dissertation case study analysis

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Here's why students love Scribbr's proofreading services

Discover proofreading & editing

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved September 13, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, get unlimited documents corrected.

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, automatically generate references for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Methodology
• Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 30 January 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organisation, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating, and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyse the case.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

Unlike quantitative or experimental research, a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

If you find yourself aiming to simultaneously investigate and solve an issue, consider conducting action research . As its name suggests, action research conducts research and takes action at the same time, and is highly iterative and flexible. 

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience, or phenomenon.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews, observations, and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data .

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis, with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results , and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyse its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, January 30). Case Study | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved 9 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/case-studies/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, correlational research | guide, design & examples, a quick guide to experimental design | 5 steps & examples, descriptive research design | definition, methods & examples.

Research Writing and Analysis

• NVivo Group and Study Sessions
• SPSS This link opens in a new window
• Statistical Analysis Group sessions
• Using Qualtrics
• Dissertation and Data Analysis Group Sessions
• Defense Schedule - Commons Calendar This link opens in a new window
• Research Process Flow Chart
• Research Alignment Chapter 1 This link opens in a new window
• Step 1: Seek Out Evidence
• Step 2: Explain
• Step 3: The Big Picture
• Step 4: Own It
• Step 5: Illustrate
• Annotated Bibliography
• Seminal Authors
• Systematic Reviews & Meta-Analyses
• How to Synthesize and Analyze
• Synthesis and Analysis Practice
• Synthesis and Analysis Group Sessions
• Problem Statement
• Purpose Statement
• Conceptual Framework
• Theoretical Framework
• Locating Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks This link opens in a new window
• Quantitative Research Questions
• Qualitative Research Questions
• Trustworthiness of Qualitative Data
• Analysis and Coding Example- Qualitative Data
• Thematic Data Analysis in Qualitative Design
• Dissertation to Journal Article This link opens in a new window
• International Journal of Online Graduate Education (IJOGE) This link opens in a new window
• Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning (JRIT&L) This link opens in a new window

Writing a Case Study

What is a case study?

A Case study is: 

• An in-depth research design that primarily uses a qualitative methodology but sometimes​​ includes quantitative methodology.
• Used to examine an identifiable problem confirmed through research.
• Used to investigate an individual, group of people, organization, or event.
• Used to mostly answer "how" and "why" questions.

What are the different types of case studies?

Note: These are the primary case studies. As you continue to research and learn

about case studies you will begin to find a robust list of different types. 

Who are your case study participants?

What is triangulation ? 

Validity and credibility are an essential part of the case study. Therefore, the researcher should include triangulation to ensure trustworthiness while accurately reflecting what the researcher seeks to investigate.

How to write a Case Study?

When developing a case study, there are different ways you could present the information, but remember to include the five parts for your case study.

Was this resource helpful?

• << Previous: Thematic Data Analysis in Qualitative Design
• Next: Journal Article Reporting Standards (JARS) >>
• Last Updated: Sep 7, 2024 9:42 AM
• URL: https://resources.nu.edu/researchtools

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

Definition and Introduction

Case analysis is a problem-based teaching and learning method that involves critically analyzing complex scenarios within an organizational setting for the purpose of placing the student in a “real world” situation and applying reflection and critical thinking skills to contemplate appropriate solutions, decisions, or recommended courses of action. It is considered a more effective teaching technique than in-class role playing or simulation activities. The analytical process is often guided by questions provided by the instructor that ask students to contemplate relationships between the facts and critical incidents described in the case.

Cases generally include both descriptive and statistical elements and rely on students applying abductive reasoning to develop and argue for preferred or best outcomes [i.e., case scenarios rarely have a single correct or perfect answer based on the evidence provided]. Rather than emphasizing theories or concepts, case analysis assignments emphasize building a bridge of relevancy between abstract thinking and practical application and, by so doing, teaches the value of both within a specific area of professional practice.

Given this, the purpose of a case analysis paper is to present a structured and logically organized format for analyzing the case situation. It can be assigned to students individually or as a small group assignment and it may include an in-class presentation component. Case analysis is predominately taught in economics and business-related courses, but it is also a method of teaching and learning found in other applied social sciences disciplines, such as, social work, public relations, education, journalism, and public administration.

Ellet, William. The Case Study Handbook: A Student's Guide . Revised Edition. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing, 2018; Christoph Rasche and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Analysis . Writing Center, Baruch College; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

How to Approach Writing a Case Analysis Paper

The organization and structure of a case analysis paper can vary depending on the organizational setting, the situation, and how your professor wants you to approach the assignment. Nevertheless, preparing to write a case analysis paper involves several important steps. As Hawes notes, a case analysis assignment “...is useful in developing the ability to get to the heart of a problem, analyze it thoroughly, and to indicate the appropriate solution as well as how it should be implemented” [p.48]. This statement encapsulates how you should approach preparing to write a case analysis paper.

Before you begin to write your paper, consider the following analytical procedures:

• Review the case to get an overview of the situation . A case can be only a few pages in length, however, it is most often very lengthy and contains a significant amount of detailed background information and statistics, with multilayered descriptions of the scenario, the roles and behaviors of various stakeholder groups, and situational events. Therefore, a quick reading of the case will help you gain an overall sense of the situation and illuminate the types of issues and problems that you will need to address in your paper. If your professor has provided questions intended to help frame your analysis, use them to guide your initial reading of the case.
• Read the case thoroughly . After gaining a general overview of the case, carefully read the content again with the purpose of understanding key circumstances, events, and behaviors among stakeholder groups. Look for information or data that appears contradictory, extraneous, or misleading. At this point, you should be taking notes as you read because this will help you develop a general outline of your paper. The aim is to obtain a complete understanding of the situation so that you can begin contemplating tentative answers to any questions your professor has provided or, if they have not provided, developing answers to your own questions about the case scenario and its connection to the course readings,lectures, and class discussions.
• Determine key stakeholder groups, issues, and events and the relationships they all have to each other . As you analyze the content, pay particular attention to identifying individuals, groups, or organizations described in the case and identify evidence of any problems or issues of concern that impact the situation in a negative way. Other things to look for include identifying any assumptions being made by or about each stakeholder, potential biased explanations or actions, explicit demands or ultimatums , and the underlying concerns that motivate these behaviors among stakeholders. The goal at this stage is to develop a comprehensive understanding of the situational and behavioral dynamics of the case and the explicit and implicit consequences of each of these actions.
• Identify the core problems . The next step in most case analysis assignments is to discern what the core [i.e., most damaging, detrimental, injurious] problems are within the organizational setting and to determine their implications. The purpose at this stage of preparing to write your analysis paper is to distinguish between the symptoms of core problems and the core problems themselves and to decide which of these must be addressed immediately and which problems do not appear critical but may escalate over time. Identify evidence from the case to support your decisions by determining what information or data is essential to addressing the core problems and what information is not relevant or is misleading.
• Explore alternative solutions . As noted, case analysis scenarios rarely have only one correct answer. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that the process of analyzing the case and diagnosing core problems, while based on evidence, is a subjective process open to various avenues of interpretation. This means that you must consider alternative solutions or courses of action by critically examining strengths and weaknesses, risk factors, and the differences between short and long-term solutions. For each possible solution or course of action, consider the consequences they may have related to their implementation and how these recommendations might lead to new problems. Also, consider thinking about your recommended solutions or courses of action in relation to issues of fairness, equity, and inclusion.
• Decide on a final set of recommendations . The last stage in preparing to write a case analysis paper is to assert an opinion or viewpoint about the recommendations needed to help resolve the core problems as you see them and to make a persuasive argument for supporting this point of view. Prepare a clear rationale for your recommendations based on examining each element of your analysis. Anticipate possible obstacles that could derail their implementation. Consider any counter-arguments that could be made concerning the validity of your recommended actions. Finally, describe a set of criteria and measurable indicators that could be applied to evaluating the effectiveness of your implementation plan.

Use these steps as the framework for writing your paper. Remember that the more detailed you are in taking notes as you critically examine each element of the case, the more information you will have to draw from when you begin to write. This will save you time.

NOTE : If the process of preparing to write a case analysis paper is assigned as a student group project, consider having each member of the group analyze a specific element of the case, including drafting answers to the corresponding questions used by your professor to frame the analysis. This will help make the analytical process more efficient and ensure that the distribution of work is equitable. This can also facilitate who is responsible for drafting each part of the final case analysis paper and, if applicable, the in-class presentation.

Framework for Case Analysis . College of Management. University of Massachusetts; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Rasche, Christoph and Achim Seisreiner. Guidelines for Business Case Analysis . University of Potsdam; Writing a Case Study Analysis . University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center; Van Ness, Raymond K. A Guide to Case Analysis . School of Business. State University of New York, Albany; Writing a Case Analysis . Business School, University of New South Wales.

Structure and Writing Style

A case analysis paper should be detailed, concise, persuasive, clearly written, and professional in tone and in the use of language . As with other forms of college-level academic writing, declarative statements that convey information, provide a fact, or offer an explanation or any recommended courses of action should be based on evidence. If allowed by your professor, any external sources used to support your analysis, such as course readings, should be properly cited under a list of references. The organization and structure of case analysis papers can vary depending on your professor’s preferred format, but its structure generally follows the steps used for analyzing the case.

Introduction

The introduction should provide a succinct but thorough descriptive overview of the main facts, issues, and core problems of the case . The introduction should also include a brief summary of the most relevant details about the situation and organizational setting. This includes defining the theoretical framework or conceptual model on which any questions were used to frame your analysis.

Following the rules of most college-level research papers, the introduction should then inform the reader how the paper will be organized. This includes describing the major sections of the paper and the order in which they will be presented. Unless you are told to do so by your professor, you do not need to preview your final recommendations in the introduction. U nlike most college-level research papers , the introduction does not include a statement about the significance of your findings because a case analysis assignment does not involve contributing new knowledge about a research problem.

Background Analysis

Background analysis can vary depending on any guiding questions provided by your professor and the underlying concept or theory that the case is based upon. In general, however, this section of your paper should focus on:

• Providing an overarching analysis of problems identified from the case scenario, including identifying events that stakeholders find challenging or troublesome,
• Identifying assumptions made by each stakeholder and any apparent biases they may exhibit,
• Describing any demands or claims made by or forced upon key stakeholders, and
• Highlighting any issues of concern or complaints expressed by stakeholders in response to those demands or claims.

These aspects of the case are often in the form of behavioral responses expressed by individuals or groups within the organizational setting. However, note that problems in a case situation can also be reflected in data [or the lack thereof] and in the decision-making, operational, cultural, or institutional structure of the organization. Additionally, demands or claims can be either internal and external to the organization [e.g., a case analysis involving a president considering arms sales to Saudi Arabia could include managing internal demands from White House advisors as well as demands from members of Congress].

Throughout this section, present all relevant evidence from the case that supports your analysis. Do not simply claim there is a problem, an assumption, a demand, or a concern; tell the reader what part of the case informed how you identified these background elements.

Identification of Problems

In most case analysis assignments, there are problems, and then there are problems . Each problem can reflect a multitude of underlying symptoms that are detrimental to the interests of the organization. The purpose of identifying problems is to teach students how to differentiate between problems that vary in severity, impact, and relative importance. Given this, problems can be described in three general forms: those that must be addressed immediately, those that should be addressed but the impact is not severe, and those that do not require immediate attention and can be set aside for the time being.

All of the problems you identify from the case should be identified in this section of your paper, with a description based on evidence explaining the problem variances. If the assignment asks you to conduct research to further support your assessment of the problems, include this in your explanation. Remember to cite those sources in a list of references. Use specific evidence from the case and apply appropriate concepts, theories, and models discussed in class or in relevant course readings to highlight and explain the key problems [or problem] that you believe must be solved immediately and describe the underlying symptoms and why they are so critical.

Alternative Solutions

This section is where you provide specific, realistic, and evidence-based solutions to the problems you have identified and make recommendations about how to alleviate the underlying symptomatic conditions impacting the organizational setting. For each solution, you must explain why it was chosen and provide clear evidence to support your reasoning. This can include, for example, course readings and class discussions as well as research resources, such as, books, journal articles, research reports, or government documents. In some cases, your professor may encourage you to include personal, anecdotal experiences as evidence to support why you chose a particular solution or set of solutions. Using anecdotal evidence helps promote reflective thinking about the process of determining what qualifies as a core problem and relevant solution .

