SPM BIOLOGY
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Mr Khor Biology KSSM Notes
#biologysimplified .
Past Year SPM Questions
Will be updated soon
KBSM_2003 until 2019
Click on the picture (on the left) to download the modules.
Form 4: Chapter 2 & 3
NOTE: FOR CHAPTER 3, WHEN ANSWERING QUESTIONS ABOUT OSMOSIS, PLEASE USE THE TERM 'WATER POTENTIAL' AND NOT CONCENTRATION.
Form 4: Chapter 4, 5 & 6
Form 4: Chapter 7, 8 & 9
Form 5: chapter 2 & 3.
Form 4: Chapter 10 & 11
Form 5: Chapter 2 & 4
Form 4: Chapter 12 & 13
Form 5: chapter 5 & chapter 12.
Form 4: Chapter 14
Form 4: Chapter 15 Form 5: Chapter 1 & 6
Form 5: Chapter 7, 8, 9 & 10
Form 5: Chapter 11
Recordings are not available.
Form 5: Chapter 12 & 13
SPM Biology
Onlinetuition.com SPM Biology
SPM Biology (Past Exam Papers)
- Year 2018 (Paper 2)
- Question 1 & 2 , Question 3 & 4 , Question 5 & 6 , Question 7 & 8
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Form 4 Biology (KSSM)
01 introduction to biology and laboratory rules.
- The Study of Biology
- Scientific Investigation
02 Cell Biology and Organisation
- Cell Structure and Function
- Components of a Cell
- Comparison between the Animal Cell and Plant Cell
- Relation between the Density of Organelles and the Function of Cells
- Cell Organisation
- Unicellular Organism
- Paramecium sp
- Multicellular Organism
- Organ System
- Involvement of Systems in Maintaining an Optimal Internal Environment
Structured Questions
- Cell Structure and Function | Questions 1 & 2
- Cell Organisation | Questions 1 & 2
Objective Questions
- Cell Structure and Function | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3
- Cell Organisation | Part 1 | Part 2
Biology (KSSM) Textbook Questions and Answer
- Formative Practice 2.1 | Formative Practice 2.2 | Formative Practice 2.3 | Formative Practice 2.4
- Summative Practice Chapter 2
- The Regulatory Mechanism in Respiration (4 Questions)
- Respiration in Plants (4 Questions)
03 Movement of Substances across a Plasma Membrane
- The Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane
- Passive Transport - Simple Diffusion
- Passive Transport - Osmosis
- Passive Transport - Facilitated Diffusion
- Active Transport
- The Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane in Everyday Life
- Hypotonic Solution
- Isotonic Solution
- Hypertonic Solution
- Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane | Questions 1 & 2
- Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane in Everyday Life | Questions 1 & 2
- Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3
- Movement of Substances Across the Plasma Membrane in Everyday Life | Part 1 | Part 2
- Formative Practice 3.1 | Formative Practice 3.2 | Formative Practice 3.3 | Formative Practice 3.4
- Summative Practice chapter 3
04 Chemical Compositions in a Cell
- The Chemical Composition of the Cell
- Carbohydrates
- Monosaccharide
- Disaccharide
- Polysacharide
- Proteins | Questions 1 & 2
- Lipids | Questions 1 & 2
- Chemical Composition of the Cell | Part 1
- Carbohydrate | Part 1 | Part 2
- Proteins | Part 1 | Part 2
- Lipids | Part 1
05 Metabolism and Enzymes
- Enzymes | Questions 1 & 2
- Enzymes | Part 1 | Part 2
- Formative Practice 5.1 | Formative Practice 5.2
- Summative Practice Chapter 5 | Question 1 - 4 | Question 5 - 8
06 Cell Division
- Cell Cycle and Mitosis Questions 1 & 2
- Meiosis Questions 1 & 2
- Cell Cycle and Mitosis Part 1
- Meiosis Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3
- Formative Practice 6.1 | Formative Practice 6.2 | Formative Practice 6.3 | Formative Practice 6.4
- Summative Practice Chapter 6 | Question 1 - 4 | Question 5 - 8
07 Cellular Respiration
- The Respiratory Process in Energy Production | Questions 1 & 2
- The Respiratory Process | Part 1
- Formative Practice 7.1 | Formative Practice 7.2 | Formative Practice 7.3
- Summative Practice Chapter 7 | Question 1 - 5 | Question 6 & 7
08 Respiratory Systems in Humans and Animals
- Respiratory Structure and Breathing Mechanisms in Humans and Animals | Part 1 | Part 2
- Respiratory Mechanisms in Humans and Animals | Part 1 | Part 2
- Gaseous Exchange in Humans | Part 1
- Formative Practice 8.1 | Formative Practice 8.2 | Formative Practice 8.3 | Formative Practice 8.4
- Summative Practice Chapter 8 | Question 1 - 5 | Question 6 & 7 | Question 8 & 9
09 Nutrition and the Human Digestive System
- The Types of Nutrition
- Food Digestion
- Digestion in the Mouth and Stomach
- Digestion in the Small Intestine
- The Process of Absorption and Assimilation of Digested Food
- Functions of the Liver and Assimilation
- The Mechanism of Photosynthesis
- Malnutrition | Questions 1 & 2
- Food Digestion | Questions 1 & 2
- The Machanism of Photosynthesis | Questions 1 & 2
- Balanced Diet | Part 1
- Malnutrition | Part 1
- Food Digestion | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4
- Absorption and Assimilation | Part 1
- The Machanism of Photosynthesis | Part 1 | Part 2
- Factors Affecting Photosynthesis | Part 1
- Formative Practice 9.1 | Formative Practice 9.2 | Formative Practice 9.3 | Formative Practice 9.4
- Formative Practice 9.5
- Summative Practice Chapter 9 | Question 1 - 4 | Question 5 & 6 | Question 7
10 Transport in Humans and Animals
- The Importance of Transport System in Multicellular Organisms
- The Concept of Circulatory System
- Composition of Human Blood
- Function of Blood in Transport
- Function of Haemolymph in Transport
- Types of Circulatory System
- Circulatory System in Humans
- The Blood Vessels
- Circulation of Blood in Humans
- Regulation of Blood Pressure
- Blood Clotting
- Mechanism of Blood Clotting
- Consequences of Blood Clotting Related Problem
- The Lymphatic System
- Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph
- The Mechanism of Blood Clotting | Questions 1 & 2
- The Lymphatic System | Questions 1 & 2
- The Concept of Circulatory System | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3
- The Mechanism of Blood Clotting | Part 1
- The Lymphatic System | Part 1
- Formative Practice 10.1 | Formative Practice 10.2 | Formative Practice 10.3 | Formative Practice 10.4
- Formative Practice 10.5 | Formative Practice 10.6 | Formative Practice 10.7 | Formative Practice 10.8
- Summative Practice Chapter 10 | Question 1 - 4 | Question 5 & 6 | Question 7 & 8
11 Immunity in Humans
- Types of Immunity
- Types of Immunity | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3
- Formative Practice 11.1 | Formative Practice 11.2 | Formative Practice 11.3
- Summative Practice Chapter 11 | Question 1 - 3 | Question 4 | Question 5 & 6
12 Coordination and Response in Humans
- Coordination and Response
- Types of receptors
- Nervous System
- Spinal Cord
- The Role of Human Nervous System | Questions 1 & 2
- Response and Coordination | Part 1
- The Role of the Human Nervous System | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4
- The Role of Hormones in Humans | Part 1 | Part 2
- Formative Practice 12.1 | Formative Practice 12.2 | Formative Practice 12.3 | Formative Practice 12.4
- Formative Practice 12.5 | Formative Practice 12.6 | Formative Practice 12.7
- Summative Practice Chapter 12 | Question 1 - 4 | Question 5 & 6 | Question 7 & 8
13 Homeostasis and the Human Urinary System
- Homeostasis in Humans
- Urinary System
- Formation of urine
- Homeostasis in Humans | Questions 1 & 2
- Homeostasis in Humans | Part 1 | Part 2
- Formative Practice 13.1 | Formative Practice 13.2 | Formative Practice 13.3
- Summative Practice Chapter 13 | Question 1 - 5 | Question 6 & 7 | Question 8 - 10 | Question 11
14 Support and Movement in Humans and Animals
- Types of Skeleton
- The human skeleton
- Movement and Locomotion | Questions 1 & 2
- Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4
- Appreciating Healthy Musculoskeletal System | Part 1
- Support System in Plants | Part 1 | Part 2
- Formative Practice 14.1 | Formative Practice 14.2 | Formative Practice 14.3 | Formative Practice 14.4
- Summative Practice Chapter 14 | Question 1 - 4 | Question 5 - 7 | Question 8 & 9 | Question 10
15 Sexual Reproduction, Development and Growth in Humans and Animals
- Gamete Formation | Questions 1 & 2
- Early Development of Zygote in Humans | Questions 1 & 2
- Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants | Questions 1 & 2
- Gamete Formation | Part 1 | Part 2
- Role of Hormones in the Menstrual Cycle | Part 1 | Part 2
- Early Development of Zygote in Humans | Part 1
- Formative Practice 15.1 | Formative Practice 15.2 | Formative Practice 15.3 | Formative Practice 15.4 | Formative Practice 15.5 | Formative Practice 15.6 | Formative Practice 15.7
- Summative Practice Chapter 15 | Question 1 - 4 | Question 5 & 6 | Question 7 & 8 | Question 9 & 10
Form 5 Biology
01 organisation of plant tissues and growth.
- Organisation of Plant Tissues
- Population Ecology (3 Questions)
- Biodiversity (3 Questions)
- The Impact of Microorganisms on Life (6 Questions)
- Formative Practice 1.1 | Activity 1.1 | Formative Practice 1.2 | Experiment 1.1 | Formative Practice 1.3
- Summative Practice Chapter 1 | Question 1 & 2 | Question 3 | Question 4 - 6
02 Leaf Structure and Function
- Structure of a Leaf
- Activity 2.1 | Formative Practice 2.1 | Activity 2.2 | Experiment 2.1 | Formative Practice 2.2 | Experiment 2.2
- Formative Practice 2.3 | Activity 2.3 | Experiment 2.3 | Formative Practice 2.4 | Formative Practice 2.5
- Summative Practice Chapter 2 | Question 1, 2 & 3 | Question 4, 5 & 6 | Question 7, 8, 9 & 10
03 Nutrition in Plants
- Main Inorganic Nutrients
- Experiment 3.1 | Formative Practice 3.1 | Activity 3.2 | Formative Practice 3.2 | Activity 3.3 | Formative Practice 3.3
- Summative Practice Chapter 3 | Question 1 & 2 | Question 3, 4 & 5
04 Transport in Plants
- Vascular Tissues
- Activity 4.1 | Formative Practice 4.1 | Experiment 4.1 | Experiment 4.2 | Activity 4.2 | Formative Practice 4.2 |
- Experiment 4.3 | Formative Practice 4.3 | Experiment 4.4 | Experiment 4.5 | Formative Practice 4.4
- Summative Practice Chapter 4 | Question 1 & 2 | Question 3 & 4
05 Response in Plants
- Plant Hormones
- The role of auxins in the tropic movements in plants
- Types of Responses
- Understanding Plant Hormones | Part 1
- Formative Practice 5.1 | Formative Practice 5.2 | Experiment 5.2 | Formative Practice 5.3
- Summative Practice Chapter 5 | Question 1 & 2 | Question 3 & 4
06 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
- Structure of a Flower
- Activity 6.1 | Formative Practice 6.1 | Activity 6.2 | Formative Practice 6.2 | Activity 6.4
- Formative Practice 6.3 | Activity 6.6 | Formative Practice 6.4 | Formative Practice 6.5
- Summative Practice Chapter 6
07 Adaptations of Plants in Different Habitats
- Adaptations of Plants
- Formative Practice 7.1
- Summative Practice Chapter 7 | Question 1 | Question 2 & 3
08 Biodiversity
- Classification System and Naming of Organisms
- Activity 8.1 | Formative Practice 8.1 | Formative Practice 8.2 | Formative Practice 8.3
- Summative Practice Chapter 8 | Question 1 & 2 | Question 3, 5 & 6 | Question 7 & 8 | Question 9
09 Ecosystem
- The Abiotic and Biotic Components of the Environment | Questions 1 & 2
- The Abiotic and Biotic Components of the Environment | Part 1 | Part 2 | Part 3 | Part 4
- The Process of Colonisation and Sucession in an Ecosystem | Part 1
- Experiment 9.1 | Formative Practice 9.1 | Activity 9.3 | Activity 9.4 | Activity 9.5 | Formative Practice 9.2
- Summative Practice chapter 9 | Question 1 & 2 | Question 3, 4 & 5
10 Environmental Sustainability
- Human Activities that Endanger the Ecosystem
- The Greenhouse Effect and Thinning of the Ozone Layer
- The Importance of Proper Management of Development Activities and the Ecosystem
- Human Activities that Endangered an Ecosystem | Questions 1 & 2
- Experiment 10.1 | Formative Practice 10.1 | Formative Practice 10.2 | Formative Practice 10.3 | Formative Practice 10.4
- Summative Practice 10 | Question 1 | Question 2 | Question 3 & 4
- Human Activities that Endanger the Ecosystem (7 Questions)
- The Greenhouse Effect and Thinning of the Ozone Layer (6 Questions)
- Proper Management of Development Activities and the Ecosystem (3 Questions)
11 Inheritance
- The Concept of Inheritance Based on Mendel's Experiment
- Inheritance
- Genes and Chromosomes
- The Concept of Inheritance Based on Mendel's Experiment | Part 1
- Inheritance | Part 1 | Part 2
- Activity 11.1 | Formative Practice 11.1 | Formative Practice 11.2 | Formative Practice 11.3 | Formative Practice 11.4
12 Variation
- Variation in Organisms
- Cause of Variation
- Be Respectful Towards One Another Despite Variation
- Variation in Organisms | Part 1 | Part 2
- Cause of Variation | Part 1
- Formative Practice 12.1 | Experiment 12.1 | Activity 12.3 | Formative Practice 12.2 | Formative Practice 12.3
- Summative Practice 12 | Question 1 | Question 2
13 Genetic Technology
- Genetic Engineering
- Biotechnology
- Formative Practice 13.1 | Formative Practice 13.2
- Summative Practice 13 | Question 1 | Question 2 | Question 3 & 4
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Biology Form 4 Notes
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Chapter 1 : Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules
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Chapter 2 : Cell Biology and Cell Organisation
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Chapter 3 : Movement of Substances Across Plasma Membrane
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Chapter 4 : Chemical Composition in a Cell
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Chapter 5 : Metabolism and Enzymes
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Chapter 6 : Cell Division
![biology essay kssm biology essay kssm](https://question.pandai.org/uploads/syllabus_chapter/125-image-964.png)
Chapter 7 : Cellular Respiration
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Chapter 8 : Respiratory System in Humans and Animals
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Chapter 9 : Nutrition and Digestive System of Humans
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Chapter 10 : Transportation in Humans and Animals
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Chapter 11 : Human Immunity
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Chapter 12 : Coordination and Response in Humans
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Chapter 13 : Homeostasis and Urinary System of Humans
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Chapter 14 : Support and Locomotion in Humans and Animals
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Chapter 15 : Sexual Reproduction, Development and Growth
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Cell Division
6.1 - Cell Division
Cell division is a natural process that occurs in all living organisms. In unicellular organisms, cell division is a way of reproduction; in multicellular organisms, cell division is the means of tissue growth and maintenance. New cells need to be produced constantly to replace the dead or old cells. There are two stages of cell division which are karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
- Karyokinesis is the process of nuclear division.
