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Critical Thinking A-Level: AS Units, Topics, and Modules

Critical Thinking at A-Level is a qualification offered by OCR, one of the main exam boards for secondary and higher education. Critical Thinking is the study of arguments, problems, and ideas, as well as the logic the binds arguments together. The role of a critical thinker is to spot faulty reasoning in the arguments that other people make, whilst using reason and evidence when forming their own positions.

Critical Thinking is particularly useful in the modern information era, where it’s easy to be bombarded by news, facts, and opinions. Sometimes, people want to push an agenda, and will misinterpret data or twist events to suit it. Sadly, you can’t just accept everything at face value.

A good critical thinker will be able to analyse and evaluate arguments, develop their own arguments, and be able to follow evidence and logic to the best conclusion. These are all invaluable skills for staying informed about how things truly are in the modern era.

Like most other A-Level subjects, it’s divided into two parts:

• AS Level; • A2 Level.

From here, AS and A2 Levels are split into the following units:

Critical Thinking at A-Level – AS Units • The language of reasoning; • Credibility; • Analysis of argument; • Evaluating arguments; • Developing reasoned arguments.

Critical Thinking at A-Level – A2 Units • Ethical theories; • Recognising and applying principles; • Dilemmas and decision-making; • Analysis of complex arguments; • Evaluating complex arguments; • Developing cogent and complex arguments.

Here, we’re going to take a look at each of the topics. In this post, we’re going to focus on the AS Level units.

Critical Thinking at A-Level – The Language of Reasoning

This is the introductory module to Critical Thinking, where students will learn the very basics of argumentation. In this unit, students will learn how to identify an argument, as well as the premises and conclusion which constitute it. In addition to this, students will have to be able to explain what the following ideas and devices are, and be able to identify them in an argument:

• Reason; • Conclusion; • Evidence; • Examples; • Hypothetical reasoning (such as ‘if, then’ statements); • Counter-assertion; • Counter-argument; • Assumptions.

On top of this, students must be able to evaluate evidence which is frequently used in arguments:

• Ambiguity in statistical data; • The representative quality and size of surveys; • How evidence was collected; • Alternative ways of interpreting the same data.

Critical Thinking at A-Level – Credibility

The credibility module focuses on students’ ability to assess claims made in a text. In other words, students need to be able to show an understanding of the following in the context of argumentation. In addition, they need to be able to identify these features:

• Vested interest or bias; • Corroboration of evidence; • Plausibility of evidence; • Expertise of sources providing evidence; • Positive and negative reputation; • Consistency and inconsistency.

Critical Thinking at A-Level – Analysis of Argument

In this module, students will learn how to analyse arguments effectively. In order to do this, they’ll need to understand the tools and devices used in arguments. These include the following terms:

Critical Thinking at A-Level – Evaluating Arguments

In this module, students will be asked to assess strengths or weaknesses in arguments. Students will begin to learn about logical and argumentative fallacies. This gives them the tools to identify poor arguments quicker. These include the following:

Finally, students will learn about appeals. These are kinds of argumentative fallacy which rely on appeal to a falsehood in order to support an argument. Candidates need to be able to identify these fallacies, and also explain why they are a poor form of reasoning. These include:

• Appeal to authority; • Appeal to tradition; • Appeal to history (induction); • Appeal to popularity (bandwagon fallacy); • Appeal to emotion.

Critical Thinking at A-Level – Developing Reasoned Arguments

While the previous units were focused on analysing other people’s arguments, this module teaches and assesses based on how to create strong arguments. Students will have to create their own arguments using the following criteria:

• At least three reasons or premises to support a conclusion; • An intermediate conclusion; • Appropriate use of evidence to support the conclusion; • A counter-assertion; • A counter-argument; • Hypothetical reasoning.

So, now you have an idea about what modules you’ll have to complete in the AS Level part of the critical thinking A-Level. In the next post, we’ll be taking a look at the modules in the A2 portion of the critical thinking A-Level.

If you’re planning on starting your A-Levels soon and want some guidance on how to complete them with the best grades possible, check out our guide: Pass Your A-levels with A*s.

Andy Bosworth

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How to think effectively: Six stages of critical thinking

Credit: Elder / Paul

• Researchers propose six levels of critical thinkers: Unreflective thinkers, Challenged thinkers, Beginning thinkers, Practicing thinkers, Advanced thinkers, and Master thinkers.
• The framework comes from educational psychologists Linda Elder and Richard Paul.
• Teaching critical thinking skills is a crucial challenge in our times.

The coronavirus has not only decimated our populations, its spread has also attacked the very nature of truth and stoked inherent tensions between many different groups of people, both at local and international levels. Spawning widespread conspiracy theories and obfuscation by governments, the virus has also been a vivid demonstration of the need for teaching critical thinking skills necessary to survive in the 21st century. The stage theory of critical thinking development, devised by psychologists Linda Elder and Richard Paul , can help us gauge the sophistication of our current mental approaches and provides a roadmap to the thinking of others.

The researchers identified six predictable levels of critical thinkers, from ones lower in depth and effort to the advanced mind-masters, who are always steps ahead.

As the scientists write , moving up on this pyramid of thinking “is dependent upon a necessary level of commitment on the part of an individual to develop as a critical thinker.” Using your mind more effectively is not automatic and “is unlikely to take place “subconsciously.” In other words – you have to put in the work and keep doing it, or you’ll lose the faculty.

Here’s how the stages of intellectual development break down:

Unreflective thinker

These are people who don’t reflect about thinking and the effect it has on their lives. As such, they form opinions and make decisions based on prejudices and misconceptions while their thinking doesn’t improve.

Unreflective thinkers lack crucial skills that would allow them to parse their thought processes. They also do not apply standards like accuracy, relevance, precision, and logic in a consistent fashion.

How many such people are out there? You probably can guess based on social media comments. As Elder and Paul write , “it is perfectly possible for students to graduate from high school, or even college, and still be largely unreflective thinkers.”

Challenged thinker

This next level up thinker has awareness of the importance of thinking on their existence and knows that deficiencies in thinking can bring about major issues. As the psychologists explain, to solve a problem, you must first admit you have one.

People at this intellectual stage begin to understand that “high quality thinking requires deliberate reflective thinking about thinking”, and can acknowledge that their own mental processes might have many flaws. They might not be able to identify all the flaws, however.

A challenged thinker may have a sense that solid thinking involves navigating assumptions, inferences, and points of view, but only on an initial level. They may also be able to spot some instances of their own self-deception. The true difficulty for thinkers of this category is in not “believing that their thinking is better than it actually is, making it more difficult to recognize the problems inherent in poor thinking,” explain the researchers.

Thinkers at this level can go beyond the nascent intellectual humility and actively look to take control of their thinking across areas of their lives. They know that their own thinking can have blind spots and other problems and take steps to address those, but in a limited capacity.

Beginning thinker

Beginning thinkers place more value in reason, becoming self-aware in their thoughts. They may also be able to start looking at the concepts and biases underlying their ideas. Additionally, such thinkers develop higher internal standards of clarity, accuracy and logic, realizing that their ego plays a key role in their decisions.

Another big aspect that differentiates this stronger thinker – some ability to take criticism of their mental approach, even though they still have work to do and might lack clear enough solutions to the issues they spot.

Practicing thinker

This more experienced kind of thinker not only appreciates their own deficiencies, but has skills to deal with them. A thinker of this level will practice better thinking habits and will analyze their mental processes with regularity.

While they might be able to express their mind’s strengths and weaknesses, as a negative, practicing thinkers might still not have a systematic way of gaining insight into their thoughts and can fall prey to egocentric and self-deceptive reasoning.

How do you get to this stage? An important trait to gain, say the psychologists, is “intellectual perseverance.” This quality can provide “the impetus for developing a realistic plan for systematic practice (with a view to taking greater command of one’s thinking).”

“We must teach in such a way that students come to understand the power in knowing that whenever humans reason, they have no choice but to use certain predictable structures of thought: that thinking is inevitably driven by the questions, that we seek answers to questions for some purpose, that to answer questions, we need information, that to use information we must interpret it (i.e., by making inferences), and that our inferences, in turn, are based on assumptions, and have implications, all of which involves ideas or concepts within some point of view,” explain Elder and Paul.

One doesn’t typically get to this stage until college and beyond, estimate the scientists. This higher-level thinker would have strong habits that would allow them to analyze their thinking with insight about different areas of life. They would be fair-minded and able to spot the prejudicial aspects in the points of view of others and their own understanding.

While they’d have a good handle on the role of their ego in the idea flow, such thinkers might still not be able to grasp all the influences that affect their mentality.

Advanced thinker

The advanced thinker is at ease with self-critique and does so systematically, looking to improve. Among key traits required for this level are “intellectual insight” to develop new thought habits, “ intellectual integrity” to “recognize areas of inconsistency and contradiction in one’s life,” intellectual empathy ” to put oneself in the place of others in order to genuinely understand them, and the “ intellectual courage” to confront ideas and beliefs they don’t necessarily believe in and have negative emotions towards.

Master thinker

This is the super-thinker, the one who is totally in control of how they process information and make decisions. Such people constantly seek to improve their thought skills, and through experience “regularly raise their thinking to the level of conscious realization.”

A master thinker achieves great insights into deep mental levels, strongly committed to being fair and gaining control over their own egocentrism.

