of preschoolers using the total PAS has been acceptable (α = 0.92; [ 30 ]).

Mythical Creatures Fears and Vulnerability Fears

The 13-item Mythical Creatures Fears (e.g. ghosts or spooky things) and 7-item Vulnerability Fears (e.g. being alone) subscales of The Modified Fear Survey Schedule for Children–II (FSSC– IIP; [ 57 ]) were used to examine convergent validity. The FSSC– IIP is a parent-report survey specifically designed for parents of children aged 3 to 9 years, with parents asked to rate their child’s level of fear of the subject of each item (e.g. imaginary creatures) on a 3-point scale from 1 = not scared (not applicable) to 3 = very scared . Items on the subscale are summed to produce a subscale score, with higher scores indicating greater fear of mythical (imaginary) creatures or the feeling of vulnerability (being alone, being in the dark). The factor structure of the FSSC– IIP has been supported in a large Australian sample [ 57 ] and acceptable internal consistency has been demonstrated (α = 0.70; [ 58 ]).

Conduct Problems, Emotional Symptoms and Prosocial Behaviours

The Conduct Problems and Emotional Symptoms subscales of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; [ 59 ]) were used to examine the convergent validity, while the Prosocial Behaviours subscale was used to measure divergent validity. The SDQ is a 25-item parent-report instrument for use with parents of children aged 2–17 years. Items on the SDQ are rated on a three-point Likert scale (0 = not true to 2 = certainly true) with each question asked in relation to the previous 6-month period. Higher scores on the Conduct Problems and Emotional Symptoms subscales are indicative of greater problems, while higher scores on the Prosocial Behaviour subscale indicate more positive behaviours. The SDQ has shown satisfactory construct validity and acceptable internal consistency with large samples of parents of young children aged 3 to 5 years (Conduct Problems, Emotional Problems and Prosocial Behaviour subscale α ranges of mothers and fathers = 0.72 to 0.84 [ 60 ]).

Convergent and Divergent Validity Data Analysis and Results

Prior to analysis, descriptive statistics were examined for outliers, and assumptions were all checked and met. Bivariate correlations were used to assess convergent and divergent validity. Table 2 presents the means, standard deviations, bivariate correlations and Cronbach’s alphas of all variables used in this phase. Correlations between the FAWN-YC composite and subscale scores and measure of convergent validity were all significant and in the predicted directions ( r = 0.30 to 0.82, p < 0.01). With respect to divergent validity, correlations between the FAWN-YC composite score and subscales and the SDQ prosocial subscale were all non-significant, with the exception of a very weak negative correlation between the Dark Fear subscale and the prosocial subscale of the SDQ ( r = − 0.10, p < 0.05).

Reliability: Internal Consistency

Cronbach’s α was used to assess the internal consistency of the FAWN-YC factors in both the EFA and CFA samples, which are reported in Table 1 . As cited in Godfred et al. [ 39 ], when it comes to validating scales α = 0.70 is acceptable, and between α = 0.80 and 0.95 is preferred. In both the EFA and CFA samples, the total score reached preferred internal consistency in (α = 0.95 and 0.92 respectively). The internal consistency of each factor also reached preferred reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.86–0.92).

Reliability: Test–Retest

Test–retest reliability procedure and participants.

Participants from phase 3 recruitment who consented to be contacted again were invited via email to complete the FAWN-YC two weeks after the first administration. Responses recorded at Time 1 and Time 2 were matched using a unique participant identification code. Only participants who completed the second assessment within the two-week retest period were included. Of the 383 participants, 229 consented to be contacted and entered their unique code and email address. Of the 229, 120 were contactable and were emailed a link to complete the survey within the allocated time frame (i.e., ± 48 h from 2 weeks post completion of the phase 3 initial survey). In the email, participants were reminded of their unique code and given instructions to enter it at the beginning of the survey. Of the 120 participants contacted, 52 went on to complete the retest survey within the allocated time period. The resulting 52 participants were aged between 21 and 47 years (M = 34.46, SD = 5.85) and reported being either the mother (98.1%) or father (1.9%) of a child aged between 3 and 5 years old (M = 4.92, SD = 1.19). The majority of adult respondents were Caucasian (84.6%), married (63.5%) and had completed a bachelor degree (59.6%), with just over half of the families having a household income over AUD$100, 001 (50%), The majority of children were male (57.7%) and living with both parents (80.8%).