- Cytokinesis is the process of cytoplasm division.
![biology essay kssm Figure 1](https://weacademia-v2-bucket-production.s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/notes-biology-f4-chapter-6-1-1.png)
Figure 1 - Cytokinesis occurs in mitosis and meiosis in both animal and plant cells. It is the final steps that results in two new daughter cells. The formation of cleavage furrow is enough to differentiate animal cells from plant cells.
Somatic cells and reproductive cells/gametes are the two types of cells present in living organisms.
- Definition: All cells in the body except those from the germ line
- Production: Produced through mitosis
- Number of chromosomes: Contains diploid number of chromosomes (2n)
- Examples: Muscle cell, nerve cell, red blood cells etc.
- Definition: Cells in the sexual organs
- Production: Produced through meiosis
- Number of chromosomes: Contains haploid number of chromosomes (n)
- Examples: Sperms and ova
Diploid cells are cells that have two complete sets of chromosomes, one set from the father ( paternal chromosomes ) and other set from the mother ( maternal chromosomes ). On the other hand, haploid cells have only half the number of chromosomes as diploid – they only have one complete set of chromosomes.
![biology essay kssm Figure 2](https://weacademia-v2-bucket-production.s3.ap-southeast-1.amazonaws.com/notes-biology-f4-chapter-6-1-2.png)
Figure 2 - Haploid (left) refers to only one copy of each of the chromosome. Diploid (right) has two copies of the chromosomes.
Answer practice questions to test your knowledge
6.2 - Cell Cycle and Mitosis
6.3 - Meiosis
6.4 - Issues of Cell Division on Human Health
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Chapter 1 : Plant Tissue Organisation and Growth
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Chapter 2 : Structure and Leaf Function
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Chapter 3 : Nutrition in Plants
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Chapter 4 : Transportation in Plants
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Chapter 5 : Response in Plants
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Chapter 6 : Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
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Chapter 7 : Adaptation of Plants to Different Habitats
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Chapter 8 : Biodiversity
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Chapter 9 : Ecosystem
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Chapter 10 : Environmental Sustainability
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Chapter 11 : Inheritance
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Chapter 12 : Variation
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Chapter 13 : Genetic Technology
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KURIKULUM STANDARD SEKOLAH MENENGAH BIOLOGY 4FORM WRITERS Gan Wan Yeat Nor Azlina binti Abd. Aziz Yusmin binti Mohd. Yusuf Noor Haniyatie binti Ibrahim TRANSLATORS Michelle Harris Nor Azlina binti Abd. Aziz Yusmin binti Mohd. Yusuf EDITORS Stella Melkion Mohd Haziq bin Kahar DESIGNER Siti Aishah binti Mohd ILLUSTRATORS Hazli bin Hashim Sara Fateha binti Muhd Kamil Nigel Teoh Tsen Wee Ling Chan Khong Wei Lin Pu Kuan 2019 KEMENTERIAN PENDIDIKAN MALAYSIA Book Serial No.: 0177 Acknowledgement KPM2019 ISBN 978-967-2250-83-8 The publishing of this textbook involves First Published 2019 cooperation from various parties. Our © Ministry of Education Malaysia wholehearted appreciation and gratitude goes All rights reserved. No part of this book may out to all involved parties: be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, • Educational Resources and Technology electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording division. or otherwise, without prior permission of the Director General of Education, Ministry of • Committee members of Penyemakan Education Malaysia. Negotiation is subject to the Naskhah Sedia Kamera, Educational calculation of royalty or honororium. Resources and Technology Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia. Published for the Ministry of Education Malaysia by: Must Read Sdn. Bhd., • Committee members of Penyemakan No. 33 Jalan SBC 6 Pembetulan Naskhah Sedia Kamera, Taman Sri Batu Caves Educational Resources and Technology 68100 Batu Caves Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia. Selangor Darul Ehsan No. Tel: 03 – 6187 1611 • Officers of the Educational Resources and Fax: 03 – 6187 1613 Technology Division and the Curriculum Design and typesetting by: Development Division, Ministry of Angevil Design & Marketing Education Malaysia Font style: Minion Pro Font size: 11 pt. • Officers of the English Language Teaching Printed by: Centre (ELTC), Institute of Teacher Aslita Sdn. Bhd., Education Malaysia, Ministry of Education No. 10 & 12, Jalan 2/10B, Malaysia. Spring Crest Industrial Park, 68100 Batu Caves, Kuala Lumpur • Chairperson and members of the Quality Control Panel. • Editorial Team and Production Team, especially the illustrators and designers. Preface This textbook has been written based on the Dokumen Standard Kurikulum dan Pentaksiran (DSKP) for Biology Form 4, published by the Ministry of Education, Malaysia. It is guided by the concepts of Scientific Skills, Science Process Skills, Higher Order Thinking Skills, 21st Century Skills and the STEM teaching and learning approach. The objective of this textbook is to develop well-rounded pupils and to equip them with the skills needed for the 21st century. Special features of this book: Biological Lense Higher-order thinking questions which cover applying, analysing, evaluating and Additional information related to theories creating questions and concepts Take Note! Our World of Biology Reminders for students when carrying Illustrates the application of theories and out activities or experiments concepts learnt in everyday life Questions to test pupils’ understanding Brainstorm! at the end of every subtopic Challenges pupils to think critically and Summative Practice creatively Questions to test pupils’ understanding Malaysian Innovation at the end of every chapter The successes of Malaysian scientists and Summary the related scientific and technological developments in Malaysia A summary of the main concepts MKielrlejanynaiaMlilCeaniraeer Self Reflection Describes careers related to a concept A checklist on the mastery of concepts for or topic pupils’ reference STEM Bulletin 4.2.3 Learning Standard based on the Form Highlights current developments in the 4 Biology Dokumen Standard Kurikulum related fields of science and technology dan Pentaksiran (DSKP) Across the Fields Shows the connection between biology and other fields Activity Zone Suggested activities for pupils to carry out iii A Fun Learning Experience This book consists of digital resources in the form of Augmented Reality (AR) and QR codes. These resources can be accessed by scanning the AR or QR codes Exciting New Experience While Readingwhich can be found in selected pages, using a smartphone or electronic tablet. Exciting New Experience While ReEaxdciintigng New E Steps in accessing the AR resources 1 21 2 2 Scan 31 3 3 2 Exciting New Experience While Reading Scan 1 2 Scan 3 AR SnapLearn SnapLearn SnapLearn Download Activate by scanning Scan to Snaplearn APP this QR Code experience AR SnapLearn Activate by scanning Scan the pages Ac this QR Code DownloadiOS 7.0 or Android 4.0 and above SwtniothDaaertcpeohxcselwepoeasuSebsnarcorctlehvionsaeee.annAiAcdRocPtnoePAR SSnnaaDppoLweleanrlaonaradnptphAeoPntPo your electronic device. ownload Click on the Scan t button and scan the Activateabobveycodse.canning plearn APP this QR Code experienciOS 7.0 or AnAdcrocides4.s0inangd tahboeveQR resources iOS A variety of complementary content such as videos, additional activities, quizzes and additional information can be accessed by scanning the QR codes found in selected pages using any QR code scanner. iOS 7.0 or Android 4.0 and above ICT 4.4 ICT 7.1 ICT 10.1 Quiz: Test your Video: Aerobic Activity: Studying the understanding of respiration effects of changes in lipids total surface area to volume ratio (TSA/V) iv on diffusion rate. Contents Title Page 84 i 5 Metabolism and Enzymes Copyright Page and Acknowledgments ii 5.1 Metabolism 86 Preface iii 5.2 Enzymes 86 5.3 Application of Enzymes in Daily Life 95 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF 1 6 Cell Division 98 BIOLOGY 6.1 Cell Division 100 6.2 Cell Cycle and Mitosis 101 1 Introduction to Biology and 6.3 Meiosis 105 108 Laboratory Rules 2 6.4 Issues of Cell Division on Human Health 112 1.1 Fields and Careers in Biology 4 1.2 1.3 Safety and Rules in a Biology Laboratory 6 7 Cellular Respiration Communicating in Biology 11 1.4 Scientific Investigation in Biology 15 7.1 Energy Production through 114 Cellular Respiration 115 117 7.2 Aerobic Respiration 2 Cell Biology and Organisation 20 7.3 Fermentation 2.1 Cell Structure and Function 22 2.2 Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms 28 2 2.3 Living Processes in Multicellular 30 PHYSIOLOGY OF 37 HUMANS AND Organisms ANIMALS 125 2.4 Levels of Organisation in Multicellular Organisms 44 8 Respiratory Systems in 126 Humans and Animals 3 Movement of Substances 128 across a Plasma Membrane 8.1 Types of Respiratory System 132 8.2 Mechanisms of Breathing 136 3.1 Structure of Plasma Membrane 46 8.3 Gaseous Exchange in Humans 49 8.4 Health Issues Related to the Human 138 3.2 Concept of Movement of Substances 57 Respiratory System across a Plasma Membrane 3.3 Movement of Substances across a Plasma Membrane in Living Organisms 3.4 Movement of Substances across a 65 9 Nutrition and the Human 142 Plasma Membrane and its Application Digestive System in Daily Life 9.1 Digestive System 144 144 4 Chemical Compositions in 70 9.2 Digestion 151 a Cell 9.3 Absorption 4.1 Water 72 9.4 Assimilation 153 4.2 Carbohydrates 73 9.5 Defaecation 155 4.3 Proteins 76 9.6 Balanced Diet 156 4.4 Lipids 77 9.7 Health Issues Related to the 4.5 Nucleic Acids 79 Digestive System and Eating Habits 161 v 10 Transport in Humans 13 Homeostasis and the Human 244 and Animals Urinary System 166 10.1 Types of Circulatory System 13.1 Homeostasis 246 10.2 Circulatory System of Humans 168 252 10.3 Mechanism of Heartbeat 173 13.2 The Urinary System 10.4 Mechanism of Blood Clotting 180 259 10.5 Blood Groups of Humans 183 13.3 Health Issues Related to 10.6 Health Issues Related to the 185 the Urinary System Human Circulatory System 10.7 Lymphatic System of Humans 187 264 10.8 Health Issues Related to the 189 Human Lymphatic System 14 Support and Movement in 193 Humans and Animals 11 Immunity in Humans 198 14.1 Types of Skeleton 266 267 14.2 Musculoskeletal System of Humans 272 14.3 Movement and Locomotion 277 14.4 Health Issues Related to the Human Musculoskeletal System 11.1 Body Defence 200 11.2 Actions of Antibodies 204 15 Sexual Reproduction, Development and Growth in 11.3 Types of Immunity 205 Humans and Animals 11.4 Health Issues Related to Immunity 209 284 12 Coordination and Response 15.1 Reproductive System of Humans 286 in Humans 214 15.2 Gametogenesis in Humans 288 15.3 Menstrual Cycle 293 12.1 Coordination and Response 216 15.4 Development of Human Foetus 297 12.2 Nervous System 220 15.5 Formation of Twins 300 12.3 Neurones and Synapse 223 15.6 Health Issues Related to the 302 Human Reproductive System 12.4 Voluntary and Involuntary Actions 226 15.7 Growth in Humans and Animals 303 12.5 Health Issues Related to the Nervous System 230 12.6 The Endocrine System 233 Glossary 311 12.7 Health Issues Related to the Endocrine System 238 References 314 vi THEME FUNDAMENTALS 1 OF BIOLOGY This theme aims to provide a basic understanding of biology through scientific investigation with the inquiry approach. This theme focuses on cells as basic living units, the role of the plasma membrane in cell physiology, chemical composition in cells and cell division. Chapter 1 Introduction to Biology and Laboratory Rules Chapter 2 Cell Biology and Organisation Chapter 3 Movement of Substances across a Plasma Membrane Chapter 4 Chemical Composition in a Cell Chapter 5 Metabolism and Enzymes Chapter 6 Cell Division Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration CHAPTER Introduction to Biology and Laboratory 1 Rules • Do You KNOW… • tWWWhehhhaafaittettladdyropseeeotshfoebbf icifooiaelloorldeggesyyr?osmfcesaatnund?yyouinpbuiorslougeyi?n • What are the effects • iWn haabtiaorloegtyhelasbaofreattyoeryq?uipment and rules of the Industrial • How do you Revolution 4.0 on the biology? communicate in the fields of fields of biology? • sHcoiewntisifikcninovwelestdiggaetigoani?ned through 2 1.1 Fields and Careers in Biology 1.1.1 State the meaning of biology. 1.1.2 List the fields of study in biology, careers and development in related 1.1.3 fields. Generate ideas about development 1.1.4 in biology fields and contribution of technology in biology to humans. Give examples of careers related to the fields of biology. 1.2 Safety and Rules in Biology Laboratory 1.2.1 Explain self protective equipment 1.2.2 and their functions. 1.2.3 Identify and justify substances that 1.2.4 can be disposed into the sink. 1.2.5 Identify and justify substances that 1.2.6 cannot be disposed into the sink. Describe methods in managing biological wastes. Communicate about steps to manage accidents in a laboratory. Conclude safety practices in a biology laboratory. 1.3 Communicating in Biology 1.3.1 Communicate by constructing 1.3.2 tables based on experimental data. 1.3.3 Plot a suitable graph based on the 1.3.4 data from an experiment. Sketch biological drawings based on observations. Identify body planes, sections and directional terms in organisms. 1.4 Scientific Investigation in Biology 1.4.1 Design an experiment to solve a problem using scientific investigation methods. 3 1.1 Fields and Careers in Biology ICT 1.1 What is Biology? Video: What is The word ‘Biology’ comes from the Greek word, ‘bios’ meaning life, Biology? and ‘logos’ meaning study. Biology is a detailed study of living things in (Accessed on 21 the natural environment. Biology allows us to understand the structure August 2019) and function of organisms, as well as the relationships and interactions between organisms with their environment. Some examples of biological study areas are shown below in Photograph 1.1. Botany Study of plant life Physiology Study of the function and mechanisms in organisms Ecology Genetics Study of the Study of interactions inheritance between and genetic organisms and variation their environment Biological Lens Microbiology The three-dimensional Study of (3D) bioprinting microorganisms technique is used to print and form artificial PHOTOGRAPH 1.1 Examples of biological research areas tissues and assist in the field of modern Malaysian Innovation medical engineering. One of Malaysia’s success in technological innovation is the production of biological scaffold 4 derived from shellfish for use in dental treatment. Technological innovation in Malaysia is spearheaded by researchers from public and private universities and research institutions. 1.1.1 1.1.2 The contribution of biology in everyday life CHAPTER 1 Biological knowledge has contributed a lot to mankind. Here are some examples of how biology has contributed to everyday life (Photograph 1.2). MEDICAL PHARMACEUTICAL In vitro fertilisation, family Production of synthetic planning, plastic surgery and vitamins, vaccines, insulin gene therapy. and synthetic enzymes. FOOD PRODUCTION AGRICULTURE Use of microorganisms in Transgenic crops and animals, the production of cheese, hydroponic and aeroponic soy sauce, tapai and technology. tempe. PHOTOGRAPH 1.2 Contribution of biology in everyday life Careers in Biology I am using information technology to I want to be a wildlife biologist. Which produce medicines. What is my profession? biological field should I choose? PHOTOGRAPH 1.3 Careers in biology 1.1Formative Practice 3 Choose one development in the field of biology and discuss its contributions to 1 What does biology mean? humans. 2 List three fields of biology and the 4 Name five careers that are related to the development in those fields. fields of biology. 