Such a high-level thinker also exhibits superior practical knowledge and insight, always re-examining their assumptions for weaknesses, logic, and biases.

And, of course, a master thinker wouldn’t get upset with being intellectually confronted and spends a considerable amount of time analyzing their own responses.

“Why is this so important? Precisely because the human mind, left to its own, pursues that which is immediately easy, that which is comfortable, and that which serves its selfish interests. At the same time, it naturally resists that which is difficult to understand, that which involves complexity, that which requires entering the thinking and predicaments of others,” write the researchers.

So how do you become a master thinker? The psychologists think most students will never get there. But a lifetime of practicing the best intellectual traits can get you to that point when “people of good sense seek out master thinkers, for they recognize and value the ability of master thinkers to think through complex issues with judgment and insight.”

The significance of critical thinking in our daily lives, especially in these confusing times, so rife with quick and often-misleading information, cannot be overstated. The decisions we make today can truly be life and death.

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• What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

What Is Critical Thinking? | Definition & Examples

Published on May 30, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on May 31, 2023.

Critical thinking is the ability to effectively analyze information and form a judgment .

To think critically, you must be aware of your own biases and assumptions when encountering information, and apply consistent standards when evaluating sources .

Critical thinking skills help you to:

• Identify credible sources
• Evaluate and respond to arguments
• Assess alternative viewpoints
• Test hypotheses against relevant criteria

Table of contents

Why is critical thinking important, critical thinking examples, how to think critically, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about critical thinking.

Critical thinking is important for making judgments about sources of information and forming your own arguments. It emphasizes a rational, objective, and self-aware approach that can help you to identify credible sources and strengthen your conclusions.

Critical thinking is important in all disciplines and throughout all stages of the research process . The types of evidence used in the sciences and in the humanities may differ, but critical thinking skills are relevant to both.

In academic writing , critical thinking can help you to determine whether a source:

• Is free from research bias
• Provides evidence to support its research findings
• Considers alternative viewpoints

Outside of academia, critical thinking goes hand in hand with information literacy to help you form opinions rationally and engage independently and critically with popular media.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Critical thinking can help you to identify reliable sources of information that you can cite in your research paper . It can also guide your own research methods and inform your own arguments.

Outside of academia, critical thinking can help you to be aware of both your own and others’ biases and assumptions.

Academic examples

However, when you compare the findings of the study with other current research, you determine that the results seem improbable. You analyze the paper again, consulting the sources it cites.

You notice that the research was funded by the pharmaceutical company that created the treatment. Because of this, you view its results skeptically and determine that more independent research is necessary to confirm or refute them. Example: Poor critical thinking in an academic context You’re researching a paper on the impact wireless technology has had on developing countries that previously did not have large-scale communications infrastructure. You read an article that seems to confirm your hypothesis: the impact is mainly positive. Rather than evaluating the research methodology, you accept the findings uncritically.

Nonacademic examples

However, you decide to compare this review article with consumer reviews on a different site. You find that these reviews are not as positive. Some customers have had problems installing the alarm, and some have noted that it activates for no apparent reason.

You revisit the original review article. You notice that the words “sponsored content” appear in small print under the article title. Based on this, you conclude that the review is advertising and is therefore not an unbiased source. Example: Poor critical thinking in a nonacademic context You support a candidate in an upcoming election. You visit an online news site affiliated with their political party and read an article that criticizes their opponent. The article claims that the opponent is inexperienced in politics. You accept this without evidence, because it fits your preconceptions about the opponent.

There is no single way to think critically. How you engage with information will depend on the type of source you’re using and the information you need.

However, you can engage with sources in a systematic and critical way by asking certain questions when you encounter information. Like the CRAAP test , these questions focus on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

When encountering information, ask:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert in their field?
• What do they say? Is their argument clear? Can you summarize it?
• When did they say this? Is the source current?
• Where is the information published? Is it an academic article? Is it peer-reviewed ?
• Why did the author publish it? What is their motivation?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence? Does it rely on opinion, speculation, or appeals to emotion ? Do they address alternative arguments?

Critical thinking also involves being aware of your own biases, not only those of others. When you make an argument or draw your own conclusions, you can ask similar questions about your own writing:

• Am I only considering evidence that supports my preconceptions?
• Is my argument expressed clearly and backed up with credible sources?
• Would I be convinced by this argument coming from someone else?

If you want to know more about ChatGPT, AI tools , citation , and plagiarism , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• ChatGPT vs human editor
• ChatGPT citations
• Is ChatGPT trustworthy?
• Using ChatGPT for your studies
• What is ChatGPT?
• Chicago style
• Paraphrasing

 Plagiarism

• Types of plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism
• Avoiding plagiarism
• Academic integrity
• Consequences of plagiarism
• Common knowledge

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

Critical thinking skills include the ability to:

You can assess information and arguments critically by asking certain questions about the source. You can use the CRAAP test , focusing on the currency , relevance , authority , accuracy , and purpose of a source of information.

Ask questions such as:

• Who is the author? Are they an expert?
• How do they make their argument? Is it backed up by evidence?

A credible source should pass the CRAAP test  and follow these guidelines:

• The information should be up to date and current.
• The author and publication should be a trusted authority on the subject you are researching.
• The sources the author cited should be easy to find, clear, and unbiased.
• For a web source, the URL and layout should signify that it is trustworthy.

Information literacy refers to a broad range of skills, including the ability to find, evaluate, and use sources of information effectively.

Being information literate means that you:

• Know how to find credible sources
• Use relevant sources to inform your research
• Understand what constitutes plagiarism
• Know how to cite your sources correctly

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search, interpret, and recall information in a way that aligns with our pre-existing values, opinions, or beliefs. It refers to the ability to recollect information best when it amplifies what we already believe. Relatedly, we tend to forget information that contradicts our opinions.

Although selective recall is a component of confirmation bias, it should not be confused with recall bias.

On the other hand, recall bias refers to the differences in the ability between study participants to recall past events when self-reporting is used. This difference in accuracy or completeness of recollection is not related to beliefs or opinions. Rather, recall bias relates to other factors, such as the length of the recall period, age, and the characteristics of the disease under investigation.

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What Is Critical Thinking? | Meaning & Examples

Critical thinking is the process of analyzing information logically and overcoming assumptions, biases, and logical fallacies. Developing critical thinking skills allows us to evaluate information as objectively as possible and reach well-founded conclusions.

Critical thinking example

Thinking critically is a crucial part of academic success, professional development, civic engagement, and personal decision-making.

Table of contents

What is critical thinking, why is critical thinking important, critical thinking strategies.

Critical thinking is the process of evaluating information and arguments in a disciplined and systematic way. It involves questioning assumptions, assessing evidence, and using logical reasoning to form well-reasoned judgments.

Key critical thinking skills:

• Avoiding unfounded assumptions
• Identifying and countering biases
• Recognizing and refuting logical fallacies

These practices enable us to make informed decisions, analyze evidence objectively, consider multiple perspectives, reflect on our own biases, and seek reliable sources.

Critical thinking is enhanced by the deliberate study of biases, logical fallacies, and the different forms of reasoning:

• Deductive reasoning: Drawing specific conclusions from general premises
• Inductive reasoning: Generalizing from specific observations
• Analogical reasoning: Drawing parallels between similar situations
• Abductive reasoning: Inferring the most likely explanation from incomplete evidence

When assessing sources, critical thinking requires evaluating several factors:

• Credibility: Check the author’s qualifications and the publication’s reputation.
• Evidence: Verify that the information is supported by data and references.
• Bias: Identify any potential biases or conflicts of interest.
• Currency: Ensure the information is up-to-date and relevant.
• Purpose: Understand the motivation behind the source and whether it aims to inform, persuade, or sell.

Critical thinking is crucial to decision-making and problem-solving in many domains of life. Social media disinformation and irresponsible uses of AI make it more important than ever to be able to distinguish between credible information and misleading or false content.

Developing critical thinking skills is an essential part of fostering independent thinking, allowing us to:

• Make informed decisions
• Solve complex problems
• Evaluate the logic of arguments

In the process of developing these skills, we become less susceptible to biases, fallacies, and propaganda.

Examples of critical thinking

Critical thinking is an essential part of consuming any form of media, including news, marketing, entertainment, and social media. Media platforms are commonly used to promote biased or manipulative messages, often in a subtle way.

Critical thinking in media example

A news segment claims eating chocolate daily improves cognitive function. After reading more about the research, you find the study had a small sample size and was funded by a chocolate company, indicating bias. This leads you to conclude the claim is unreliable.

Critical thinking is fundamental in logic, math, law, science, and other academic and professional domains. The scientific method is a quintessential example of systematized critical thinking.

Critical thinking in science example

• Formulate a hypothesis.
• Design experiments.
• Analyze data.
• Draw conclusions.
• Revise the hypothesis if necessary.

Academic research requires advanced critical thinking skills.

Critical thinking academic example

• Evaluating the methodology of each study to determine their reliability and validity
• Checking for potential biases, such as funding sources or conflicts of interest
• Comparing the sample sizes and demographics of the studies to understand the context of their findings
• Synthesizing the results, highlighting common trends and discrepancies, and considering the limitations of each study

Critical thinking enhances informed decision-making by equipping us to recognize biases, identify logical fallacies, evaluate evidence, consider alternative perspectives, and learn to identify credible sources.

Key strategies:

• Recognize biases.
• Identify logical fallacies.
• Evaluate sources and evidence.
• Consider alternative perspectives.

