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Economic Importance of Bacteria | Microbiology

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In this article we will discuss about the beneficial and harmful activities of bacteria.

A. Beneficial Activities of Bacteria:

There are many kinds of bacteria without which we could not live. They are absolutely essential to the presence of life on earth. They make possible the continued existence of green plants and therefore of animals because the plants are the only source of food for animals.

Following is a brief account of the more important activities of the bacteria:

1. Role in Agriculture:

(i) Decay and decomposition:

Soil bacteria play an important role in brining about decomposition of organic matter. They serve a double purpose. In the first instance they act as scavengers removing harmful waste from the earth.

Secondly, they return it to the soil as plant food. The dead bodies and wastes of organisms (both plants and animals) are decomposed by the activities of the saprophytic bacteria.

In consequence a variety of elements of minerals of the earth such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur and phosphorus which make up their bodies are reduced to simple compounds such as carbon monoxide, water, nitrates, sulphates and phosphates.

Some of these go back to the soil and the rest to the air. From the soil they can be absorbed as plant food. This activity of the bacteria is used in sewage disposal system of cities. The bacterial action on the city’s sewage promotes decay.

As a result water is finally purified and changed into an odourless and valuable fertiliser instead of a dangerous and expensive waste product.

(ii) Soil fertility:

Some bacteria play an important role in maintaining and others in increasing soil fertility. The fertility of soil is proportional to its nitrogen content. Nitrogen is an essential ingredient of all living protoplasm. All growing plants, therefore, require it in their metabolism.

Atmosphere, no doubt, is four-fifths (80%) nitrogen, green plants generally are unable to use it. They mostly absorb it as nitrates and to some extent as ammonia from the soil.

Continuous absorption of these salts results in their exhaustion in the soil. Nearly all fertilisers for the soil include a large proportion of such soluble nitrogen compounds to promote plant growth.

In nature the presence of a regular supply of these salts is ensured by bacteria of certain types. These bacteria which function as Nature’s farmers belong to three categories, namely, ammonifying bacteria, nitrifying bacteria and nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

They are the agents of maintaining a continual circulation of nitrogen in nature between the plant world, in soil and the atmosphere. The series of changes through which the nitrogen passes due to the activities of these organisms constitute the nitrogen cycle (Fig. 18.18).

Nitrosomonas oxidizes ammonium carbonate to nitrous acid liberating energy. The nitrous acid then combines with bases in the soil forming potassium nitrite. Nitrobacter oxidizes nitrites to nitrates again liberating energy.

Neither the ammonifying nor the nitrifying bacteria add to the total quantity of combined nitrogen in the soil. The ammonifying bacteria convert amino acids into ammonia. The process is called ammonification.

The nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen from the unavailable form of ammonium salts to the available nitrates. This process converting unavailable ammonium salts into available nitrates is called nitrification.

(c) Nitrogen-fixing Bacteria:

A considerable amount of nitrogen is lost by denitrification and through drainage. The loss must be made good by equal gains if the soil fertility is to be maintained.

The electric discharges in the atmosphere bring about the formation of traces of nitrogen compounds which are washed to the soil by rain water. The largest additions, however, come from a biological fixation process through the activity of two types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria.

Some of them live free in the soil and others in the root nodules of leguminous plants. They are able to make use of the atmospheric nitrogen and change it into nitrogenous compounds.

The nitrogen-fixing bacteria are thus unique in tapping a source of nitrogen not available to most other plants. This process of nitrogen transformation is called nitrogen fixation.

(i) Azotohacter heijerinckia (aerobic forms) and Clostridium (anaerobic) live free in the soil:

They take gaseous nitrogen from the air present between the soil particles. The nitrogen combines with other elements forming organic nitrogenous compounds. These compounds are assimilated by the bacteria.

In due course these bacteria die and their dead bodies containing nitrogenous compounds are decomposed by another type of bacteria called the bacteria of decomposition. During decomposition ammonia is produced.

The nitrifying bacteria convert this ammonia first into nitrites and finally into nitrates. Nitrates constitute the form of nitrogen needed by the green plants.

(ii) Rhizobium leguminosarum (syn. Bacillus radicicola) is another nitrogen-fixing bacterium:

It lives in the roots of such plants as Pea (Fig. 18.19A), Bean, Medicago and others. All these belong to the Pea family (Leguminoseae). Besides the legumes, the nodules are found on the roots of Alnus glutinosa, Casuarina, species of Coriaria and a few others.

The symbiont in non- leguminous plants is a member of Plasmodiophorales. The presence of bacteria in the roots causes the formation of little nodules (Fig. 18.19A). In Pavetta indica the bacterial nodules are formed on the leaves.

These nodules or the tubercles are the homes of millions of these bacteria. They have the ability to take up free nitrogen of the air and convert it into nitrogen compounds.

A part of the fixed nitrogen passes into the tissues of legume plant and a part diffuses into the surrounding soil. These bacteria enter into a mutually beneficial partnership with the host plant.

They give to the host the nitrogen compounds and receive in return carbohydrates manufactured by the host plant. This association is an excellent example of symbiosis. The legumes are very rich in nitrogen because of this association.

Some of our best protein plant foods come from the legume family of plants. The legume plants can flourish on land that has been depleted of its nitrogen by other plants. They are sometimes grown and ploughed under by the farmer when a foot or so in height.

The decaying bodies of these legume plants enrich the soil. They furnish a rich supply of nitrogen to the future crop. This is called green manuring. The soil on which repeated crops of cereals are grown becomes impoverished.

It can be enriched again by growing on it a crop of some plants of Pea family. This practice of alternating cereals with leguminous crop is known as rotation of crops. The leguminous plants contain more of nitrogen than they get from the soil salts.

The additional quantity is obtained from the air by Rhizobium. Neither Rhizobium nor the legume root alone can fix nitrogen.

Rhizobium lives in the soil where it has the form of coccus. The legume roots secrete substances which attract bacteria on to their surface. The bacteria, in turn, secrete a growth hormone which causes the root hairs to curl.

The cocci enter the curled root hairs. They grow in the root hair in the form of a continuous thread-like mass which finally reaches the root cortex. In this way many of the cortical cells become filled with a dense mass of these bacteroids.

Their presence in the cortical cell serves as a stimulus causing abnormal growth. The cortical cells around the infection divide and redivide and grow to form a nodule. A nodule comprises a central mass of cells full of bacteroids.

Around this zone of infection are a few cell layers thick of bacterial free cortical zone. At the apex of the nodule is the meristematic region and a vascular strand at its base (Fig. 18.19 B).

Within the host cells the cocci feed on the carbohydrates and other foods and undergo a change in their form (Fig. 18.19 C). They become V, T or Y shaped. The core of the nodule is red owing to the formation of red respiratory pigment haemoglobin.

2. Role of Bacteria in Industries:

Man has utilised the activities of bacteria for various industrial processes. The butter and cheese industries entirely depend upon the activities of the lactic acid bacteria.

The souring and curding of milk by lactic acid bacteria is another common example of application in everyday life. It takes place in two steps. In the first step the lactose sugar of milk is fermented into glucose by an enzyme lactose secreted by the lactic acid bacteria.

In the second step there is transformation of glucose into lactic acid. The latter sours the milk and coagulates the milk proteins (casein) forming curds and whey. Oxidation of alcohol into vinegar (acetic acid) is brought about by the acetic acid bacteria.

The curing of tea, tobacco and manufacture of indigo are other examples of useful chemical activities of bacteria which have been controlled for the benefit of mankind. The process of tanning hides in leather making and preparing sponges also involve the use of bacteria.

The production of linen is impossible without bacterial activity. The tough fibres, which are left behind, are separated. These fibres are spun and woven into linen cloth, ropes, etc.