Throughout this part of the paper, keep in mind the entire array of problems that must be addressed and describe in detail the solutions that might be implemented to resolve these problems.

Recommended Courses of Action

In some case analysis assignments, your professor may ask you to combine the alternative solutions section with your recommended courses of action. However, it is important to know the difference between the two. A solution refers to the answer to a problem. A course of action refers to a procedure or deliberate sequence of activities adopted to proactively confront a situation, often in the context of accomplishing a goal. In this context, proposed courses of action are based on your analysis of alternative solutions. Your description and justification for pursuing each course of action should represent the overall plan for implementing your recommendations.

For each course of action, you need to explain the rationale for your recommendation in a way that confronts challenges, explains risks, and anticipates any counter-arguments from stakeholders. Do this by considering the strengths and weaknesses of each course of action framed in relation to how the action is expected to resolve the core problems presented, the possible ways the action may affect remaining problems, and how the recommended action will be perceived by each stakeholder.

In addition, you should describe the criteria needed to measure how well the implementation of these actions is working and explain which individuals or groups are responsible for ensuring your recommendations are successful. In addition, always consider the law of unintended consequences. Outline difficulties that may arise in implementing each course of action and describe how implementing the proposed courses of action [either individually or collectively] may lead to new problems [both large and small].

Throughout this section, you must consider the costs and benefits of recommending your courses of action in relation to uncertainties or missing information and the negative consequences of success.

The conclusion should be brief and introspective. Unlike a research paper, the conclusion in a case analysis paper does not include a summary of key findings and their significance, a statement about how the study contributed to existing knowledge, or indicate opportunities for future research.

Begin by synthesizing the core problems presented in the case and the relevance of your recommended solutions. This can include an explanation of what you have learned about the case in the context of your answers to the questions provided by your professor. The conclusion is also where you link what you learned from analyzing the case with the course readings or class discussions. This can further demonstrate your understanding of the relationships between the practical case situation and the theoretical and abstract content of assigned readings and other course content.

Problems to Avoid

The literature on case analysis assignments often includes examples of difficulties students have with applying methods of critical analysis and effectively reporting the results of their assessment of the situation. A common reason cited by scholars is that the application of this type of teaching and learning method is limited to applied fields of social and behavioral sciences and, as a result, writing a case analysis paper can be unfamiliar to most students entering college.

After you have drafted your paper, proofread the narrative flow and revise any of these common errors:

• Unnecessary detail in the background section . The background section should highlight the essential elements of the case based on your analysis. Focus on summarizing the facts and highlighting the key factors that become relevant in the other sections of the paper by eliminating any unnecessary information.
• Analysis relies too much on opinion . Your analysis is interpretive, but the narrative must be connected clearly to evidence from the case and any models and theories discussed in class or in course readings. Any positions or arguments you make should be supported by evidence.
• Analysis does not focus on the most important elements of the case . Your paper should provide a thorough overview of the case. However, the analysis should focus on providing evidence about what you identify are the key events, stakeholders, issues, and problems. Emphasize what you identify as the most critical aspects of the case to be developed throughout your analysis. Be thorough but succinct.
• Writing is too descriptive . A paper with too much descriptive information detracts from your analysis of the complexities of the case situation. Questions about what happened, where, when, and by whom should only be included as essential information leading to your examination of questions related to why, how, and for what purpose.
• Inadequate definition of a core problem and associated symptoms . A common error found in case analysis papers is recommending a solution or course of action without adequately defining or demonstrating that you understand the problem. Make sure you have clearly described the problem and its impact and scope within the organizational setting. Ensure that you have adequately described the root causes w hen describing the symptoms of the problem.
• Recommendations lack specificity . Identify any use of vague statements and indeterminate terminology, such as, “A particular experience” or “a large increase to the budget.” These statements cannot be measured and, as a result, there is no way to evaluate their successful implementation. Provide specific data and use direct language in describing recommended actions.
• Unrealistic, exaggerated, or unattainable recommendations . Review your recommendations to ensure that they are based on the situational facts of the case. Your recommended solutions and courses of action must be based on realistic assumptions and fit within the constraints of the situation. Also note that the case scenario has already happened, therefore, any speculation or arguments about what could have occurred if the circumstances were different should be revised or eliminated.

Bee, Lian Song et al. "Business Students' Perspectives on Case Method Coaching for Problem-Based Learning: Impacts on Student Engagement and Learning Performance in Higher Education." Education & Training 64 (2022): 416-432; The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Georgallis, Panikos and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching using Case-Based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; Hawes, Jon M. "Teaching is Not Telling: The Case Method as a Form of Interactive Learning." Journal for Advancement of Marketing Education 5 (Winter 2004): 47-54; Georgallis, Panikos, and Kayleigh Bruijn. "Sustainability Teaching Using Case-based Debates." Journal of International Education in Business 15 (2022): 147-163; .Dean,  Kathy Lund and Charles J. Fornaciari. "How to Create and Use Experiential Case-Based Exercises in a Management Classroom." Journal of Management Education 26 (October 2002): 586-603; Klebba, Joanne M. and Janet G. Hamilton. "Structured Case Analysis: Developing Critical Thinking Skills in a Marketing Case Course." Journal of Marketing Education 29 (August 2007): 132-137, 139; Klein, Norman. "The Case Discussion Method Revisited: Some Questions about Student Skills." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 30-32; Mukherjee, Arup. "Effective Use of In-Class Mini Case Analysis for Discovery Learning in an Undergraduate MIS Course." The Journal of Computer Information Systems 40 (Spring 2000): 15-23; Pessoa, Silviaet al. "Scaffolding the Case Analysis in an Organizational Behavior Course: Making Analytical Language Explicit." Journal of Management Education 46 (2022): 226-251: Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Schweitzer, Karen. "How to Write and Format a Business Case Study." ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-and-format-a-business-case-study-466324 (accessed December 5, 2022); Reddy, C. D. "Teaching Research Methodology: Everything's a Case." Electronic Journal of Business Research Methods 18 (December 2020): 178-188; Volpe, Guglielmo. "Case Teaching in Economics: History, Practice and Evidence." Cogent Economics and Finance 3 (December 2015). doi:https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2015.1120977.

Writing Tip

Ca se Study and Case Analysis Are Not the Same!

Confusion often exists between what it means to write a paper that uses a case study research design and writing a paper that analyzes a case; they are two different types of approaches to learning in the social and behavioral sciences. Professors as well as educational researchers contribute to this confusion because they often use the term "case study" when describing the subject of analysis for a case analysis paper. But you are not studying a case for the purpose of generating a comprehensive, multi-faceted understanding of a research problem. R ather, you are critically analyzing a specific scenario to argue logically for recommended solutions and courses of action that lead to optimal outcomes applicable to professional practice.

To avoid any confusion, here are twelve characteristics that delineate the differences between writing a paper using the case study research method and writing a case analysis paper:

• Case study is a method of in-depth research and rigorous inquiry ; case analysis is a reliable method of teaching and learning . A case study is a modality of research that investigates a phenomenon for the purpose of creating new knowledge, solving a problem, or testing a hypothesis using empirical evidence derived from the case being studied. Often, the results are used to generalize about a larger population or within a wider context. The writing adheres to the traditional standards of a scholarly research study. A case analysis is a pedagogical tool used to teach students how to reflect and think critically about a practical, real-life problem in an organizational setting.
• The researcher is responsible for identifying the case to study; a case analysis is assigned by your professor . As the researcher, you choose the case study to investigate in support of obtaining new knowledge and understanding about the research problem. The case in a case analysis assignment is almost always provided, and sometimes written, by your professor and either given to every student in class to analyze individually or to a small group of students, or students select a case to analyze from a predetermined list.
• A case study is indeterminate and boundless; a case analysis is predetermined and confined . A case study can be almost anything [see item 9 below] as long as it relates directly to examining the research problem. This relationship is the only limit to what a researcher can choose as the subject of their case study. The content of a case analysis is determined by your professor and its parameters are well-defined and limited to elucidating insights of practical value applied to practice.
• Case study is fact-based and describes actual events or situations; case analysis can be entirely fictional or adapted from an actual situation . The entire content of a case study must be grounded in reality to be a valid subject of investigation in an empirical research study. A case analysis only needs to set the stage for critically examining a situation in practice and, therefore, can be entirely fictional or adapted, all or in-part, from an actual situation.
• Research using a case study method must adhere to principles of intellectual honesty and academic integrity; a case analysis scenario can include misleading or false information . A case study paper must report research objectively and factually to ensure that any findings are understood to be logically correct and trustworthy. A case analysis scenario may include misleading or false information intended to deliberately distract from the central issues of the case. The purpose is to teach students how to sort through conflicting or useless information in order to come up with the preferred solution. Any use of misleading or false information in academic research is considered unethical.
• Case study is linked to a research problem; case analysis is linked to a practical situation or scenario . In the social sciences, the subject of an investigation is most often framed as a problem that must be researched in order to generate new knowledge leading to a solution. Case analysis narratives are grounded in real life scenarios for the purpose of examining the realities of decision-making behavior and processes within organizational settings. A case analysis assignments include a problem or set of problems to be analyzed. However, the goal is centered around the act of identifying and evaluating courses of action leading to best possible outcomes.
• The purpose of a case study is to create new knowledge through research; the purpose of a case analysis is to teach new understanding . Case studies are a choice of methodological design intended to create new knowledge about resolving a research problem. A case analysis is a mode of teaching and learning intended to create new understanding and an awareness of uncertainty applied to practice through acts of critical thinking and reflection.
• A case study seeks to identify the best possible solution to a research problem; case analysis can have an indeterminate set of solutions or outcomes . Your role in studying a case is to discover the most logical, evidence-based ways to address a research problem. A case analysis assignment rarely has a single correct answer because one of the goals is to force students to confront the real life dynamics of uncertainly, ambiguity, and missing or conflicting information within professional practice. Under these conditions, a perfect outcome or solution almost never exists.
• Case study is unbounded and relies on gathering external information; case analysis is a self-contained subject of analysis . The scope of a case study chosen as a method of research is bounded. However, the researcher is free to gather whatever information and data is necessary to investigate its relevance to understanding the research problem. For a case analysis assignment, your professor will often ask you to examine solutions or recommended courses of action based solely on facts and information from the case.
• Case study can be a person, place, object, issue, event, condition, or phenomenon; a case analysis is a carefully constructed synopsis of events, situations, and behaviors . The research problem dictates the type of case being studied and, therefore, the design can encompass almost anything tangible as long as it fulfills the objective of generating new knowledge and understanding. A case analysis is in the form of a narrative containing descriptions of facts, situations, processes, rules, and behaviors within a particular setting and under a specific set of circumstances.
• Case study can represent an open-ended subject of inquiry; a case analysis is a narrative about something that has happened in the past . A case study is not restricted by time and can encompass an event or issue with no temporal limit or end. For example, the current war in Ukraine can be used as a case study of how medical personnel help civilians during a large military conflict, even though circumstances around this event are still evolving. A case analysis can be used to elicit critical thinking about current or future situations in practice, but the case itself is a narrative about something finite and that has taken place in the past.
• Multiple case studies can be used in a research study; case analysis involves examining a single scenario . Case study research can use two or more cases to examine a problem, often for the purpose of conducting a comparative investigation intended to discover hidden relationships, document emerging trends, or determine variations among different examples. A case analysis assignment typically describes a stand-alone, self-contained situation and any comparisons among cases are conducted during in-class discussions and/or student presentations.

The Case Analysis . Fred Meijer Center for Writing and Michigan Authors. Grand Valley State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Ramsey, V. J. and L. D. Dodge. "Case Analysis: A Structured Approach." Exchange: The Organizational Behavior Teaching Journal 6 (November 1981): 27-29; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2017; Crowe, Sarah et al. “The Case Study Approach.” BMC Medical Research Methodology 11 (2011):  doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-11-100; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing; 1994.

• << Previous: Reviewing Collected Works
• Next: Writing a Case Study >>
• Last Updated: Jun 3, 2024 9:44 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/assignments

Masters Compare - Find your perfect masters course.

• Studying a Postgraduate degree

How to use a case study in your masters dissertation

Share this article.