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Defining Critical Thinking

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Critical thinking

Advice and resources to help you develop your critical voice.

Developing critical thinking skills is essential to your success at University and beyond.  We all need to be critical thinkers to help us navigate our way through an information-rich world. 

Whatever your discipline, you will engage with a wide variety of sources of information and evidence.  You will develop the skills to make judgements about this evidence to form your own views and to present your views clearly.

One of the most common types of feedback received by students is that their work is ‘too descriptive’.  This usually means that they have just stated what others have said and have not reflected critically on the material.  They have not evaluated the evidence and constructed an argument.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the art of making clear, reasoned judgements based on interpreting, understanding, applying and synthesising evidence gathered from observation, reading and experimentation. Burns, T., & Sinfield, S. (2016)  Essential Study Skills: The Complete Guide to Success at University (4th ed.) London: SAGE, p94.

Being critical does not just mean finding fault.  It means assessing evidence from a variety of sources and making reasoned conclusions.  As a result of your analysis you may decide that a particular piece of evidence is not robust, or that you disagree with the conclusion, but you should be able to state why you have come to this view and incorporate this into a bigger picture of the literature.

Being critical goes beyond describing what you have heard in lectures or what you have read.  It involves synthesising, analysing and evaluating what you have learned to develop your own argument or position.

Critical thinking is important in all subjects and disciplines – in science and engineering, as well as the arts and humanities.  The types of evidence used to develop arguments may be very different but the processes and techniques are similar.  Critical thinking is required for both undergraduate and postgraduate levels of study.

What, where, when, who, why, how?

Purposeful reading can help with critical thinking because it encourages you to read actively rather than passively.  When you read, ask yourself questions about what you are reading and make notes to record your views.  Ask questions like:

• What is the main point of this paper/ article/ paragraph/ report/ blog?
• Who wrote it?
• Why was it written?
• When was it written?
• Has the context changed since it was written?
• Is the evidence presented robust?
• How did the authors come to their conclusions?
• Do you agree with the conclusions?
• What does this add to our knowledge?
• Why is it useful?

Our web page covering Reading at university includes a handout to help you develop your own critical reading form and a suggested reading notes record sheet.  These resources will help you record your thoughts after you read, which will help you to construct your argument. 

Reading at university

Developing an argument

Being a university student is about learning how to think, not what to think.  Critical thinking shapes your own values and attitudes through a process of deliberating, debating and persuasion.   Through developing your critical thinking you can move on from simply disagreeing to constructively assessing alternatives by building on doubts.

There are several key stages involved in developing your ideas and constructing an argument.  You might like to use a form to help you think about the features of critical thinking and to break down the stages of developing your argument.

Features of critical thinking (pdf)

Features of critical thinking (Word rtf)

Our webpage on Academic writing includes a useful handout ‘Building an argument as you go’.

Academic writing

You should also consider the language you will use to introduce a range of viewpoints and to evaluate the various sources of evidence.  This will help your reader to follow your argument.  To get you started, the University of Manchester's Academic Phrasebank has a useful section on Being Critical. 

Academic Phrasebank

Developing your critical thinking

Set yourself some tasks to help develop your critical thinking skills.  Discuss material presented in lectures or from resource lists with your peers.  Set up a critical reading group or use an online discussion forum.  Think about a point you would like to make during discussions in tutorials and be prepared to back up your argument with evidence.

For more suggestions:

Developing your critical thinking - ideas (pdf)

Developing your critical thinking - ideas (Word rtf)

Published guides

For further advice and more detailed resources please see the Critical Thinking section of our list of published Study skills guides.

Study skills guides  

This article was published on 2024-02-26

Critical thinking definition

Critical thinking, as described by Oxford Languages, is the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.

Active and skillful approach, evaluation, assessment, synthesis, and/or evaluation of information obtained from, or made by, observation, knowledge, reflection, acumen or conversation, as a guide to belief and action, requires the critical thinking process, which is why it's often used in education and academics.

Some even may view it as a backbone of modern thought.

However, it's a skill, and skills must be trained and encouraged to be used at its full potential.

People turn up to various approaches in improving their critical thinking, like:

• Developing technical and problem-solving skills
• Engaging in more active listening
• Actively questioning their assumptions and beliefs
• Seeking out more diversity of thought
• Opening up their curiosity in an intellectual way etc.

Is critical thinking useful in writing?

Critical thinking can help in planning your paper and making it more concise, but it's not obvious at first. We carefully pinpointed some the questions you should ask yourself when boosting critical thinking in writing:

• What information should be included?
• Which information resources should the author look to?
• What degree of technical knowledge should the report assume its audience has?
• What is the most effective way to show information?
• How should the report be organized?
• How should it be designed?
• What tone and level of language difficulty should the document have?

Usage of critical thinking comes down not only to the outline of your paper, it also begs the question: How can we use critical thinking solving problems in our writing's topic?

Let's say, you have a Powerpoint on how critical thinking can reduce poverty in the United States. You'll primarily have to define critical thinking for the viewers, as well as use a lot of critical thinking questions and synonyms to get them to be familiar with your methods and start the thinking process behind it.

Are there any services that can help me use more critical thinking?

We understand that it's difficult to learn how to use critical thinking more effectively in just one article, but our service is here to help.

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Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is a widely accepted educational goal. Its definition is contested, but the competing definitions can be understood as differing conceptions of the same basic concept: careful thinking directed to a goal. Conceptions differ with respect to the scope of such thinking, the type of goal, the criteria and norms for thinking carefully, and the thinking components on which they focus. Its adoption as an educational goal has been recommended on the basis of respect for students’ autonomy and preparing students for success in life and for democratic citizenship. “Critical thinkers” have the dispositions and abilities that lead them to think critically when appropriate. The abilities can be identified directly; the dispositions indirectly, by considering what factors contribute to or impede exercise of the abilities. Standardized tests have been developed to assess the degree to which a person possesses such dispositions and abilities. Educational intervention has been shown experimentally to improve them, particularly when it includes dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring. Controversies have arisen over the generalizability of critical thinking across domains, over alleged bias in critical thinking theories and instruction, and over the relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking.

2.1 Dewey’s Three Main Examples

2.2 dewey’s other examples, 2.3 further examples, 2.4 non-examples, 3. the definition of critical thinking, 4. its value, 5. the process of thinking critically, 6. components of the process, 7. contributory dispositions and abilities, 8.1 initiating dispositions, 8.2 internal dispositions, 9. critical thinking abilities, 10. required knowledge, 11. educational methods, 12.1 the generalizability of critical thinking, 12.2 bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, 12.3 relationship of critical thinking to other types of thinking, other internet resources, related entries.

Use of the term ‘critical thinking’ to describe an educational goal goes back to the American philosopher John Dewey (1910), who more commonly called it ‘reflective thinking’. He defined it as

active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey 1910: 6; 1933: 9)

and identified a habit of such consideration with a scientific attitude of mind. His lengthy quotations of Francis Bacon, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill indicate that he was not the first person to propose development of a scientific attitude of mind as an educational goal.

In the 1930s, many of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study of the Progressive Education Association (Aikin 1942) adopted critical thinking as an educational goal, for whose achievement the study’s Evaluation Staff developed tests (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942). Glaser (1941) showed experimentally that it was possible to improve the critical thinking of high school students. Bloom’s influential taxonomy of cognitive educational objectives (Bloom et al. 1956) incorporated critical thinking abilities. Ennis (1962) proposed 12 aspects of critical thinking as a basis for research on the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability.

Since 1980, an annual international conference in California on critical thinking and educational reform has attracted tens of thousands of educators from all levels of education and from many parts of the world. Also since 1980, the state university system in California has required all undergraduate students to take a critical thinking course. Since 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions in conjunction with the divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association (APA). In 1987, the APA’s Committee on Pre-College Philosophy commissioned a consensus statement on critical thinking for purposes of educational assessment and instruction (Facione 1990a). Researchers have developed standardized tests of critical thinking abilities and dispositions; for details, see the Supplement on Assessment . Educational jurisdictions around the world now include critical thinking in guidelines for curriculum and assessment.

For details on this history, see the Supplement on History .

2. Examples and Non-Examples

Before considering the definition of critical thinking, it will be helpful to have in mind some examples of critical thinking, as well as some examples of kinds of thinking that would apparently not count as critical thinking.

Dewey (1910: 68–71; 1933: 91–94) takes as paradigms of reflective thinking three class papers of students in which they describe their thinking. The examples range from the everyday to the scientific.

Transit : “The other day, when I was down town on 16th Street, a clock caught my eye. I saw that the hands pointed to 12:20. This suggested that I had an engagement at 124th Street, at one o’clock. I reasoned that as it had taken me an hour to come down on a surface car, I should probably be twenty minutes late if I returned the same way. I might save twenty minutes by a subway express. But was there a station near? If not, I might lose more than twenty minutes in looking for one. Then I thought of the elevated, and I saw there was such a line within two blocks. But where was the station? If it were several blocks above or below the street I was on, I should lose time instead of gaining it. My mind went back to the subway express as quicker than the elevated; furthermore, I remembered that it went nearer than the elevated to the part of 124th Street I wished to reach, so that time would be saved at the end of the journey. I concluded in favor of the subway, and reached my destination by one o’clock.” (Dewey 1910: 68–69; 1933: 91–92)

Ferryboat : “Projecting nearly horizontally from the upper deck of the ferryboat on which I daily cross the river is a long white pole, having a gilded ball at its tip. It suggested a flagpole when I first saw it; its color, shape, and gilded ball agreed with this idea, and these reasons seemed to justify me in this belief. But soon difficulties presented themselves. The pole was nearly horizontal, an unusual position for a flagpole; in the next place, there was no pulley, ring, or cord by which to attach a flag; finally, there were elsewhere on the boat two vertical staffs from which flags were occasionally flown. It seemed probable that the pole was not there for flag-flying.