The preparation of coffee and cocoa is also dependent upon bacterial action. The cocoa beans are white in colour and quite bitter in taste. The bacteria digest the bitter coverings of seeds and give the characteristic colour, flavour and aroma.

Many saprophytic bacteria in their metabolic activities excrete waste products of great commercial importance.

Some of these are:

(i) Lactic acid:

It is useful in tanning industries.

(ii) Citric acid:

It is used to give aroma and flavour to beverages, sweets and other foodstuffs.

(iii) Vitamins:

Vitamin B is the product of fermentation of sugars and starch by Clostridium acetobutilicum. The vitamins are used in medicinal preparations.

(iv) Butyl alcohol:

Butyl alcohol, acetone and ethyl alcohol are produced in one fermentation operation when a certain bacterium is allowed to act on cooked com starch. These products are important commercial solvents.

(v) Acetone:

It is an important ingredient of explosives and is also used in the manufacture of photographic films.

3. Role of Bacteria in Medicine:

1. Source of Antibiotics:

The milder antibiotics of bacterial origin are tyrothricin, subtilin, polymyxin B, and bacitracin. Bacillius subtilis is the source of subtilin. Bacitracin is obtained from a stain very much like B. subtilis.

The actionomycetes which are filamentous, bacteria-like organisms produce more powerful antibiotics such as streptomycin, aureomycin and terramycin.

2. Preparation of Serums and Vaccines:

These are substances which are used to develop immunity to various diseases in man. Serums are used in advance as a therapeutic measure. They are also used when a person actually suffers from a disease.

Diphtheria, lockjaw, pneumonia, etc. are the diseases in which the serums are effective. Vaccines are commonly used to make people immune to diseases like typhoid, small-pox, cholera, scarlet fever, etc.

In the preparation of serums, small doses of bacterial toxins (poisons) are injected into the blood of animals such as horses. To combat or neutralize the bacterial poisons, the body of the animal produces antibodies.

The blood of the animal is then withdrawn. Impurities such as blood corpuscles and other solid matter are removed from the blood. The clear blood liquid containing the antibodies is the serum. It is used as weapon to combat diseases caused by these bacteria.

To produce vaccines dead or weakened disease producing bacteria or their diluted poisons (antigens) are directly injected into a man to cause a disease in a mild form. As a reaction the host is stimulated to form antibodies.

The latter may remain for years in the body of the host imparting immunity against the same type of bacteria which may later enter his body.

This is an incomplete account of the beneficial activities of bacteria. Anyhow it indicated their extreme importance in everyday life. Because of these beneficial activities the bacteria are called the friends of mankind.

B. Harmful Activities of Bacteria:

1. food poisoning:.

Of course, all activities of bacteria are not beneficial. Some saprophytic bacteria cause decay of our food and make it unpalatable. The activities of certain bacteria produce powerful toxins such as ptomains in the food.

These toxins are powerful enough to cause food poisoning which results in serious illness and even death. Some species of Staphylococcus are the common offenders.

There is another dangerous food poisoning bacterium known as Clostridium botulinium. It causes botulism—a fatal form of food-poisoning.

2. Disease:

Many parasitic bacteria are the causative agents of bacterial diseases. They cause diseases of our economic plants, domesticated animals and man. T.J. Burrill in 1878 first gave the information that bacteria cause plant diseases.

There are more than 170 species of bacteria which cause plant diseases. Usually they are rod-like and non-spore forming. Many of them have flagella.

The bacteria gain entry into the host through wounds or natural openings such as stomata, lenticels, hydathodes or through the thin epidermis.

The bacterial diseases of plants belong to the following categories:

(i) Wilt diseases caused by blocking of the vessels of host plant by masses of bacteria. The common example of this category are the wilt diseases of potato, cucumber, water melon and eggplant.

(ii) Crown gall and Hairy root diseases. These are due to overgrowth or hyperplasia. The crown gall of beets and hairy root of apple are the examples.

(iii) Narcotic blights, leaf spots and rots caused by killing of parenchyma cells. Fire blight of apple, and pear and soft rot of carrot and turnip are the common examples. The following Table 3 gives a list of some important disease-causing bacteria, host plants and diseases.

3. Denitrification:

There are, sometimes, a group of bacteria in the soil which reverse the nitrifying process. They injure the soil by causing the loss of a part of its combined nitrogen.

This they do by breaking down nitrates into nitrites and nitrites into ammonia compounds or to free nitrogen.

NO 3 → NO 2 → NH 3 → N gas ↑

The free nitrogen passes into the atmosphere and is lost to the soil. The result is the lowering of soil fertility. This process is called denitrification. The bacteria which bring about denitrification are called the denitrifying bacteria.

They are most active in the soil containing excess of nitrogen compounds such as the heavily manured soils. Soils deficient in oxygen are also favourable for the activity of this type of bacteria.

Denitrification is checked if the soil is well aerated by ploughing or digging and well drained. It is uneconomic to use natural and artificial nitrate manures simultaneously.

The denitrifying bacteria found in the faeces contained in the manures tend to destroy the nitrates.

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Economic Importance of Bacteria: Beneficial Uses & Functions

Economic Importance of Bacteria: The human relationship with bacteria is quite fascinating. Many bacteria are considered to be hazardous. A specific type of bacteria causes diseases like typhoid, cholera, diphtheria, pneumonia, and numerous infections in open wounds. However, life on Earth would be impossible without the work of some species of bacteria. Certain bacteria are cultivated by humans since they are required for biological processes. Bacteria are one of the most common life forms on the planet. They are also among the tiniest of all living creatures.

The Economic Importance of Bacteria comes from the fact that bacteria may be used by humans in a variety of useful ways. Despite the fact that some bacteria cells play harmful roles, such as causing disease and spoiling food, the economic importance of bacteria includes both their useful and harmful aspects. This article will study more about the Economic Importance of Bacteria and their roles.

What are Bacteria Cells?

Bacteria are the members of a large group of unicellular microorganisms which may have cell walls but lack organelles and an organized nucleus, including some that can cause disease. Bacteria (singular bacterium) are the members of the kingdom Monera, the only prokaryotic kingdom. They comprise a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. They may be saprophytes, deriving their food from dead and decaying matter, or parasites, living on or inside the body of other organisms. Some of them also have an autotrophic mode of nutrition. Some forms, like  Nostoc , contain chlorophyll.

Fig: Bacteria

Are Bacteria Plants or Animals?

Bacteria are prokaryotic. They do not have a true nucleus and no membrane-bound organelles. Scientists have never entirely agreed on how to classify bacteria. They show heterotrophic nutrition like animals, and some have autotrophic nutrition, like plants. But they cannot be grouped in either of these groups. They are neither plants nor animals.

What is the Economic Importance of Bacteria?

Bacteria have widespread economic importance as they are used in various processes, as discussed below. The Economic Importance of Bacteria examples will help understand the significance of bacteria.

1. Dairy products

Quite a few genera of bacteria are used in food preparation, directly or indirectly.

a.  Formation of Curd:  Milk is converted into curd by bacterial action. The milk’s lactose is converted into lactic acid, which gives the characteristic sour taste of the curd. Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) like  Lactobacillus  are added to milk. Indian curd is prepared by inoculating milk with  Lactobacillus acidophilus .

b.  Yoghurt preparation:  It is produced by curdling milk with  Streptococcus thermophilus  and  Lactobacillus bulgaricus .

c.  Cheese  production starts with milk coagulated with lactic acid bacteria and the curd formed is filtered to separate the whey. The solid mass is then ripened with the growth of mould that develops flavour in it.  Propionibacterium shermanii  is used to make cheese.

2. In Industry A large number of products are obtained due to bacterial activity, directly proportional to the economic importance of Bacteria.