• Facebook Sharer
• Twitter Sharer
• LinkedIn Sharer

Explore other topics

• Funding a Postgraduate course
• Living as a Postgraduate student
• Popular masters degree subjects
• Student Wellbeing
• Finding a PhD or Masters Course

Think Postgrad

Frequently asked questions.

Yes, in fact a case study is a very good option in your dissertation. There are multiple ways to implement a case study in your thesis. For instance, one main study which is in depth and complex or you could feature multiple case studies.

Case studies are a way to research a particular field, group, people and situation. The topic of research is studied deeply and thoroughly in order to solve a problem or uncover information. Case studies are a type of qualitative research.

If you are ready to find a masters course check out Masters Compare.

Prof Martyn Denscombe, author of “ The Good Research Guide, 6th edition ”, gives expert advice on how to use a case study in your masters dissertation. 

There are two main examples for how to use a case study in your masters dissertation, namely quantitative and qualitative case studies.

First, a case study provides a platform that allows you to study a situation in depth and produce the level of academic inquiry that is expected in a master’s degree. In the context of any master’s programme the dissertation operates as something of a showcase for a student’s abilities.

It can easily make the difference between getting a merit and a distinction in the final award of degree. It is important, therefore, to base the work on an approach that allows things to be explored in sufficient depth and detail to warrant a good grade.

Second, case studies can be useful in a practical sense. It is possible to complete a case study in a relatively short period of intense study and so it is the kind of research that is feasible in terms of the kind of time constraints that face master’s students as they enter the final stages of their programme of study.

Added to which a case study can also be a rather convenient form of research, avoiding the time and costs of travel to multiple research sites. The use of case studies, then, would appear to be an attractive proposition. But it is not an approach that should be used naively without consideration of its limitations or potential pitfalls.

To be a good case study the research needs to consider certain key issues. If they are not addressed it will considerably lower the value of the master’s degree. For instance, a good case study needs to:

• Be crystal clear about the purpose for which the research is being conducted
• Justify the selection of the particular case being studied
• Describe how the chosen case compares with others of its type
• Explain the basis on which any generalizations can be made from the findings

This is where The Good Research Guide, 6th edition becomes so valuable. It not only identifies the key points that need to be addressed in order to conduct a competent questionnaire survey.

It gets right to the heart of the matter with plenty of practical guidance on how to deal with issues. Using plain language, this bestselling book covers a range of alternative strategies and methods for conducting small-scale social research projects. It outlines some of the main ways in which the data can be analysed.

Read Prof Martyn Denscombe’s advice on using a questionnaire survey for your postgraduate dissertation

• Advertisers
• Cookie Policy
• Terms and Conditions

Sorry! You need to sign up

Sign up to Postgraduate Studentships

Sign up to compare masters

Opportunity added!

Thanks for making your selection. Click below to view your list.

Course Added

Thanks for making your selection. Click below to view your comparisons.

Think Postgrad Ltd 2008-2024 Website By Parachute

WCU » WCU Student Resources » Research and Writing » Writing a Case Study Analysis

Guidelines for Writing a Case Study Analysis

A case study analysis requires an investigation to a problem. Then, examine the alternative solutions. Next, propose the most effective solution using supporting evidence.

Preparing the Case

Before you begin writing, follow these guidelines to help you prepare and understand the case study:

• Read and examine the case thoroughly Take notes, highlight relevant facts, and underline key problems.
• Focus your analysis Identify key issues. Who or what are responsible?
• Detect solutions Review: course readings, discussions, outside research, and your experience.
• Select solution[s] Consider all supporting evidence, pros, and cons: is this solution genuine?

Drafting the Case

A draft of your analysis should include these sections:

• Introduction Identify the key problems and issues in the case study. • Formulate and include a thesis statement, summarizing the outcome of your analysis in 1–2 sentences.
• Background Set the scene: background information, relevant facts, and the most important issues. Demonstrate that you have researched the problems in this case study.
• Choices Explain why alternatives were rejected or not possible at this time.
• Solution[s] Provide one specific and realistic solution. Explain why this solution was chosen. Support this solution with solid evidence.
• Recommendations Determine and discuss specific strategies for accomplishing the proposed solution. What should be done and who should do it?

Finalizing the Case

Read through your work to check for any gaps or inconsistencies in content. I suggest reading it out loud. It can bring the inconsistencies or gaps to light much faster than reading it in silence to yourself.

WCU Student Resources

• Canvas vs. Blackboard Terminology
• Writing a Case Study Analysis
• My Student Success Advisor
• Technical Requirements for Online Classes
• Virtual Bookstore for Campus Programs
• VitalSource E-Text (Online Programs)
• Student Portal
• Welcome Video
• Why Employers Hire WCU Graduates

• Affiliate Program

• UNITED STATES
• 台灣 (TAIWAN)
• TÜRKIYE (TURKEY)
• Academic Editing Services
• - Research Paper
• - Journal Manuscript
• - Dissertation
• - College & University Assignments
• Admissions Editing Services
• - Application Essay
• - Personal Statement
• - Recommendation Letter
• - Cover Letter
• - CV/Resume
• Business Editing Services
• - Business Documents
• - Report & Brochure
• - Website & Blog
• Writer Editing Services
• - Script & Screenplay
• Our Editors
• Client Reviews
• Editing & Proofreading Prices
• Wordvice Points
• Partner Discount
• Plagiarism Checker
• APA Citation Generator
• MLA Citation Generator
• Chicago Citation Generator
• Vancouver Citation Generator
• - APA Style
• - MLA Style
• - Chicago Style
• - Vancouver Style
• Writing & Editing Guide
• Academic Resources
• Admissions Resources

How to Write a Case Study | Examples & Methods

What is a case study?

A case study is a research approach that provides an in-depth examination of a particular phenomenon, event, organization, or individual. It involves analyzing and interpreting data to provide a comprehensive understanding of the subject under investigation. 

Case studies can be used in various disciplines, including business, social sciences, medicine ( clinical case report ), engineering, and education. The aim of a case study is to provide an in-depth exploration of a specific subject, often with the goal of generating new insights into the phenomena being studied.

When to write a case study

Case studies are often written to present the findings of an empirical investigation or to illustrate a particular point or theory. They are useful when researchers want to gain an in-depth understanding of a specific phenomenon or when they are interested in exploring new areas of inquiry. 

Case studies are also useful when the subject of the research is rare or when the research question is complex and requires an in-depth examination. A case study can be a good fit for a thesis or dissertation as well.

Case study examples

Below are some examples of case studies with their research questions:

These examples demonstrate the diversity of research questions and case studies that can be explored. From studying small businesses in Ghana to the ethical issues in supply chains, case studies can be used to explore a wide range of phenomena.

Outlying cases vs. representative cases

An outlying case stud y refers to a case that is unusual or deviates significantly from the norm. An example of an outlying case study could be a small, family-run bed and breakfast that was able to survive and even thrive during the COVID-19 pandemic, while other larger hotels struggled to stay afloat.

On the other hand, a representative case study refers to a case that is typical of the phenomenon being studied. An example of a representative case study could be a hotel chain that operates in multiple locations that faced significant challenges during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as reduced demand for hotel rooms, increased safety and health protocols, and supply chain disruptions. The hotel chain case could be representative of the broader hospitality industry during the pandemic, and thus provides an insight into the typical challenges that businesses in the industry faced.

Steps for Writing a Case Study

As with any academic paper, writing a case study requires careful preparation and research before a single word of the document is ever written. Follow these basic steps to ensure that you don’t miss any crucial details when composing your case study.

Step 1: Select a case to analyze

After you have developed your statement of the problem and research question , the first step in writing a case study is to select a case that is representative of the phenomenon being investigated or that provides an outlier. For example, if a researcher wants to explore the impact of COVID-19 on the hospitality industry, they could select a representative case, such as a hotel chain that operates in multiple locations, or an outlying case, such as a small bed and breakfast that was able to pivot their business model to survive during the pandemic. Selecting the appropriate case is critical in ensuring the research question is adequately explored.

Step 2: Create a theoretical framework

Theoretical frameworks are used to guide the analysis and interpretation of data in a case study. The framework should provide a clear explanation of the key concepts, variables, and relationships that are relevant to the research question. The theoretical framework can be drawn from existing literature, or the researcher can develop their own framework based on the data collected. The theoretical framework should be developed early in the research process to guide the data collection and analysis.

To give your case analysis a strong theoretical grounding, be sure to include a literature review of references and sources relating to your topic and develop a clear theoretical framework. Your case study does not simply stand on its own but interacts with other studies related to your topic. Your case study can do one of the following: 

• Demonstrate a theory by showing how it explains the case being investigated
• Broaden a theory by identifying additional concepts and ideas that can be incorporated to strengthen it
• Confront a theory via an outlier case that does not conform to established conclusions or assumptions

Step 3: Collect data for your case study

Data collection can involve a variety of research methods , including interviews, surveys, observations, and document analyses, and it can include both primary and secondary sources . It is essential to ensure that the data collected is relevant to the research question and that it is collected in a systematic and ethical manner. Data collection methods should be chosen based on the research question and the availability of data. It is essential to plan data collection carefully to ensure that the data collected is of high quality

Step 4: Describe the case and analyze the details

The final step is to describe the case in detail and analyze the data collected. This involves identifying patterns and themes that emerge from the data and drawing conclusions that are relevant to the research question. It is essential to ensure that the analysis is supported by the data and that any limitations or alternative explanations are acknowledged.

The manner in which you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard academic paper, with separate sections or chapters for the methods section , results section , and discussion section , while others are structured more like a standalone literature review.

Regardless of the topic you choose to pursue, writing a case study requires a systematic and rigorous approach to data collection and analysis. By following the steps outlined above and using examples from existing literature, researchers can create a comprehensive and insightful case study that contributes to the understanding of a particular phenomenon.

Preparing Your Case Study for Publication

After completing the draft of your case study, be sure to revise and edit your work for any mistakes, including grammatical errors , punctuation errors , spelling mistakes, and awkward sentence structure . Ensure that your case study is well-structured and that your arguments are well-supported with language that follows the conventions of academic writing .  To ensure your work is polished for style and free of errors, get English editing services from Wordvice, including our paper editing services and manuscript editing services . Let our academic subject experts enhance the style and flow of your academic work so you can submit your case study with confidence.

How To Write The Results/Findings Chapter

For qualitative studies (dissertations & theses).

By: Jenna Crossley (PhD). Expert Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | August 2021

So, you’ve collected and analysed your qualitative data, and it’s time to write up your results chapter. But where do you start? In this post, we’ll guide you through the qualitative results chapter (also called the findings chapter), step by step. 

Overview: Qualitative Results Chapter

• What (exactly) the qualitative results chapter is
• What to include in your results chapter
• How to write up your results chapter
• A few tips and tricks to help you along the way
• Free results chapter template

What exactly is the results chapter?

The results chapter in a dissertation or thesis (or any formal academic research piece) is where you objectively and neutrally present the findings of your qualitative analysis (or analyses if you used multiple qualitative analysis methods ). This chapter can sometimes be combined with the discussion chapter (where you interpret the data and discuss its meaning), depending on your university’s preference.  We’ll treat the two chapters as separate, as that’s the most common approach.

In contrast to a quantitative results chapter that presents numbers and statistics, a qualitative results chapter presents data primarily in the form of words . But this doesn’t mean that a qualitative study can’t have quantitative elements – you could, for example, present the number of times a theme or topic pops up in your data, depending on the analysis method(s) you adopt.

Adding a quantitative element to your study can add some rigour, which strengthens your results by providing more evidence for your claims. This is particularly common when using qualitative content analysis. Keep in mind though that qualitative research aims to achieve depth, richness and identify nuances , so don’t get tunnel vision by focusing on the numbers. They’re just cream on top in a qualitative analysis.

So, to recap, the results chapter is where you objectively present the findings of your analysis, without interpreting them (you’ll save that for the discussion chapter). With that out the way, let’s take a look at what you should include in your results chapter.

What should you include in the results chapter?

As we’ve mentioned, your qualitative results chapter should purely present and describe your results , not interpret them in relation to the existing literature or your research questions . Any speculations or discussion about the implications of your findings should be reserved for your discussion chapter.

In your results chapter, you’ll want to talk about your analysis findings and whether or not they support your hypotheses (if you have any). Naturally, the exact contents of your results chapter will depend on which qualitative analysis method (or methods) you use. For example, if you were to use thematic analysis, you’d detail the themes identified in your analysis, using extracts from the transcripts or text to support your claims.