“I then tried to imagine all possible purposes of the pole, and to consider for which of these it was best suited: (a) Possibly it was an ornament. But as all the ferryboats and even the tugboats carried poles, this hypothesis was rejected. (b) Possibly it was the terminal of a wireless telegraph. But the same considerations made this improbable. Besides, the more natural place for such a terminal would be the highest part of the boat, on top of the pilot house. (c) Its purpose might be to point out the direction in which the boat is moving.

“In support of this conclusion, I discovered that the pole was lower than the pilot house, so that the steersman could easily see it. Moreover, the tip was enough higher than the base, so that, from the pilot’s position, it must appear to project far out in front of the boat. Moreover, the pilot being near the front of the boat, he would need some such guide as to its direction. Tugboats would also need poles for such a purpose. This hypothesis was so much more probable than the others that I accepted it. I formed the conclusion that the pole was set up for the purpose of showing the pilot the direction in which the boat pointed, to enable him to steer correctly.” (Dewey 1910: 69–70; 1933: 92–93)

Bubbles : “In washing tumblers in hot soapsuds and placing them mouth downward on a plate, bubbles appeared on the outside of the mouth of the tumblers and then went inside. Why? The presence of bubbles suggests air, which I note must come from inside the tumbler. I see that the soapy water on the plate prevents escape of the air save as it may be caught in bubbles. But why should air leave the tumbler? There was no substance entering to force it out. It must have expanded. It expands by increase of heat, or by decrease of pressure, or both. Could the air have become heated after the tumbler was taken from the hot suds? Clearly not the air that was already entangled in the water. If heated air was the cause, cold air must have entered in transferring the tumblers from the suds to the plate. I test to see if this supposition is true by taking several more tumblers out. Some I shake so as to make sure of entrapping cold air in them. Some I take out holding mouth downward in order to prevent cold air from entering. Bubbles appear on the outside of every one of the former and on none of the latter. I must be right in my inference. Air from the outside must have been expanded by the heat of the tumbler, which explains the appearance of the bubbles on the outside. But why do they then go inside? Cold contracts. The tumbler cooled and also the air inside it. Tension was removed, and hence bubbles appeared inside. To be sure of this, I test by placing a cup of ice on the tumbler while the bubbles are still forming outside. They soon reverse” (Dewey 1910: 70–71; 1933: 93–94).

Dewey (1910, 1933) sprinkles his book with other examples of critical thinking. We will refer to the following.

Weather : A man on a walk notices that it has suddenly become cool, thinks that it is probably going to rain, looks up and sees a dark cloud obscuring the sun, and quickens his steps (1910: 6–10; 1933: 9–13).

Disorder : A man finds his rooms on his return to them in disorder with his belongings thrown about, thinks at first of burglary as an explanation, then thinks of mischievous children as being an alternative explanation, then looks to see whether valuables are missing, and discovers that they are (1910: 82–83; 1933: 166–168).

Typhoid : A physician diagnosing a patient whose conspicuous symptoms suggest typhoid avoids drawing a conclusion until more data are gathered by questioning the patient and by making tests (1910: 85–86; 1933: 170).

Blur : A moving blur catches our eye in the distance, we ask ourselves whether it is a cloud of whirling dust or a tree moving its branches or a man signaling to us, we think of other traits that should be found on each of those possibilities, and we look and see if those traits are found (1910: 102, 108; 1933: 121, 133).

Suction pump : In thinking about the suction pump, the scientist first notes that it will draw water only to a maximum height of 33 feet at sea level and to a lesser maximum height at higher elevations, selects for attention the differing atmospheric pressure at these elevations, sets up experiments in which the air is removed from a vessel containing water (when suction no longer works) and in which the weight of air at various levels is calculated, compares the results of reasoning about the height to which a given weight of air will allow a suction pump to raise water with the observed maximum height at different elevations, and finally assimilates the suction pump to such apparently different phenomena as the siphon and the rising of a balloon (1910: 150–153; 1933: 195–198).

Diamond : A passenger in a car driving in a diamond lane reserved for vehicles with at least one passenger notices that the diamond marks on the pavement are far apart in some places and close together in others. Why? The driver suggests that the reason may be that the diamond marks are not needed where there is a solid double line separating the diamond lane from the adjoining lane, but are needed when there is a dotted single line permitting crossing into the diamond lane. Further observation confirms that the diamonds are close together when a dotted line separates the diamond lane from its neighbour, but otherwise far apart.

Rash : A woman suddenly develops a very itchy red rash on her throat and upper chest. She recently noticed a mark on the back of her right hand, but was not sure whether the mark was a rash or a scrape. She lies down in bed and thinks about what might be causing the rash and what to do about it. About two weeks before, she began taking blood pressure medication that contained a sulfa drug, and the pharmacist had warned her, in view of a previous allergic reaction to a medication containing a sulfa drug, to be on the alert for an allergic reaction; however, she had been taking the medication for two weeks with no such effect. The day before, she began using a new cream on her neck and upper chest; against the new cream as the cause was mark on the back of her hand, which had not been exposed to the cream. She began taking probiotics about a month before. She also recently started new eye drops, but she supposed that manufacturers of eye drops would be careful not to include allergy-causing components in the medication. The rash might be a heat rash, since she recently was sweating profusely from her upper body. Since she is about to go away on a short vacation, where she would not have access to her usual physician, she decides to keep taking the probiotics and using the new eye drops but to discontinue the blood pressure medication and to switch back to the old cream for her neck and upper chest. She forms a plan to consult her regular physician on her return about the blood pressure medication.

Candidate : Although Dewey included no examples of thinking directed at appraising the arguments of others, such thinking has come to be considered a kind of critical thinking. We find an example of such thinking in the performance task on the Collegiate Learning Assessment (CLA+), which its sponsoring organization describes as

a performance-based assessment that provides a measure of an institution’s contribution to the development of critical-thinking and written communication skills of its students. (Council for Aid to Education 2017)

A sample task posted on its website requires the test-taker to write a report for public distribution evaluating a fictional candidate’s policy proposals and their supporting arguments, using supplied background documents, with a recommendation on whether to endorse the candidate.

Immediate acceptance of an idea that suggests itself as a solution to a problem (e.g., a possible explanation of an event or phenomenon, an action that seems likely to produce a desired result) is “uncritical thinking, the minimum of reflection” (Dewey 1910: 13). On-going suspension of judgment in the light of doubt about a possible solution is not critical thinking (Dewey 1910: 108). Critique driven by a dogmatically held political or religious ideology is not critical thinking; thus Paulo Freire (1968 [1970]) is using the term (e.g., at 1970: 71, 81, 100, 146) in a more politically freighted sense that includes not only reflection but also revolutionary action against oppression. Derivation of a conclusion from given data using an algorithm is not critical thinking.

What is critical thinking? There are many definitions. Ennis (2016) lists 14 philosophically oriented scholarly definitions and three dictionary definitions. Following Rawls (1971), who distinguished his conception of justice from a utilitarian conception but regarded them as rival conceptions of the same concept, Ennis maintains that the 17 definitions are different conceptions of the same concept. Rawls articulated the shared concept of justice as

a characteristic set of principles for assigning basic rights and duties and for determining… the proper distribution of the benefits and burdens of social cooperation. (Rawls 1971: 5)

Bailin et al. (1999b) claim that, if one considers what sorts of thinking an educator would take not to be critical thinking and what sorts to be critical thinking, one can conclude that educators typically understand critical thinking to have at least three features.

• It is done for the purpose of making up one’s mind about what to believe or do.
• The person engaging in the thinking is trying to fulfill standards of adequacy and accuracy appropriate to the thinking.
• The thinking fulfills the relevant standards to some threshold level.

One could sum up the core concept that involves these three features by saying that critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking. This core concept seems to apply to all the examples of critical thinking described in the previous section. As for the non-examples, their exclusion depends on construing careful thinking as excluding jumping immediately to conclusions, suspending judgment no matter how strong the evidence, reasoning from an unquestioned ideological or religious perspective, and routinely using an algorithm to answer a question.