1.1.3 1.1.4 5 Safety and Rules in Biology 1.2 Laboratory A biology laboratory is essential for conducting scientific investigations. To avoid unwanted incidences, we must always adhere to the safety rules and measures in a biology laboratory. We must also know the personal protective equipment and understand their functions. EMERGENCY SHOWER STATION EYE WASH STATION Used when chemicals or Used to wash the eyes when exposed to hazardous substances come chemicals or hazardous substances. into contact with the skin. FUME HOOD LAMINAR FLOW CABINET To avoid breathing Provides a flow of in hazardous filtered air for a clean gases like chlorine, work area in the bromine and laminar flow cabinet. nitrogen dioxide. BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINET 1.2.1 Provides an enclosed work space to study materials that have been (or are likely to have been) contaminated by pathogens. PHOTOGRAPH 1.4 Equipment and their functions in a biology laboratory 6 GOGGLES CHAPTER 1 To protect the eyes from hazardous chemicals FACE MASK To protect against smoke, vapour and dust that can affect the respiratory system LABORATORY GLOVES To handle biological samples HANDWASH To remove germs on hands LAB COAT To protect the skin and clothes from dangerous chemical splashes Brainstorm! Substances that can be disposed into the sink Why can certain substances be • Chemicals with pH values 5–9 disposed into the sink? • Low concentration liquids and solutions that are harmless to users (sucrose solution, dye solution, LAB SHOES distilled water) To prevent injury from glass shards and chemical spills Substances that cannot be disposed into the sink • Organic solvents (acetone, alcohol, benzene) • Substances that have a pH value of less than 5 or more than 9 • Chemicals (acids, greases, oils) • Solid waste (chemicals, glass, rubber) • Heavy metals (mercury) • Volatile substances • Toxic substances Brainstorm! • Organic waste (microorganisms, carcases) Why can’t certain • Reactive substances substances be • Radioactive substances disposed into the sink? PHOTOGRAPH 1.5 Personal protective equipment and their functions in the biology laboratory 7 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 Methods for managing biological waste After carrying out an experiment, there are wastes that need to be managed with care before disposal. Methods for managing different biological wastes according to Standard Operating Procedures are listed in Table 1.1. TABLE 1.1 Methods for managing biological waste (Photograph 1.6) Biological Example Management method waste Sharp instruments such as Placed into a special bin for sharp material categories syringes, needles, glass, disposal. This bin does not need to be sterilised. Category A scalpel and other sharp (sharp wastes) instruments that can cause Packed first in autoclave resistant biohazard injuries plastic bags, sterilised in an autoclave for Category B decontamination, and then placed into a (non-sharp Biological solid waste such biohazard bin (Photograph 1.6). Biohazard wastes) as gloves, tissue papers, plastic bags cannot be thrown into regular petri dishes, plastic culture waste baskets. Category C containers and hardened agar (animal carcases) Wrapped carefully in absorbent material (such as Animal carcases, organs and tissue papers), packed carefully into a biohazard tissues plastic bag and frozen. Category D Broth culture and liquid All biological liquid waste must be (liquids) medium such as blood decontaminated by autoclaving before disposal. Sterilised biological liquid wastes must be disposed immediately. Take Note! Biohazard plastic bag Sharp waste bin • Decontamination by autoclaving Biohazard bin Autoclave is done at a temperature of 121°C 1.2.4 and pressurised at 15 psi for 20 minutes. • Biohazard plastic bags that have been sterilised in an autoclave and sharp waste bin must be stored temporarily in a controlled storage place until the scheduled time for disposal. PHOTOGRAPH 1.6 Equipment to manage biological wastes 8 Accidents in the laboratory CHAPTER 1 Accidents in laboratories can be caused by carelessness, negligence or lack of skill in carrying out experiments. Here are the steps in managing accidents in laboratories. STEPS TO HANDLE GENERAL CHEMICAL SPILLS 1. Inform your teacher. 2. Declare the spill area as a restricted zone. 3. Prevent the chemical spill from spreading using sand. 4. Scoop up the chemical spill using appropriate equipment. 5. Dispose it safely. STEPS TO HANDLE MERCURY SPILLS PHOTOGRAPH 1.7 Chemical spills are stopped from spreading by using sand 1. Inform your teacher. 2. Declare the spill area as a restricted zone. 3. Sprinkle sulphur to cover the mercury spills. 4. Call the fire and rescue department. Practices in a biology laboratory Activity Zone The biology laboratory is a place for learning and research. However, there Find information on are some general safety rules that must always be practised by pupils. handling accidents in laboratories set by the CLOTHING ETHICS following agencies: Use a lab coat, gloves, safety shoes and goggles (i) Malaysian Biosafety when appropriate. and Biosecurity Association (MBBA). (ii) National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). LABORATORY SAFETY RULES SAFETY MEASURES FOR FIRES • Do not work alone in the laboratory • Stop work immediately and switch off without supervision. all nearby power sources. Unplug appliances. • Wash your hands after conducting an experiment. • Exit the laboratory according to the emergency exit plan. • Do not bring in irrelevant items into the laboratory. • Call the fire and rescue department. • Do not panic and stay calm. • Clean your workstation using disinfectant. • Do not turn back to collect • Dispose wastes according to the your belongings. set procedures. • Assemble at the assembly point. • Do not eat and drink in the laboratory. • Identify all safety symbols on substances and 9 equipment before use. 1.2.5 1.2.6 HANDLING GLASS AND CHEMICALS HANDLING LIVE SPECIMENS • Be cautious when handling hot glassware. • Use appropriate gloves when handling biological specimens. • Report any damaged equipment or glassware to teachers immediately. • Specimens that are not harmful and have been dissected should be buried or frozen. • Keep flammable chemicals away from fire sources. • Wash hands with antiseptic detergents before and after experiments. • Do not touch, taste and smell chemicals directly. • All surfaces and workstations should be cleaned with disinfectant before leaving the lab. EMERGENCY HELP The following procedures should be followed in the event of an accident: • Inform your teacher. • Call the fire and rescue emergency number. • Remove the victim from the scene. • Give emergency treatment. • Make the place of accident as a restricted area. Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values Scientific attitudes and noble value practices • Being responsible about the safety of when carrying out a scientific investigation: oneself, others and the environment. • Having interest and curiosity towards the • Appreciating and practising clean and environment. healthy living. • Being honest and accurate in recording • Appreciate the contributions of science and validating data. and technology. • Being diligent and persevering in carrying • Think critically and analytically. out a study. 1.2Formative Practice 3 An accident has occurred in the laboratory involving mercury spills. Explain the steps in 1 State three examples of personal protective handling the mercury spills. equipment in the lab and their functions. 4 Chemicals must be handled with care to 2 After conducting an experiment, you are avoid unwanted accidents. List steps for given a task to manage the disposal of proper handling of chemicals. Category B biological waste (non-sharp wastes). Think of the best way so that the biological waste does not affect the environment. 10 1.2.6 1.3 Communicating in Biology Biologists who conduct research need to communicate their research findings. Communication in biology involves tables, graphs and biological drawings. Tables Volume of oxygen released (cm3) Tables are used to record and present data. When you conduct an CHAPTER 1investigation, the experimental data needs to be recorded in a suitable table. A table allows you to organise data systematically for easy comparison. ICT 1.2 The headings in the table consist of the manipulated variable and the responding variable with the respective unit. Video: How to draw a graph a. The manipulated variable is placed in the column on the (Accessed on 21 left side. August 2019) b. The responding variable is placed in the column on the right side. Table 1.2 shows an example of a table in an experiment on the TABLE 1.2 Volume of oxygen released by effects of different temperatures (manipulated variable) aquatic plants at different temperatures on the volume of oxygen (O2) released by aquatic plants (responding variable). Temperature Volume of oxygen Graph(°C) released (cm3) 30 2.0 The relationship between the manipulated variable and 40 14.0 responding variable can be illustrated in the form of a 50 12.0 graph. There are several types of graphs such as line graphs, bar charts and histograms. The line graph shown in Figure 60 6.0 1.1 is based on the data in Table 1.2. 70 3.0 Volume of oxygen released versus temperature GENERAL METHOD OF DRAWING A GRAPH Temperature (°C) • The responding variable FIGURE 1.1 Example of a line graph is represented by the vertical axis (y-axis) and 1.3.1 1.3.2 the manipulated variable is represented by the horizontal axis (x-axis). • The scaling on the axis must be uniform. • Mark the points with an appropriate symbol such as ‘x’. • Title the graph: “Graph (responding variable) versus (manipulated variable)”. 11 Number of Form 4 pupils versus blood type A bar chart presents data using vertical bars that are not attached to each other. Number of Form 4 pupils METHOD OF DRAWING A BAR CHART Blood type NuNmubemrboefr sotfupduepnitlss • Draw two axes, the horizontal axis/X FIGURE 1.2 Example of a bar chart to represent the manipulated variable and the vertical axis/Y to represent the Take Note! responding variable. The graph title must be written as “<Y-axis label> versus <X-axis label>”. • Each width of the bar needs to be uniform. A histogram shows the visual distribution of data and the frequency of a value in a data set. • The bar height depends on the frequency of the data. • Bar charts are used to make comparisons between two or more items at a time. NuNmubmebr eorf opfusptiulsdveenrtssuvserhseuisghhteight 10 8 METHOD OF DRAWING A HISTOGRAM 6 • Draw two axes where the horizontal axis/X 4 represents the data that has been divided into groups according to the appropriate 2 range while the vertical axis/Y shows 0 Height the frequency. (cm) • Insert labels and units on the axes. Height (cm) • The size or width of the bars must be the FIGURE 1.3 Example of a histogram 115 - 120 same for all class gap with no spacing 121 -125 between the bars. 126 - 130 131 - 135 Biological drawings 136 - 140 141 - 145 146 - 150 151 - 155 156 - 160 161 - 165 Biological drawings must be exact to give an accurate representation of an observed specimen. Characteristics of biological drawings • Large and accurate; use a sharp pencil and not a colour pencil or pen. • Not shaded artistically. • Lines drawn must be clear, clean and continuous. Do not use a ruler to draw the outline of a specimen. 12 1.3.2 1.3.3 • Drawings must be labelled. Label lines must point to the correct CHAPTER 1 structure, no arrowheads, must be straight and not cross each other. • Drawings must have titles. • Each structure in the drawing must be placed in the correct position, and its size should be proportionate to the rest of the structures. • A plan drawing is a line drawing that shows the outline of a structure. • A detailed drawing shows the cells in a structure. • The magnification factor of a drawing must be stated, for example: Length of drawing in cm 2.4 = 2x Length of specimen in cm = 1.2 Therefore, the magnification factor is 2x. phloem xylem pith phloem cortex xylem pith (b) Detailed drawing (a) Plan drawing frontal plane horizontal plane FIGURE 1.4 Example of (a) plan drawing and (b) detailed drawing of cross section of dicotyledon stem sagittal plane Plane, section and direction 13 In biology, research and observation of an organism’s structure are done based on the plane, section and direction. The plane refers to a flat surface of shadow passing through the body. There are three main planes used (Figure 1.5): • sagittal plane (divides the body into right and left parts) • frontal plane (divides the body into frontal and rear parts) • horizontal plane (divides the body into upper and lower parts) FIGURE 1.5 Sagittal, frontal and horizontal planes 1.3.4 Cross section divides the structure into upper and lower portions horizontally while longitudinal section divides the structure into left and right portions (Photograph 1.8). Longitudinal section PHOTOGRAPH 1.8 Cross section Longitudinal section and cross section of a red carrot Many anatomical drawings of animals and plants need to be labelled with direction. All vertebrates have the same fundamental body plan that is symmetrical. Direction consists of anterior, ventral, posterior, dorsal, superior, inferior and lateral. By studying anatomical directions in biology, you can identify the orientation of the vertebrate that is stated. superior VENTRAL DORSAL SUPERIOR Towards the lower Towards the upper part of the body part of the body The part that is above all other parts or towards the dorsal head LATERAL lateral Far from the midline or at posterior the side of the body anterior INFERIOR ventral Situated below other parts ANTERIOR POSTERIOR or towards the feet Towards the front Towards the back of the body part of the body inferior FIGURE 1.6 Directional terms in biology 14 1.3.4 Scientific Investigation CHAPTER 1 1.4 in Biology Scientific investigations prove the validity of a hypothesis that has been made. The 5 Collecting data following are the steps in carrying out a scientific investigation. 6 Interpreting data and results through scientific 1 Identifying problems that can be reasoning tested using a scientific investigation 7 Forming a conclusion 2 Forming a hypothesis 8 Writing a report 3 Identifying and controlling variables and data collection method 4 Planning and carrying out a scientific investigation After you have completed the experiment, you need to write a report to prove that you have conducted the experiment. If a report is not written, your experiment will be invalid. Here is an example of an experimental report framework. 1.2 1.1ActisveitityivitcA Studying the effects of an activity on a pupil’s Experiment pulse rate Problem statement What is the effect of a vigorous activity on the pupil’s pulse rate? Hypothesis The pupil’s pulse rate increases after a vigorous activity. Variables Manipulated: Vigorous activity Responding: Pupil’s pulse rate Fixed: Pupil Materials and apparatus Measuring pulse rate Stopwatch Specimen Pupil Procedure 1 Count the pupil’s pulse for one minute before carrying out the activity. 2 The pulse is counted by placing two fingers on the wrist. 3 The pupil is asked to carry out a vigorous activity for three minutes. 4 After the vigorous activity is carried out, count the pupil’s pulse again for one minute. 5 Record the results in the following table. 1.4.1 15 Results Pulse rate (number of pulse beats per minute) Take Note! Pupil Before the vigorous After the vigorous Make sure the pupil activity activity is seated quietly A when the pulse rate B is taken. Discussion Take Note! 1 State the relationship between the pupil’s pulse rate with vigorous Make sure pupils activity. with health issues such as breathing 2 Explain why the pulse rate increases after doing a vigorous activity. and cardiovascular problems do not Conclusion take part in this Based on the results, state if the hypothesis can be accepted or rejected. activity. Report Prepare a complete report based on the experiment that was carried out. 1.3Formative Practice 1 The table below shows the results of an experiment to study the effects of substrate concentration on biochemical reactions. Starch Time to complete starch Rate of hydrolysis of Test tube concentration hydrolysis (minute) starch (% minute-1) (%) A 1.0 2.5 0.4 B 2.0 3.0 0.7 C 3.0 3.5 0.9 D 4.0 4.0 1.0 (a) Based on the table above, identify the manipulated variable and responding variable. (b) Draw a graph of rate of starch hydrolysis versus starch concentration using the correct scale and units. 2 State five characteristics that a biological drawing must have. 3 State the three main planes that are used for observation of the structure of an organism. 4 List the steps in a scientific investigation. 16 1.4.1 Summary CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY AND LABORATORY RULES Fields and Careers Safety and Rules Communicating in Scientific in Biology in the Biology Biology Investigation in Laboratory • Meaning of Biology biology • Personal protective equipment and • Tables Steps in a • Developments in their functions • Graphs scientific biology • Bar charts investigation • Methods of • Histograms • Contribution of managing • Biological drawings biology in life biological wastes • Planes, sections • Careers in • Safety practices and directions biology in the biology laboratory Self Reflection Have you mastered the following concepts? • Meaning of biology • Areas of study in biology, careers and progress in the related fields • Development in the fields of biology and contribution of biological technology to humans • Careers related to biology • Personal protective equipment and their functions • Substances that can be disposed into the sink • Substances that cannot be disposed into the sink • Methods of managing biological waste • Steps to manage accidents in the laboratory • Practices in a biology laboratory • Tables based on data from experiments conducted • Appropriate graphs based on data from experiments conducted • Biological drawings based on obser vations made • Body planes, sections and directional terminology in organisms • Experiment to solve problems using the scientific investigation method 17 Summative Practice 1 1 Why are you not allowed to wear slippers while in the laboratory? 2 Give the meaning of (a) cross section (b) longitudinal section 3 Discuss methods of biological waste management. 4 Describe the stages involved in a scientific investigation. 5 (a) An experiment was conducted to demonstrate the hydrolysis of starch by the amylase enzyme. Experiment apparatus provided are as in Figure 1. After an hour, samples from each test tube were tested using iodine test. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 AB thermometer water bath (37ºC) -10 0 1 ml starch solution + 1 ml starch solution + 1 ml 0.1% amylase 1 ml distilled water FIGURE 1 (i) Identify the problem statement for this experiment. (ii) State the appropriate hypothesis for this experiment. (iii) Identify the manipulated variable, responding variable and constant variable. (b) A pupil spilled hydrochloric acid while conducting an experiment. What action should be taken by the pupil? 