While you do need to present your analysis findings in some detail, you should avoid dumping large amounts of raw data in this chapter. Instead, focus on presenting the key findings and using a handful of select quotes or text extracts to support each finding . The reams of data and analysis can be relegated to your appendices.

While it’s tempting to include every last detail you found in your qualitative analysis, it is important to make sure that you report only that which is relevant to your research aims, objectives and research questions .  Always keep these three components, as well as your hypotheses (if you have any) front of mind when writing the chapter and use them as a filter to decide what’s relevant and what’s not.

Need a helping hand?

How do I write the results chapter?

Now that we’ve covered the basics, it’s time to look at how to structure your chapter. Broadly speaking, the results chapter needs to contain three core components – the introduction, the body and the concluding summary. Let’s take a look at each of these.

Section 1: Introduction

The first step is to craft a brief introduction to the chapter. This intro is vital as it provides some context for your findings. In your introduction, you should begin by reiterating your problem statement and research questions and highlight the purpose of your research . Make sure that you spell this out for the reader so that the rest of your chapter is well contextualised.

The next step is to briefly outline the structure of your results chapter. In other words, explain what’s included in the chapter and what the reader can expect. In the results chapter, you want to tell a story that is coherent, flows logically, and is easy to follow , so make sure that you plan your structure out well and convey that structure (at a high level), so that your reader is well oriented.

The introduction section shouldn’t be lengthy. Two or three short paragraphs should be more than adequate. It is merely an introduction and overview, not a summary of the chapter.

Pro Tip – To help you structure your chapter, it can be useful to set up an initial draft with (sub)section headings so that you’re able to easily (re)arrange parts of your chapter. This will also help your reader to follow your results and give your chapter some coherence.  Be sure to use level-based heading styles (e.g. Heading 1, 2, 3 styles) to help the reader differentiate between levels visually. You can find these options in Word (example below).

Section 2: Body

Before we get started on what to include in the body of your chapter, it’s vital to remember that a results section should be completely objective and descriptive, not interpretive . So, be careful not to use words such as, “suggests” or “implies”, as these usually accompany some form of interpretation – that’s reserved for your discussion chapter.

The structure of your body section is very important , so make sure that you plan it out well. When planning out your qualitative results chapter, create sections and subsections so that you can maintain the flow of the story you’re trying to tell. Be sure to systematically and consistently describe each portion of results. Try to adopt a standardised structure for each portion so that you achieve a high level of consistency throughout the chapter.

For qualitative studies, results chapters tend to be structured according to themes , which makes it easier for readers to follow. However, keep in mind that not all results chapters have to be structured in this manner. For example, if you’re conducting a longitudinal study, you may want to structure your chapter chronologically. Similarly, you might structure this chapter based on your theoretical framework . The exact structure of your chapter will depend on the nature of your study , especially your research questions.

As you work through the body of your chapter, make sure that you use quotes to substantiate every one of your claims . You can present these quotes in italics to differentiate them from your own words. A general rule of thumb is to use at least two pieces of evidence per claim, and these should be linked directly to your data. Also, remember that you need to include all relevant results , not just the ones that support your assumptions or initial leanings.

In addition to including quotes, you can also link your claims to the data by using appendices , which you should reference throughout your text. When you reference, make sure that you include both the name/number of the appendix , as well as the line(s) from which you drew your data.

As referencing styles can vary greatly, be sure to look up the appendix referencing conventions of your university’s prescribed style (e.g. APA , Harvard, etc) and keep this consistent throughout your chapter.

Section 3: Concluding summary

The concluding summary is very important because it summarises your key findings and lays the foundation for the discussion chapter . Keep in mind that some readers may skip directly to this section (from the introduction section), so make sure that it can be read and understood well in isolation.

In this section, you need to remind the reader of the key findings. That is, the results that directly relate to your research questions and that you will build upon in your discussion chapter. Remember, your reader has digested a lot of information in this chapter, so you need to use this section to remind them of the most important takeaways.

Importantly, the concluding summary should not present any new information and should only describe what you’ve already presented in your chapter. Keep it concise – you’re not summarising the whole chapter, just the essentials.

Tips for writing an A-grade results chapter

Now that you’ve got a clear picture of what the qualitative results chapter is all about, here are some quick tips and reminders to help you craft a high-quality chapter:

• Your results chapter should be written in the past tense . You’ve done the work already, so you want to tell the reader what you found , not what you are currently finding .
• Make sure that you review your work multiple times and check that every claim is adequately backed up by evidence . Aim for at least two examples per claim, and make use of an appendix to reference these.
• When writing up your results, make sure that you stick to only what is relevant . Don’t waste time on data that are not relevant to your research objectives and research questions.
• Use headings and subheadings to create an intuitive, easy to follow piece of writing. Make use of Microsoft Word’s “heading styles” and be sure to use them consistently.
• When referring to numerical data, tables and figures can provide a useful visual aid. When using these, make sure that they can be read and understood independent of your body text (i.e. that they can stand-alone). To this end, use clear, concise labels for each of your tables or figures and make use of colours to code indicate differences or hierarchy.
• Similarly, when you’re writing up your chapter, it can be useful to highlight topics and themes in different colours . This can help you to differentiate between your data if you get a bit overwhelmed and will also help you to ensure that your results flow logically and coherently.

If you have any questions, leave a comment below and we’ll do our best to help. If you’d like 1-on-1 help with your results chapter (or any chapter of your dissertation or thesis), check out our private dissertation coaching service here or book a free initial consultation to discuss how we can help you.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

23 Comments

This was extremely helpful. Thanks a lot guys

Hi, thanks for the great research support platform created by the gradcoach team!

I wanted to ask- While “suggests” or “implies” are interpretive terms, what terms could we use for the results chapter? Could you share some examples of descriptive terms?

I think that instead of saying, ‘The data suggested, or The data implied,’ you can say, ‘The Data showed or revealed, or illustrated or outlined’…If interview data, you may say Jane Doe illuminated or elaborated, or Jane Doe described… or Jane Doe expressed or stated.

I found this article very useful. Thank you very much for the outstanding work you are doing.

What if i have 3 different interviewees answering the same interview questions? Should i then present the results in form of the table with the division on the 3 perspectives or rather give a results in form of the text and highlight who said what?

I think this tabular representation of results is a great idea. I am doing it too along with the text. Thanks

That was helpful was struggling to separate the discussion from the findings

this was very useful, Thank you.

Very helpful, I am confident to write my results chapter now.

It is so helpful! It is a good job. Thank you very much!

Very useful, well explained. Many thanks.

Hello, I appreciate the way you provided a supportive comments about qualitative results presenting tips

I loved this! It explains everything needed, and it has helped me better organize my thoughts. What words should I not use while writing my results section, other than subjective ones.

Thanks a lot, it is really helpful

Thank you so much dear, i really appropriate your nice explanations about this.

Thank you so much for this! I was wondering if anyone could help with how to prproperly integrate quotations (Excerpts) from interviews in the finding chapter in a qualitative research. Please GradCoach, address this issue and provide examples.

what if I’m not doing any interviews myself and all the information is coming from case studies that have already done the research.

Very helpful thank you.

This was very helpful as I was wondering how to structure this part of my dissertation, to include the quotes… Thanks for this explanation

This is very helpful, thanks! I am required to write up my results chapters with the discussion in each of them – any tips and tricks for this strategy?

For qualitative studies, can the findings be structured according to the Research questions? Thank you.

Do I need to include literature/references in my findings chapter?

This was very helpful

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

The case study as a type of qualitative research

• Solution Focused Possibilities

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations

• Doni Wahyu Prabowo
• Bramastia Bramastia
• Sarwanto Sarwanto
• James Cohen

• Meenakshi Gandhi

• Dina Sidani

• Michael Hankins

• Asrul Mustaqim

• John W. Creswell

• Gary Thomas
• S. B. Merriam

• Sharan B. Merriam
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

• Have your assignments done by seasoned writers. 24/7
• Contact us:
• +1 (213) 221-0069
• [email protected]

Can Dissertation be a Case Study: Research Example and Format

write Case study as dissertation

Also known as a thesis, a dissertation usually comes at the end of a degree course. Unlike essays and other standard research papers, a dissertation is a large project that requires a deeper depth of research.

The research can take up to the final six months of your degree course. The significance of this type of research is to test the ability of a student to do independent research. A student comes up with his or her own idea, does a thorough research then structures the content to make a final research paper.

In essence, this stage of your degree course teaches you how to manage your time and sharpen your individual working skills.

A student usually works with the department supervisor to make dissertation writing easier. The supervisor can help in planning the writing of the dissertation. The purpose of the supervisor is to provide guidance, feedback and advice as you progress from stage one of writing to the end.

People Also Read: Test Taking Strategies For Students: A Comprehensive Guide

Can Dissertation be a Case Study?

There are very few instances when a dissertation is used as a case study because of the differences.

If you opt to use your dissertation as a case study, ensure that you do not focus on providing solution to the problem.

If it is an already written dissertation, it requires a lot of editing. In a dissertation, you provide the solution to a problem, but in case studies, only analysis of events is enough to complete the project.

How to Incorporate Case Study into Your Dissertation

A good qualitative case study can form the perfect basis of your dissertation and save you a lot of time.

To start with, a case study gives you the avenue to deeply analyze a situation. Precisely so, it will be easier for you to exhibit the academic survey level that your degree requires.

A good case study can be used in your dissertation in a practical sense.

In the final stages of your degree, time constraints are tight and a case study will take you a relatively short period to complete unlike a dissertation. Therefore, it is an appropriate form of research that saves time taken to navigate multiple research sites.

However, to incorporate a case study into your dissertation, pay attention to the potential drawbacks and limitations involved.

To avoid lowering the value and quality of your research, the following are some of the considerations to observe when selecting a proper case study for your dissertation:

a) The case study ought to be clear and in uniformity with the research purpose .

b) The particular case you choose, should be justified.

c) There has to be a clear explanation concerning the basis of the overviews made from your research results.

d) The case study should have a comparison between the chosen cases and others .

To date, there are many students who use case studies as an obvious option for research projects. 

All in all, be careful how you implement the study into your research as many professors may view dissertation as one that lacks rigor and consistency. Despite this skepticism, case studies can offer more exhaustive insights that an ordinary research cannot achieve.

People Also Read: Hardest Essay Topics For High School and University Students

How to Write Case Study Only as Your Dissertation

A case study and a dissertation share a lot of similarities but they are not the same.

In case studies, there is a full introduction of a topic. But, the opinion of the writer and other similar works do not need citation. Equally, a dissertation requires the citing of a writer’s view as well as that of other similar works. 

A student who is about to graduate is supposed to know instances when case studies can be used as dissertation and when they cannot.

If you are worried about writing a great dissertation that will excite your lecturer, you can opt for the case study method.

Here are important steps to follow in writing a case study only as your dissertation:

• Start by defining the particular question you are going to address in the paper. It will be easier if you create specific questions that will answer the main parts of the situation. Develop your focus of research to get all the information about the topic.
• Design the process of the case study. Come up with a clear roadmap of the selected real life cases and ensure you know the reason why you have chosen them. Also, do not forget to enlighten more information about the research methods you intend to adopt for the purposes of data collection and analysis.
• A case study written only as a dissertation needs a huge amount of data. Needless to say, a writer should develop a clear plan for data collection.
• With your plan ready, proceed to the field and collect data. At this stage, do not make any interpretation of results until the research process is complete.
• Having done that, present the data by reporting in a flowing manner.  Use a simple language for readers to understand your interpretations effortlessly.

Formatting the Case Study        

Following the right format guarantees a good case study paper that you can use to impress the professor as a dissertation. 

Start with an introduction or an exclusive summary so as to inform the reader about the findings and analysis of the case study.

Secondly, provide background information by writing clear facts and pinpointing the topic issues to your audience.

The next part is to embark on the methods and findings.

This is a discussion that entails verdicts of the case you have chosen and should be divided into separate sections for easier understanding. 

Afterwards, come to the section where you will provide the recommendations and how to implement them. Here, a writer should discuss the solution chosen, give clear reasons why it is the right one and how to put it into practice.

Good solutions usually focus on realistic means of improving the situation or solving it.