If the core of critical thinking is careful goal-directed thinking, conceptions of it can vary according to its presumed scope, its presumed goal, one’s criteria and threshold for being careful, and the thinking component on which one focuses. As to its scope, some conceptions (e.g., Dewey 1910, 1933) restrict it to constructive thinking on the basis of one’s own observations and experiments, others (e.g., Ennis 1962; Fisher & Scriven 1997; Johnson 1992) to appraisal of the products of such thinking. Ennis (1991) and Bailin et al. (1999b) take it to cover both construction and appraisal. As to its goal, some conceptions restrict it to forming a judgment (Dewey 1910, 1933; Lipman 1987; Facione 1990a). Others allow for actions as well as beliefs as the end point of a process of critical thinking (Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b). As to the criteria and threshold for being careful, definitions vary in the term used to indicate that critical thinking satisfies certain norms: “intellectually disciplined” (Scriven & Paul 1987), “reasonable” (Ennis 1991), “skillful” (Lipman 1987), “skilled” (Fisher & Scriven 1997), “careful” (Bailin & Battersby 2009). Some definitions specify these norms, referring variously to “consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” (Dewey 1910, 1933); “the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning” (Glaser 1941); “conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication” (Scriven & Paul 1987); the requirement that “it is sensitive to context, relies on criteria, and is self-correcting” (Lipman 1987); “evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations” (Facione 1990a); and “plus-minus considerations of the product in terms of appropriate standards (or criteria)” (Johnson 1992). Stanovich and Stanovich (2010) propose to ground the concept of critical thinking in the concept of rationality, which they understand as combining epistemic rationality (fitting one’s beliefs to the world) and instrumental rationality (optimizing goal fulfillment); a critical thinker, in their view, is someone with “a propensity to override suboptimal responses from the autonomous mind” (2010: 227). These variant specifications of norms for critical thinking are not necessarily incompatible with one another, and in any case presuppose the core notion of thinking carefully. As to the thinking component singled out, some definitions focus on suspension of judgment during the thinking (Dewey 1910; McPeck 1981), others on inquiry while judgment is suspended (Bailin & Battersby 2009, 2021), others on the resulting judgment (Facione 1990a), and still others on responsiveness to reasons (Siegel 1988). Kuhn (2019) takes critical thinking to be more a dialogic practice of advancing and responding to arguments than an individual ability.

In educational contexts, a definition of critical thinking is a “programmatic definition” (Scheffler 1960: 19). It expresses a practical program for achieving an educational goal. For this purpose, a one-sentence formulaic definition is much less useful than articulation of a critical thinking process, with criteria and standards for the kinds of thinking that the process may involve. The real educational goal is recognition, adoption and implementation by students of those criteria and standards. That adoption and implementation in turn consists in acquiring the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker.

Conceptions of critical thinking generally do not include moral integrity as part of the concept. Dewey, for example, took critical thinking to be the ultimate intellectual goal of education, but distinguished it from the development of social cooperation among school children, which he took to be the central moral goal. Ennis (1996, 2011) added to his previous list of critical thinking dispositions a group of dispositions to care about the dignity and worth of every person, which he described as a “correlative” (1996) disposition without which critical thinking would be less valuable and perhaps harmful. An educational program that aimed at developing critical thinking but not the correlative disposition to care about the dignity and worth of every person, he asserted, “would be deficient and perhaps dangerous” (Ennis 1996: 172).

Dewey thought that education for reflective thinking would be of value to both the individual and society; recognition in educational practice of the kinship to the scientific attitude of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (Dewey 1910: iii). Schools participating in the Eight-Year Study took development of the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems as a means to leading young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18, 81). Harvey Siegel (1988: 55–61) has offered four considerations in support of adopting critical thinking as an educational ideal. (1) Respect for persons requires that schools and teachers honour students’ demands for reasons and explanations, deal with students honestly, and recognize the need to confront students’ independent judgment; these requirements concern the manner in which teachers treat students. (2) Education has the task of preparing children to be successful adults, a task that requires development of their self-sufficiency. (3) Education should initiate children into the rational traditions in such fields as history, science and mathematics. (4) Education should prepare children to become democratic citizens, which requires reasoned procedures and critical talents and attitudes. To supplement these considerations, Siegel (1988: 62–90) responds to two objections: the ideology objection that adoption of any educational ideal requires a prior ideological commitment and the indoctrination objection that cultivation of critical thinking cannot escape being a form of indoctrination.

Despite the diversity of our 11 examples, one can recognize a common pattern. Dewey analyzed it as consisting of five phases:

• suggestions , in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution;
• an intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity into a problem to be solved, a question for which the answer must be sought;
• the use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis , to initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual material;
• the mental elaboration of the idea or supposition as an idea or supposition ( reasoning , in the sense on which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference); and
• testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action. (Dewey 1933: 106–107; italics in original)

The process of reflective thinking consisting of these phases would be preceded by a perplexed, troubled or confused situation and followed by a cleared-up, unified, resolved situation (Dewey 1933: 106). The term ‘phases’ replaced the term ‘steps’ (Dewey 1910: 72), thus removing the earlier suggestion of an invariant sequence. Variants of the above analysis appeared in (Dewey 1916: 177) and (Dewey 1938: 101–119).

The variant formulations indicate the difficulty of giving a single logical analysis of such a varied process. The process of critical thinking may have a spiral pattern, with the problem being redefined in the light of obstacles to solving it as originally formulated. For example, the person in Transit might have concluded that getting to the appointment at the scheduled time was impossible and have reformulated the problem as that of rescheduling the appointment for a mutually convenient time. Further, defining a problem does not always follow after or lead immediately to an idea of a suggested solution. Nor should it do so, as Dewey himself recognized in describing the physician in Typhoid as avoiding any strong preference for this or that conclusion before getting further information (Dewey 1910: 85; 1933: 170). People with a hypothesis in mind, even one to which they have a very weak commitment, have a so-called “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998): they are likely to pay attention to evidence that confirms the hypothesis and to ignore evidence that counts against it or for some competing hypothesis. Detectives, intelligence agencies, and investigators of airplane accidents are well advised to gather relevant evidence systematically and to postpone even tentative adoption of an explanatory hypothesis until the collected evidence rules out with the appropriate degree of certainty all but one explanation. Dewey’s analysis of the critical thinking process can be faulted as well for requiring acceptance or rejection of a possible solution to a defined problem, with no allowance for deciding in the light of the available evidence to suspend judgment. Further, given the great variety of kinds of problems for which reflection is appropriate, there is likely to be variation in its component events. Perhaps the best way to conceptualize the critical thinking process is as a checklist whose component events can occur in a variety of orders, selectively, and more than once. These component events might include (1) noticing a difficulty, (2) defining the problem, (3) dividing the problem into manageable sub-problems, (4) formulating a variety of possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (5) determining what evidence is relevant to deciding among possible solutions to the problem or sub-problem, (6) devising a plan of systematic observation or experiment that will uncover the relevant evidence, (7) carrying out the plan of systematic observation or experimentation, (8) noting the results of the systematic observation or experiment, (9) gathering relevant testimony and information from others, (10) judging the credibility of testimony and information gathered from others, (11) drawing conclusions from gathered evidence and accepted testimony, and (12) accepting a solution that the evidence adequately supports (cf. Hitchcock 2017: 485).

Checklist conceptions of the process of critical thinking are open to the objection that they are too mechanical and procedural to fit the multi-dimensional and emotionally charged issues for which critical thinking is urgently needed (Paul 1984). For such issues, a more dialectical process is advocated, in which competing relevant world views are identified, their implications explored, and some sort of creative synthesis attempted.

If one considers the critical thinking process illustrated by the 11 examples, one can identify distinct kinds of mental acts and mental states that form part of it. To distinguish, label and briefly characterize these components is a useful preliminary to identifying abilities, skills, dispositions, attitudes, habits and the like that contribute causally to thinking critically. Identifying such abilities and habits is in turn a useful preliminary to setting educational goals. Setting the goals is in its turn a useful preliminary to designing strategies for helping learners to achieve the goals and to designing ways of measuring the extent to which learners have done so. Such measures provide both feedback to learners on their achievement and a basis for experimental research on the effectiveness of various strategies for educating people to think critically. Let us begin, then, by distinguishing the kinds of mental acts and mental events that can occur in a critical thinking process.

• Observing : One notices something in one’s immediate environment (sudden cooling of temperature in Weather , bubbles forming outside a glass and then going inside in Bubbles , a moving blur in the distance in Blur , a rash in Rash ). Or one notes the results of an experiment or systematic observation (valuables missing in Disorder , no suction without air pressure in Suction pump )
• Feeling : One feels puzzled or uncertain about something (how to get to an appointment on time in Transit , why the diamonds vary in spacing in Diamond ). One wants to resolve this perplexity. One feels satisfaction once one has worked out an answer (to take the subway express in Transit , diamonds closer when needed as a warning in Diamond ).
• Wondering : One formulates a question to be addressed (why bubbles form outside a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , how suction pumps work in Suction pump , what caused the rash in Rash ).
• Imagining : One thinks of possible answers (bus or subway or elevated in Transit , flagpole or ornament or wireless communication aid or direction indicator in Ferryboat , allergic reaction or heat rash in Rash ).
• Inferring : One works out what would be the case if a possible answer were assumed (valuables missing if there has been a burglary in Disorder , earlier start to the rash if it is an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug in Rash ). Or one draws a conclusion once sufficient relevant evidence is gathered (take the subway in Transit , burglary in Disorder , discontinue blood pressure medication and new cream in Rash ).
• Knowledge : One uses stored knowledge of the subject-matter to generate possible answers or to infer what would be expected on the assumption of a particular answer (knowledge of a city’s public transit system in Transit , of the requirements for a flagpole in Ferryboat , of Boyle’s law in Bubbles , of allergic reactions in Rash ).
• Experimenting : One designs and carries out an experiment or a systematic observation to find out whether the results deduced from a possible answer will occur (looking at the location of the flagpole in relation to the pilot’s position in Ferryboat , putting an ice cube on top of a tumbler taken from hot water in Bubbles , measuring the height to which a suction pump will draw water at different elevations in Suction pump , noticing the spacing of diamonds when movement to or from a diamond lane is allowed in Diamond ).
• Consulting : One finds a source of information, gets the information from the source, and makes a judgment on whether to accept it. None of our 11 examples include searching for sources of information. In this respect they are unrepresentative, since most people nowadays have almost instant access to information relevant to answering any question, including many of those illustrated by the examples. However, Candidate includes the activities of extracting information from sources and evaluating its credibility.
• Identifying and analyzing arguments : One notices an argument and works out its structure and content as a preliminary to evaluating its strength. This activity is central to Candidate . It is an important part of a critical thinking process in which one surveys arguments for various positions on an issue.
• Judging : One makes a judgment on the basis of accumulated evidence and reasoning, such as the judgment in Ferryboat that the purpose of the pole is to provide direction to the pilot.
• Deciding : One makes a decision on what to do or on what policy to adopt, as in the decision in Transit to take the subway.