18 Essay Questions CHAPTER 1 6 FIGURE 2 (a) Figure 2 shows an accident in a biology laboratory due to two pupils playing with fire while conducting an experiment. The accident caused one of the boys’ shirt to catch fire. Explain what the victim's friend should do. (b) Azlin is conducting an experiment involving the use of a thermometer. Accidentally, she drops the thermometer on the floor and the thermometer breaks. What steps does Azlin need to take in handling the spilled mercury waste? Explain your answer. (c) Plan an experiment to study the effect of sugar on the growth of yeast. Enrichment 7 The emergence of Industrial Revolution 4.0 has begun to change the way we work and the way we live. Various industries are experiencing drastic changes and at the same time transforming jobs related to those industries. In your opinion, what is the effect of the Industrial Revolution 4.0 to everyday life? Justify your opinion. 8 If you are given an assignment by your teacher to collect information on the development of tissue culture technique in Malaysia, suggest the steps that need to be taken to complete your assignment. Complete answers are available by scanning the QR code provided 19 CHAPTER Cell Biology and 2 Organisation Do you KNOW...• • uWpWnlahihcnaaetttllciauserlatellhrsteoharlenigfdecaonapminrsoimpmco?eanslescneotlsflsto?hfe Which cell • ooWsbWrrtgegrhhutaaawacnnttteiiasusiesmrarneettsishost?hepaneenriencdleliaavmthtleiiuseolsleintridoscfhufecinleplucllltaiorns? has the longest • life span? 20 2.1 Cell Structure and Function 2.1.1 Prepare microscope slides of animal and plant 2.1.2 cells. Identify the structures of animal and plant 2.1.3 cells based on observations through a light 2.1.4 microscope. 2.1.5 Analyse the components of animal and plant cells as seen on micrographs. State the main functions of components of animal and plant cells as seen on micrographs. Compare and contrast components of animal and plant cells. 2.2 Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms 2.2.1 Conceptualise living processes in unicellular organisms such as Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. 2.2.2 Deduce living processes in unicellular organisms as seen through a light microscope. 2.3 Living Processes in Multicellular Organisms 2.3.1 Correlate the uniqueness of specialised cell structures with their functions in multicellular organisms. 2.3.2 Identify specialised cells in multicellular organisms. 2.3.3 Analyse the density of certain organelles with the functions of specialised cells in multicellular organisms. 2.3.4 Describe the effects of deficiency, absence or failure in the function of an organelle of certain cells in multicellular organisms. 2.4 Levels of Organisation in Multicellular Organisms 2.4.1 Make a sequence of levels of organisation in 2.4.2 multicellular organisms. 2.4.3 Identify cells, tissues or organs in an organ system. Communicate about organ systems in multicellular organisms with their main functions. 21 2.1 Cell Structure and Function You may still recall the shape of cells you learned in Form 1. Much like the bee hive which is made up of hexagonal-shaped units, all living things are also made up of cells that are combined together. Cells are the basic units of all living things. Let us examine the structure of animal cells and plant cells through a light microscope. 1.2 2.1ActivsietyitivitcA Preparing and examining slides of plant cells Observation Materials One big onion, iodine solution, distilled water and filter paper Apparatus Glass slides, cover slips, light microscope, scalpel, a pair of forceps, dropper and mounting needle Procedure 1 Cut a piece of scale leaf from a big onion (a). 2 Remove the translucent epidermis from the inside of the scale leaf using a scalpel. 3 Add a drop of distilled water at the centre of the slide and lay the onion epidermis on the water (b). 4 Using a mounting needle, cover the onion epidermis with a cover slip by placing it at a 45° angle to the slide and slowly press it down. The temporary slide of this specimen is named as wet mount. Make sure there are no air bubbles trapped in the wet mount slide (c) and the onion epidermis is not folded. 5 Add a drop of iodine solution on one side of the cover slip. Place the filter paper at the opposite end of the cover slip to draw the iodine solution to absorb and stain the entire onion epidermis. This technique is known as the irrigation technique (d). bawang besar a pair of ffoorrsceeppss jarum tenggek larutan iodin eepidermfoisrseps kaca penujtaurpum tenggek larutan iodin boanwe abnigegpobindeieosrnamr is epidermis kaca penutup eeppiiddeermis glass sdertoitpisoaf idristilled Take Note! sewtiatitserair slide (b) (c(c)cAtr)oairvpbepurebsdblipulencsdatenhrabttheaere (a) removed by gently tapping the cover orseps (a) (b) slip with the tip of a (d) forseps cokvaecr asklipapec(anau)pteujanmpuroutuumjapnrtutienmnggtnegeneegkdgleek lariouladtariunnteaionsdoioliundt(iibno)n sharp pencil. (d) dermis setitissaetiritis air filter paper (b) (b) (c) (d) (c) (c) Preparation of plant cell slide (d()d) 22 2.1.1 2.1.2 6 Use a piece of filter paper to absorb excess iodine and distilled water. CHAPTER 2 7 Observe the slide through a light microscope with a low-power objective lens and then with a high-power objective lens. 8 Draw the epidermal cells structure that can be observed and label it completely. Record the magnification power. Discussion 1 What are the components of the cell that can be observed through the light microscope? 2 Does a plant cell have a fixed shape? 3 Name another type of plant that can be used in this activity to replace the onion. Conclusion Suggest a suitable conclusion for this observation. Using the same slide preparation method, prepare a slide of cheek cells (slide of animal cells) using a methylene blue solution. 1.2 2.2ActisveitiytivitcA Preparing and examining slides of animal cells Observation Materials Animal cell (cheek cell), methylene blue solution, distilled water, filter paper and toothpick Apparatus Glass slides, cover slips, light microscope, dropper and mounting needle Procedure 1 Gently scrape the inside of the cheek with a blunt tooth pick. 2 Transfer the scrapping into a drop of water on a clean glass slide and cover with the cover slip. 3 Stain the cheek cells with methylene blue solution using methylene blue solution filter paper the irrigation technique. Preparation of animal cell slide 4 Examine the cheek cells through a light microscope. Draw the cheek cells that can be observed. Record the magnification power. Discussion 1 What are the components of the cell that can be observed through the light microscope? 2 Does the human cheek cell have a permanent shape? 3 Can you see dark blue spots on the prepared cheek cell? 4 What are the similarities between animal cells and plant cells? Which component is present in the onion cell but is not present in the cheek cell? Conclusion Suggest a suitable conclusion for this observation. 2.1.1 2.1.2 23 Components of animal and plant cells and their functions MITOCHONDRION (PLURAL: MITOCHONDRIA) • It is rod-shaped or spherical • It consists of two layers of membranes, which are the smooth outer membrane and folded inner membrane • Contains enzymes that play a role in cellular respiration Function: • A site that generates energy through the glucose oxidation process during cellular respiration • Energy released in the form of ATP molecules (adenosine triphosphate) to be used by the cells CENTRIOLE cytoplasm lysosome nucleus mitochondrion nucleolus • Small cylindrical components that exist in pairs in animal cells centriole Golgi • Made up of complex apparatus arrangement of microtubules • Does not exist in plant cells Function: Forms spindle fibre during cell division in animal cells GOLGI APPARATUS ribosome • Consists of a stack of parallel flattened sacs that are plasma membrane smooth rough coated by a single cell membrane endoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum reticulum • New membrane is added at one end of the Golgi apparatus and vesicles bud off from the other end. Function: Processes, modifies, packs and transports chemicals such as protein, carbohydrate and glycoprotein (combination of carbohydrate and protein) FIGURE 2.1 Animal cells PLASMA MEMBRANE • Outer membrane that surrounds the entire content of cell outer environment • Made of proteins and phospholipids • Thin and elastic film plasma • Partially permeable membrane Function: cytoplasm • Separates content of cell from the external environment • Controls movement of substances into and out of the cell • Allows exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and waste materials between cells and their surroundings 24 2.1.3 2.1.4 LYSOSOME lysosome • Small spherical sac enclosed in a single membrane CHAPTER 2 • Contains hydrolytic enzymes Function: • Hydrolyses complex organic molecules such as protein, nucleic acid and lipid • Breaks down bacteria and components of damaged cells NUCLEUS (PLURAL: NUCLEI) RIBOSOME • Largest component in the cell • Small, compact and spherical granules • Consists of protein and ribonucleic acid • Spherical, compressed and enclosed in a nuclear membrane with many pores (RNA) • Ribosomes are present on the surface of • The nucleus contains chromosomes, nucleolus and nucleoplasm. the rough endoplasmic reticulum or exist freely in the cytoplasm. Function: Function: • Site for protein synthesis • Controls all cell activities ribosome • Has chromosomes that contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA determines the cell characteristics and metabolic function. nuclear nucleoplasm membrane nucleolus chromatin ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM • Consists of a system of interconnected folded flattened sacs • Endoplasmic reticulum membrane is continuous with the nuclear membrane. • There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: – Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to the surface – Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes Function: smooth endoplasmic reticulum • The transport system within the cell • Provides a wide surface for enzyme attachment and biochemical reactions • The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports proteins synthesised by ribosomes. • The smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesises and transports rough endoplasmic reticulum glycerol and lipids, and carries out the detoxification of drugs and metabolic by-products. 2.1.3 2.1.4 25 VACUOLE CHLOROPLAST • Liquid-filled sac, which is the cell sap. • Oval shaped • A vacuole is surrounded by the tonoplast • Consists of two layers of membrane membrane. • Contains chlorophyll pigments in the • Young plant cells have many small vacuoles while grana that give plants a green colour mature plant cells have a large vacuole. Function: chloroplast • The vacuole in animal cells is small. Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and converts • Cell sap contains water, organic acids, sugars, it to chemical amino acids, enzymes, mineral salts, oxygen, energy during carbon dioxide and metabolic by-products. photosynthesis. Function: tonoplast vacuole • Water is absorbed into the vacuole plant cell and the cell becomes turgid. • In unicellular animals, the vacuole contracts during osmoregulation, osmosis and excretion. nuclear membrane CYTOPLASM vacuole nucleolus • Consists of a jelly-like chloroplast nucleus endoplasmic medium that contains cytoplasm reticulum components of the suspended cells mitochondrion Golgi appratus • Contains organic cell wall compounds (such plasma membrane as protein, lipid and carbohydrate) and FIGURE 2.2 Plant cell inorganic compounds (such as potassium ions) CELL WALL Function: Acts as a medium for • A strong and rigid outer layer cytoplasm biochemical reactions in cells • Made from cellulose fibre plasma • Fully permeable membrane cytoplasm Function: • Maintains the shape of plant cells cell wall 26 • Provides mechanical support to plant cells 2.1.3 2.1.4 Compare and contrast the CHAPTER 2 components of animal cells and plant cells You have learned about the components in animal and plant cells. What are the similarities and differences between the components in animal and plant cells? cell wall nucleus cytoplasm nucleus cytoplasm plasma plasma membrane vacuole membrane PHOTOGRAPH 2.1 Structure of plant and animal cells through a light microscope SIMILARITIES Both cells are made of nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes. PLANT CELLS DIFFERENCES ANIMAL CELLS • Has a fixed shape • Does not have a fixed shape • Has a cell wall • Does not have a cell wall • Has chloroplasts • Does not have chloroplasts • Has a large vacuole • No vacuole/if present, it is small • Stores carbohydrate in the form of starch • Stores carbohydrate in the form of • Does not have a centriole glycogen • Has centrioles 2.1Formative Practice 3 Chloroplast is found in some plant cells only. Give one example of a plant cell that 1 State one structural difference between does not have chloroplast and give your the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the reasons. smooth endoplasmic reticulum. 4 Compare and contrast animal cells and 2 Why is the use of an electron microscope plant cells. important in studying cells? 27 2.1.5 2.2 Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell. However, this cell is a complete unit of life like multicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms carry out all life processes: respiration, movement, nutrition, responding to stimulus, reproduction, growth and excretion. Protozoans are the simplest form of unicellular organisms. Examples of protozoa are Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. Let us look at the life processes of ICT 2.1 Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. Activity: Studying the life processes of unicellular organisms vakuol makanan RESPONDING TO STIMULI pseudopodium MOVEMENT • Amoeba sp. constantly changes its shape when Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. respond to it encounters obstacles. Amoeba sp. moves by stimuli such as chemicals, touch or bright light extending out its pseudopodium (false feet). by moving away from the stimuli. This is followed by the flow of cytoplasm into the extended pseudopodium. endoplasma • Paramecium sp. moves using rhythmic cilia ekREtoSPpIRlaATsImONa beats. nukleusExchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide NUTRITION gases occur through the plasma membrane by 1 Amoeba sp. moves towards food by simple diffusion on the surface of the cell. extending its pseudopodium to trap food particles by phagocytosis (Figure 2.3). For 1 membran lysosome Paramecium sp. the presence of cilium beat pfoload sma helps transfer food particles into the oral groove. vakuol men2gecut 2 The food vacuole is combined with lysosome. pseudopodium food vacuole The food particles are hydrolysed by the enzyme lysozyme in the lysosomes. 3 4 3 The nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm. 4 Undigested food is discharged when the Amoeba sp. moves. Undigested food in the Paramecium sp. is discharged through the anus. GROWTH digested undigested Ameoba sp. and Paramecium sp. grow by food food synthesising new cytoplasm. nutrients absorbed 28 FIGURE 2.3 Nutrition in Amoeba sp. 2.2.1 2.2.2 EXCRETION REPRODUCTION • Waste such as carbon dioxide and ammonia are • When the conditions removed by diffusion. • As Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. live in are suitable and there CHAPTER 2 freshwater environments, water will diffuse by is plenty of food, osmosis and fill the contractile vacuole. • When the vacuole expands to the maximum size, Amoeba sp. and contraction occurs and water is excreted from time to time. Paramecium sp. will • This process is called osmoregulation. reproduce via plasma membrane asexual reproduction nucleus that is binary fission through mitosis. Binary fission • However, when the environmental conditions are not suitable, such as dry conditions, low temperature and food shortage, Conjugation the Amoeba sp. forms spores that will only germinate when the environment improves. • For Paramecium sp., sexual reproduction, that is conjugation occurs when environmental conditions are not suitable. contractile cilium vacuole food vacuole pseudopodium oral groove anus contractile PHOTOGRAPH 2.2 Amoeba sp. vacuole PHOTOGRAPH 2.3 nucleus Paramecium sp. 2.2Formative Practice reproduce when the Activity Zone environment is unfavourable? 1 What is the function of the Conduct an contractile vacuole in a 4 Predict what will happen to experiment using Paramecium sp.? the contractile vacuole if the a light microscope Paramecium sp. is placed in a to examine the 2 How does the Amoeba sp. concentrated salt solution. living processes of move? unicellular organisms. 