You can give evidence as a backup for the solutions you have proposed.  The final part is to write a conclusion that summarizes all the important points from the evaluations and solutions of the case study.

3 Examples of Case Study Topics to Write as Dissertations

To arrive at a good case topic idea, hunt for the ultimate topic that inspires you. From the possible list of selection you have, narrow down to topics that reflect the main idea you want.

After arriving at the topic of choice, select the right methodology for researching. Below are good topics you can select for your case study:

1. Why start-up businesses are on a steady rise.

2. Research study case on patients with Omicron corona virus and the latest nursing methods for the virus.

3. Case study on the rise and rise of Tiktok.

People Also Read: 1200 Words Essay: How Many Pages, How to Write& It’s Structure

Regardless of the course you have selected or your academic objectives, a college student needs a good case study. The quality of this study will depend on the topic you select.

Therefore, if you select a topic correctly, your ideas will be well organized and you can use available research methodologies to write an interesting case study.

There are different categories of ideas you can base your study on depending on the subject you want. You can focus on titles ranging from information technology to psychology, education and environmental science.

There are also good topic ideas you can derive from applied physics, marketing, management, human right case studies or even nursing.

When not handling complex essays and academic writing tasks, Josh is busy advising students on how to pass assignments. In spare time, he loves playing football or walking with his dog around the park.

Related posts

Publishing Literature Reviews

Can Literature Reviews Be Published: Can I Publish on my Own

Is Doing a Dissertation worth It

Is Doing a Dissertation worth It: Benefits of writing it

Optimal Dissertation Length

Dissertation Length: Optimal Length in Words and Pages

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 13 September 2024

Risk benefit analysis to evaluate risk of thromboembolic events after mRNA COVID-19 vaccination and COVID-19

• Huong N. Q. Tran   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3828-3862 1 ,
• Malcolm Risk 2 ,
• Girish B. Nair 3 &
• Lili Zhao 4  

npj Vaccines volume  9 , Article number:  166 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Epidemiology
• Thromboembolism
• Viral infection

We compared the risks and benefits of COVID-19 vaccines using a causal pathway analysis to weigh up possible risk factors of thromboembolic events post-vaccination. The self-controlled case series (SCCS) method examined the association between thromboembolic events and vaccination while a case-control study assessed the association between thromboembolic events and COVID-19, addressing under-reported infection data issues. The net vaccine effect was estimated using results from SCCS and case-control studies. We used electronic health record data from Corewell Health (16,640 subjects in SCCS and 106,143 in case-control). We found increased risks of thromboembolic events post-vaccination (incidence rate ratio: 1.19, 95% CI: [1.08, 1.31] after the first dose; 1.22, 95% CI: [1.11, 1.34] after the second dose). Vaccination attenuated infection-associated thromboembolic risks (odds ratio: 4.65, 95% CI: [4.18, 5.17] in unvaccinated vs 2.77, 95% CI: [2.40, 3.24] in vaccinated). After accounting for vaccine efficacy and protection against infection-associated thromboembolic events, vaccination decreases thromboembolic event risk, especially during high infection rate periods.

Introduction

The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic prompted a race to develop and distribute effective vaccines. Approximately 81.4% of the US population have been vaccinated with at least one dose, and 69.5% have completed the primary series of COVID-19 vaccination 1 . While the benefits of vaccination are widely acknowledged, concerns have emerged regarding the development of thromboembolic events after vaccination 2 . Phase 3 clinical trials were not statistically powered to identify rare adverse events 3 . The risks of new vaccines were not fully known during regulatory approval, particularly for mRNA-based vaccines (mRNA-1273 or BNT162b2), which were under authorized emergency use. Therefore, it is important to conduct post-marketing safety surveillance of the vaccines. More specifically, cases of venous thromboembolism following a mRNA-based vaccination were reported in 2022 after COVID-19 vaccines were administered in the US and some other countries 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , drawing attention to the potential risk of thromboembolic events after the first vaccination dose. One study confirmed an increased risk of thromboembolism, ischemic stroke, and cerebral venous sinus thrombosis after the first dose of BNT162b2 8 , and another retrospective cohort study found an increased risk of cerebral venous thrombosis and portal vein thrombosis after any mRNA-based vaccination 9 . Moreover, a recent systematic review 10 has shown that thromboembolism is the most frequent cardiovascular complication following a mRNA-based vaccination. Despite those findings, vaccination is still recommended to reduce the likelihood of COVID-19, hospitalization, and mortality 8 , 11 . Furthermore, COVID-19 itself substantially increases the risk of thromboembolic events 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , with a more prolonged and significant threat compared to vaccine-associated risks 8 . Therefore, studying the risk of thromboembolic events after COVID-19 vaccination should incorporate the protective effect of vaccines against COVID-19 severity and hence COVID-19-associated thromboembolic events.

Several studies have reported a positive correlation between thromboembolic events and mRNA-based vaccines, with reported incidence rate ratios (IRRs) between 1.04 and 1.22 8 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 . These studies used the self-controlled case series 23 (SCCS) design, which is a standard approach to studying adverse events of vaccines. The same design was used to evaluate the risk of thromboembolic events after COVID-19, with reported IRRs between 6.18 and 63.52 8 , 11 , 14 . However, since a thromboembolic event typically requires a hospital visit (emergency visit or hospital admission), subjects with a thromboembolic event are subject to a higher rate of COVID-19 testing, and so at a lower likelihood of misclassification as uninfected compared to subjects without an event. Hence, the SCCS design is subject to some risks of bias 24 , which we would expect to inflate the SCCS estimated relative risk (RR) of thromboembolic events after COVID-19.

The objective of this study is to evaluate whether the overall effect of the COVID-19 vaccination is to increase or decrease the risk of thromboembolic events. To do so, we first quantified the risk of thromboembolic events after mRNA-based vaccination using the SCCS method. Secondly, we evaluated the association between thromboembolic events and COVID-19 using a case-control study, avoiding the misclassification bias associated with the SCCS method. Finally, we conducted a risk-benefit analysis by comparing the magnitude of the increased risk through the direct effect of the COVID-19 vaccination with the reduced risk through the indirect pathway via protection against infection-associated thromboembolic events.

Our studies used electronic health record (EHR) data from the Corewell Health East (CHE, formerly known as Beaumont Health) and Corewell Health West (CHW, formerly known as Spectrum Health) healthcare systems, which includes demographics, mortality, hospital admissions, and COVID-19 testing. We obtained accurate COVID-19 vaccination records (vaccine types, dates, and doses) by linking EHR data at Corewell Health with the Michigan Care Improvement Registry (MCIR), giving more complete data for individuals who received the COVID-19 vaccines outside the healthcare system. We included all patients aged ≥ 18-years-old and were registered with a primary care physician within 18 months before Jan 1st, 2021.

We identified thromboembolic events based on ICD-10 (International Classification of Diseases version 10) codes from a hospital visit (emergency visit or hospital admission). These ICD-10 codes represent diagnoses for venous thromboembolism, arterial thrombosis, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, ischemic stroke, and myocardial infarction (Supplementary Table 1 ). We also used patients with physical injury at a hospital visit (list of ICD-10 codes in Supplementary Table 2 ) to identify potential bias related to the misclassification and further leveraged them as a control group to estimate the effect of COVID-19 on thromboembolic events.

Estimate effect of mRNA-vaccination on thromboembolic events

We used the SCCS design to examine the association of thromboembolic events and the first two doses of mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines (mRNA-1273 or BNT162b2) from December 1st, 2020, to August 31st, 2022. The SCCS method compares the incidence rate of thromboembolic events before and after vaccination. In this method, subjects are under their own control, and comparisons are made within subjects, thus avoiding any time-invariant confounding. We included subjects who had a thromboembolic event and received at least one dose of the primary series of mRNA-based vaccines in the study period. The control period was defined from December 1st, 2020, to 28 days before the first dose of vaccination, excluding the period of 28 days prior to vaccination to avoid bias due to contra-indications 25 . Two separate risk periods for the first and second doses were defined until 28 days after vaccination, death, or August 31st, 2022, whichever occurred first (Supplementary Fig. 1 ). We also excluded subjects who had COVID-19 within 90 days before a thromboembolic event to remove the confounding effect of infection on that event. We used a conditional Poisson regression 22 with an offset for the length of each period to estimate the IRRs of dose one and dose two simultaneously. Specifically, the model has an independent variable of the period with three categories (control periods, and two risk periods after the first and second dose). Using the control period as the reference, we derived the IRRs for the two doses. As Poisson regression assumes the independence between recurrent events, therefore, we considered only events that occurred at least one year after the previous events.

Estimate effect of COVID-19 on thromboembolic events

In an initial analysis of the association between thromboembolic events and COVID-19, we used the SCCS design and included patients who had at least one positive COVID-19 test (PCR or antigen) and a thromboembolic event at a hospital visit during the same period as in the previous study of vaccination. However, due to the missing infection data in patients who did not have any hospital visits for thromboembolic events or other reasons, the SCCS design resulted in a biased estimate of the association between thromboembolic events and COVID-19. Patients visiting the hospital, almost always received a COVID-19 (PCR or antigen) test, especially early in the pandemic, while patients who did not visit the hospital were subject to underreporting infection data. This underreporting (or misclassification of infected as uninfected) led to an inflated IRR of thromboembolic events after COVID-19.

We proposed a simple and efficient method to quantify the association between thromboembolic events and COVID-19 while dealing with the misclassification issue. The main idea is to select a subset of control (i.e., subjects without thromboembolic events) who had a hospital visit for reasons independent of COVID-19 and therefore had complete infection data. To this end, we used patients who had a diagnosis code for physical injury (see Supplementary Table 2 ) at a hospital visit as the control group, since we would not expect any causal association between physical injury and COVID-19. We used a case-control design, in which patients with a thromboembolic event are considered as cases, and patients with a physical injury are considered as controls. If an individual had multiple hospital visits for thromboembolic events or physical injuries, we considered only the first visit. As physical injuries can be risk factors for thromboembolic events 26 , 27 , we therefore excluded patients who experienced both events at the same visit. We determined the COVID-19 status based on the COVID-19 test results during the 28 days prior to the date of the event (Supplementary Fig. 2 ). If an individual had a positive test result, this subject was classified as exposed to COVID-19, otherwise, unexposed. We compared the odds of infection (exposed) vs no infection (unexposed) in the cases (with thromboembolic events) vs controls (with physical injury) using a logistic regression model adjusted for age, race, gender, Charlson comorbidity index (CCI), number of visits, and prior vaccination status (yes/no). Patients who had any COVID-19 vaccine between the date of the positive COVID-19 test and the date of the event were removed. The number of visits was fit with a natural spline with three degrees of freedom. The CCI was obtained using the R package comorbidity and categorized into four categories, ‘0’, ‘1–2’, ‘3–4’, and ‘ ≥ 5’ 28 , 29 . Analyses were done after excluding patients with incomplete covariate data.

Estimate the net effect of mRNA-vaccination on thromboembolic events: a risk-benefit analysis

COVID-19 vaccines are protective against COVID-19 and COVID-19 severity 30 , 31 , 32 , and so can indirectly decrease the likelihood of experiencing a thromboembolic event. Hence, we conducted a risk-benefit analysis to estimate the net RR of thromboembolic events after vaccination by considering the role of vaccination in preventing infection-associated thromboembolic events. Figure 1 illustrates the direct and indirect effect of the COVID-19 vaccination on the occurrence of thromboembolic events while considering vaccine efficacy (VE). As presented in the diagram, the association between thromboembolic events and COVID-19 vaccination is described by two paths, the direct association between thromboembolic events and vaccination, and the indirect association between thromboembolic events and vaccination via potential reduction in the risk of thromboembolic events through decreasing the risk of COVID-19. We estimated the overall influence of vaccination on the occurrence of thromboembolic events by considering both direct and indirect paths.

COVID-19 (I), individuals with COVID-19. COVID-19 vaccination (V), individuals with COVID-19 vaccines. Thromboembolic events (Y), individuals with thromboembolic events. V → I indicates vaccine effect (VE) in preventing COVID-19, V → Y indicates the risk of thromboembolic events after COVID-19 vaccination, I → Y indicates the risk of thromboembolic events after COVID-19, V → Y (via I) indicates the risk of thromboembolic events after vaccination accounting for vaccine effect in reducing infection-associated thromboembolic events.