Test–Retest Data Analysis and Results

Intraclass correlation coefficient estimates, 95% confidence intervals based on a 2-way mixed-effects model with absolute-agreement were run. Confidence interval values greater than 0.90 indicate excellent reliability, values between 0.75 and 0.9 suggest good reliability, values between 0.5 and 0.75 suggest moderate reliability and values less than 0.5 suggest poor test–retest reliability [ 61 ]. Intraclass correlation coefficient estimates suggested temporal stability over a two-week period for the FAWN-YC total score and subscales. The FAWN-YC composite score was considered excellent (ICC = 0.95, 95% CI [0.90, 0.97]), as was the Dark Fears subscale (ICC = 0.95, 95% CI [0.92, 0.97]). Both the Nighttime Fear Focus subscale (ICC = 0.88, 95% CI [0.79, 0.93]) and the Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference subscale (ICC = 0.93, 95% CI [0.86, 0.96]) were considered to have good reliability.

The purpose of this research was to develop and psychometrically evaluate the Fears and Worries at Nighttime—Young Children (FAWN-YC); a parent-rated measure for children aged 3–5 years (freely available in the Supplementary materials including scoring key). Phase 1 aimed to generate items and assess the measure content through use of an expert panel. Phase 2 aimed to pilot test the measure, conduct item reduction analysis and conduct an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to examine the factor structure. Phase 3 aimed to confirm the factor structure using Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and examine the psychometric properties of validity (convergent and divergent) and reliability (internal consistency and test–retest). Although 6 subscales were originally proposed, the results of Phases 2 and 3 indicated a 3-factor structure best fit the data. The final 17 item scale consisted of three subscales measuring: Nighttime Fear Focus (8 items), Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference (5 items) and Dark Fear including avoidance and interference of darkness (4 items). The internal consistency of the three subscales and total score was found to be acceptable, and the convergent and divergent validity of the scale was supported. Finally, the FAWN-YC total score and subscales demonstrated test–retest reliability, indicating temporal stability over a two-week period.

The total score and subscales of the FAWN-YC demonstrated strong psychometrics including internal consistency, test–retest reliability, convergent validity and divergent validity suggesting that the scale is a psychometrically sound and valid measure of nighttime fears and worries in young children, that will provide a useful instrument for researchers and clinicians alike. Indeed, although our findings support the independent use of the three FAWN-YC subscales over the composite score, the total score demonstrated very strong psychometric properties, providing preliminary support for its use.

With regards to convergent validity, Phase 3 demonstrated that the FAWN-YC total score and its three subscales were all significantly and positively correlated with theoretically and empirically linked variables related to nighttime fears in young children, with the strength of each of these correlations making theoretical sense. For instance, the ‘Nighttime Fear Focus’ subscale correlated most strongly with a measure of child anxiety (PAS; [ 56 ]), the ‘Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference’ subscale correlated most strongly with a measure of total child sleep problems (CSHQ [ 28 ]), and the ‘Dark Fear’ subscale correlated most strongly with the Vulnerabilities subscale of the Modified Fear Survey Schedule for Children–II (FSSC-IIP [ 57 ]), which has three (of seven) items related directly to fear of the dark. Overall, the findings suggest that higher levels of nighttime and darkness fears and their behavioural manifestations are related to higher levels of both internalising (e.g., anxiety), and externalising (e.g., conduct problems) behaviours, as well as sleep problems. The findings therefore are consistent with previous research reporting links between nighttime fears, internalising, externalising, and sleep problems in preschool aged children [ 8 , 9 ] and thus support the overall validity of the subscale and total scale scores.

Although psychometrically strong, the factor structure of the FAWN-YC is different to what was predicted. Six factors were originally hypothesised, with four factors predicted to cluster around distinct fear categories (personal safety fears, separation fears, imaginal/fantasy fears, inherent characteristics of the dark fears) and two representing different types of interference (bedtime/sleep time and the dark/night). However, while the ‘Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference’ factor emerged as distinct, the different types of nighttime fears and the dark avoidance and interference factors did not , and instead emerged as two factors. Most nighttime fear types clustered onto the one factor, ‘Nighttime Fear Focus’, which was characterised by worries and fear of things at nighttime (being alone, safety, imaginal), whereas fear of dark itself and avoidance and interference in the dark merged together to create a separate factor (i.e., ‘Dark Fear’). Given the way in which these factors have emerged, combined with evidence of correlation strengths and convergent validity, children who score high in the ‘Nighttime Fear Focus’ factor may be more representative of children with anxiety (i.e., separation anxiety, generalised anxiety), whereas children scoring high in ‘Dark Fear’ may represent more fear-based symptomology (i.e., specific phobia of the dark). Future research could examine whether this measure could predict distinct comorbidity clusters using clinical samples.