3 How does the Amoeba sp. 2.2.1 2.2.2 29 2.3 Living Processes in Multicellular Organisms There are various types of cells in multicellular organisms which are different in size, shape and arrangement. The cell structure correlates to its function, and each type of cell is specialised to carry out a specific function. Photographs 2.4 and 2.5 show several types of specialised cells found in humans and plants as well as how these cells are adapted to carry out their respective functions. MUSCLE CELL NERVE CELL • Arranged as • Long and thin in multinuclear striated shape fibres • Functions in sending • Contract and relax to nerve impulses generate movement WHITE BLOOD EPITHELIAL CELL • Can chCaEnLgLe shape • Thin and flat cells • Can change shape • Coats the surface • Functions in of organs such as destroying pathogens the digestive tract RED BLOOD CELL SPERM CELL • Does not contain a • Has a long tail to enable it to nucleus swim towards the ovum in the Fallopian tube • Shaped as a biconcave disc • The head carries a set of chromosomes from the male • Functions to optimise transportation of oxygen PHOTOGRAPH 2.4 Several types of human cells that undergo specialisation to carry out 2.3.1 different functions 30 ICT 2.2 SIEVE TUBE ELEMENT XYLEM VESSEL CHAPTER 2 Activity: Observe plant • Long cylindrical tubes arranged • Long, continuous hollow tube tissue and animal tissue from end to end • Functions in transporting slides through a light • Transports organic materials from water and mineral salts microscope leaves to storage organs from the roots to the such as fruits other parts of the plant Cross section PALISADE MESOPHYLL CELL of leaf • Consists of long cylindrical cells, arranged vertically and close to each other • Contains high chlorophyll density • This arrangement allows maximum absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis PHOTOGRAPH 2.5 Certain types of plant cells SPONGY MESOPHYLL CELL undergo specialisation to carry out different functions • Cells are loosely arranged with lots of 2.3.1 air space in between • Large air space allows exchange of gas from the inside of the leaves to the palisade mesophyll cells GUARD CELL • Modified lower epidermal cells with the thicker cell wall on the inner side • Controls the opening and closing of the stoma. Stoma is the opening that allows the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide ROOT HAIR CELL • Has a long projection which adds surface area for the absorption of water and mineral salts 31 Cell organisation in humans You have learned that multicellular organisms (such as humans) consist of different types of cells with specific functions. How are these cells arranged to form a complex organism? Tissues are a group of cells that have the same structure and function and are arranged together to carry out a specific function. In organisms, tissues can be classified into four different types which are epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, nerve tissue and connective tissue. Epithelial tissue Epithelial tissue covers the outer surface (skin) and hollow surfaces in the body (digestive tract and respiratory tract) (Figure 2.4). The epithelial tissue structure is adapted based on its function. For example, the epithelial tissue on the skin protects against infections, injuries, chemicals and dehydration. Epithelial tissues that coat the trachea have projections like hair, known as cilia (singular: cilium). Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the mouth and oesophagus Epithelial tissue covers the surface of lungs, body cavities and blood vessels Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the trachea and bronchus Epithelial tissue lines tubules, glands and kidney ducts Epithelial tissue covers the small intestine FIGURE 2.4 Types of epithelial and muscle tissues 32 2.3.1 2.3.2 Muscle tissue CHAPTER 2 There are three types of muscle tissue: smooth muscle (found in the digestive tract, blood vessel, urinary tract and reproductive tract), skeletal muscle (found in legs and hands) and cardiac muscle (found in the heart wall) (Figure 2.4). Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle enable involuntary activities such as peristalsis along the digestive tract. Skeletal muscle is involved in controlled movement. Skeletal muscles contract and relax to generate movement in bones and limbs. Cardiac muscle builds walls of the heart that contract to pump blood to the whole body. Cardiac muscle contraction is involuntary. Nerve tissue Nerve tissue is made of neuron or nerve cells (Photograph 2.6). Each neuron consists of a cell body and nerve fibre called dendrite and axon. Nerve tissues can detect stimuli and then send information in the form of an electrical signal (nerve impulses) to the muscles or glands. Nerve tissue regulates and controls body activity. 2.3.1 2.3.2 PHOTOGRAPH 2.6 Nerve tissue 33 Connective tissue The connective tissue consists of various types of tissues and fibres (Figure 2.5). This tissue is distributed all over the body and has many functions. One of its functions is to link the organs. ICT 2.3 Activity: Discuss the importance white BLOOD TISSUE of cell specialisation in blood cell Blood plays a functional multicellular animals and plants red blood role in regulation, cell transportation and LOOSE CONNECTIVE protection. TISSUE It links the epithelial tissue to the tissue below it, and fixes the organs in their positions. BONE FIBROUS CONNECTIVE Bone forms the body TISSUE frame and protects the internal organs. These tissues form tendons and ligaments. The tendon ADIPOSE TISSUE connects bones and muscles while the ligaments connect Connective tissues bones to bones. keep fat under the skin dermis and the surface of all main organs. nucleus CARTILAGE collagen fibres Cartilage encloses bone tips to prevent the bone from wearing out. FIGURE 2.5 Connective tissue 34 2.3.1 2.3.2 Tissue organisation in plants CHAPTER 2 Tissue organisation in plants is summarised in Figure 2.6. PLANT TISSUE Meristem tissue Permanent tissue Apical Lateral Dermal Ground Vascular meristem meristem tissue tissue tissue tissue tissue Xylem tissue Parenchyma tissue Phloem tissue Collenchyma tissue Sclerenchyma tissue FIGURE 2.6 Tissue organisation in plants PARENCHYMA TISSUE PHOTOGRAPH 2.7 Meristem tissue at the tip Functions to store starch, protein and water. of the root This tissue can also carry out photosynthesis. COLLENCHYMA TISSUE PHOTOGRAPH 2.8 Functions in giving support to young, non-woody stems Different types of ground (herbaceous plants). tissues SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE 35 Functions in providing support and mechanical strength to all mature parts of the plant. 2.3.1 2.3.2 xylem vessel VASCULAR TISSUE Vascular tissues are made up of xylem tissue and phloem tissue. XYLEM TISSUE PHLOEM TISSUE The xylem functions in The phloem functions in transporting water and transporting organic matters mineral salts from the roots such as sucrose from the leaves to other parts of the plant. to all parts of the plant. Ligneous xylem tissue wall provides support and mechanical strength to the plants. sieve tube Density of certain cell components and specialised cell functions Since the functions performed by cells are different, some cells have a higher density of certain cell components. The density of a cell component in a particular cell is related to the specific function of the cell. Table 2.1 provides examples of cells that have a higher density of certain cell components. TABLE 2.1 Relationship between cell component density with specialised cell functions Types of cell Cell component found in Function abundance Sperm cell Requires a lot of energy to swim towards the uterus and Fallopian tube to fertilise the secondary oocytes Muscle cell such as flight Mitochondrion Requires a lot of energy to muscle cells in insects and contract and relax to enable birds movement and flight Plant meristem cell Requires a lot of energy to carry out active cell division process to produce new cells Palisade mesophyll cell Chloroplast Absorbs more sunlight to carry out the process of Spongy mesophyll cell photosynthesis Pancreatic cell Rough endoplasmic reticulum Increases synthesis and Goblet cell in intestinal Golgi apparatus secretion of digestive enzymes epithelium and respiratory Produces mucus tract Liver cell • Metabolises carbohydrates • Detoxification of drugs and poisons 36 2.3.3 All cell components perform their respective functions to ensure that the cells function at the CHAPTER 2 optimum level. The collaboration of all the components of the cells is similar to a factory with different parts and each with its specific function. What happens to the cell if there is a deficiency, absence or failure in any of the cell components such as lysosomes, mitochondrion, chloroplasts or ribosomes? Failure of the mitochondrion function or a mitochondrion disjunction can cause stunted growth, weak muscles, hearing and vision problems. Tay-Sachs is a hereditary disease caused by the failure of enzymes to produce in the lysosomes. Tay-Sachs patients will experience stunted growth and mental retardation. 2.3Formative Practice 3 Explain why the palisade mesophyll cell contains a lot of chloroplast. 1 State the components of cells found in high density in cells that secrete protein products. 4 Fat cells have three adaptive characteristics to allow the storage of fat. Describe the three 2 Briefly describe the structure and characteristics. function of the nerve tissue. 2.4 Levels of Organisation in Multicellular Organisms A group of different tissues epithelial tissue combine to form organs. Organs perform special heart cardiac muscle tissue functions as a result of the combination of tissues that nerve tissue connective tissue form the organ. For example, the heart organ is composed PHOTOGRAPH 2.9 Tissues that form the heart organ of epithelial tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, connective 37 tissue and nerve tissue. The epithelial tissue fills up space in the heart. Cardiac muscle tissue functions in pumping blood to the rest of the body. Connective tissues such as the blood, connect the systems in the organ. Nerve tissue regulates the rhythm of the heartbeat. 2.3.4 2.4.1 Each multicellular organism is made up of many ENDOCRINE SYSTEM organs. Different organs work together to carry out a specific function to form an organ system. • The endocrine There are 11 main organ systems in the human gland that secretes body (Figure 2.7), which are the respiratory hormones system, digestive system, blood circulatory system, lymphatic system, nervous system, Main function integumentary system, endocrine system, skeletal system, muscular system, urinary • Coordinates body system and reproductive system. activities with the nervous system RESPIRATORY SYSTEM • Trachea, nose, lungs and diaphragm Main function • Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the body and external environment MUSCULAR SYSTEM • Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles Main function • Contracts and relaxes to produce movements in different parts of the body MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM LYMPHATIC SYSTEM • Testes, prostate gland and penis • Spleen, lymph nodes and Main function lymph vessels • Produces sperm and male sex Main function hormone • Maintains balance of bodily FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM fluids and prevents infectious diseases • Ovary, uterus, Fallopian tube, vagina and cervix FIGURE 2.7 Main organ systems in the human body Main function • Produces ovum and female sex 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 hormones 38 NERVOUS SYSTEM Cell All the organ systems CHAPTER 2 are coordinated and • Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves Tissue collaborated as one Main function complete organism. • Detects and sends information in the body, as Organ The sequence of the organisation of cells well as coordinates body activities System in a multicellular organism is shown in BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Multicellular Figure 2.8. organism • Heart, artery, vein and blood capillary Main function Cell • Transports nutrients, respiratory gases and Tissue waste products Organ System DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Multicellular organism FIGURE 2.8 The sequence • Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, of the organisation of cells small intestine and large intestine in human beings Main function 39 • Digests food into a simpler form for easy absorption URINARY SYSTEM • Kidney, ureter, urethra and bladder Main function • Eliminates waste products such as urea and uric acid from the body SKELETAL SYSTEM • Bone, cartilage, ligament and tendon Main function • Supports the body, protects the internal organs and provides a base for muscle adhesion INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM • Skin Main function • Protects the body from physical injury, infection and dehydration 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 leaf shoot The plant system is divided into the shoot fruit system system and the root system (Figure 2.9). • The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, flower shoots, flowers and fruits. stem • Stems and twigs are support systems that root support the leaves at a vertical position to root allow maximum absorption of sunlight system during photosynthesis. • Flowers are involved in the pollination process. • The root system consists of all roots in a plant that function in absorbing water and mineral salts as well as providing support for plants. FIGURE 2.9 Two main systems in plants 3 Stems, twigs and flowers are organs in a plant. Describe how stems, twigs and 2.4Formative Practice flowers function in the shoot system. 1 State arrangement of sequence in the 4 Predict what will happen if the organisation organisation of cells in a multicellular level of cells does not exist in an organism. organism. 2 The skin is the largest organ in the body. Why is skin classified as an organ? Summary CELL BIOLOGY AND ORGANISATION Cell Structure and Living Processes in Living Processes in Levels of Function Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms Organisation Cell components Amoeba sp. and Relationship Cell Tissue Paramecium sp. between specific Organ • Nucleus • Mitochondrion • Movement cell structure • Response to and cell function System • Ribosome • Centriole Organism stimuli Relationship • Golgi apparatus • Chloroplast • Nutrition between cell • Respiration component • Cell membrane • Cell wall • Growth density and cell • Excretion function • Vacuole • Cytoplasm • Reproduction • Lysosome • Rough endoplasmic reticulum • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Effect of the absence of cell components to the cell 40 2.4.2 2.4.3 Self Reflection CHAPTER 2 Have you mastered the following important concepts? • Structure and function of animal cells and plant cells • Similarities and differences bet ween animal cells and plant cells • Living process of unicellular organism • Living process of multicellular organism • Relationship bet ween cell component densit y in a cell and its specific function • Effect of the absence or failure of the cell component function in multicellular organisms • Sequence of levels of organisation in multicellular organisms • Organ systems with its main functions in multicellular organisms Summative Practice 2 1 Why is chloroplast only found in plant cells and not in animal cells? 2 Explain the asexual reproduction of Amoeba sp. 3 An aphid is a small insect which sucks sap in plants. An aphid puts its mouth in the stem of a plant and sucks its nutrients. Name the liquid obtained from the plant and explain why aphids are mostly found in the daytime. 4 Figure 1 shows a plant cell. PP FIGURE 1 State the characteristics of P and its function. 41 5 X is a digestive organ consisting of cells with a high concentration of rough endoplasmic reticulum for protein digestion. What is X? Explain your answer. 6 Plant cells undergo process X to form xylem vessels. Name process X. Explain how xylem vessels are specialised in transporting water and mineral salts. 7 Arif is a farmer. He uses a weed killer to control the weed population growth on his farm. Weed killers can stop the transportion of certain minerals in plants through the hair root tissue. Explain why. 8 Explain how an Amoeba sp. can survive in fresh water that is hypotonic to the cytoplasm of the organism. 9 Figure 2 shows one cell that can be seen through an electron microscope. N (a) (i) Name structure K. (ii) State the function of structures K and N. L (b) Explain how L mantains the turgidity of the cell. K 10 State the differences between the following: (a) meristematic tissue with plant epidermal tissue, (b) cell and tissue, (c) epithelial tissue and muscle tissue. 11 Figure 3 shows the structure of a leaf. FIGURE 2 R P S Q FIGURE 3 (a) Name the cells labelled P and R. (b) State the functions of cells P and R. (c) Explain the role of cell Q in increasing the rate of photosynthesis. (d) S contains two types of tissue. (i) Name the two tissues. 42 (ii) Explain the adaptive features of tissues in S that help in the transportation of materials in CHAPTER 2 plants. Essay Questions 12 Using an example of a unicellular organism, explain the five living processes of this organism. 13 Figure 4 shows a unicellular organism that lives in a fresh water pond. X FIGURE 4 (a) Explain the function of X in osmoregulation. (b) Predict what will happen if a cell does not have a Golgi apparatus. Explain your answer. (c) For each of the following cell, explain the relationship between structure and function. (i) (ii) cell P cell Q FIGURE 5 Enrichment 14 Many cancers start with the epithelial tissue. This includes lung cancer, colon cancer and skin cancer. What are the two characteristics of this tissue that can cause cancer? 15 The damage to the cartilage disc between the vertebrae of the spine is difficult to repair by their own cells. What is the latest technology that can be used to develop new cartilage tissues? Complete answers are available by scanning the QR code provided 43 CHAPTER Movement of Substances Across the Plasma 3 Membrane What is the • mWDohdaoet li?sythoe ufluidKmNosOaicW... association of carrier protein on plasma • mtoWofehmsmauotbbvarseartenaaentc?hcreoesscsthhtaharetacaptrleearsaismbtilaces membrane with • genetic diseases • eoHpWvfaoemhswrasyotiddvvaaoeerymeaylonietfhudene?taaoepcfxtpiasvlymuebtpthsrleateanscnsoocpnfeocsreti?pnt such as hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HYPP) in horses? 44
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F5 kssm biology b1 & b2, what's so unique about this course.