3. In Medicine Some bacteria have been exploited to produce antibiotics. Antibiotics like Terramycin, Streptomycin, Tetracycline, Aureomycin, Neomycin are obtained from different bacterial species.

a. Vaccines:  Several vaccines have been developed from either killed or attenuated (living but multiplying at low rates) bacteria. For example, tuberculosis vaccine, whooping cough vaccine, plague vaccine, DTP (Diphtheria, Tetanus, Pertussis) vaccine, pneumonia vaccine are all prepared with the help of bacteria.

4. In Maintenance of Environmental Balance and Agriculture:  Bacteria act as decomposers. They make the nutrient available for plants. Specific genera of bacteria are used as biocontrol agents in agriculture.  Bacillus thuringiensis  (Bt) yields protein-based toxins used to kill insects.

5.   Nitrogen fixation and soil fertility:  Certain bacteria are helpful in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen.  Azotobacter  and  Clostridium  are present in the soil and help in nitrogen fixation. Species of  Rhizobium  bacteria are present in the root nodules of leguminous plants, and they increase the soil’s nitrogen content by fixing up atmospheric nitrogen. The process is known as symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

Several cyanobacteria also help in nitrogen fixation.  Nostoc ,  Anabaena , etc., possess heterocysts with nitrogenase enzymes and fix atmospheric nitrogen in symbiotic conditions.  Nostoc  is associated with the coralloid roots of  Cycas  and helps in this process.  Anabaena azollae  is associated with water fern,  Azolla , and helps in nitrogen fixation in paddy fields.

6.   Role in Nitrogen Cycling:  Nitrification is one of the most critical steps in the nitrogen cycle, performed by nitrifying bacteria. Nitrifying bacteria are chemolithotrophic organisms that include the genera  Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrobacter, Nitrobacillus , etc. These bacteria get their energy by the oxidation of inorganic nitrogen compounds.

The denitrifying bacteria, like  Pseudomonas denitrificans ,  Thiobacillus denitrificans,  transform the nitrates to atmospheric nitrogen.

7.  Biogas Production:  Biogas is a standard domestic and industrial fuel, which contains \(50-60\%\) methane, \(30-40\%\) carbon dioxide, \(0-3\%\) Sulphur compounds, and traces of other gases like hydrogen CO, nitrogen, etc.

1. In a biogas digester, cattle dung is used to obtain gas (gobar gas) in the following steps:

a. Hydrolysis is the initial step that needs anaerobic bacteria like  Clostridium ,  Pseudomonas , etc. b. Acidogenesis is the second step, in which the facultatively anaerobic, acidogenic bacteria and obligate anaerobic organisms help convert the simple organic material into acids like formic acid, acetic acid, etc. c. Methanogenesis is the last step, in which anaerobic Methanogenic bacteria like  Methanobacterium ,  Methanococcus , etc., convert organic acids into Methane.

8.   Sewage Treatment:  Sewage is agricultural and domestic waste products that pollute the water. The treatment to remove such waste is partially chemical, biological treatment. a. Secondary treatment is the biological treatment, which reduces the BOD significantly. Aerobic bacteria are used in this process. b. Tertiary treatment is done once there is a reduction of BOD in the settling tank. Mainly Methanogens grow anaerobically and produce biogas.

Formation of Curd with Bacteria

Curd formation from milk is performed by mixing LAB (Lactic Acid Bacteria), like Lactobacillus, with warm milk. These bacteria convert the milk sugar (lactose) into lactic acid resulting in the formation of curd. Once the curd is made, it is transferred to a cooler place to reduce the further growth of bacteria. Otherwise, the bacteria would make it sour by excessive production of lactic acid.

How are Bacteria Harmful to us?

1. Spoilage of Foodstuff: Cooked food, fruits, vegetables, butter, fish and meat are spoiled by bacteria, particularly during summer months, by causing putrefaction of food materials.

Fig: Food Poisoning Bacteria

Certain bacteria like Salmonella typhimurium and Clostridium botulinum cause a severe type of food poisoning when bacteria-contaminated food is consumed. Clostridium botulinum causes food poisoning, commonly known as botulism. 2. Reduction of Soil Fertility – Denitrification: Certain species of anaerobic bacteria inhabit soils that are either waterlogged or have high organic matter content. These bacteria reduce soil fertility by depleting the soil’s nitrogen content. They break down nitrates present in the soil and release nitrogen, which escapes into the air, thereby reducing soil fertility (denitrification). 3. Animal Diseases: Bacteria cause tuberculosis in cattle, anthrax in sheep, cholera in chickens and pneumonia in horses, sheep and goats. 4. Human Diseases: Many serious diseases are caused by bacteria in human beings. Some of these are as follows:

5. Plant Diseases: Several plant diseases are induced by bacteria. They cause leaf spots, soft rots, vascular diseases, and bacterial galls. Xanthomonas citri causes citrus canker. 6. Bioweapons : A bioweapon or biological weapon is a device that carries and delivers a disease-causing biological agent (like bacteria, viruses, genetically altered organisms) or a toxin derived from it to the target organism. The biological agent or toxin is called a bioweapon agent. Biological agents are used against humans, crops and animals. Such use of bioweapons is termed BioWare or biological war. Some of the bioweapons can cause anthrax, smallpox, plague and gastroenteritis. Bacillus anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax, Vibrio cholera of gastroenteritis and Yersinia pestis of plague. Botulinum toxin from Clostridium botulinum is used to cause fatal food poisoning. Some of these agents have already been used. For example, anthrax bacterium was sent through letters in \(2001.\) Bioweapons are low-cost weapons and cause far more casualties than conventional weapons.

In this article, we studied that bacteria are the members of the kingdom Monera. They are the most diverse organisms with wide distribution, modes of nutrition, reproduction, etc. They are saprobiotic, parasitis, and autotrophic in their nutrition. Some forms are helpful for human beings, while most others are pathogenic and cause harm to animals and plants. We also looked at the economic importance of bacteria processes through some examples.

Q.1. What is Koch’s postulate on bacteria? Ans: The bacteria must be present in every case of the disease. The bacteria must be isolated from the host with the disease and grown in pure culture. The specific disease must be reproduced when a pure culture of the bacteria is inoculated into a healthy susceptible host.

Q.2. What are the three important uses of bacteria? Ans: Bacteria are used in Biogas production, Cheese production, improving soil’s health and productivity, and sewage treatment.

Q.3. Which bacteria are responsible for the formation of curd from milk? Ans: Lactobacillus species bacteria are responsible for the formation of curd from milk.

Q.4. What is the major function of an Economic Importance of Bacteria? Ans: Some of the primary functions of the economic importance of Bacteria are Curing of Cheese, In Maintenance of Environmental Balance and Agriculture, Nitrogen fixation and soil fertility,  In Medicine, Sewage treatment, Biogas production, etc.

Q.5. Which bacteria are responsible for causing Leprosy disease in human beings? Ans: Mycobacterium leprae bacteria are responsible for causing Leprosy disease in human beings.

Q.6. List a few harmful roles of bacteria. Ans: Spoilage of Foodstuffs, Reduction of Soil fertility Denitrification, Animal Diseases, Human Diseases, Plant Diseases, etc., are a few harmful roles of bacteria.

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Economic Importance of Bacteria

Bacteria are our 'friends and foes' as they have both useful and harmful activities.

 (A) USEFUL ACTIVITIES

Role of bacteria in agriculture

Some free-living nitrogen fixing aerobic bacteria like Azotobacter and Clostridium  have the capacity of fixing atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous substances, hence increase soil fertility. Similarly symbiotic bacteria Rhizobium  also fixes atmospheric nitrogen. All nitrogen fixing bacteria have ‘nif’ genes (nitrogenase inducing factor). e.g., Nitrosomonas, Nitrosococcus, Nitrobacter, Nitrospina. Nitrospira  and  Nitrococcus . Nitrosomonas converts ammonia into nitrites, which is further converted into nitrates by Nitrobacter (nitrification).