By definition, a person who does something voluntarily is both willing and able to do that thing at that time. Both the willingness and the ability contribute causally to the person’s action, in the sense that the voluntary action would not occur if either (or both) of these were lacking. For example, suppose that one is standing with one’s arms at one’s sides and one voluntarily lifts one’s right arm to an extended horizontal position. One would not do so if one were unable to lift one’s arm, if for example one’s right side was paralyzed as the result of a stroke. Nor would one do so if one were unwilling to lift one’s arm, if for example one were participating in a street demonstration at which a white supremacist was urging the crowd to lift their right arm in a Nazi salute and one were unwilling to express support in this way for the racist Nazi ideology. The same analysis applies to a voluntary mental process of thinking critically. It requires both willingness and ability to think critically, including willingness and ability to perform each of the mental acts that compose the process and to coordinate those acts in a sequence that is directed at resolving the initiating perplexity.

Consider willingness first. We can identify causal contributors to willingness to think critically by considering factors that would cause a person who was able to think critically about an issue nevertheless not to do so (Hamby 2014). For each factor, the opposite condition thus contributes causally to willingness to think critically on a particular occasion. For example, people who habitually jump to conclusions without considering alternatives will not think critically about issues that arise, even if they have the required abilities. The contrary condition of willingness to suspend judgment is thus a causal contributor to thinking critically.

Now consider ability. In contrast to the ability to move one’s arm, which can be completely absent because a stroke has left the arm paralyzed, the ability to think critically is a developed ability, whose absence is not a complete absence of ability to think but absence of ability to think well. We can identify the ability to think well directly, in terms of the norms and standards for good thinking. In general, to be able do well the thinking activities that can be components of a critical thinking process, one needs to know the concepts and principles that characterize their good performance, to recognize in particular cases that the concepts and principles apply, and to apply them. The knowledge, recognition and application may be procedural rather than declarative. It may be domain-specific rather than widely applicable, and in either case may need subject-matter knowledge, sometimes of a deep kind.

Reflections of the sort illustrated by the previous two paragraphs have led scholars to identify the knowledge, abilities and dispositions of a “critical thinker”, i.e., someone who thinks critically whenever it is appropriate to do so. We turn now to these three types of causal contributors to thinking critically. We start with dispositions, since arguably these are the most powerful contributors to being a critical thinker, can be fostered at an early stage of a child’s development, and are susceptible to general improvement (Glaser 1941: 175)

8. Critical Thinking Dispositions

Educational researchers use the term ‘dispositions’ broadly for the habits of mind and attitudes that contribute causally to being a critical thinker. Some writers (e.g., Paul & Elder 2006; Hamby 2014; Bailin & Battersby 2016a) propose to use the term ‘virtues’ for this dimension of a critical thinker. The virtues in question, although they are virtues of character, concern the person’s ways of thinking rather than the person’s ways of behaving towards others. They are not moral virtues but intellectual virtues, of the sort articulated by Zagzebski (1996) and discussed by Turri, Alfano, and Greco (2017).

On a realistic conception, thinking dispositions or intellectual virtues are real properties of thinkers. They are general tendencies, propensities, or inclinations to think in particular ways in particular circumstances, and can be genuinely explanatory (Siegel 1999). Sceptics argue that there is no evidence for a specific mental basis for the habits of mind that contribute to thinking critically, and that it is pedagogically misleading to posit such a basis (Bailin et al. 1999a). Whatever their status, critical thinking dispositions need motivation for their initial formation in a child—motivation that may be external or internal. As children develop, the force of habit will gradually become important in sustaining the disposition (Nieto & Valenzuela 2012). Mere force of habit, however, is unlikely to sustain critical thinking dispositions. Critical thinkers must value and enjoy using their knowledge and abilities to think things through for themselves. They must be committed to, and lovers of, inquiry.

A person may have a critical thinking disposition with respect to only some kinds of issues. For example, one could be open-minded about scientific issues but not about religious issues. Similarly, one could be confident in one’s ability to reason about the theological implications of the existence of evil in the world but not in one’s ability to reason about the best design for a guided ballistic missile.

Facione (1990a: 25) divides “affective dispositions” of critical thinking into approaches to life and living in general and approaches to specific issues, questions or problems. Adapting this distinction, one can usefully divide critical thinking dispositions into initiating dispositions (those that contribute causally to starting to think critically about an issue) and internal dispositions (those that contribute causally to doing a good job of thinking critically once one has started). The two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, open-mindedness, in the sense of willingness to consider alternative points of view to one’s own, is both an initiating and an internal disposition.

Using the strategy of considering factors that would block people with the ability to think critically from doing so, we can identify as initiating dispositions for thinking critically attentiveness, a habit of inquiry, self-confidence, courage, open-mindedness, willingness to suspend judgment, trust in reason, wanting evidence for one’s beliefs, and seeking the truth. We consider briefly what each of these dispositions amounts to, in each case citing sources that acknowledge them.

• Attentiveness : One will not think critically if one fails to recognize an issue that needs to be thought through. For example, the pedestrian in Weather would not have looked up if he had not noticed that the air was suddenly cooler. To be a critical thinker, then, one needs to be habitually attentive to one’s surroundings, noticing not only what one senses but also sources of perplexity in messages received and in one’s own beliefs and attitudes (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Habit of inquiry : Inquiry is effortful, and one needs an internal push to engage in it. For example, the student in Bubbles could easily have stopped at idle wondering about the cause of the bubbles rather than reasoning to a hypothesis, then designing and executing an experiment to test it. Thus willingness to think critically needs mental energy and initiative. What can supply that energy? Love of inquiry, or perhaps just a habit of inquiry. Hamby (2015) has argued that willingness to inquire is the central critical thinking virtue, one that encompasses all the others. It is recognized as a critical thinking disposition by Dewey (1910: 29; 1933: 35), Glaser (1941: 5), Ennis (1987: 12; 1991: 8), Facione (1990a: 25), Bailin et al. (1999b: 294), Halpern (1998: 452), and Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo (2001).
• Self-confidence : Lack of confidence in one’s abilities can block critical thinking. For example, if the woman in Rash lacked confidence in her ability to figure things out for herself, she might just have assumed that the rash on her chest was the allergic reaction to her medication against which the pharmacist had warned her. Thus willingness to think critically requires confidence in one’s ability to inquire (Facione 1990a: 25; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001).
• Courage : Fear of thinking for oneself can stop one from doing it. Thus willingness to think critically requires intellectual courage (Paul & Elder 2006: 16).
• Open-mindedness : A dogmatic attitude will impede thinking critically. For example, a person who adheres rigidly to a “pro-choice” position on the issue of the legal status of induced abortion is likely to be unwilling to consider seriously the issue of when in its development an unborn child acquires a moral right to life. Thus willingness to think critically requires open-mindedness, in the sense of a willingness to examine questions to which one already accepts an answer but which further evidence or reasoning might cause one to answer differently (Dewey 1933; Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Bailin et al. 1999b; Halpern 1998, Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). Paul (1981) emphasizes open-mindedness about alternative world-views, and recommends a dialectical approach to integrating such views as central to what he calls “strong sense” critical thinking. In three studies, Haran, Ritov, & Mellers (2013) found that actively open-minded thinking, including “the tendency to weigh new evidence against a favored belief, to spend sufficient time on a problem before giving up, and to consider carefully the opinions of others in forming one’s own”, led study participants to acquire information and thus to make accurate estimations.
• Willingness to suspend judgment : Premature closure on an initial solution will block critical thinking. Thus willingness to think critically requires a willingness to suspend judgment while alternatives are explored (Facione 1990a; Ennis 1991; Halpern 1998).
• Trust in reason : Since distrust in the processes of reasoned inquiry will dissuade one from engaging in it, trust in them is an initiating critical thinking disposition (Facione 1990a, 25; Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001; Paul & Elder 2006). In reaction to an allegedly exclusive emphasis on reason in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, Thayer-Bacon (2000) argues that intuition, imagination, and emotion have important roles to play in an adequate conception of critical thinking that she calls “constructive thinking”. From her point of view, critical thinking requires trust not only in reason but also in intuition, imagination, and emotion.
• Seeking the truth : If one does not care about the truth but is content to stick with one’s initial bias on an issue, then one will not think critically about it. Seeking the truth is thus an initiating critical thinking disposition (Bailin et al. 1999b: 294; Facione, Facione, & Giancarlo 2001). A disposition to seek the truth is implicit in more specific critical thinking dispositions, such as trying to be well-informed, considering seriously points of view other than one’s own, looking for alternatives, suspending judgment when the evidence is insufficient, and adopting a position when the evidence supporting it is sufficient.