Let \({\rm{P}}\left({\rm{I}}|{\rm{V}}\right)\) and \({\rm{P}}\left({\rm{I}}|\bar{{\rm{V}}}\right)\) be the probability of COVID-19 ( \({\rm{I}})\) in vaccinated ( \({\rm{V}}\) ) and unvaccinated ( \(\bar{{\rm{V}}}\) ) subjects, respectively. Let \({\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|\bar{{\rm{V}}},\bar{{\rm{I}}}\right),{\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|{\rm{V}},\bar{{\rm{I}}}\right),{\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|{\rm{I}},\bar{{\rm{V}}}\right),\) and \({\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|{\rm{I}},{\rm{V}}\right)\) be the probability (or risk) of thromboembolic events ( \({\rm{Y}})\) in unvaccinated and uninfected, vaccinated and uninfected, unvaccinated and infected, and vaccinated and infected subjects, respectively.

With the above notations, for a vaccinated subject, the total risk of thromboembolic events is \({\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|{\rm{V}},\bar{{\rm{I}}}\right)+{\rm{P}}\left({\rm{I}}|{\rm{V}}\right)\times {\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|{\rm{I}},{\rm{V}}\right)\) , where the product \({\rm{P}}\left({\rm{I}}|{\rm{V}}\right)\times {\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|{\rm{I}},{\rm{V}}\right)\) is the indirect risk calculated by multiplying the risk of COVID-19 of a vaccinated subject and the risk of thromboembolic events given a COVID-19 in the vaccinated group. Similarly, the overall risk of thromboembolic events for an unvaccinated subject is given by \({\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|\bar{{\rm{V}}},\bar{{\rm{I}}}\right)+{\rm{P}}\left({\rm{I}}|\bar{{\rm{V}}}\right)\times {\rm{P}}\left({\rm{Y}}|{\rm{I}},\bar{{\rm{V}}}\right)\) . Hence the net RR ( \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{Net}}}\) ) of thromboembolic events for a vaccinated subject compared to an unvaccinated subject is

The terms \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{V}}}\) is the RR of thromboembolic events comparing vaccinated versus unvaccinated in subjects without COVID-19, and \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{I|}}\bar{{\rm{V}}}}\) is the RR of thromboembolic events comparing subjects with and without COVID-19 in the unvaccinated group. The term \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{IV}}}\) is the RR of thromboembolic events in subjects who have both vaccination and infection, compared to the group of subjects who do not have any exposures.

We further defined VE as \({\rm{VE}}=1-{\rm{P}}({\rm{I|V}})/{\rm{P}}({\rm{I|}}\bar{{\rm{V}}})\) , then plugged VE into Eq. (1) to obtain

If \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{Net}}}\) is smaller than one, COVID-19 vaccination offers protection against thromboembolic events, with a lower \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{Net}}}\) implying a stronger protection.

Statistical analyses were performed in R 4.3.0. We reported odds ratio (OR) and IRR with 95% CIs and p -values from the two-sided test. We generated a figure for \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{Net}}}\) over a range of VE values based on the estimates of ORs and IRRs.

We used de-identified EHR data, the use of which was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Corewell Health.

Study population

During the study period from December 1st, 2020, to August 31st, 2022, there were 747,070 subjects at Corewell Health who received mRNA-based vaccines, among which 279,229 (37.38%) had the primary series of mRNA-1273 and 467,841 (62.62%) took BNT162b2. Overall, the number of fully vaccinated patients was 711,460 (95.23%), and 35,610 (4.77%) patients received only one dose. The median age was 57 (with interquartile range [IQR]: 40–69), and 59.81% of patients were female. There were 367,105 patients taking at least one COVID-19 test (antigen or PCR), among which 78,568 (21.4%) patients received positive results. The median age was 52 (with interquartile range [IQR]: 34–67), and 61.44% of patients were female.

In the study cohort of vaccination exposure, there were 16,640 patients who had at least one thromboembolic event and had the first dose of either mRNA-1273 or BNT162b2 vaccine. Patient demographics are presented in Table 1 . We identified 2724 events in the control period, 722 events within 28 days after the first dose, and 786 events within 28 days after the second dose.

In the study cohort of COVID-19 exposure, there were 18,004 patients who had a thromboembolic event (cases) and 88,139 patients who had a physical injury (controls) at a hospital visit. 16.96% of cases and 1.48% of controls had COVID-19 within 28 days before the event. Demographics of patients are presented in Table 2 .

Based on the SCCS analysis, we found an increased risk of thromboembolic events 28 days after the first dose (IRR = 1.19, 95% confidence interval (CI): [1.08, 1.31], p -value < 0.001), and after the second dose (IRR = 1.22, 95% CI: [1.11, 1.34], p -value < 0.001) of the mRNA-based vaccines.

We studied the risk of thromboembolic events in a 28-day window after vaccination based on prior research 8 . An event that occurs in a short period (such as 28 days) is more likely to be attributable to the vaccines. We also conducted a sensitivity analysis using a 60-day window after vaccination. The conclusions remained the same with slightly lower IRRs (IRR = 1.13, 95% CI: [1.03, 1.24] after the first dose, and IRR = 1.14, 95% CI: [1.05, 1.3] after the second dose).

Supplementary Figs. 3 and 4 show the IRRs for subgroup analyses by age (“18–31”, “31–50”, and “≥51”) and gender (female/male). We found that the effects of vaccination on thromboembolic events were similar between age groups and gender groups.

Naïve SCCS analysis showed a very large increased risk of thromboembolic events associated with COVID-19 (IRR = 19.36, 95% CI: [17.64, 21.26], p -value < 0.001). However, a similar analysis using the physical injury as an event also derived a large increased risk (IRR = 3.31, 95% CI: [3.10, 3.54], p -value < 0.001), indicating misclassification bias as COVID-19 should not substantially increase the risk of physical injury. In the case-control analysis with controls having a physical injury, we found that COVID-19 increased the risk of thromboembolic events but with a much smaller magnitude than the risk in the SCCS analysis (although it is still larger than the vaccination exposure). Moreover, the degree of the increased risks was modified by vaccination status (Fig. 2 ). The reported OR for the unvaccinated group was 4.65 (95% CI: [4.18, 5.17], p -value < 0.001) compared to 2.77 (95% CI: [2.40, 3.24], p -value < 0.001) for the vaccinated group. We observed the increased risks of thromboembolic events after COVID-19 in both groups, but vaccination appears to confer some protection against infection-associated thromboembolic events, given the lower OR. Alternatively, we divided the vaccinated group into four categories based on the time to the last vaccination (“≥365 days”, “180–365 days”, “90–180 days”, and “<90 days”). The effects of COVID-19 on thromboembolic events were similar across the four vaccinated groups. The results are in Supplementary Fig. 5 .

OR is denoted by a solid circle and a 95% CI is represented by a line. The x -axis is plotted on the natural log scale. CCI Charlson comorbidity index. Infection or non-infection refers to COVID-19.

We also conducted two sensitivity analyses. In the first analysis, rather than adjusting for the CCI, we adjusted individual risk factors that might be related to a thromboembolic event. These are congestive heart failure, peripheral vascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, chronic pulmonary disease, diabetes with complications, cancer, moderate or severe liver disease, and metastatic solid tumors. We included the above eight risk factors (present or absent) in the logistic regression model. The effect of COVID-19 on the outcome of thromboembolic events was similar to the analysis with CCI. Results can be found in Supplementary Fig. 6 .

We assumed that patients who visited hospitals were routinely tested for COVID-19, especially during the early pandemic. Based on Corewell Health’s policy, patients who visited the healthcare system before March 1st, 2022, were tested for COVID-19. In our study cohort, 74.05% of participants had a hospital visit before March 1st, 2022. We conducted a sensitivity analysis using only these patients and the conclusions remained the same. See results in Supplementary Fig. 7 .

Our analysis in the previous sections gave an IRR of 1.22 as the measure of the association between thromboembolic events and the second dose of COVID-19 vaccination, therefore, we set \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{V}}}\)  = 1.22. We also obtained odd ratios \({{\rm{OR}}}_{{\rm{I|}}\bar{{\rm{V}}}}\)  = 4.65 and \({{\rm{OR}}}_{{\rm{IV}}}\)  = 2.82 from the analysis using the case-control design. Since the RR is very close to the OR when the event is rare, we therefore set \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{I|}}\bar{{\rm{V}}}}\)  = 4.65 and \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{IV}}}\)  = 2.82, as the thromboembolic events are rare 33 . Hence, plugging these estimators into Eq. (2), the \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{Net}}}\) becomes

Figure 3 illustrates the \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{Net}}}\) of thromboembolic events after COVID-19 vaccination as a function of VE. As VE increases from 0 to 1, \({{\rm{RR}}}_{{\rm{Net}}}\) decreases and reaches a point where vaccine benefits outweigh the harms. Specifically, vaccines with higher VE offer higher protection against thromboembolic events. For example, the effectiveness of mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines against infection was 61% during the Delta period and 46% during the Omicron period 34 , 35 , 36 . Given an infection rate of 0.08 among unvaccinated subjects, the risk of thromboembolic events was decreased by 4.62% in the Delta period, which is higher than 2.07% in the Omicron period. Moreover, vaccines offer stronger protection during periods with higher infection rates. For example, with the infection rate of 0.1 in unvaccinated subjects, the reduction of the risk of thromboembolic events was higher (by 9.19% in Delta and 6.23% in the Omicron period), compared to the scenario when the infection rate was 0.08.

The x -axis is VE, and the y -axis is the net RR of thromboembolic events.

The list of ICD-10 codes for thromboembolic events is based on a previous publication 8 , including old myocardial infarction (I252). Old myocardial infarction (I252) reports for any myocardial infarction described as older than four weeks. However, our study cohort removed subjects with an I252 code who had any thromboembolic event with ICD-10 codes listed in Table S1 in the prior year. Therefore, we can consider observing I252 in the study period as a new incidence. There were 20,002 (18.84%) patients with a hospital visit associated with the I252 code. We conducted a sensitivity analysis by excluding these patients and the conclusions did not change. The estimated IRRs of thromboembolic events are 1.16 and 1.17 after vaccine dose 1 and dose 2, respectively, which are slightly smaller than the original results including the I252 code (IRRs were 1.19 and 1.22 after the first and second dose). The association between COVID-19 and thromboembolic events is higher in the unvaccinated group (OR = 5.77 without I252 and OR = 4.65 with I252) and similar in the vaccinated group (OR = 2.80 without I252 and OR = 2.77 with I252). Hence, given the same infection rate and VE, vaccination offered a stronger protection, compared to the analysis with the I252 codes. For example, given an infection rate in the unvaccinated population of 0.08 and a VE of 0.8, vaccination lowers the risk of thromboembolic events by 17.14% without I252, compared to 6.67% in the analysis with I252. Detailed results are in Supplementary Figs. 8 and 9 . We considered the analysis that includes the I252 code as the main analysis to represent more conservative results.

We found that both COVID-19 vaccination and COVID-19 increase the risk of thromboembolic events. However, evidence implies that the likelihood of experiencing a thromboembolic event after COVID-19 is much higher than after vaccination. Our analysis agrees with previous research, indicating that COVID-19 is a more dangerous risk factor for thromboembolic events than vaccination 8 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 .

Different from existing work, we evaluated the association between thromboembolic events and COVID-19 using a case-control study, avoiding the misclassification issue associated with the SCCS design. We also studied the effect of prior vaccination on reducing infection-associated thromboembolic events. Moreover, we included both COVID-19 vaccination and COVID-19 in the analysis of the risk of thromboembolic events and conducted a risk-benefit analysis by comparing the magnitude of the increased risk through the direct effect of COVID-19 vaccination with the reduced risk through the indirect pathway via protection against severe diseases. Our analysis provides evidence that COVID-19 vaccination directly increases the risk of thromboembolic events, but indirectly reduces the risk of infection-associated events. Results show that the indirect benefit of preventing infection-associated thromboembolic events outweighs the direct harm if the VE and infection rate reaches certain levels. Moreover, COVID-19 vaccination may have additional benefits in preventing thromboembolic events associated with COVID-19, as a higher rate of vaccination increases the overall level of immunity in the population, reducing the spread of the virus and conferring collective protection against infection-associated thromboembolic events and other health risks associated with COVID-19.