Mr. Khor's Biology E-course is concise yet comprehensive, covering all necessary topics in a short amount of time. The course's quality content, efficient teaching style, and clear explanations make even complex biological concepts easy to grasp. The course is short but packed with valuable information that will benefit students in their biology studies.
Course curriculum
[ Valid for 120 days ]
Chapter 1: Organisation of Plant Tissues and Growth
16.1 Organisation of Plant Tissues (Part 1)
16.1 Organisation of Plant Tissues (Part 2)
16.2 Growth
16.3 Growth Curve of Plants
F5B1 Exercise
F5B1 Exercise (Answers)
Chapter 2: Leaf Structure and Function
17.1 Leaf structure & Stoma Opening and Closing Mechanism
17.2 Transpiration
17.3 Photosynthesis (Light Reaction)
17.3 Photosynthesis (Dark Reaction)
17.4 Compensation Point
F5B2 Exercise (Omit Q6)
F5B2 Exercise : Answers (Omit Q6)
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TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP)
Description: textbook biology form 4 (dlp), read the text version.
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1 ml 0.1% amylase 1 ml distilled water FIGURE 1 (i) Identify the problem statement for this experiment. (ii) State the appropriate hypothesis for this experiment. (iii) Identify the manipulated variable, responding variable and constant variable. (b) A pupil spilled hydrochloric acid while conducting an experiment. What action should be taken by the pupil? 18 11/13/2019 12:10:09 PM BioT4(NC)-B1-FA_EN New 6th.indd 18 Essay Questions CHAPTER 1 6 FIGURE 2 (a) Figure 2 shows an accident in a biology laboratory due to two pupils playing with fire while conducting an experiment. The accident caused one of the boys’ shirt to catch fire. Explain what the victim's friend should do. (b) Azlin is conducting an experiment involving the use of a thermometer. Accidentally, she drops the thermometer on the floor and the thermometer breaks. What steps does Azlin need to take in handling the spilled mercury waste? Explain your answer. (c) Plan an experiment to study the effect of sugar on the growth of yeast. Enrichment 7 The emergence of Industrial Revolution 4.0 has begun to change the way we work and the way we live. Various industries are experiencing drastic changes and at the same time transforming jobs related to those industries. In your opinion, what is the effect of the Industrial Revolution 4.0 to everyday life? Justify your opinion. 8 If you are given an assignment by your teacher to collect information on the development of tissue culture technique in Malaysia, suggest the steps that need to be taken to complete your assignment. Complete answers are available by scanning the QR code provided BioT4(NC)-B1-FA_EN New 6th.indd 19 19 11/13/2019 12:10:10 PM CHAPTER Cell Biology and 2 Organisation Do you KNOW...• • uWpWnlahihcnaaetttllciauserlatellhrsteoharlenigfdecaonapminrsoimpmco?eanslescneotlsflsto?hfe Which cell • ooWsbWrrtgegrhhutaaawacnnttteiiasusiesmrarneettsishost?hepaneenriencdleliaavmthtleiiuseolsleintridoscfhufecinleplucllltaiorns? has the longest • life span? 11/12/2019 11:42:12 PM 20 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 20 2.1 Cell Structure and Function 2.1.1 Prepare microscope slides of animal and plant 2.1.2 cells. Identify the structures of animal and plant 2.1.3 cells based on observations through a light 2.1.4 microscope. 2.1.5 Analyse the components of animal and plant cells as seen on micrographs. State the main functions of components of animal and plant cells as seen on micrographs. Compare and contrast components of animal and plant cells. 2.2 Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms 2.2.1 Conceptualise living processes in unicellular organisms such as Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. 2.2.2 Deduce living processes in unicellular organisms as seen through a light microscope. 2.3 Living Processes in Multicellular Organisms 2.3.1 Correlate the uniqueness of specialised cell structures with their functions in multicellular organisms. 2.3.2 Identify specialised cells in multicellular organisms. 2.3.3 Analyse the density of certain organelles with the functions of specialised cells in multicellular organisms. 2.3.4 Describe the effects of deficiency, absence or failure in the function of an organelle of certain cells in multicellular organisms. 2.4 Levels of Organisation in Multicellular Organisms 2.4.1 Make a sequence of levels of organisation in 2.4.2 multicellular organisms. 2.4.3 Identify cells, tissues or organs in an organ system. Communicate about organ systems in multicellular organisms with their main functions. BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 21 21 11/12/2019 11:42:13 PM 2.1 Cell Structure and Function You may still recall the shape of cells you learned in Form 1. Much like the bee hive which is made up of hexagonal-shaped units, all living things are also made up of cells that are combined together. Cells are the basic units of all living things. Let us examine the structure of animal cells and plant cells through a light microscope. 1.2 2.1ActivsietyitivitcA Preparing and examining slides of plant cells Observation Materials One big onion, iodine solution, distilled water and filter paper Apparatus Glass slides, cover slips, light microscope, scalpel, a pair of forceps, dropper and mounting needle Procedure 1 Cut a piece of scale leaf from a big onion (a). 2 Remove the translucent epidermis from the inside of the scale leaf using a scalpel. 3 Add a drop of distilled water at the centre of the slide and lay the onion epidermis on the water (b). 4 Using a mounting needle, cover the onion epidermis with a cover slip by placing it at a 45° angle to the slide and slowly press it down. The temporary slide of this specimen is named as wet mount. Make sure there are no air bubbles trapped in the wet mount slide (c) and the onion epidermis is not folded. 5 Add a drop of iodine solution on one side of the cover slip. Place the filter paper at the opposite end of the cover slip to draw the iodine solution to absorb and stain the entire onion epidermis. This technique is known as the irrigation technique (d). bawang besar a pair of fforsceps jarum tenggek larutan iodin boanwe abnigegpobindeieosrnamr is eepidermfoisrseps kaca penujtaurpum tenggek larutan iodin epidermis kaca penutup eeppiiddeermis glass sdertoitpisoaf idristilled Take Note! slide sewtiatitserair (a) (b) (c(c)ctAr)oairvpbepurebsdblipulencsdatenhrabttheaere removed by gently forseps (a) (b) tapping the cover (d) dermepisidermifsorseps (a) jamrouumjanrtutienmnggtnegeneegkdgleek lariouladtariunnteaionsdoioliundt(ibno)n slip with the tip of a (d) cokvaecr asklipapecanupteunputup sharp pencil. setitissaetiritis air filter paper (b) (b) (c) (d) (c) (c) Preparation of plant cell slide (d()d) 22 2.1.1 2.1.2 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 22 11/12/2019 11:42:15 PM 6 Use a piece of filter paper to absorb excess iodine and distilled water. CHAPTER 2 7 Observe the slide through a light microscope with a low-power objective lens and then with a high-power objective lens. 8 Draw the epidermal cells structure that can be observed and label it completely. Record the magnification power. Discussion 1 What are the components of the cell that can be observed through the light microscope? 2 Does a plant cell have a fixed shape? 3 Name another type of plant that can be used in this activity to replace the onion. Conclusion Suggest a suitable conclusion for this observation. Using the same slide preparation method, prepare a slide of cheek cells (slide of animal cells) using a methylene blue solution. 1.2 2.2ActisveitiytivitcA Preparing and examining slides of animal cells Observation Materials Animal cell (cheek cell), methylene blue solution, distilled water, filter paper and toothpick Apparatus Glass slides, cover slips, light microscope, dropper and mounting needle Procedure 1 Gently scrape the inside of the cheek with a blunt tooth pick. 2 Transfer the scrapping into a drop of water on a clean glass slide and cover with the cover slip. 3 Stain the cheek cells with methylene blue solution using methylene blue solution filter paper the irrigation technique. Preparation of animal cell slide 4 Examine the cheek cells through a light microscope. Draw the cheek cells that can be observed. Record the magnification power. Discussion 1 What are the components of the cell that can be observed through the light microscope? 2 Does the human cheek cell have a permanent shape? 3 Can you see dark blue spots on the prepared cheek cell? 4 What are the similarities between animal cells and plant cells? Which component is present in the onion cell but is not present in the cheek cell? Conclusion Suggest a suitable conclusion for this observation. 2.1.1 2.1.2 23 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 23 11/12/2019 11:42:16 PM Components of animal and plant cells and their functions MITOCHONDRION (PLURAL: MITOCHONDRIA) • It is rod-shaped or spherical • It consists of two layers of membranes, which are the smooth outer membrane and folded inner membrane • Contains enzymes that play a role in cellular respiration Function: • A site that generates energy through the glucose oxidation process during cellular respiration • Energy released in the form of ATP molecules (adenosine triphosphate) to be used by the cells CENTRIOLE cytoplasm lysosome nucleus mitochondrion nucleolus • Small cylindrical components that exist in pairs in animal cells centriole Golgi • Made up of complex apparatus arrangement of microtubules • Does not exist in plant cells Function: Forms spindle fibre during cell division in animal cells GOLGI APPARATUS ribosome • Consists of a stack of parallel flattened sacs that are plasma membrane smooth rough coated by a single cell membrane endoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum reticulum • New membrane is added at one end of the Golgi apparatus and vesicles bud off from the other end. Function: Processes, modifies, packs and transports chemicals such as protein, carbohydrate and glycoprotein (combination of carbohydrate and protein) FIGURE 2.1 Animal cells PLASMA MEMBRANE • Outer membrane that surrounds the entire content of cell outer environment • Made of proteins and phospholipids • Thin and elastic film plasma • Partially permeable membrane Function: cytoplasm • Separates content of cell from the external environment • Controls movement of substances into and out of the cell • Allows exchange of nutrients, respiratory gases and waste materials between cells and their surroundings 24 2.1.3 2.1.4 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 24 11/12/2019 11:42:17 PM LYSOSOME lysosome • Small spherical sac enclosed in a single membrane CHAPTER 2 • Contains hydrolytic enzymes Function: • Hydrolyses complex organic molecules such as protein, nucleic acid and lipid • Breaks down bacteria and components of damaged cells NUCLEUS (PLURAL: NUCLEI) RIBOSOME • Largest component in the cell • Small, compact and spherical granules • Consists of protein and ribonucleic acid • Spherical, compressed and enclosed in a nuclear membrane with many pores (RNA) • Ribosomes are present on the surface of • The nucleus contains chromosomes, nucleolus and nucleoplasm. the rough endoplasmic reticulum or exist freely in the cytoplasm. Function: Function: • Site for protein synthesis • Controls all cell activities ribosome • Has chromosomes that contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA determines the cell characteristics and metabolic function. nuclear nucleoplasm membrane nucleolus chromatin ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM • Consists of a system of interconnected folded flattened sacs • Endoplasmic reticulum membrane is continuous with the nuclear membrane. • There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: – Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to the surface – Smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes Function: smooth endoplasmic reticulum • The transport system within the cell • Provides a wide surface for enzyme attachment and biochemical reactions • The rough endoplasmic reticulum transports proteins synthesised by ribosomes. • The smooth endoplasmic reticulum synthesises and transports rough endoplasmic reticulum glycerol and lipids, and carries out the detoxification of drugs and metabolic by-products. 2.1.3 2.1.4 25 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 25 11/12/2019 11:42:18 PM VACUOLE CHLOROPLAST • Liquid-filled sac, which is the cell sap. • Oval shaped • A vacuole is surrounded by the tonoplast • Consists of two layers of membrane membrane. • Contains chlorophyll pigments in the • Young plant cells have many small vacuoles while grana that give plants a green colour mature plant cells have a large vacuole. Function: chloroplast • The vacuole in animal cells is small. Chlorophyll absorbs sunlight and converts • Cell sap contains water, organic acids, sugars, it to chemical amino acids, enzymes, mineral salts, oxygen, energy during carbon dioxide and metabolic by-products. photosynthesis. Function: tonoplast vacuole • Water is absorbed into the vacuole plant cell and the cell becomes turgid. • In unicellular animals, the vacuole contracts during osmoregulation, osmosis and excretion. nuclear membrane CYTOPLASM vacuole nucleolus • Consists of a jelly-like chloroplast nucleus medium that contains cytoplasm components of the endoplasmic suspended cells reticulum • Contains organic compounds (such mitochondrion Golgi appratus as protein, lipid and cell wall carbohydrate) and plasma membrane inorganic compounds (such as potassium ions) FIGURE 2.2 Plant cell Function: Acts as a medium for CELL WALL biochemical reactions in cells • A strong and rigid outer layer cytoplasm cytoplasm • Made from cellulose fibre plasma • Fully permeable membrane 26 Function: • Maintains the shape of plant cells cell wall • Provides mechanical support to plant cells 2.1.3 2.1.4 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 26 11/12/2019 11:42:19 PM Compare and contrast the CHAPTER 2 components of animal cells and plant cells You have learned about the components in animal and plant cells. What are the similarities and differences between the components in animal and plant cells? cell wall nucleus cytoplasm nucleus cytoplasm plasma plasma membrane vacuole membrane PHOTOGRAPH 2.1 Structure of plant and animal cells through a light microscope SIMILARITIES Both cells are made of nucleus, cytoplasm, plasma membrane, Golgi apparatus, mitochondrion, endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes. PLANT CELLS DIFFERENCES ANIMAL CELLS • Has a fixed shape • Does not have a fixed shape • Has a cell wall • Does not have a cell wall • Has chloroplasts • Does not have chloroplasts • Has a large vacuole • No vacuole/if present, it is small • Stores carbohydrate in the form of starch • Stores carbohydrate in the form of • Does not have a centriole glycogen • Has centrioles 2.1Formative Practice 3 Chloroplast is found in some plant cells only. Give one example of a plant cell that 1 State one structural difference between does not have chloroplast and give your the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the reasons. smooth endoplasmic reticulum. 4 Compare and contrast animal cells and 2 Why is the use of an electron microscope plant cells. important in studying cells? 