Some of the initiating dispositions, such as open-mindedness and willingness to suspend judgment, are also internal critical thinking dispositions, in the sense of mental habits or attitudes that contribute causally to doing a good job of critical thinking once one starts the process. But there are many other internal critical thinking dispositions. Some of them are parasitic on one’s conception of good thinking. For example, it is constitutive of good thinking about an issue to formulate the issue clearly and to maintain focus on it. For this purpose, one needs not only the corresponding ability but also the corresponding disposition. Ennis (1991: 8) describes it as the disposition “to determine and maintain focus on the conclusion or question”, Facione (1990a: 25) as “clarity in stating the question or concern”. Other internal dispositions are motivators to continue or adjust the critical thinking process, such as willingness to persist in a complex task and willingness to abandon nonproductive strategies in an attempt to self-correct (Halpern 1998: 452). For a list of identified internal critical thinking dispositions, see the Supplement on Internal Critical Thinking Dispositions .

Some theorists postulate skills, i.e., acquired abilities, as operative in critical thinking. It is not obvious, however, that a good mental act is the exercise of a generic acquired skill. Inferring an expected time of arrival, as in Transit , has some generic components but also uses non-generic subject-matter knowledge. Bailin et al. (1999a) argue against viewing critical thinking skills as generic and discrete, on the ground that skilled performance at a critical thinking task cannot be separated from knowledge of concepts and from domain-specific principles of good thinking. Talk of skills, they concede, is unproblematic if it means merely that a person with critical thinking skills is capable of intelligent performance.

Despite such scepticism, theorists of critical thinking have listed as general contributors to critical thinking what they variously call abilities (Glaser 1941; Ennis 1962, 1991), skills (Facione 1990a; Halpern 1998) or competencies (Fisher & Scriven 1997). Amalgamating these lists would produce a confusing and chaotic cornucopia of more than 50 possible educational objectives, with only partial overlap among them. It makes sense instead to try to understand the reasons for the multiplicity and diversity, and to make a selection according to one’s own reasons for singling out abilities to be developed in a critical thinking curriculum. Two reasons for diversity among lists of critical thinking abilities are the underlying conception of critical thinking and the envisaged educational level. Appraisal-only conceptions, for example, involve a different suite of abilities than constructive-only conceptions. Some lists, such as those in (Glaser 1941), are put forward as educational objectives for secondary school students, whereas others are proposed as objectives for college students (e.g., Facione 1990a).

The abilities described in the remaining paragraphs of this section emerge from reflection on the general abilities needed to do well the thinking activities identified in section 6 as components of the critical thinking process described in section 5 . The derivation of each collection of abilities is accompanied by citation of sources that list such abilities and of standardized tests that claim to test them.

Observational abilities : Careful and accurate observation sometimes requires specialist expertise and practice, as in the case of observing birds and observing accident scenes. However, there are general abilities of noticing what one’s senses are picking up from one’s environment and of being able to articulate clearly and accurately to oneself and others what one has observed. It helps in exercising them to be able to recognize and take into account factors that make one’s observation less trustworthy, such as prior framing of the situation, inadequate time, deficient senses, poor observation conditions, and the like. It helps as well to be skilled at taking steps to make one’s observation more trustworthy, such as moving closer to get a better look, measuring something three times and taking the average, and checking what one thinks one is observing with someone else who is in a good position to observe it. It also helps to be skilled at recognizing respects in which one’s report of one’s observation involves inference rather than direct observation, so that one can then consider whether the inference is justified. These abilities come into play as well when one thinks about whether and with what degree of confidence to accept an observation report, for example in the study of history or in a criminal investigation or in assessing news reports. Observational abilities show up in some lists of critical thinking abilities (Ennis 1962: 90; Facione 1990a: 16; Ennis 1991: 9). There are items testing a person’s ability to judge the credibility of observation reports in the Cornell Critical Thinking Tests, Levels X and Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). Norris and King (1983, 1985, 1990a, 1990b) is a test of ability to appraise observation reports.

Emotional abilities : The emotions that drive a critical thinking process are perplexity or puzzlement, a wish to resolve it, and satisfaction at achieving the desired resolution. Children experience these emotions at an early age, without being trained to do so. Education that takes critical thinking as a goal needs only to channel these emotions and to make sure not to stifle them. Collaborative critical thinking benefits from ability to recognize one’s own and others’ emotional commitments and reactions.

Questioning abilities : A critical thinking process needs transformation of an inchoate sense of perplexity into a clear question. Formulating a question well requires not building in questionable assumptions, not prejudging the issue, and using language that in context is unambiguous and precise enough (Ennis 1962: 97; 1991: 9).

Imaginative abilities : Thinking directed at finding the correct causal explanation of a general phenomenon or particular event requires an ability to imagine possible explanations. Thinking about what policy or plan of action to adopt requires generation of options and consideration of possible consequences of each option. Domain knowledge is required for such creative activity, but a general ability to imagine alternatives is helpful and can be nurtured so as to become easier, quicker, more extensive, and deeper (Dewey 1910: 34–39; 1933: 40–47). Facione (1990a) and Halpern (1998) include the ability to imagine alternatives as a critical thinking ability.

Inferential abilities : The ability to draw conclusions from given information, and to recognize with what degree of certainty one’s own or others’ conclusions follow, is universally recognized as a general critical thinking ability. All 11 examples in section 2 of this article include inferences, some from hypotheses or options (as in Transit , Ferryboat and Disorder ), others from something observed (as in Weather and Rash ). None of these inferences is formally valid. Rather, they are licensed by general, sometimes qualified substantive rules of inference (Toulmin 1958) that rest on domain knowledge—that a bus trip takes about the same time in each direction, that the terminal of a wireless telegraph would be located on the highest possible place, that sudden cooling is often followed by rain, that an allergic reaction to a sulfa drug generally shows up soon after one starts taking it. It is a matter of controversy to what extent the specialized ability to deduce conclusions from premisses using formal rules of inference is needed for critical thinking. Dewey (1933) locates logical forms in setting out the products of reflection rather than in the process of reflection. Ennis (1981a), on the other hand, maintains that a liberally-educated person should have the following abilities: to translate natural-language statements into statements using the standard logical operators, to use appropriately the language of necessary and sufficient conditions, to deal with argument forms and arguments containing symbols, to determine whether in virtue of an argument’s form its conclusion follows necessarily from its premisses, to reason with logically complex propositions, and to apply the rules and procedures of deductive logic. Inferential abilities are recognized as critical thinking abilities by Glaser (1941: 6), Facione (1990a: 9), Ennis (1991: 9), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 99, 111), and Halpern (1998: 452). Items testing inferential abilities constitute two of the five subtests of the Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal (Watson & Glaser 1980a, 1980b, 1994), two of the four sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), three of the seven sections in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005), 11 of the 34 items on Forms A and B of the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992), and a high but variable proportion of the 25 selected-response questions in the Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Experimenting abilities : Knowing how to design and execute an experiment is important not just in scientific research but also in everyday life, as in Rash . Dewey devoted a whole chapter of his How We Think (1910: 145–156; 1933: 190–202) to the superiority of experimentation over observation in advancing knowledge. Experimenting abilities come into play at one remove in appraising reports of scientific studies. Skill in designing and executing experiments includes the acknowledged abilities to appraise evidence (Glaser 1941: 6), to carry out experiments and to apply appropriate statistical inference techniques (Facione 1990a: 9), to judge inductions to an explanatory hypothesis (Ennis 1991: 9), and to recognize the need for an adequately large sample size (Halpern 1998). The Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) includes four items (out of 52) on experimental design. The Collegiate Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) makes room for appraisal of study design in both its performance task and its selected-response questions.

Consulting abilities : Skill at consulting sources of information comes into play when one seeks information to help resolve a problem, as in Candidate . Ability to find and appraise information includes ability to gather and marshal pertinent information (Glaser 1941: 6), to judge whether a statement made by an alleged authority is acceptable (Ennis 1962: 84), to plan a search for desired information (Facione 1990a: 9), and to judge the credibility of a source (Ennis 1991: 9). Ability to judge the credibility of statements is tested by 24 items (out of 76) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level X (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005) and by four items (out of 52) in the Cornell Critical Thinking Test Level Z (Ennis & Millman 1971; Ennis, Millman, & Tomko 1985, 2005). The College Learning Assessment’s performance task requires evaluation of whether information in documents is credible or unreliable (Council for Aid to Education 2017).

Argument analysis abilities : The ability to identify and analyze arguments contributes to the process of surveying arguments on an issue in order to form one’s own reasoned judgment, as in Candidate . The ability to detect and analyze arguments is recognized as a critical thinking skill by Facione (1990a: 7–8), Ennis (1991: 9) and Halpern (1998). Five items (out of 34) on the California Critical Thinking Skills Test (Facione 1990b, 1992) test skill at argument analysis. The College Learning Assessment (Council for Aid to Education 2017) incorporates argument analysis in its selected-response tests of critical reading and evaluation and of critiquing an argument.

Judging skills and deciding skills : Skill at judging and deciding is skill at recognizing what judgment or decision the available evidence and argument supports, and with what degree of confidence. It is thus a component of the inferential skills already discussed.