There are several limitations to this study. First, using ICD-10 codes to identify thromboembolic events may be subject to phenotype errors. Second, Corewell Health has 22 hospitals, and the catchment area for these hospitals is across many counties, hence patients may seek care at other facilities outside the Corewell Health system, leading to missing data such as infection data. To deal with the missing infection data, we used the case-control study. Moreover, the use of a prior number of hospital visits as covariates in the regression model mitigates the bias due to differing degrees of interaction with the Corewell Health system between infected and control subjects. However, patients with a hospital visit due to injuries may not be the perfect control group, but it is clearly better than a control group of patients without thromboembolic events. Therefore, we may not totally correct the bias, but we reduce it. Finally, the study population for vaccine doses 1 and 2 are different. If a subject had a thromboembolic event after the first vaccine dose, this subject is unlikely to receive the second dose, therefore, the population who received the second dose only includes subjects who did not have a thromboembolic event after the first dose.

Despite these limitations, our study makes a critical contribution to quantifying the net risk of thromboembolic events associated with COVID-19 vaccination. It accounts for both the direct effects of vaccination and the indirect effects of protection against COVID-19 and severe diseases. The dual consideration is vital for a comprehensive understanding of the risk-benefit profile. The mechanism of vaccination is to simulate the immune response the body has against infection using a dead/attenuated virus or mRNA, which can lead to side effects similar to those of the virus, albeit in a less severe form (e.g., thromboembolic events, myocarditis 37 , acute kidney injury 38 , 39 ). Our finding highlights the necessity of evaluating both the indirect benefits and direct harms of vaccination to provide a complete and accurate assessment of vaccine safety. This comprehensive approach ensures a balanced understanding of the risks and the benefits, reinforcing the overall safety and efficacy of vaccination programs.

Our risk-benefit analysis was conducted on the population level. This analysis can also be stratified by patient groups of interest. For example, the risk-benefit of vaccination might be different between older and younger populations. Moreover, our findings are for a broad range of thromboembolic conditions, so more research is needed on the specific biological mechanisms connecting COVID-19 and mRNA vaccination to these events, both to establish causality and help identify a more specific set of conditions or risk factors.

Data availability

The datasets analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

Code availability

Code for this study is available from the corresponding author on request.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. COVID Data Tracker. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, CDC ; https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker (2023).

Avinash, M. & Vineeta, O. Thromboembolism after COVID-19 vaccination: a systematic review of such events in 286 patients. Ann. Vasc. Surg. 84 , 12–20 (2022).

Article   Google Scholar  

Fan, B. E. et al. COVID-19 mRNA vaccine-associated cerebral venous thrombosis: rare adverse event or coincidence? Am. J. Hematol . 98 , E4–E7 (2023).

Leonor, D. et al. Cerebral venous thrombosis after BNT162b2 mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis . 30 , 105906 (2022).

Elizabeth, A. A., Rohan, K., Mirnal, C. & Ulka, S. Three cases of acute venous thromboembolism in females after vaccination for coronavirus disease 2019. J. Vasc. Surg. Venous Lymphat. Disord. 10 , 14–17 (2021).

Google Scholar  

Giuseppe, C., Ilaria, N., Marco, R., Salvatore, B., & Alberto, T. Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) occurring shortly after the second dose of mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. Intern. Emerg. Med . 16 , 803–804 (2021).

Zaitun, Z., Nur, A. S. & Abdul, R. I. G. Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis 2 weeks after the first dose of mRNA SARS-CoV-2 vaccine. Acta Neurochir. 163 , 2359–2362 (2021).

Julia, H. et al. Risk of thrombocytopenia and thromboembolism after COVID-19 vaccination and SARS-CoV-2 positive testing: self-controlled case series study. BMJ . 374 , n1931 (2021).

Maxime, T., Masud, H., John, R. G., Sierra, L., & Paul, J. H. Cerebral venous thrombosis and portal vein thrombosis: a retrospective cohort study of 537,913 COVID-19 cases. EClinicalMedicine . 39 , 101061 (2021).

Farah, Y. et al. Adverse events following COVID‐19 mRNA vaccines: a systematic review of cardiovascular complication, thrombosis, and thrombocytopenia. Immun. Inflamm. Dis . 11 , e807 (2023).

Frederick, K. H. et al. Thromboembolic risk in hospitalized and nonhospitalized COVID-19 patients: a self-controlled case series analysis of a nationwide cohort. Mayo Clin. Proc . 96 , 2587–2597 (2021).

Xiaoming, X., Jianhua, C., & Qinglei, G. Prevalence and risk factors of thrombotic events on patients with COVID-19: a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Thromb. J . 19 , 32 (2021).

Sam, S., Yu, H., & Stavros, K. Venous thromboembolism in COVID-19. Thromb. Haemost . 120 , 1642–1653 (2020).

Ioannis, K., Osvaldo, F., Paddy, F., Krister, L., & Anne-Marie, F. C. Risk of acute myocardial infarction and ischaemic stroke following COVID-19 in Sweden: a self-controlled case series and matched cohort study. Lancet . 398 , 599–607 (2021).

Mahmoud, B. M. et al. Thromboembolism risk of COVID-19 is high and associated with a higher risk of mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis. EClinicalMedicine . 29 , 100639 (2020).

Ahuja, N. et al. Venous thromboembolism in patients with COVID-19 infection: risk factors, prevention, and management. Semin. Vasc. Surg . 34 , 101–116 (2021).

Yu, Y. et al. Incidence and risk factors of deep vein thrombosis in hospitalized COVID-19 patients. Clin. Appl. Thromb. Hemost . 26 , 1076029620953217 (2020).

Klok, F. A. et al. Confirmation of the high cumulative incidence of thrombotic complications in critically ill ICU patients with COVID-19: an updated analysis. Thromb. Res. 191 , 148–150 (2020).

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Simpson, C. R. et al. First-dose ChAdOx1 and BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccines and thrombocytopenic, thromboembolic and hemorrhagic events in Scotland. Nat. Med. 29 , 1290–1297 (2021).

Marie, J. J. et al. Myocardial infarction, stroke, and pulmonary embolism after BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine in people aged 75 years or older. JAMA 327 , 80–82 (2022).

Jacob, D. B. et al. Analysis of thromboembolic and thrombocytopenic events after the AZD1222, BNT162b2, and MRNA-1273 COVID-19 vaccines in 3 Nordic Countries. JAMA Netw. Open . 5 , e2217375 (2022).

Chui, C. S. L. et al. Thromboembolic events and hemorrhagic stroke after mRNA (BNT162b2) and inactivated (CoronaVac) covid-19 vaccination: a self-controlled case series study. EClinicalMedicine 50 , 101504 (2020).

Whitaker, H. J., Farrington, C. P., Spiessens, B., & Musonda P. Tutorial in biostatistics: the self-controlled case series method. Stat. Med . 25 , 1768–1797 (2006).

Gareth, J. G. et al. Collider bias undermines our understanding of COVID-19 disease risk and severity. Nat. Commun . 11 , 5749 (2020).

Bu, F. et al. Bayesian safety surveillance with adaptive bias correction. Stat. Med. 43 (2), 395–418 (2023).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Knudson, M. M., Ikossi, D. G., Khaw, L., Morabito, D. & Speetzen, L. S. Thromboembolism after trauma: an analysis of 1602 episodes from the American College of Surgeons National Trauma Data Bank. Ann. Surg. 240 , 490–498 (2004).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Van, S. K. J., Rosendaal, F. R., & Doggen, C. J. Minor injuries as a risk factor for venous thrombosis. Arch. Intern. Med . 168 , 21–26 (2008).

Charlson, M. E., Pompei, P., Ales, K. L. & MacKenzie, C. R. A new method of classifying prognostic comorbidity in longitudinal studies: development and validation. J. Chronic Dis. 40 , 373–383 (1987).

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Gasparini, A. An R package for computing comorbidity scores. J. Open Source Softw. 3 , 648 (2018).

Fleming-Dutra, K. E. et al. Association of prior BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccination with symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection in children and adolescents during omicron predominance. JAMA 327 , 2210–2219 (2022).

Katherine, E. F. et al. Preliminary estimates of effectiveness of monovalent mRNA vaccines in preventing symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection among children aged 3–5 years—increasing community access to testing program, United States, July 2022–February 2023. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 72 , 177–182 (2023).

Kelly, M. H. et al. Effectiveness of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccination against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection among residents of US nursing homes before and during the delta variant predominance. Clin. Infect. Dis . 75 , S147–S154 (2022).

Silverstein, M. D., Heit, J. A., Mohr, D. N., Petterson, T. M., O’Fallon, W. M., & Melton. L. J. Trends in the incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: a 25-year population-based study. Arch. Intern. Med . 158 , 585–593 (1999).

Chen, S. et al. Efficacy of COVID-19 vaccines in patients taking immunosuppressants. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 81 , 875–880 (2022).

Malcolm, R. et al. Comparative effectiveness of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) vaccines against the delta variant. Clin. Infect. Dis . 75 , e623–e629 (2022).

Malcolm, R. et al. COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness against omicron (B.1.1.529) variant infection and hospitalisation in patients taking immunosuppressive medications: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet Rheumatol. 4 , e775–e784 (2022).

Martian, P. et al. Risk of myocarditis after sequential doses of COVID-19 vaccine and SARS-CoV-2 infection by age and sex. Circulation . 146 , 743–754 (2022).

Huiting, L. et al. Acute kidney injury after COVID-19 vaccines: a real-world study. Ren. Fail . 44 , 958–965 (2022).

Fabrizi, F. et al. COVID-19 and acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pathogens 9 , 1052 (2020).

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank Kevin Heinrich at Quire and Martin Witteveen-Lane for querying the data from the Corewell Health Epic system. This study was funded by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases of the National Institutes of Health under award number R01AI158543. The funder played no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, and interpretation of data, or the writing of this manuscript.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Division of Biostatistics & Health Informatics, Corewell Health Research Institute, Royal Oak, MI, USA

Huong N. Q. Tran

Department of Biostatistics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA

Malcolm Risk

William Beaumont University Hospital, Corewell Health East, Royal Oak, MI, USA

Girish B. Nair

Division of Biostatistics, Department of Preventive Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, USA

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

H.N.Q.T.: manuscript writing, study design, statistical analysis, and data preparation. M.R.: manuscript writing and study design. G.B.: clinical advice and study design. L.Z.: manuscript writing, method development, study design, and statistical analysis.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Lili Zhao .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Tran, H.N.Q., Risk, M., Nair, G.B. et al. Risk benefit analysis to evaluate risk of thromboembolic events after mRNA COVID-19 vaccination and COVID-19. npj Vaccines 9 , 166 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-024-00960-7

Download citation

Received : 06 May 2024

Accepted : 29 August 2024

Published : 13 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41541-024-00960-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Advertisement

Pakistani students’ perceptions about knowledge, use and impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on academic writing: a case study

• Published: 11 September 2024

Cite this article

• Shaista Rashid 1 ,
• Sadia Malik   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4989-2359 2 ,
• Faheem Abbas 2 &
• Javaria Ahmad Khan 3  

12 Accesses

Explore all metrics

Integrating artificial intelligence (AI) in language pedagogy can help learn and develop many skills. In this context, this study explores Pakistani students' perceptions and trends regarding the knowledge, use, and impact of AI on their academic writing. The data was collected using a quantitative method, using a questionnaire through cluster sampling of four faculties and random sampling of 229 students from Bahuddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan. Data is subjected to frequency analysis, Kruskal–Wallis hypothesis test, and chi-square association test using SPSS. The findings reveal that most students agree regarding the knowledge, use, and impact of AI on their academic writing. For the Kruskal–Wallis test, significant variations are seen in semesters and age groups for all three variables; however, only the knowledge variable shows significant variation across faculties. Moreover, chi-square test results indicate an association among components of knowledge, use, and impact of AI. The research suggests that academia should introduce AI as a pedagogical tool to improve students' comprehension, productivity, and writing quality. Furthermore, trends indicate that comprehensive policy formulation should be implemented to equip students of all faculties, semesters, and age groups to use technology equally.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Artificial intelligence in higher education: the state of the field

Algorithmically-driven writing and academic integrity: exploring educators' practices, perceptions, and policies in AI era

Learning What Works in Improving Writing: A Meta-Analysis of Technology—Oriented Studies Across Saudi Universities

Explore related subjects.