Role of bacteria in dairy industry

Lactic acid is commercially produced by using Lactic acid bacteria. The bacteria convert lactose of milk into lactic acid and hence milk turns sour. Lactic acid bacteria unite casein protein of milk in the form of small droplets and thus form curd and hence butter.

Role of bacteria in other industries

Many antibiotics are produced from bacteria. The first antibiotic produced was penicillin (wonder drug) obtained from fungus Penicillium notatum  by Sir Alexander Fleming (1923), which checks growth of gram-positive bacteria by inhibiting cell wall synthesis or by blocking peptidoglycan synthesis.

Interferons are protein molecules or polypeptides of low molecular weight which prevent viral multiplication.

Role of bacteria in petroleum pollution

Petroleum pollution in water bodies is checked upto some extent by Pseudomonas.

Genetically engineered strain of Pseudomonas putida ( Superbug) was developed by Dr. Ananda Mohan Chakraborty which biodegrade spilled oil. These superbugs were allowed by USA government in 1990 for removal of oil from water.

(B) HARMFUL ACTIVITIES

Food-poisoning (Botulism): It is caused by Clostridium botulinum . The main symptoms are vomiting followed by paralysis and death.

Reduction of soil fertility: There are some denitrifying bacteria in soil, which convert nitrates into free nitrogen (denitrification), e.g, Bacillus denitrificans, Micrococcus denitrificans and Thiobacillus denitrificans.

Many pathogenic bacteria such as Vibrio cholera, Salmonella typhi, Shigella dyseinteriae  cause Cholera, typhoid and dysentery respectively.

The crown gall diseases in plants is caused by Agrobacterium tumefaciens  ( Rhizobium radiobacter , synonym Agrobacterium radiobacter ) and  the hairy root root diseases is caused by Agrobacterium rhizogenes

The common sulphur oxidizing bacteria are Thiobacillus thiooxidans and Beggiatoa . Cotton spoilage is due to Spirochaete cytophage .

Most of the pathogenic bacteria are gram negative, rod-shaped ( Bacillus ) and non-spore forming. However, bacteria causing anthrax and tetanus are endospore forming or spore forming.

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Economic Importance Of Bacteria

Bacteria play a key role in many essential biological processes, including nutrient recycling, soil formation, food production (such as curd or yogurt, cheese, ghee, and vinegar), digestion, and the breakdown of organic matter in nature.

They are also essential for human health, providing vital nutrients, nitrogen cycles, bioweapons, producing antibiotics and other drugs, and protecting us from disease-causing organisms. Bacteria also play an important role in biotechnology, providing enzymes and other proteins for industrial applications, such as producing biofuels and other chemicals.

Bacteria are also important in agriculture because they help compost and produce fertilizer by natural means. Bacteria are used in genetic engineering where specific genes are introduced into bacteria for the production of desired products.

Economic importance contains both useful and harmful activities related to the topic, here we will discuss the beneficial and harmful effects caused by bacteria.

Beneficial Activities of Bacteria

Industrial Uses

Bacteria in biotechnology.

Biotechnology is a technology that leverages biological systems, living organisms, or parts of these to develop or create various products. A prime example is the use of microorganisms, including bacteria, in manufacturing industries.

The chemical production of acetone, enzymes, alcohol (ethanol), organic acids, and perfumes is facilitated by bacteria. Here, we explore several industrial applications of bacteria in biotechnology.

Chemical Manufacturing

Bacteria play a crucial role in the chemical manufacturing sector. For instance, they are instrumental in producing acetone, enzymes, alcohol (ethanol), organic acids, and perfumes.

This process is not only efficient but also environmentally friendly, as it often reduces the need for harsh chemicals and extreme conditions typically required in traditional chemical manufacturing.

Dietary Supplements and Pharmaceuticals

Bacteria are essential in the production of dietary supplements and pharmaceuticals. Certain vitamins, used as external food supplements, are produced using bacteria. For example, E. coli bacteria are utilized to produce D-amino acids like D-p-hydroxyphenylglycine, an important intermediate in synthesizing the antibiotic amoxicillin.

Pest Control

Biological pest control uses bacteria as a substitute for chemical pesticides. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt.) and soil-dwelling bacteria are commonly employed in this process. Bt. bacteria produce toxins harmful to specific insect pests, making them an effective and environmentally friendly pest control agent.

Production of Acetic Acid

Acetobacter aceti is used to produce vinegar (acetic acid). In this biochemical process, ethanol is converted into acetic acid (CH₃COOH) by the action of these bacteria. This method is a cornerstone in vinegar production, providing a natural and efficient way to produce this essential condiment.

Vitamin Production

Several bacterial species are involved in the commercial production of vitamins:

• Clostridium butylicum is used to prepare riboflavin (vitamin B12) and butyric acid.
• E. coli bacteria produce vitamins E and K, among others. These bacteria reside in the intestines of humans and herbivores, aiding in food digestion and vitamin production.
• Ruminococcus species in herbivores help digest cellulose by secreting cellulase, enabling these animals to derive energy from plant-based diets.
• Bacillus and Propionibacterium produce vitamin B12.

Retting of Fibers

Bacteria are used to separate fibers from plants, a process known as retting. This bacterial action breaks down the pectin that binds fibers together, facilitating their extraction for use in textiles and other industries.

Bioremediation

Bioremediation employs bacteria to remove pollutants from contaminated water, soil, and other materials. For example:

• In the Ganga River, Bdellovibrio bacteriovorus and bacteriophages help eliminate polluting bacteria, purifying the water.
• Alcanivorax borkumensis is used to degrade oil in seawater, cleaning up oil spills.

Pollution Indicators

E. coli bacteria serve as indicators of water pollution. The presence of these bacteria signifies fecal contamination, and their quantity can determine the level of pollution in water bodies.

Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering, or genetic modification, involves the direct manipulation of an organism’s genes using biotechnology. E. coli and Agrobacterium bacteria are commonly used in this process, enabling the development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for various applications, including agriculture and medicine.

Curing and Flavoring

Bacteria are also involved in the curing or flavoring of tea and processing of tobacco leaves. Bacillus megatherium and Micrococcus conscience are used to enhance the flavor and quality of these products through fermentation and other biochemical processes.

Bacteria are essential for the production of many medicines such as manufacturing antibiotics, which are used to treat infections caused by other bacteria. Bacteria can also be used to produce hormones such as insulin, which is used to treat diabetes, and anti-cancer drugs.

Bacteria are also used to produce vaccines, which protect people from diseases. Finally, bacteria are used in bioremediation, which is the use of bacteria to clean up environmental pollutants.

Making Antibiotics

Anti means against and biotic means life, so any substances against an organism’s life are called antibiotics . Some substances produced by microorganisms that inhibit the growth of other microorganisms are called antibiotic substances. Many antibiotic medicines are obtained from bacteria.

1st antibiotic used in the 2 nd world War by American soldiers is Streptomycin which is obtained from Streptomyces griseus (It is an actinomycete).

Bacteria are the source of many of the antibiotics that are used to fight infections. Antibiotics are made from compounds produced by bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. These compounds inhibit the growth of other microorganisms or kill them outright.

Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections such as urinary tract infections, skin infections, and pneumonia. Antibiotics can also be used to prevent infections and treat certain conditions. The use of antibiotics has saved countless lives and has contributed to improved health and quality of life.