Although the predicted factor structure was based on a review of the literature [ 1 , 2 , 4 ], the literature reviewed was less than optimal in several ways. First, most studies examining nighttime fear types in children have focused on primary school aged children and young adolescents, rarely including preschool children. Given the specific developmental characteristics of preschool children, it may be that younger children experience fears at night differently to their older counterparts being more likely to experience a range of nighttime fears rather than specific ones. Second, only one study (that did not include children under 8.5 years of age, that used a relatively small sample from the Netherlands, and that was conducted almost 4 decades ago) examined the factor structure of their reported measure [ 3 ]. All other studies either clustered fears based on face validity or based their categories on the one study that did use factor analysis [ 1 , 2 , 4 ]. Although this research requires replication, the findings regarding factor structure speak to the importance of developing a nighttime fear measure specifically for preschool children, and highlight the differences between young children and their older child and teenage counterparts.

It is noteworthy, and indeed surprising, that items related to co-sleeping were ‘dropped’ from the ‘Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference’ factor due to poor primary-factor loading, insufficient correlations with other items and poor item statistics. When examining the behavioural manifestations of nighttime fears, the authors chose to use the sentence starter “Because of fears at nighttime, my child…” with the intention to gather information pertaining to parental perception of the behaviours directly related to child nighttime fears. The fact that co-sleeping items were dropped from this subscale therefore suggests that reactive co-sleeping may not be the result of nighttime fears in preschool aged children. Interestingly, a recent systematic review and cross-cultural meta-analysis examining co-sleeping and sleep problems in childhood noted the inconsistency in the relationship between co-sleeping and sleep anxiety and concluded that there is insufficient evidence to suggest a causal relationship [ 62 ]. Furthermore, most of the studies included in the review by Peng et al. did not include children in the preschool developmental period, with most co-sleeping literature focussed either on infants or primary school aged children. It may well be that co-sleeping is better explained by other child and parent factors rather than nighttime fears. The factors may possibly include child anxiety disorders (particularly separation anxiety) [ 63 , 64 ], child behavioural difficulties such as bedtime resistance) [ 62 ] and even parental distress [ 23 , 65 ]. Clearly reactive co-sleeping in the preschool development period warrants further investigation in this regard.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

This series of research allowed for the systematic development and psychometric testing of the FAWN-YC, using large sample sizes, and advanced statistical techniques. However, there were a number of limitations that should be noted. First, sensitivity and specificity were not tested, nor was this sample large enough, or demographically heterogenous enough, to determine norms. Collecting a larger, more diverse sample in the future, and including an accompanying clinical interview, would allow examination of the ability of the FAWN-YC to differentiate between children with and without problematic nighttime fears, and to determine norms. Second, the generalisability of the results of this study was limited by the proportion of male to female parents and caregivers completing the surveys. Although large sample studies indicate good inter-parent agreement in ratings of behavioural and emotional problems in preschool-aged children [ 66 ], future research would benefit from further attempts to recruit fathers in parent samples. Third, the sample was homogenous in terms of ethnicity, level of education, and wealth, thus limiting the generalisability of results to other populations. Future studies should strive to include samples that are more heterogenous in terms of these constructs. Finally, previous research suggests that parents can underestimate the frequency and intensity of their young child’s fears [ 67 ]. As is the case for all measures of anxiety and internal thoughts and states in the preschool developmental period, the FAWN-YC total score, and in particular the Nighttime Fear Focus subscale, may be susceptible to variance in the child’s ability to understand and share their fears and worries. It may also be susceptible to variance due to the parent’s ability to perceive their child’s fears and worries, which is indeed an important area for future inquiry. Similarly, as young children may lack the cognitive sophistication to respond to questionnaires and interviews, future research may include more objective measures (i.e., skin conductance, actigraphy or recordings/observations of child’s nighttime behaviours) to further validate the FAWN-YC.