27 2.1.5 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 27 11/12/2019 11:42:21 PM 2.2 Living Processes in Unicellular Organisms Unicellular organisms are made up of only one cell. However, this cell is a complete unit of life like multicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms carry out all life processes: respiration, movement, nutrition, responding to stimulus, reproduction, growth and excretion. Protozoans are the simplest form of unicellular organisms. Examples of protozoa are Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. Let us look at the life processes of ICT 2.1 Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. Activity: Studying the life processes of unicellular organisms vakuol makanan RESPONDING TO STIMULI pseudopodium MOVEMENT • Amoeba sp. constantly changes its shape when Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. respond to it encounters obstacles. Amoeba sp. moves by stimuli such as chemicals, touch or bright light extending out its pseudopodium (false feet). by moving away from the stimuli. This is followed by the flow of cytoplasm into the extended pseudopodium. endoplasma • Paramecium sp. moves using rhythmic cilia ekREtoSPpIRlaATsImONa beats. nukleusExchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide NUTRITION gases occur through the plasma membrane by 1 Amoeba sp. moves towards food by simple diffusion on the surface of the cell. extending its pseudopodium to trap food particles by phagocytosis (Figure 2.3). For 1 membran lysosome Paramecium sp. the presence of cilium beat pfoload sma helps transfer food particles into the oral groove. vakuol men2gecut 2 The food vacuole is combined with lysosome. pseudopodium food vacuole The food particles are hydrolysed by the enzyme lysozyme in the lysosomes. 3 4 3 The nutrients are absorbed into the cytoplasm. 4 Undigested food is discharged when the Amoeba sp. moves. Undigested food in the Paramecium sp. is discharged through the anus. GROWTH digested undigested Ameoba sp. and Paramecium sp. grow by food food synthesising new cytoplasm. nutrients absorbed 28 FIGURE 2.3 Nutrition in Amoeba sp. 2.2.1 2.2.2 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 28 11/12/2019 11:42:22 PM EXCRETION REPRODUCTION • Waste such as carbon dioxide and ammonia are • When the conditions removed by diffusion. • As Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. live in are suitable and there CHAPTER 2 freshwater environments, water will diffuse by is plenty of food, osmosis and fill the contractile vacuole. • When the vacuole expands to the maximum size, Amoeba sp. and contraction occurs and water is excreted from time to time. Paramecium sp. will • This process is called osmoregulation. reproduce via plasma membrane asexual reproduction nucleus that is binary fission through mitosis. Binary fission • However, when the environmental conditions are not suitable, such as dry conditions, low temperature and food shortage, the Amoeba sp. Conjugation forms spores that will only germinate when the environment improves. • For Paramecium sp., sexual reproduction, that is conjugation occurs when environmental conditions are not suitable. contractile cilium vacuole food vacuole pseudopodium oral groove anus PHOTOGRAPH 2.2 Amoeba sp. contractile vacuole PHOTOGRAPH 2.3 nucleus Paramecium sp. 2.2Formative Practice reproduce when the Activity Zone environment is unfavourable? 1 What is the function of the Conduct an contractile vacuole in a 4 Predict what will happen to experiment using Paramecium sp.? the contractile vacuole if the a light microscope Paramecium sp. is placed in a to examine the 2 How does the Amoeba sp. concentrated salt solution. living processes of move? unicellular organisms. 3 How does the Amoeba sp. 2.2.1 2.2.2 29 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 29 11/12/2019 11:42:25 PM 2.3 Living Processes in Multicellular Organisms There are various types of cells in multicellular organisms which are different in size, shape and arrangement. The cell structure correlates to its function, and each type of cell is specialised to carry out a specific function. Photographs 2.4 and 2.5 show several types of specialised cells found in humans and plants as well as how these cells are adapted to carry out their respective functions. MUSCLE CELL NERVE CELL • Arranged as • Long and thin in multinuclear striated shape fibres • Functions in sending • Contract and relax to nerve impulses generate movement WHITE BLOOD EPITHELIAL CELL • Can chCaEnLgLe shape • Thin and flat cells • Can change shape • Coats the surface • Functions in of organs such as destroying pathogens the digestive tract RED BLOOD CELL SPERM CELL • Does not contain a • Has a long tail to enable it to nucleus swim towards the ovum in the Fallopian tube • Shaped as a biconcave disc • The head carries a set of chromosomes from the male • Functions to optimise transportation of oxygen PHOTOGRAPH 2.4 Several types of human cells that undergo specialisation to carry out 2.3.1 different functions 30 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 30 11/12/2019 11:42:29 PM ICT 2.2 SIEVE TUBE ELEMENT XYLEM VESSEL CHAPTER 2 Activity: Observe plant • Long cylindrical tubes arranged • Long, continuous hollow tube tissue and animal tissue from end to end • Functions in transporting slides through a light • Transports organic materials from water and mineral salts microscope leaves to storage organs from the roots to the such as fruits other parts of the plant Cross section PALISADE MESOPHYLL CELL of leaf • Consists of long cylindrical cells, arranged vertically and close to each other • Contains high chlorophyll density • This arrangement allows maximum absorption of sunlight for photosynthesis PHOTOGRAPH 2.5 Certain types of plant cells SPONGY MESOPHYLL CELL undergo specialisation to carry out different functions • Cells are loosely arranged with lots of 2.3.1 air space in between • Large air space allows exchange of gas from the inside of the leaves to the palisade mesophyll cells GUARD CELL • Modified lower epidermal cells with the thicker cell wall on the inner side • Controls the opening and closing of the stoma. Stoma is the opening that allows the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide ROOT HAIR CELL • Has a long projection which adds surface area for the absorption of water and mineral salts 31 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 31 11/12/2019 11:42:33 PM Cell organisation in humans You have learned that multicellular organisms (such as humans) consist of different types of cells with specific functions. How are these cells arranged to form a complex organism? Tissues are a group of cells that have the same structure and function and are arranged together to carry out a specific function. In organisms, tissues can be classified into four different types which are epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, nerve tissue and connective tissue. Epithelial tissue Epithelial tissue covers the outer surface (skin) and hollow surfaces in the body (digestive tract and respiratory tract) (Figure 2.4). The epithelial tissue structure is adapted based on its function. For example, the epithelial tissue on the skin protects against infections, injuries, chemicals and dehydration. Epithelial tissues that coat the trachea have projections like hair, known as cilia (singular: cilium). Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the mouth and oesophagus Epithelial tissue covers the surface of lungs, body cavities and blood vessels Epithelial tissue covers the surface of the trachea and bronchus Epithelial tissue lines tubules, glands and kidney ducts Epithelial tissue covers the small intestine FIGURE 2.4 Types of epithelial and muscle tissues 32 2.3.1 2.3.2 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 32 11/12/2019 11:42:34 PM Muscle tissue CHAPTER 2 There are three types of muscle tissue: smooth muscle (found in the digestive tract, blood vessel, urinary tract and reproductive tract), skeletal muscle (found in legs and hands) and cardiac muscle (found in the heart wall) (Figure 2.4). Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle enable involuntary activities such as peristalsis along the digestive tract. Skeletal muscle is involved in controlled movement. Skeletal muscles contract and relax to generate movement in bones and limbs. Cardiac muscle builds walls of the heart that contract to pump blood to the whole body. Cardiac muscle contraction is involuntary. Nerve tissue Nerve tissue is made of neuron or nerve cells (Photograph 2.6). Each neuron consists of a cell body and nerve fibre called dendrite and axon. Nerve tissues can detect stimuli and then send information in the form of an electrical signal (nerve impulses) to the muscles or glands. Nerve tissue regulates and controls body activity. 2.3.1 2.3.2 PHOTOGRAPH 2.6 Nerve tissue 33 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 33 11/12/2019 11:42:36 PM Connective tissue The connective tissue consists of various types of tissues and fibres (Figure 2.5). This tissue is distributed all over the body and has many functions. One of its functions is to link the organs. ICT 2.3 Activity: Discuss the importance white BLOOD TISSUE of cell specialisation in blood cell Blood plays a functional multicellular animals and plants red blood role in regulation, cell transportation and LOOSE CONNECTIVE protection. TISSUE It links the epithelial tissue to the tissue below it, and fixes the organs in their positions. BONE FIBROUS CONNECTIVE Bone forms the body TISSUE frame and protects the internal organs. These tissues form tendons and ligaments. The tendon ADIPOSE TISSUE connects bones and muscles while the ligaments connect Connective tissues bones to bones. keep fat under the skin dermis and the surface of all main organs. nucleus CARTILAGE collagen fibres Cartilage encloses bone tips to prevent the bone from wearing out. FIGURE 2.5 Connective tissue 34 2.3.1 2.3.2 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 34 11/12/2019 11:42:38 PM Tissue organisation in plants CHAPTER 2 Tissue organisation in plants is summarised in Figure 2.6. PLANT TISSUE Meristem tissue Permanent tissue Apical Lateral Dermal Ground Vascular meristem meristem tissue tissue tissue tissue tissue Xylem tissue Parenchyma tissue Phloem tissue Collenchyma tissue Sclerenchyma tissue FIGURE 2.6 Tissue organisation in plants PARENCHYMA TISSUE PHOTOGRAPH 2.7 Meristem tissue at the tip Functions to store starch, protein and water. of the root This tissue can also carry out photosynthesis. COLLENCHYMA TISSUE PHOTOGRAPH 2.8 Functions in giving support to young, non-woody stems Different types of ground (herbaceous plants). tissues SCLERENCHYMA TISSUE 35 Functions in providing support and mechanical strength to all mature parts of the plant. 11/12/2019 11:42:39 PM 2.3.1 2.3.2 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 35 xylem vessel VASCULAR TISSUE Vascular tissues are made up of xylem tissue and phloem tissue. XYLEM TISSUE PHLOEM TISSUE The xylem functions in The phloem functions in transporting water and transporting organic matters mineral salts from the roots such as sucrose from the leaves to other parts of the plant. to all parts of the plant. Ligneous xylem tissue wall provides support and mechanical strength to the plants. sieve tube Density of certain cell components and specialised cell functions Since the functions performed by cells are different, some cells have a higher density of certain cell components. The density of a cell component in a particular cell is related to the specific function of the cell. Table 2.1 provides examples of cells that have a higher density of certain cell components. TABLE 2.1 Relationship between cell component density with specialised cell functions Types of cell Cell component found in Function abundance Sperm cell Requires a lot of energy to swim towards the uterus and Fallopian tube to fertilise the secondary oocytes Muscle cell such as flight Mitochondrion Requires a lot of energy to muscle cells in insects and contract and relax to enable birds movement and flight Plant meristem cell Requires a lot of energy to carry out active cell division process to produce new cells Palisade mesophyll cell Chloroplast Absorbs more sunlight to carry out the process of Spongy mesophyll cell photosynthesis Pancreatic cell Rough endoplasmic reticulum Increases synthesis and Goblet cell in intestinal Golgi apparatus secretion of digestive enzymes epithelium and respiratory Produces mucus tract Liver cell • Metabolises carbohydrates • Detoxification of drugs and poisons 36 2.3.3 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 36 11/12/2019 11:42:39 PM All cell components perform their respective functions to ensure that the cells function at the CHAPTER 2 optimum level. The collaboration of all the components of the cells is similar to a factory with different parts and each with its specific function. What happens to the cell if there is a deficiency, absence or failure in any of the cell components such as lysosomes, mitochondrion, chloroplasts or ribosomes? Failure of the mitochondrion function or a mitochondrion disjunction can cause stunted growth, weak muscles, hearing and vision problems. Tay-Sachs is a hereditary disease caused by the failure of enzymes to produce in the lysosomes. Tay-Sachs patients will experience stunted growth and mental retardation. 2.3Formative Practice 3 Explain why the palisade mesophyll cell contains a lot of chloroplast. 1 State the components of cells found in high density in cells that secrete protein products. 4 Fat cells have three adaptive characteristics to allow the storage of fat. Describe the three 2 Briefly describe the structure and characteristics. function of the nerve tissue. 2.4 Levels of Organisation in Multicellular Organisms A group of different tissues epithelial tissue combine to form organs. Organs perform special heart cardiac muscle tissue functions as a result of the combination of tissues that nerve tissue connective tissue form the organ. For example, the heart organ is composed PHOTOGRAPH 2.9 Tissues that form the heart organ of epithelial tissue, cardiac muscle tissue, connective 37 tissue and nerve tissue. The epithelial tissue fills up space in the heart. Cardiac muscle tissue functions in pumping blood to the rest of the body. Connective tissues such as the blood, connect the systems in the organ. Nerve tissue regulates the rhythm of the heartbeat. 