• Artificial Intelligence
• Digital Education and Educational Technology

Data availability

The data was collected through questionnaire using Google Forms; SPSS file can be provided if requested.

Ahmed, M., Siddiqui, M., & Usman, T. (2024). Impact of artificial intelligence-based writing assistant on the academic writing skills of university faculty in Pakistan. International Journal of Human and Society, 4 (1), 539–545.

Google Scholar  

Aladini, A. (2023). AI applications impact on improving EFL university academic writing skills and their logical thinking. Al-’ulūm Al-Tarbawiyyaẗ, 31 (2), 25–44. https://doi.org/10.21608/ssj.2023.320166

Article   Google Scholar  

Ali, Z. (2020). Artificial intelligence (AI): A review of its uses in language teaching and learning. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 769 (1), 012043. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/769/1/012043

Almusharraf, N., & Bailey, D. (2021). A regression analysis approach to measuring the influence of student characteristics on language learning strategies. International Journal of Instruction, 14 (4), 463–482. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14428a

Beiki, M. (2022). Review of writing-related theories. Cultural Arts Research and Development, 2 (1), 27–33. https://doi.org/10.55121/card.v2i1.20

Burkhard. (2022). Student perceptions of AI-powered writing tools: Towards individualized teaching strategies. 19th International Conference on Cognition and Exploratory Learning in Digital Age (CELDA 2022) . https://doi.org/10.33965/celda2022_202207l010

Chaudhry, I. S., Sarwary, S. A. M., Refae, G. A. E., & Chabchoub, H. (2023). Time to revisit existing student’s performance evaluation approach in higher education sector in a new era of Chatgpt — a case study. Cogent Education, 10 (1), 2210461. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2210461

Chen, L., Chen, P., & Lin, Z. (2020). Artificial intelligence in education: A review. IEEE Access, 8 , 75264–75278. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.2988510

Cunningham, U., Rashid, S., & Van Le, T. (2019). The effect of learner training on the use of digital tools to support English writing skills. Asian EFL Journal , 21 , 27–49. http://uu.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2:1300583

Dhara, S., Chatterjee, S., Chaudhuri, R., Goswami, A., & Ghosh, S. K. (2022). Artificial intelligence in assessment of students’ performance. In CRC Press eBooks (pp. 153–167). https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003184157-8

Dizon, G., & Gayed, J. M. (2021). Examining the impact of Grammarly on the quality of mobile L2 writing. The JALT CALL Journal, 17 (2), 74–92. https://doi.org/10.29140/jaltcall.v17n2.336

Feise, R. J. (2002). Do multiple outcome measures require p-value adjustment? BMC Medical Research Methodology, 2 (1), 8. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-2-8

Fitria, T. N. (2021). Grammarly as AI-powered English writing assistant: students’ alternative for writing English. Metathesis, 5 (1), 65–78. https://doi.org/10.31002/metathesis.v5i1.3519

Flavell, J. H. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34 (10), 906–911. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906

Ghafar, Z. N., Salh, H. F., Abdulrahim, M. A., Farxha, S. S., Arf, S. F., & Rahim, R. I. (2023). The role of artificial intelligence technology on English language learning: a literature review. Canadian Journal of Language and Literature Studies, 3 (2), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.53103/cjlls.v3i2.87

Ginting, P., Batubara, H. M., & Hasnah, Y. (2023). Artificial intelligence powered writing tools as adaptable aids for academic writing: Insight from EFL college learners in writing final project. Zenodo, 6 (10), 4640–4650. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8407887

Grájeda, A., Burgos, J., Olivera, P. C., & Sanjinés, A. (2023). Assessing student-perceived impact of using artificial intelligence tools: Construction of a synthetic index of application in higher education. Cogent Education, 11 (1), 2287917. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2287917

Imran, M., & Almusharraf, N. (2023). Analyzing the role of ChatGPT as a writing assistant at higher education level: A systematic review of the literature. Contemporary Educational Technology, 15 (4), ep464. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/13605

Kaur, P., Stoltzfus, J., & Yellapu, V. (2018). Descriptive statistics. Biostatistics, 4 (1), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijam.ijam_7_18

Keleş, P. U., & Aydın, S. (2021). University students’ perceptions about artificial intelligence. Shanlax International Journal of Education, 9 , 212–220. https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v9is1-may.4014

Knowles, E. (2005). The Oxford dictionary of phrase and fable. In Oxford University Press eBooks . https://doi.org/10.1093/acref/9780198609810.001.0001

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques . New Age International.

LeCompte, M. D., & Schensul, J. J. (2015). Ethics in ethnography: A mixed methods approach . AltaMira Press.

Lei, H. (2022). High school students’ foreign language vocabulary acquisition in the era of artificial intelligence. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 637 , 669–662. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220131.121

Li, A. W. (2023). Using Perceptive to support AI-based online writing assessment across the disciplines. Assessing Writing, 57 , 100746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2023.100746

Mahmud, F. A. (2023). Investigating EFL students’ writing skills through artificial intelligence: Wordtune application as a tool. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 14 (5), 1395–1404. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1405.28

Malik, A. R., Pratiwi, Y., Andajani, K., Numertayasa, I. W., Suharti, S., Darwis, A., & Marzuki, M. (2023). Exploring artificial intelligence in academic essay: Higher education student’s perspective. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 5 , 100296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100296

Malik, S., Sadiq, U., & Khan, J. A. (2021). Belief, practices, and challenges of Pakistani primary grade government school teachers: Variable analysis affecting pronunciation and phonics teaching. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 9 (1), 206–217. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2021.9122

Marzuki, Widiati, U., Rusdin, D., Darwin, D., & Indrawati, I. (2023). The impact of AI writing tools on the content and organization of students’ writing: EFL teachers’ perspective. Cogent Education, 10 (2), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2023.2236469

Mayo, D. G., & Cox, D. R. (2006). Frequentist statistics as a theory of inductive inference. In Institute of Mathematical Statistics eBooks (pp. 77–97). https://doi.org/10.1214/074921706000000400

McHugh, M. L. (2013). The chi-square test of independence. Biochemia Medica, 23 (2), 143–149. https://doi.org/10.11613/bm.2013.018

Nazari, N., Shabbir, M. S., & Setiawan, R. (2021). Application of artificial intelligence powered digital writing assistant in higher education: Randomized controlled trial. Heliyon, 7 (5), e07014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07014

Ostertagová, E., Ostertag, O., & Kováč, J. (2014). Methodology and application of the Kruskal-Wallis test. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 611 , 115–120. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.611.115

Pacheco-Mendoza, S., Guevara, C., Samaniego, J., & Fernandez, J. (2023). Artificial intelligence in higher education: A predictive model for academic performance. Education Sciences, 13 (10), 990. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13100990

Park, J. (2019). An AI-based English grammar checker vs. human raters in evaluating EFL learners’ writing. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning , 22 (1), 112–131. https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART002449524

Rashid, S., Cunningham, U., Watson, K., & Howard, J. (2018). Revisiting the digital divide(s): Technology-enhanced English language practices at a university in Pakistan. Australian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 1 (2), 64–87. https://doi.org/10.29140/ajal.v1n2.7

Ribeiro, R. (2022). AI in English Language Learning | Cambridge English . World of Better Learning | Cambridge University Press. https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2020/03/09/artificial-intelligence-english-language-learning/

Rothman, K. J. (1990). No adjustments are needed for multiple comparisons. Epidemiology, 1 (1), 43–46. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001648-199001000-00010

Rusmiyanto, R., Huriati, N., Fitriani, N., Tyas, N. K., Rofi’i, A., & Sari, M. N. (2023). The role of artificial intelligence (AI) in developing English language learner’s communication skills. Journal on Education, 6 (1), 750–757. https://doi.org/10.31004/joe.v6i1.2990

Saini, N. (2023). Research paper on artificial intelligence and its applications. International Journal for Research Trends and Innovation, 8 (4), 356–360.

Sharifi, A., Ahmadi, M., & Ala, A. (2021). The impact of artificial intelligence and digital style on industry and energy post-COVID-19 pandemic. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28 (34), 46964–46984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15292-5

Slimi, Z. (2023). The impact of artificial intelligence on higher education: An empirical study. European Journal of Educational Sciences . https://doi.org/10.19044/ejes.v10no1a17

Sumakul, D. T. Y. G., Hamied, F. A., & Sukyadi, D. (2022). Students’ perceptions of the use of AI in a writing class. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 624 , 52–57. https://doi.org/10.2991/assehr.k.220201.009

Toncic, J. (2020). Teachers, AI grammar checkers, and the newest literacies: Emending writing pedagogy and assessment. Digital Culture & Education, 12 (1), 26–51.

Turner, E. (2021). Causes for leaving jobs: A comparative analysis. 2nd International Conference on Research in Management . https://doi.org/10.33422/2nd.icrmanagement.2021.02.43

Utami, S. P. T., Andayani, A., Winarni, R., & Sumarwati, S. (2023). Utilization of artificial intelligence technology in an academic writing class: How do Indonesian students perceive? Contemporary Educational Technology, 15 (4), ep450. https://doi.org/10.30935/cedtech/13419

Verma, M. (2018). Artificial intelligence and its scope in different areas with special reference to the field of education. International Journal of Advanced Educational Research , 3 (1), 5–10. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED604401.pdf

Victorivna, K. L., Oleksandrovych, V. A., Oleksandrivna, K. I., & Oleksandrivna, K. N. (2022). Artificial intelligence in language learning: What are we afraid of? Arab World English Journal, 8 , 262–273. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/call8.18

Wang, T., Lund, B., Marengo, A., Pagano, A., Mannuru, N. R., Teel, Z. A., & Pange, J. (2023). Exploring the potential impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on international students in higher education: Generative AI, chatbots, analytics, and international student success. Applied Sciences, 13 (11), 6716. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13116716

Zhao, X. (2022). Leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) technology for English writing: Introducing Wordtune as a digital writing assistant for EFL writers. RELC Journal, 54 (3), 890–894. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882221094089

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank Prince Sultan University for its support.

No funding was sought from any external source for this research.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Prince Sultan University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

Shaista Rashid

Department of English, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

Sadia Malik & Faheem Abbas

Department of Statistics, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan

Javaria Ahmad Khan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sadia Malik .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

There is no conflict of interest of any sort.

Ethical statement

All participants gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. Their responses were evaluated anonymously as the data was presented in aggregate form.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Rashid, S., Malik, S., Abbas, F. et al. Pakistani students’ perceptions about knowledge, use and impact of artificial intelligence (AI) on academic writing: a case study. J. Comput. Educ. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-024-00338-7

Download citation

Received : 15 May 2024

Revised : 08 August 2024

Accepted : 14 August 2024

Published : 11 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-024-00338-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Artificial intelligence
• Academic writing
• Higher education
• Language pedagogy
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

Content Search

Somalia + 1 more

Case studies repository: How to make humanitarian action more inclusive with and for persons with disabilities - Experiences from Somalia, Somaliland and Syrian crises responses (June 2024)

Attachments.

Case study 1: Localization of inclusive humanitarian action through capacity development of national humanitarian actor

The practice was collected as part of the ‘From Guidelines to Action (FG2A)’ project “supporting the operationalization and localization of IASC Guidelines on inclusion of persons with disabilities in humanitarian action” funded by ECHO and CDP. This practice was collected from TAAKULO.1 This organization attended the review, adapt, action and learning (RAAL Lab) session on disability inclusive humanitarian action in May 2023 with six staff. Their staff were from the programme development, management, and MEAL departments. The RAAL Lab is a capacity strengthening initiative and was used in combination with the adapted version of the DRG Learning modules , which were designed to operationalize the IASC guidelines on disability inclusion . During the RAAL Lab workshop the participant applied IASC guidelines to their project cycle management. As part of the technical follow up process Humanity & Inclusion (HI) team collected best practices to understand better how the organization was taking forward the learning from the RAAL Lab.

Related Content

Syria humanitarian response (january - june 2024), somalia humanitarian bulletin, august 2024, northwest syria - factsheet (as of 28 august 2024), somalia: cccm cluster monthly update - reporting period: july 2024.