Implications and Conclusions

The findings of this research indicate that the 17-item Fears and Worries at Nighttime—Young Children (FAWN-YC) is a psychometrically valid, parent-report scale of nighttime fears. The FAWN-YC provides researchers and clinicians with a valid and reliable tool to assess the specific nighttime fear the child may have, the variety of nighttime fears the child has, and importantly, parental perceptions regarding how nighttime fears are affecting their child’s nighttime behaviours.

For researchers, The FAWN-YC provides a user-friendly, psychometrically valid measure of nighttime fears in children that may be used in a variety of studies including epidemiological studies, studies examining the antecedents and consequences of nighttime fears, and studies aiming to determine the efficacy of treatment programs designed to treat nighttime fears in this population.

For clinicians, the FAWN-YC may assist in the conceptualisation and treatment of children with nighttime fears. For example, although the focus of the fears/worries did not cluster into separate categories as expected (e.g., separation, imaginal, etc.), clinicians may still examine the scale at an item level to identify specific target fears in treatment. Thus, the brevity of the scale provides an efficient means of gathering information from parents to use for case formulation and treatment planning. Indeed, clinicians may use subscale scores to determine whether the child’s fears and worries are interfering with sleep and bedtime behaviours (subscale level) and in what specific manner (item level), or if the child is also afraid of the dark (subscale level).Therefore, the FAWN-YC may assist in identifying the target of an exposure hierarchy and the requirement for combinations of child relaxation skills, co-regulation skills, and/or parent upskilling such as behaviour management, exposure games and psychoeducation. Thus, the FAWN-YC is likely to be of significant value in both research and clinical settings, informing our understanding and treatment of fear, anxiety and sleep difficulties in preschool aged children.

While childhood nighttime fears can be developmentally normal and transient in nature, approximately 10 to 30% of young children experience fear at night that is severe, persistent, interferes substantially with sleep, and requires significant family accommodation [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ]. While literature examining nighttime fears in the preschool developmental period (3–5 years) is expanding, a validated measure of nighttime fears in young children does not yet exist. This paper outlines the development and psychometric evaluation of the Fears and Worries at Nighttime—Young Children (FAWN-YC) scale, a parent-rated measure for children aged 3–5 years. Based on previous literature, it was hypothesised that the measure would be represented by a six-factor solution, with four clusters of fear types (separation fears, darkness-related fears, personal safety fears and fears of the imagination) and two behavioural manifestations of fears (behaviours at bedtime/sleep and behaviours in the dark). However, exploratory factor analysis (EFA; N = 436) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA; N = 383), resulted in a final 17 items that loaded onto only 3 factors: Nighttime Fear Focus (8 items, α = 0.92), Bedtime/Sleep Avoidance and Interference (5 items, α = 0.90), and Dark Fear (4 items, α = 0.88). The findings of this factor structure speak to the importance of developing this measure specifically for this unique developmental period, and highlights the differences between preschoolers and their older child and teenage counterparts. Evidence of convergent validity was found through strong associations between the total score and subscales of the FAWN-YC with measures of child anxiety, fear, sleep, externalising and conduct problems. Furthermore, there was support for divergent validity, and evidence for temporal stability over a 2-week period. Overall, the results provide strong preliminary evidence for the reliability and validity of the FAWN-YC total score and subscales and evidence for the importance of developing a nighttime fear measure specifically for preschool aged children. The FAWN-YC provides a psychometrically valid and user-friendly measure of nighttime fears in young children. This measure is likely to be of significant value in both research and clinical settings, informing our understanding and treatment of fear, anxiety and sleep difficulties in preschool aged children.

Data Availability

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Study conception by L.F. and E.M-L. Study design by L.F., E.M-L., A.S. and C.D. Material preparation, data collection, data curation, project administration and analysis were performed by A.S. All drafts and final manuscript were written by A.S. Previous versions of the manuscript were reviewed by L.U and C.D. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Shiels, A., Uhlmann, L., Farrell, L.J. et al. Fears and Worries at Nighttime in Young Children: Development and Psychometric Validation of a Parent-Report Measure (FAWN-YC). Child Psychiatry Hum Dev (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-024-01758-3

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Accepted : 02 September 2024

Published : 16 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-024-01758-3

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"(d) Report.—Not later than 2 years after the date of the enactment of the Advancing Research for Chronic Pain Act of 2024, the Secretary shall submit a report to Congress concerning the implementation of this section. Such report shall include information on— "(1) the development and maintenance of the Chronic Pain Information Hub;

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