2.3.4 2.4.1 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 37 11/12/2019 11:42:40 PM Each multicellular organism is made up of many ENDOCRINE SYSTEM organs. Different organs work together to carry out a specific function to form an organ system. • The endocrine There are 11 main organ systems in the human gland that secretes body (Figure 2.7), which are the respiratory hormones system, digestive system, blood circulatory system, lymphatic system, nervous system, Main function integumentary system, endocrine system, skeletal system, muscular system, urinary • Coordinates body system and reproductive system. activities with the nervous system RESPIRATORY SYSTEM • Trachea, nose, lungs and diaphragm Main function • Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide gases between the body and external environment MUSCULAR SYSTEM • Skeletal muscles, smooth muscles and cardiac muscles Main function • Contracts and relaxes to produce movements in different parts of the body MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM LYMPHATIC SYSTEM • Testes, prostate gland and penis • Spleen, lymph nodes and Main function lymph vessels • Produces sperm and male sex Main function hormone • Maintains balance of bodily FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM fluids and prevents infectious diseases • Ovary, uterus, Fallopian tube, vagina and cervix FIGURE 2.7 Main organ systems in the human body Main function • Produces ovum and female sex 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 hormones 38 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 38 11/12/2019 11:42:44 PM NERVOUS SYSTEM Cell All the organ systems CHAPTER 2 are coordinated and • Brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves Tissue collaborated as one Main function complete organism. • Detects and sends information in the body, as Organ The sequence of the organisation of cells well as coordinates body activities System in a multicellular organism is shown in BLOOD CIRCULATORY SYSTEM Multicellular Figure 2.8. organism • Heart, artery, vein and blood capillary Main function Cell • Transports nutrients, respiratory gases and Tissue waste products Organ System DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Multicellular organism FIGURE 2.8 The sequence • Mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, of the organisation of cells small intestine and large intestine in human beings Main function 39 • Digests food into a simpler form for easy absorption URINARY SYSTEM • Kidney, ureter, urethra and bladder Main function • Eliminates waste products such as urea and uric acid from the body SKELETAL SYSTEM • Bone, cartilage, ligament and tendon Main function • Supports the body, protects the internal organs and provides a base for muscle adhesion INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM • Skin Main function • Protects the body from physical injury, infection and dehydration 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 39 11/12/2019 11:42:51 PM leaf shoot The plant system is divided into the shoot fruit system system and the root system (Figure 2.9). • The shoot system consists of stems, leaves, flower shoots, flowers and fruits. stem • Stems and twigs are support systems that root support the leaves at a vertical position to root allow maximum absorption of sunlight system during photosynthesis. • Flowers are involved in the pollination process. • The root system consists of all roots in a plant that function in absorbing water and mineral salts as well as providing support for plants. FIGURE 2.9 Two main systems in plants 3 Stems, twigs and flowers are organs in a plant. Describe how stems, twigs and 2.4Formative Practice flowers function in the shoot system. 1 State arrangement of sequence in the 4 Predict what will happen if the organisation organisation of cells in a multicellular level of cells does not exist in an organism. organism. 2 The skin is the largest organ in the body. Why is skin classified as an organ? Summary CELL BIOLOGY AND ORGANISATION Cell Structure and Living Processes in Living Processes in Levels of Function Unicellular Organisms Multicellular Organisms Organisation Cell components Amoeba sp. and Relationship Cell Tissue Paramecium sp. between specific Organ • Nucleus • Mitochondrion • Movement cell structure • Response to and cell function System • Ribosome • Centriole Organism stimuli Relationship • Golgi apparatus • Chloroplast • Nutrition between cell • Respiration component • Cell membrane • Cell wall • Growth density and cell • Excretion function • Vacuole • Cytoplasm • Reproduction • Lysosome • Rough endoplasmic reticulum • Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Effect of the absence of cell components to the cell 40 2.4.2 2.4.3 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 40 11/12/2019 11:42:53 PM Self Reflection CHAPTER 2 Have you mastered the following important concepts? • Structure and function of animal cells and plant cells • Similarities and differences bet ween animal cells and plant cells • Living process of unicellular organism • Living process of multicellular organism • Relationship bet ween cell component densit y in a cell and its specific function • Effect of the absence or failure of the cell component function in multicellular organisms • Sequence of levels of organisation in multicellular organisms • Organ systems with its main functions in multicellular organisms Summative Practice 2 1 Why is chloroplast only found in plant cells and not in animal cells? 2 Explain the asexual reproduction of Amoeba sp. 3 An aphid is a small insect which sucks sap in plants. An aphid puts its mouth in the stem of a plant and sucks its nutrients. Name the liquid obtained from the plant and explain why aphids are mostly found in the daytime. 4 Figure 1 shows a plant cell. P FIGURE 1 State the characteristics of P and its function. 41 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 41 11/12/2019 11:42:54 PM 5 X is a digestive organ consisting of cells with a high concentration of rough endoplasmic reticulum for protein digestion. What is X? Explain your answer. 6 Plant cells undergo process X to form xylem vessels. Name process X. Explain how xylem vessels are specialised in transporting water and mineral salts. 7 Arif is a farmer. He uses a weed killer to control the weed population growth on his farm. Weed killers can stop the transportion of certain minerals in plants through the hair root tissue. Explain why. 8 Explain how an Amoeba sp. can survive in fresh water that is hypotonic to the cytoplasm of the organism. 9 Figure 2 shows one cell that can be seen through an electron microscope. N (a) (i) Name structure K. (ii) State the function of structures K and N. L (b) Explain how L mantains the turgidity of the cell. K 10 State the differences between the following: (a) meristematic tissue with plant epidermal tissue, (b) cell and tissue, (c) epithelial tissue and muscle tissue. 11 Figure 3 shows the structure of a leaf. FIGURE 2 R P S Q FIGURE 3 (a) Name the cells labelled P and R. (b) State the functions of cells P and R. (c) Explain the role of cell Q in increasing the rate of photosynthesis. (d) S contains two types of tissue. (i) Name the two tissues. 42 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 42 11/12/2019 11:42:56 PM (ii) Explain the adaptive features of tissues in S that help in the transportation of materials in CHAPTER 2 plants. Essay Questions 12 Using an example of a unicellular organism, explain the five living processes of this organism. 13 Figure 4 shows a unicellular organism that lives in a fresh water pond. X FIGURE 4 (a) Explain the function of X in osmoregulation. (b) Predict what will happen if a cell does not have a Golgi apparatus. Explain your answer. (c) For each of the following cell, explain the relationship between structure and function. (i) (ii) cell P cell Q FIGURE 5 Enrichment 14 Many cancers start with the epithelial tissue. This includes lung cancer, colon cancer and skin cancer. What are the two characteristics of this tissue that can cause cancer? 15 The damage to the cartilage disc between the vertebrae of the spine is difficult to repair by their own cells. What is the latest technology that can be used to develop new cartilage tissues? Complete answers are available by scanning the QR code provided 43 BioT4(NC)-B2-FA_EN New 6th.indd 43 11/12/2019 11:43:00 PM CHAPTER Movement of Substances Across the Plasma 3 Membrane What is the • Do you KNOW... association of carrier What is the fluid mosaic protein on plasma model? membrane with genetic diseases • mtoWofehmsmauotbbvarseartenaaentc?hcreoesscsthhtaharetacaptrleearsaismbtilaces such as hyperkalemic • periodic paralysis • eoHpWvfaoemhswrasyotiddvvaaoeerymeaylonietfhudene?taaoepcfxtpiasvlymuebtpthsrleateanscnsoocpnfeocsreti?pnt (HYPP) in horses? 44 BioT4(7th)-B3-FA_EN New 6th.indd 44 11/13/2019 5:28:49 PM
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PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities (energy transformation). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis, from the Greek φῶς, phōs, "light", and σύνθεσις, synthesis, "putting together". In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis; such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth. Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen freed by the splitting of water is used in the creation of two further compounds that serve as short-term stores of energy, enabling its transfer to drive other reactions: these compounds are reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy currency" of cells. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced by a subsequent sequence of light-independent reactions called the Calvin cycle; some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same end. In the Calvin cycle, atmospheric carbon dioxide is incorporated into already existing organic carbon compounds, such as ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). Using the ATP and NADPH produced by the light-dependent reactions, the resulting compounds are then reduced and removed to form further carbohydrates, such as glucose.
International Journal of Molecular Sciences
Beata Myśliwa-kurdziel
Photosynthesis is the basic process for life on Earth—and the one that has changed life history most drastically [...]
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This is the latest version, recently updated with the 2024 accessible essays.
CONTEXT: Every year, at least one Biology essay is very accessible, usually both are. This resource is to practise and revise for the accessible essay(s). It makes the preparation SPECIFIC, and EASY.
Included is + key revision of the 14 common topic areas (AO1) to learn. + written importance examples (AO2) to learn, from the 14 common topics. + a figure on how often each topic has appeared on essay mark schemes from 2017-2024. + a list of the accessible titles in the essays (from 2017-2024) + an easy-to-understand essay mark scheme
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KSSM Form 5 Biology Essay Book Dwibahasa NEW SYLLABUS 2021 210 x 297 mm (RM27.00) KSSM Form 4 Biology Notebook Dwibahasa NEW SYLLABUS 2021 210 x 297 mm (RM33.00) SPM F5 BIOLOGY NOTES 5 BOOKS - SINGLE SIDED 249 PAGES (RM36.00) PR6 STPM TERM 1 BIOLOGY NOTES 5 BOOKS - SINGLE SIDED 177 PAGES (RM36.00) KSSM Biology Objective Book Form 4 Dwibahasa ...
Biology SPM. Past Year SPM Questions. KSSM_202 3. Will be updated soon. KSSM_2022. Paper 1. Paper 2. KSSM_2021. Paper 1. Paper 2. KBSM_2003 until 2019. Click on the picture (on the left) to download the modules. Form 4: Chapter 2 & 3. Video 1. Video 2. Video 3. Video 4. Video 5.
Collection Essay Biology SPM (Koleksi Soalan Esei Biologi SPM). Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia. Untuk rujukan. Semoga perkongsian bahan-bahan rujukan, panduan, bahan pembelajaran dan pengajaran, contoh-contoh karangan, sumber rujukan SPM (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia), tingkatan 4, tingkatan 5 dalam post di blog Bumi Gemilang berguna dan dapat membantu para pelajar dan pengguna.
Biology (KSSM) Textbook Questions and Answer. Experiment 10.1 | Formative Practice 10.1 | Formative Practice 10.2 | Formative Practice 10.3 | Formative Practice 10.4; Summative Practice 10 | Question 1 | Question 2 | Question 3 & 4; 11 Inheritance. The Concept of Inheritance Based on Mendel's Experiment;
。 Soalan Esei Biologi (Biology Essay) SPM + Jawapan (Pecubaan Perak 2020). Bahasa Melayu (BM), Sejarah, Matematik, Bahasa Inggeris, Sejarah Kertas 3, Kimia, Matematik Tambahan, Fizik, Biologi, Prinsip Perakaunan, Sains. Pendidikan Islam, Pendidikan Moral, Pendidikan Jasmani dan Pendidikan Kesihatan (PJPK). Perniagaan, Ekonomi, Pendidikan Seni Visual (PSV), Tasawwur Islam, Geografi, Bahasa ...
9.5 Essay, Balanced Diet, Energy Value. Chapter 9 Reinforcement Questions. Answers. ... FORM 5 KSSM BIOLOGY COMPLETE SYLLABUS Course Bilingual RM360 2022 KSSM F4 Chemistry Online Lesson (Complete syllabus) Course 5.0 average rating (10 reviews) This online learning platform will show you the road map and step-by-step guidance on how to score ...
Chapter 15 : Sexual Reproduction, Development and Growth. Pandai Notes is an initiative to provide educational notes based on the Malaysian national school curriculum (KSSR & KSSM)
6.1 - Cell Division. 6. . 1. -. Cell Division. Cell division is a natural process that occurs in all living organisms. In unicellular organisms, cell division is a way of reproduction; in multicellular organisms, cell division is the means of tissue growth and maintenance. New cells need to be produced constantly to replace the dead or old cells.
Pandai Notes is an initiative to provide educational notes based on the Malaysian national school curriculum (KSSR & KSSM)
Enrol today and start the revision. It's FREE! Collection of SPM Biology (KSSM) Paper 1 Questions. All chapters will be completed before the end of the year 2020. Join the Telegram Discussion Group to discuss the questions in this revision with students all over Malaysia. 00 Days.
Essay Questions CHAPTER 1 6 FIGURE 2 (a) Figure 2 shows an accident in a biology laboratory due to two pupils playing with fire while conducting an experiment. The accident caused one of the boys' shirt to catch fire. Explain what the victim's friend should do. (b) Azlin is conducting an experiment involving the use of a thermometer ...
To purchase: https://shopee.com.my/adminstaff939This book is published primarily to assist current KSSM Form 4 students in having a better grasp when answeri...
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Biology Specialist Mr Khor Mr. Khor is an experienced Biology teacher who believes in inspiring students first and foremost, rather than spoon-feeding students the traditional way. Adhering strictly to the latest SPM format, he is up to date with current standards of the SPM syllabus and the requirements needed to score A+ for the subject.
I posted two other videos today. Check them out by clicking the links below.PHYSICS FORM 4 REVISION :https://youtu.be/aZvHgHtvxG0CHEMISTRY FORM 4 PAPER 2 REV...
Check Pages 201-250 of TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP) in the flip PDF version. TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP) was published by adlin.saroni on 2020-04-17. Find more similar flip PDFs like TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP). Download TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP) PDF for free. ... Essay Questions 7 Coronary heart disease is the main ...
SPM Trial Paper with answers 2011-2019,2020,2021 from all states.
Check Pages 1-50 of TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP) in the flip PDF version. TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP) was published by adlin.saroni on 2020-04-17. Find more similar flip PDFs like TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP). Download TEXTBOOK KSSM Biology Form 4 (DLP) PDF for free. ... Essay Questions 12 Using an example of a unicellular ...
The human gene that codes the production of insulin is isolated and inserted into the vector plasmid. An enzyme is used to incorporate the gene into the plasmid. The human gene together with the bacterial plasmid (called recombinant DNA) is inserted into the bacterial cell. The bacteria are cultured in a bioreactor.
BIOLOGY KSSM FORM 4: CHAPTER 9: NUTRITION AND THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM9.2. DIGESTIONANSWERS FOR FORMATIVE PRACTICE 9.1.1. The food consumed by humans is in...
Biology Form 4 Kssm Chapter 10 - Free download as Word Doc (.doc / .docx), PDF File (.pdf), Text File (.txt) or read online for free. This document discusses the circulatory systems of various organisms including humans. It covers the open and closed circulatory systems, describing key differences. For humans, it details the major blood vessels and chambers of the heart, as well as the ...
THE FUNCTION OF PLASMA MEMBRANE IN A CELL IS... TO PROTECT THE CELL NUCLEUS. TO CONTROL THE IN AND OUT MOVEMENT OF SUBTANCES. TO GENERATE ENERGY IN THE CELL. TO CONTROL CELL ACTIVITY. 2. Multiple Choice. 1 minute. 1 pt.
This is the latest version, recently updated with the 2024 accessible essays. CONTEXT: Every year, at least one Biology essay is very accessible, usually both are. This resource is to practise and revise for the accessible essay(s). It makes the preparation SPECIFIC, and EASY. Included is + key revision of the 14 common topic areas (AO1) to learn.