• Streptomyces venezuelae – Chloramphenicol (Chloromycetin)
• Streptomyces rimosus – Terramycin
• Streptomyces fradiae – Neomycin
• Streptomyces aureofaciens – Aureomycin
• Bacillus polymyxa – Polymyxin
• Bacillus subtilis – Antibiotics produced are three ribosomal antibiotics (TasA, Subtilosin, and Sublancin), four nonribosomal antibiotics (Bacitracin, Bacilysin, Plipastatin, and Surfactin), Bacilysocin, and Neotrehalosadiamine (NTD)
• Streptomyces strains – Tetracycline

Dairy Production

Food products made from lactic acid bacterial species are Carnobacterium, Enterococcus, Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Oenococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, and Weissella in which species of lactobacillus bacteria are more commonly used in the fermentation of dairy products are:

• Streptococcus lactis
• Lactobacillus lactis

Lactobacillus lactis increases vitamin B 12 in curd, Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) also help in the disease-causing microbes in the stomach.

Nitrogen Fixation or diazotrophy

Bacteria play a crucial role in nitrogen fixation, a process vital for converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form that plants can absorb and utilize. Nitrogen fixation (N 2 → NH 3 ) is both a biological as well as a chemical process through which covalent bonded atmospheric nitrogen (N2), is converted into ammonia (NH3) or any nitrogenous compounds like amino acids, nitrate, and ammonium salts.

This process can occur both symbiotically or asymbiotically. Where nitrogen has a nonzero oxidation state, this is done typically in soil or aquatic systems and also artificially in industry. Nitrogen fixation is done by two processes:

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation

In symbiotic nitrogen fixation, bacteria live in close association with plants, often within their tissues, and convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia, which plants can use for growth. Here are some key bacteria involved in symbiotic nitrogen fixation:

• Azorhizobium : This bacterium forms stem nodules in the plant Sesbania, contributing significantly to nitrogen fixation.
• Azospirillum : Found on the root surface of cereals such as rice, maize, and wheat, Azospirillum engages in superficial symbiosis, aiding in nitrogen fixation.
• Bradyrhizobium : These bacteria are known for forming root nodules in legumes, enhancing nitrogen availability for the plants.
• Frankia : Unlike most nitrogen-fixing bacteria that associate with legumes, Frankia forms root nodules in non-leguminous plants like Casuarina and Alnus.
• Rhizobium : Perhaps the most well-known symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria, Rhizobium species form root nodules in legumes, significantly boosting nitrogen levels in the soil.
• Sinorhizobium : This genus also forms symbiotic relationships with legumes, playing a vital role in nitrogen fixation.

Asymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation

Asymbiotic nitrogen fixation involves bacteria that live freely in the soil, independently converting atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. Some notable bacteria in this category include:

• Azospirillum : In addition to its symbiotic role, Azospirillum can also function asymbiotically in the soil.
• Azotobacter : These free-living soil bacteria are known for their high nitrogen-fixing capabilities.
• Bacillus : Certain Bacillus species are effective nitrogen fixers in the soil.
• Beijerinckia : This genus includes free-living nitrogen-fixing bacteria that contribute to soil fertility.
• Clostridium : Known for its anaerobic nitrogen fixation, Clostridium plays a significant role in enriching soil nitrogen content.
• Chromatium : A photosynthetic bacterium that can fix nitrogen asymbiotically in the soil.
• Rhodomicrobium : Another photosynthetic bacterium, Rhodomicrobium, is involved in asymbiotic nitrogen fixation.
• Rhodopseudomonas : These purple non-sulfur bacteria can fix nitrogen under anaerobic conditions.
• Rhodospirillum : Known for its versatility, Rhodospirillum can fix nitrogen in various environmental conditions, contributing to soil nitrogen levels.

The industrial applications of these bacteria are vast, ranging from enhancing soil fertility in agriculture to biofertilizer production. By harnessing the natural nitrogen-fixing capabilities of these bacteria, industries can promote sustainable farming practices, reduce reliance on chemical fertilizers, and improve crop yields.

Ammonification

The process of formation of ammonia is called ammonification. Ammonifying bacteria help in the process of ammonification (Protein → NH 3 ). It is a biological process, these bacteria convert protein (present in decaying plants and animals) into ammonia (NH 3 ).

• Bacillus Vulgaris
• Bacillus Romosus
• Bacillus Mycoids

Nitrification

Nitrification is done by nitrifying bacteria which are chemoautotrophs, in which bacteria convert ammonia (NH 3 ) into nitrite (NO 2 – ) and further nitrate (NO 3 – ) and it is a biological process.

• Nitrosomonas (2NH 3 + 3O 2 → 2NO 2 – + 2H + + 2H 2 O + Energy)
• Nitrococcus (2NH 3 + 3O 2 → 2NO 2 – + 2H + + 2H 2 O + Energy)
• Nitrobacter (2NO 2 + O 2 → 2NO 3 – + Energy)
• Nitrocystis (2NO 2 + O 2 → 2NO 3 – + Energy)

Harmful Activities of Bacteria

Diseases caused by bacteria in human beings

Disease caused by bacteria in animals

Disease caused by bacteria in plants

Denitrifying bacteria

Denitrifying bacteria help in the process of denitrification (NO 3- → N 2 ) which is both a biological as well as abiological process, in which some bacteria convert soil nitrates (NO 3 – ) into nitrites (NO 2 – ) and then nitrogen (N 2 ) this process is called denitrification. These bacteria reduce the fertility of the soil.

• Thiobacillus denitrificans
• Pseudomonas denitrificans
• Micrococcus denitrificans

Food poisoning or Foodborne illness

Botulism is caused by Clostridium botulinum and sometimes Clostridium butyricum and Clostridium baratii – It is an obligate anaerobe. It can not survive in our body because of the presence of oxygen (aerobic environment). It is a rare and the most lethal type of food poisoning .

These bacteria only survive in the absence of oxygen. These bacteria multiply in canned food. Their toxins attack the parasympathetic nervous system, which leads to paralysis of both smooth and striped muscles that results in difficulty in breathing which causes asphyxia and leads to immediate death .

Biological Weapons

Some bacteria are used as bioweapons such as :

• Bacillus anthracis (rod-shaped, gram-positive bacteria)— Causes Anthrax , a serious infectious disease. It can be found naturally in soil and commonly affects domestic and wild animals all around the world.
• Clostridium botulinum , Clostridium butyricum , Clostridium baratii — Causing food poisoning .
• Vibrio cholerae — Causes Cholera by infecting the intestine. It is an acute diarrheal illness in which people can get sick when they take food or water contaminated by cholera bacteria. The infection is often mild or without symptoms, but can sometimes be severe and becomes life-threatening.

Water Pollution

Several bacterial forms cause water pollution. These bacteria spoil the water and make it unfit for living organisms.

• Salmonella typhi
• Vibrio Cholerae

Nutrient cycling

Bacteria are essential for life on Earth, playing important roles in the cycle of nutrients and energy. They break down organic matter, such as dead plants and animals, into nutrients that can be used by other organisms. Additionally, bacteria can help to form healthy soil, which is important for plant growth.

In conclusion , bacteria are indispensable in various industrial applications within biotechnology. Their ability to produce chemicals, vitamins, and pharmaceuticals, control pests, remediate pollution, and aid in genetic engineering showcases their versatility and importance in advancing industrial and environmental biotechnology.

Q: What is the economic importance of bacteria? A: Bacteria are important economically, as they are used in a wide range of industries and applications. For example, bacteria are used in the production of food, medicines, and bioremediation. Bacteria are also used to make bioplastics, biofuels, and other bioproducts.

Bacterial enzymes are used in the production of detergents, enzymes, and other industrial products. Additionally, bacteria are used in the treatment of wastewater and sewage and are also used to produce biogas.

Q: What economic benefits do bacteria provide? A: Bacteria can have a range of economic benefits, including providing food sources, generating bioproducts, aiding in bioremediation, and aiding in the production of biofuels. Bacteria can also be used in the production of certain medicines and biotechnology.

Q: How are bacteria used in bioremediation? A: Bacteria are used in bioremediation as they can break down and remove pollutants in the environment, such as oil and other hazardous chemicals. This process helps to clean up contaminated sites, making them safe for people and animals.

Q: How are bacteria used in the production of medicines? A: Bacteria are used in the production of certain medicines, such as antibiotics, which are used to treat bacterial infections. Bacteria can also be used in the production of vaccines, which help to protect people from certain illnesses.

Q: How do bacteria aid in the production of biofuels? A: Bacteria can be used in the production of biofuels, such as ethanol and biodiesel. Bacteria can break down organic matter, such as corn and other plants, and convert them into usable forms of energy.

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Economic Importance of Microorganisms in Food Processing

• First Online: 24 September 2023

Cite this chapter

• Cholakkal Shahada   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9308-276X 3 ,
• Sonia Morya   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8137-2759 3 ,
• Riya Farha   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6877-3224 3 &
• Deepika Sandhu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4476-4523 3  

395 Accesses

Microorganisms’ relation in forming new varied products dates back long time. From the formulation of wine to the development of probiotics, microorganisms are involved with food in various forms. The utilisation of microorganisms and incorporation into the food industry had a raise recently in the production process of many products, for example, fruits and vegetable products, preservation of meat and its products, food colour, and so on. Different chemical compounds like nisin with antimicrobial properties are extracted from microorganisms. Besides, enzymes like beta-galactosidase produced by microorganisms have many advanced applications in different industries. Bio-preservation is another application of bacteria in the food industry. Utilising controlled or natural microorganisms or antimicrobials for the preservation of food and to increase its shelf life is known as bio-preservation. By carefully utilising the antimicrobial properties of naturally occurring food microbes and/or their safe-use metabolites, bio-preservation prolongs the shelf life of food. Bio-preservation also enables the production of various other food products also. Some algae and fungi are recently used for the production of colours. Introducing microorganism in the food industries enhances the development of novel and new food-producing techniques and thereby enables coping with the shortage of food. Various application is so far developed and studies are going on based on the use of microorganisms in the food industry/factories. Microorganisms play a vital role in producing various products that can be consumed by a wide variety of populations.

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Shahada, C., Morya, S., Farha, R., Sandhu, D. (2023). Economic Importance of Microorganisms in Food Processing. In: Karnwal, A., Mohammad Said Al-Tawaha, A.R. (eds) Food Microbial Sustainability. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-4784-3_12

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Milk from a healthy cow initially contains very few bacteria, which primarily come from the skin of the cow and the procedures for handling the milk. Milk is an excellent growth medium for numerous bacteria, and the bacteria can increase rapidly in numbers unless the milk is properly processed. Bacterial growth can spoil the milk or even pose a serious health hazard if pathogenic bacteria are present. Diseases that can be transmitted from an infected cow include tuberculosis ( Mycobacterium tuberculosis ), undulant fever ( Brucella abortus ), and Q fever ( Coxiella burnetii ). In addition, typhoid fever ( Salmonella typhi ) can be transmitted through milk from an infected milk handler. Pasteurization procedures increase the temperature of the milk to 63 °C (145 °F) for 30 minutes or to 71 °C (160 °F) for 15 seconds, which kills any of the pathogenic bacteria that might be present, although these procedures do not kill all microorganisms.

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Certain bacteria convert milk into useful dairy products, such as buttermilk , yogurt , and cheese . Commercially cultured buttermilk is prepared from milk inoculated with a starter culture of Lactococcus (usually L. lactis or L. lactis cremoris ). Yogurt and other fermented milk products are produced in a similar manner using different cultures of bacteria. Many cheeses are likewise made through the action of bacteria. Growth in milk of an acid-producing bacterium such as L. lactis causes the casein to precipitate as curd. Following the removal of moisture and the addition of salt, the curd is allowed to ripen through the action of other microorganisms. Different bacteria impart different flavors and characteristics to foods; for example, the mixture of Lactobacillus casei , Streptococcus thermophilus , and Propionibacterium shermanii is responsible for the ripening of Swiss cheese and the production of its characteristic taste and large gas bubbles. In addition, Brevibacterium linens is responsible for the flavor of Limburger cheese, and molds ( Penicillium species) are used in the manufacture of Roquefort and Camembert cheeses . Other types of bacteria have long been used in the preparation and preservation of various foods produced through bacterial fermentation, including pickled products, sauerkraut , and olives .

The toxins of many pathogenic bacteria that are transmitted in foods can cause food poisoning when ingested. These include a toxin produced by Staphylococcus aureus , which causes a rapid, severe, but limited gastrointestinal distress, or the toxin of Clostridium botulinum , which is often lethal. Production of botulism toxin can occur in canned nonacidic foods that have been incompletely cooked before sealing. C. botulinum forms heat-resistant spores that can germinate into vegetative bacterial cells that thrive in the anaerobic environment , which is conducive to the production of their extremely potent toxin. Other food-borne infections are actually transmitted from an infected food handler, including typhoid fever, salmonellosis ( Salmonella species), and shigellosis ( Shigella dysenteriae ).

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Economic Importance of Bacteria and Fungi ICSE Class 9 Notes PDF (Quick Revision Notes)

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Microbes Role in the Economic Development of a World

19 Pages Posted: 26 Dec 2019 Last revised: 5 Feb 2020

Naushad Khan

University of Agriculture, Peshawar - Institute of Development Studies; Institute of Development Studies

Date Written: December 25, 2019

Microbes are microorganism and with the help of microscope these are seen. It consists of bacteria, archaea, viruses, fungi, protists, protozoa and algae etc. Some microorganisms are beneficial while some are non beneficial for human beings. These all live on the earth in different forms. Seeing to its importance the present study was arranged in December, 2019 to examine the role of microbes in the development of a world. Secondary data was used for this study. Total 15 articles were downloaded from the web and 20 times were reviewed critically to fully know what role microbes play in world development. The analysis indicates that microbes are the permanent member of this world and in different form give benefits to humanity and keep the balance of ecosystem for the survival of human being while some are very dangerous which kill human and other living organism of this world. Microbiologists have discovered so many microbes, some make the yogurts but some make the cheese and beer for humanity. Similarly some add nitrogen to the soil for the growth of plant while few microbes convert the soil structure and make it favorable for the growth of plant. Some microbes release the methane gases in the air and create the heat in the environment which makes the problem of global warming. Some microbes spread different disease in the world and make the world polluted but some clean the pollution of the world. Vaccine of virus help in smallpox controlling, while some play great role in insulin manufacturing for the control of diabetes. The story of microbe is very long and some bacteria help in digestion process in ruminant animal while some spread the cancer and T.B in the arena of this world. Some microbes help in conversion of carbon dioxide into starch and glucose. Few scientists think that to remove the microbes from this world but majority stress that without microbes this world running is impossible and they told that microbes are very important and useful organism of this world because they play great role in different sector of economic development of the world. It is indicated from the mentioned discussion that without microbes this world business is impossible, so on the basis of this importance it is necessary for every government of the world to include this debate in the national policy at world level and keep a proper budget for implementation of the project for discoveries of new microbes for the beneficiary of society. Government of every country should be focused on microbes what microbes are beneficial and what are non beneficial and further also link this study with the world for advancement of the country.

Keywords: Microbes, Role, Economic, Development, World

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Naushad Khan (Contact Author)

University of agriculture, peshawar - institute of development studies ( email ).

Institute of Development Studies Professor Colony Agriculture Peshawar Peshawar, khyber Pakhtunkhwa 25000 Pakistan

Institute of Development Studies ( email )

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Economic Importance of Bacteria

Class 9 - concise biology selina, progress check 1.

Name the four common shapes of bacteria.

• Cocci (spherical bacteria)
• Bacilli (rod-shaped bacteria)
• Spirilla (twisted or spiral bacteria)
• Vibrio (comma-shaped)

Give the technical terms for the following patterns of occurrence of bacteria

• In pairs ...............
• In long chains ...............
• In clusters ...............
• Streptococci
• Staphylococci

List the kinds of nutrition in bacteria.

Bacteria mostly shows saprotrophic and parasitic nutrition.

What is the common method of reproduction in bacteria?

The common method of reproduction in bacteria is fission or cell division.

Why do bacteria produce spores ?

Bacteria produce spores to overcome unfavourable conditions.

Multiple Choice Type

Bacteria are no more classified as plants primarily because:

• These are unicellular and prokaryotic
• These are motile
• Many of them are parasitic
• They have no chlorophyll

These are unicellular and prokaryotic.

Reason — Bacteria are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Unlike plants, which are multicellular and have eukaryotic cells, bacteria are classified as prokaryotes. This fundamental difference in cellular structure and organization led to their separation from the plant kingdom.

A particular species of which one of the following, is the source bacterium of the antibiotic, discovered next to penicillin, for the treatment of tuberculosis?

• Escherichia

Streptomyces

• Nitrobacter

Reason — Streptomycin was discovered next to penicillin by Selman Waksman. It was derived from Streptomyces griseus .

Which bacteria is rod shaped?

Reason — Rod-shaped bacteria are called bacillus.

Which bacteria fixes nitrogen in the soil?

• Nitrosomonas
• Clostridium

Reason — Rhizobium is the nitrogen fixing bacteria present in root nodules of legumes.

Cell wall of bacteria is composed of:

Peptidoglycan

• Lipoproteins

Reason — The bacterial cell wall is made up of Peptidoglycan and not cellulose as in plants.

Which of the following structures is suspended in the cytoplasm of a bacterial cell ?

Reason — Plasmid is a small circular DNA suspended in the Cytoplasm.

Bacteria mainly reproduces by means of :

• Multiple fission

Binary fission

• Regeneration

Reason — Bacteria divides into two by simple cell division. This is known as binary fission.

Bacteria are referred to as prokaryotes because:

• They are unicellular
• They are free living-

They do not have a well defined nucleus enclosed in a nuclear membrane.

Reason — The cells in which the nuclear membrane is absent is called prokaryotes.

Which of the following diseases can be prevented by TAB?

• Tuberculosis

Reason — TAB is the vaccine of Typhoid. It contains killed typhoid bacteria.

Question 10

A preparation consisting of weakened or dead germ substances is:

Reason — Vaccine consists of weakened or dead germ substances. Administration of vaccine results in resistance in body against the particular disease.

Very Short Answer Type

Name the following:

(a) The locomotory structure of a bacterium that enables it to swim.

(b) The process of flavouring tea by certain bacteria.

(c) The process of making leather from the animals skin.

(d) Bacterial disease of mustard.

(e) The scientist who discovered the antibiotic streptomycin.

(a) Flagella

(c) Leather tanning

(d) Black rot of mustard

(e) Selman Waksman

Match the items in Column A with those in Column B

Fill in the blanks:

(a) The first antibiotic penicillin was discovered by ............... .

(b) ............... bacteria is found living in the nodules on the roots of leguminous plants.

(c) The hormone ............... was the first substance produced by Escherichia coli .

(d) ............... is an example of denitrifying bacteria.

(e) ............... and ............... are the two heterotrophic modes of nutrition in bacteria.

(a) The first antibiotic penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming .

(b) Rhizobium bacteria is found living in the nodules on the roots of leguminous plants.

(c) The hormone insulin was the first substance produced by Escherichia coli .

(d) Pseudomonas is an example of denitrifying bacteria.

(e) Saprotrophic and parasitic are the two heterotrophic modes of nutrition in bacteria.

Name the bacteria that converts

(a) ammonium compounds to nitrites

(b) nitrites to nitrates

(a) Nitrosomonas

(b) Nitrobacter

Short Answer Type

In what form bacteria may be present in the air?

In air, bacteria can be present in the form of spores.

Why is spore formation in bacteria not considered a form of reproduction?

Spore formation in bacteria cannot be considered as a form of reproduction as they can reproduce through asexual means only such as cell division or fission. The formation of spores in bacteria is only an escape tactic from unfavorable condition that is exhibited by them.

In what respect do you consider bacteria as simple organisms?

Bacteria are unicellular organisms that lack membrane bound cell organelles like chloroplast, mitochondria, etc. and even a well-defined nucleus is absent which states that they have a simpler cellular organization.

Define the terms :

(a) Antibiotics

(b) Antitoxins

(d) Botulism

(e) Pasteurization

(a) Antibiotics — An antibiotic is a chemical substance produced by a living microorganism which can stop the growth of or kill some disease-producing bacteria and fungi.

(b) Antitoxins — Antitoxin is a substance produced in animal bodies which reacts with the poison (toxin) produced by the invading germs.

(c) Serum — Serum actually means blood plasma from which fibrinogen has been removed. It may contain numerous chemical substances including anti-bodies and antitoxins.

(d) Botulism — Botulism is a very serious food poisoning due to a special bacterium sometimes found in tinned or sealed foods.

(e) Pasteurization — Pasteurization is the process of food preservation, applied usually to milk. In this process, the milk is heated at 60°C for 30 minutes and then chilled quickly. It kills majority of bacteria.

Give two examples of each :

(a) Bacterial diseases of cattle

(b) Bacterial diseases in plants

(c) Bacterial diseases in humans

(d) Nitrifying bacteria

(e) Free living nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in soil

(a) Anthrax and Bovine tuberculosis

(b) Bacterial blight of cowpea and Black rot of mustard

(c) Cholera and Tuberculosis

(d) Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter

(e) Azotobacter and Clostridium

Write the full forms of the following abbreviations:

(a) TAB — Typhoid-paratyphoid A and B

(b) BCG — Bacille Calmette-Guerin

(c) DNA — Deoxyribonucleic Acid

(d) GMO — Genetically Modified Organism

Give reasons :

(a) Every room in the house should get direct sunlight at least for a short time.

(b) Tinned and sealed food is not always safe to eat.

(a) Direct sunlight contains ultraviolet radiations of the Sun, which help in killing of mould spores present in air. Hence, it is advised that every living room in the house should get direct sunlight at least for a short time.

(b) No, tinned and sealed food are not always safe to eat as it may contain harmful bacteria like Clostridium botulinum that causes food poisoning. Clostridium botulinum releases toxins under low-oxygen conditions. These toxins are very lethal and can block nerve functions leading to muscular and respiratory paralysis. Moreover, the chemicals used in the inner coating of the container can be harmful for humans.

State the differences between:

(a) Decay and putrefaction.

(b) Pasteurization and sterilization of food/objects/equipments.

(a) Difference between Decay and Putrefaction:

(b) Difference between Pasteurization and Sterilization:

Would there be any bacteria in an aquarium?

Yes, bacteria can exist in aquarium. Bacteria can exist practically everywhere, as they can withstand any climatic condition.

Long Answer Type

How do bacteria obtain their nourishment?

Most bacteria are heterotrophic i.e. they depend on ready-made food from different sources. In this category, the bacteria maybe:

• Saprophytic — Such bacteria draw nourishment from decaying dead organisms.
• Parasitic — Such bacteria draw nourishment from the body of their living hosts.

The bacteria secrete powerful enzymes from their cells into the surrounding food containing material. The enzymes make the food material soluble which is then absorbed as a solution into the bacterial cell.

Describe any two uses of bacteria in industry.

Uses of bacteria in industry:

• Tanning of leather — It is brought about by sunlight with the involvement of a few bacteria which breakdown the soft perishable parts of the skin.
• Tea curing — Different flavours of tea are produced by certain bacteria.

What are antibiotics? Name any two examples.

Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by a living organism which inhibits or kills the growth of micro-organisms that cause the diseases such as fungi and bacteria. Examples of antibiotics are:

• Streptomycin

Briefly describe how nitrogen of the atmosphere is converted to nitrates by leguminous plants.

A special category of soil bacteria (Rhizobium) is found living in small nodules on the roots of leguminous plants. These bacteria pick up free nitrogen from the soil and atmosphere and convert it into soluble nitrates. These nitrates are used by the host plant and also by other plants sown later in the same soil.

State how the nitrates in the soil get converted to nitrogen of the atmosphere.

Denitrifying bacteria in the soil break down nitrates present in the soil to release nitrogen gas which enters the atmosphere. Pseudomonas is an example of denitrifying bacteria.

Structured / Application / Skill Type

Draw a diagram showing the Nitrogen cycle and answer the following questions.

(a) Define the terms:

• Nitrification
• Denitrification

(b) Distinguish between biological nitrogen fixation and industrial nitrogen fixation.

(c) Name the kind of relationship that exists between Rhizobium and leguminous plants.

(a) Below diagram shows the Nitrogen cycle:

• Nitrification — The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates is called nitrification.
• Denitrification — The conversion of nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen is called Denitrification.

(b) Difference between biological nitrogen fixation and industrial nitrogen fixation are:

(c) Symbiotic relationship.

Would there be any bacteria in an aquarium ?

(a) A balanced aquarium contains certain animals as well as some plants. How many kinds of animals can you make out in the aquarium shown here. Name any two such animals.

(b) Do you think there would be some bacteria in it? If so in which part of the aquarium would they be occurring in abundance and what for?

(a) Fishes and snails are present in the aquarium shown here.

(b) Yes, aquariums contain bacteria. A balanced aquarium contains some nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter which converts the ammoniacal waste released by fish to nitrates. The filter media and various solid surfaces in the aquarium, such as gravel, rocks, plants, and decorations, harbor these bacteria in abundance.

Short / Long answer type questions. Describe in brief the economic importance of bacteria.

The economic importance of a bacteria which is prokaryote and microscopic organism is: 1. beneficial effects of bacteria: a) role in agriculture a) bacteria as scavenging: saprophytic bacteria obtain food from organic remains such as animal excreta, fallen leaves, meat etc. they decompose these substances by the action of digestive enzymes aerobically or anaerobically (known as fermentation). thus they help in sanitation of nature, so also known as scavengers. e.g. pseudomonas ) nitrification: rhizobium bacteria, living in root nodules of leguminous plant symbiotically, helps in fixing atmospheric nitrogen. similarly, nitrosomonas and nitrococcus convert ammonium salt to nitrites. nitrites are further changed to nitrates by nitrobacter and nitrocystis. it enables plants to uptake nitrogen. c) production of organic manure: as stated above, saprophytic bacteria help in breaking of the complex organic substance to simpler forms. thus, in this process, they help to convert farm refuse, dung and other wastes to manure. d) preparation of ensilage: ensilage is preserved cattle fodder prepared by packing freshly chopped fodder sprinkled with molasses. fermentation activity of bacteria produces lactic acid that acts as a preservative in ensilage. e) production of fuel: bacteria, while converting animal dung and other organic wastes to manure, help in the production of fuel that is a must in gobar gas plant. f) disposal of sewage: bacteria help in disposal of sewage by decomposing it and thus, help in environmental sanitation. b) bacteria role in industry a) dairy industry: bacteria such as streptococcus lactis convert milk sugar lactose into lactic acid that coagulates casein (milk protein). then, milk is converted into curd, yogurt, cheese etc needed for the industry. b) production of organic compounds: fermentation (breakdown of carbohydrate in absence of oxygen) action of various bacteria produces organic compounds like lactic acid (by lactobacillus), acetic acid (by acetobacter aceti), acetone (by clostridium acetabutylicum) etc. c) fibre retting: the action of some bacteria like clostridium, pseudomonas etc. help in fiber retting i.e. separation of stem and leaf fiber of plants from other softer tissue. d) curing: the leaves of tea and tobacco, beans of coffee and cocoa are cured off their bitterness with the help of action of certain bacteria such as bacillus megatherium. e) production of antibiotics: number of antibacterial and antifungal antibiotics such as hamycin, polymyxin, trichomycin etc are obtained from mycelia bacteria (like streptomyces). similarly, bacillus is used for the production of antibiotics such as bacitracin, gramicidin etc f) production of vitamins: different kinds of vitamins are produced from bacteria like riboflavin from clostridium butylicum, vitamin b12 from bacillus megatherium and vitamin k and b-complex from escherichia coli. 2. harmful effects of bacteria: though bacteria play important role in agriculture, industries and natural sanitation etc, it has the following harmful effects: a) food spoiling: saprophytic bacteria always not only help in decomposition of dead matters, but they also cause the rotting of vegetables, fruits, meat, bread etc. b) food poisoning: bacteria like staphylococcus aureus cause food poisoning and cause people diarrhea and vomiting. c) damaging domestic articles: spirochete cytophaga deteriorates cotton, leather, and wooden articles. d) denitrification: bacteria such as thiobacillus and microbacillusconvert nitrate of the soil to the gaseous nitrogen. this hampers plants very much. e) desulphurization: bacteria such as desulfovibrio convert soil sulfates into hydrogen sulfide. f) cause of diseases: it is known that over 90% of human diseases and over 10% of plant diseases are caused by bacteria..

Short / Long answer type questions . Describe in brief the Oparin-Haldane theory of origin of life.

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Vitis vinifera l. leaf extract, a microbiota green ally against infectious and inflammatory skin and scalp diseases: an in-depth update.

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

3. vitis vinifera l. leaves, 3.1. phytochemical profile and bioactive compounds, 3.2. topical and systemic applications in cosmeceutics, 4. skin microbiota and inflammatory skin and scalp disorders, 4.1. skin microbiota and healthy skin, 4.2. skin microbiota and cutaneous diseases, 5. inflammatory skin and scalp disorders and vitis vinifera l. leaf extracts, 6. vitis vinifera l. leaf extracts, microbiota, and skin opportunistic pathogens, 6.1. vitis vinifera l. leaf extracts and bacteria, 6.2. vitis vinifera l. leaf extracts and viruses, 6.3. vitis vinifera l. leaf extracts and fungi, 7. vitis vinifera l. extract prebiotic and postbiotic properties, 8. conclusions, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Armari, M.; Zavattaro, E.; Trejo, C.F.; Galeazzi, A.; Grossetti, A.; Veronese, F.; Savoia, P.; Azzimonti, B. Vitis vinifera L. Leaf Extract, a Microbiota Green Ally against Infectious and Inflammatory Skin and Scalp Diseases: An In-Depth Update. Antibiotics 2024 , 13 , 697. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13080697

Armari M, Zavattaro E, Trejo CF, Galeazzi A, Grossetti A, Veronese F, Savoia P, Azzimonti B. Vitis vinifera L. Leaf Extract, a Microbiota Green Ally against Infectious and Inflammatory Skin and Scalp Diseases: An In-Depth Update. Antibiotics . 2024; 13(8):697. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13080697

Armari, Marta, Elisa Zavattaro, Cesar Francisco Trejo, Alice Galeazzi, Alessia Grossetti, Federica Veronese, Paola Savoia, and Barbara Azzimonti. 2024. " Vitis vinifera L. Leaf Extract, a Microbiota Green Ally against Infectious and Inflammatory Skin and Scalp Diseases: An In-Depth Update" Antibiotics 13, no. 8: 697. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13080697

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