Lists and tests of critical thinking abilities often include two more abilities: identifying assumptions and constructing and evaluating definitions.

In addition to dispositions and abilities, critical thinking needs knowledge: of critical thinking concepts, of critical thinking principles, and of the subject-matter of the thinking.

We can derive a short list of concepts whose understanding contributes to critical thinking from the critical thinking abilities described in the preceding section. Observational abilities require an understanding of the difference between observation and inference. Questioning abilities require an understanding of the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness. Inferential abilities require an understanding of the difference between conclusive and defeasible inference (traditionally, between deduction and induction), as well as of the difference between necessary and sufficient conditions. Experimenting abilities require an understanding of the concepts of hypothesis, null hypothesis, assumption and prediction, as well as of the concept of statistical significance and of its difference from importance. They also require an understanding of the difference between an experiment and an observational study, and in particular of the difference between a randomized controlled trial, a prospective correlational study and a retrospective (case-control) study. Argument analysis abilities require an understanding of the concepts of argument, premiss, assumption, conclusion and counter-consideration. Additional critical thinking concepts are proposed by Bailin et al. (1999b: 293), Fisher & Scriven (1997: 105–106), Black (2012), and Blair (2021).

According to Glaser (1941: 25), ability to think critically requires knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning. If we review the list of abilities in the preceding section, however, we can see that some of them can be acquired and exercised merely through practice, possibly guided in an educational setting, followed by feedback. Searching intelligently for a causal explanation of some phenomenon or event requires that one consider a full range of possible causal contributors, but it seems more important that one implements this principle in one’s practice than that one is able to articulate it. What is important is “operational knowledge” of the standards and principles of good thinking (Bailin et al. 1999b: 291–293). But the development of such critical thinking abilities as designing an experiment or constructing an operational definition can benefit from learning their underlying theory. Further, explicit knowledge of quirks of human thinking seems useful as a cautionary guide. Human memory is not just fallible about details, as people learn from their own experiences of misremembering, but is so malleable that a detailed, clear and vivid recollection of an event can be a total fabrication (Loftus 2017). People seek or interpret evidence in ways that are partial to their existing beliefs and expectations, often unconscious of their “confirmation bias” (Nickerson 1998). Not only are people subject to this and other cognitive biases (Kahneman 2011), of which they are typically unaware, but it may be counter-productive for one to make oneself aware of them and try consciously to counteract them or to counteract social biases such as racial or sexual stereotypes (Kenyon & Beaulac 2014). It is helpful to be aware of these facts and of the superior effectiveness of blocking the operation of biases—for example, by making an immediate record of one’s observations, refraining from forming a preliminary explanatory hypothesis, blind refereeing, double-blind randomized trials, and blind grading of students’ work. It is also helpful to be aware of the prevalence of “noise” (unwanted unsystematic variability of judgments), of how to detect noise (through a noise audit), and of how to reduce noise: make accuracy the goal, think statistically, break a process of arriving at a judgment into independent tasks, resist premature intuitions, in a group get independent judgments first, favour comparative judgments and scales (Kahneman, Sibony, & Sunstein 2021). It is helpful as well to be aware of the concept of “bounded rationality” in decision-making and of the related distinction between “satisficing” and optimizing (Simon 1956; Gigerenzer 2001).

Critical thinking about an issue requires substantive knowledge of the domain to which the issue belongs. Critical thinking abilities are not a magic elixir that can be applied to any issue whatever by somebody who has no knowledge of the facts relevant to exploring that issue. For example, the student in Bubbles needed to know that gases do not penetrate solid objects like a glass, that air expands when heated, that the volume of an enclosed gas varies directly with its temperature and inversely with its pressure, and that hot objects will spontaneously cool down to the ambient temperature of their surroundings unless kept hot by insulation or a source of heat. Critical thinkers thus need a rich fund of subject-matter knowledge relevant to the variety of situations they encounter. This fact is recognized in the inclusion among critical thinking dispositions of a concern to become and remain generally well informed.

Experimental educational interventions, with control groups, have shown that education can improve critical thinking skills and dispositions, as measured by standardized tests. For information about these tests, see the Supplement on Assessment .

What educational methods are most effective at developing the dispositions, abilities and knowledge of a critical thinker? In a comprehensive meta-analysis of experimental and quasi-experimental studies of strategies for teaching students to think critically, Abrami et al. (2015) found that dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring each increased the effectiveness of the educational intervention, and that they were most effective when combined. They also found that in these studies a combination of separate instruction in critical thinking with subject-matter instruction in which students are encouraged to think critically was more effective than either by itself. However, the difference was not statistically significant; that is, it might have arisen by chance.

Most of these studies lack the longitudinal follow-up required to determine whether the observed differential improvements in critical thinking abilities or dispositions continue over time, for example until high school or college graduation. For details on studies of methods of developing critical thinking skills and dispositions, see the Supplement on Educational Methods .

12. Controversies

Scholars have denied the generalizability of critical thinking abilities across subject domains, have alleged bias in critical thinking theory and pedagogy, and have investigated the relationship of critical thinking to other kinds of thinking.

McPeck (1981) attacked the thinking skills movement of the 1970s, including the critical thinking movement. He argued that there are no general thinking skills, since thinking is always thinking about some subject-matter. It is futile, he claimed, for schools and colleges to teach thinking as if it were a separate subject. Rather, teachers should lead their pupils to become autonomous thinkers by teaching school subjects in a way that brings out their cognitive structure and that encourages and rewards discussion and argument. As some of his critics (e.g., Paul 1985; Siegel 1985) pointed out, McPeck’s central argument needs elaboration, since it has obvious counter-examples in writing and speaking, for which (up to a certain level of complexity) there are teachable general abilities even though they are always about some subject-matter. To make his argument convincing, McPeck needs to explain how thinking differs from writing and speaking in a way that does not permit useful abstraction of its components from the subject-matters with which it deals. He has not done so. Nevertheless, his position that the dispositions and abilities of a critical thinker are best developed in the context of subject-matter instruction is shared by many theorists of critical thinking, including Dewey (1910, 1933), Glaser (1941), Passmore (1980), Weinstein (1990), Bailin et al. (1999b), and Willingham (2019).

McPeck’s challenge prompted reflection on the extent to which critical thinking is subject-specific. McPeck argued for a strong subject-specificity thesis, according to which it is a conceptual truth that all critical thinking abilities are specific to a subject. (He did not however extend his subject-specificity thesis to critical thinking dispositions. In particular, he took the disposition to suspend judgment in situations of cognitive dissonance to be a general disposition.) Conceptual subject-specificity is subject to obvious counter-examples, such as the general ability to recognize confusion of necessary and sufficient conditions. A more modest thesis, also endorsed by McPeck, is epistemological subject-specificity, according to which the norms of good thinking vary from one field to another. Epistemological subject-specificity clearly holds to a certain extent; for example, the principles in accordance with which one solves a differential equation are quite different from the principles in accordance with which one determines whether a painting is a genuine Picasso. But the thesis suffers, as Ennis (1989) points out, from vagueness of the concept of a field or subject and from the obvious existence of inter-field principles, however broadly the concept of a field is construed. For example, the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning hold for all the varied fields in which such reasoning occurs. A third kind of subject-specificity is empirical subject-specificity, according to which as a matter of empirically observable fact a person with the abilities and dispositions of a critical thinker in one area of investigation will not necessarily have them in another area of investigation.

The thesis of empirical subject-specificity raises the general problem of transfer. If critical thinking abilities and dispositions have to be developed independently in each school subject, how are they of any use in dealing with the problems of everyday life and the political and social issues of contemporary society, most of which do not fit into the framework of a traditional school subject? Proponents of empirical subject-specificity tend to argue that transfer is more likely to occur if there is critical thinking instruction in a variety of domains, with explicit attention to dispositions and abilities that cut across domains. But evidence for this claim is scanty. There is a need for well-designed empirical studies that investigate the conditions that make transfer more likely.

It is common ground in debates about the generality or subject-specificity of critical thinking dispositions and abilities that critical thinking about any topic requires background knowledge about the topic. For example, the most sophisticated understanding of the principles of hypothetico-deductive reasoning is of no help unless accompanied by some knowledge of what might be plausible explanations of some phenomenon under investigation.

Critics have objected to bias in the theory, pedagogy and practice of critical thinking. Commentators (e.g., Alston 1995; Ennis 1998) have noted that anyone who takes a position has a bias in the neutral sense of being inclined in one direction rather than others. The critics, however, are objecting to bias in the pejorative sense of an unjustified favoring of certain ways of knowing over others, frequently alleging that the unjustly favoured ways are those of a dominant sex or culture (Bailin 1995). These ways favour:

• reinforcement of egocentric and sociocentric biases over dialectical engagement with opposing world-views (Paul 1981, 1984; Warren 1998)
• distancing from the object of inquiry over closeness to it (Martin 1992; Thayer-Bacon 1992)
• indifference to the situation of others over care for them (Martin 1992)
• orientation to thought over orientation to action (Martin 1992)
• being reasonable over caring to understand people’s ideas (Thayer-Bacon 1993)
• being neutral and objective over being embodied and situated (Thayer-Bacon 1995a)
• doubting over believing (Thayer-Bacon 1995b)
• reason over emotion, imagination and intuition (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• solitary thinking over collaborative thinking (Thayer-Bacon 2000)
• written and spoken assignments over other forms of expression (Alston 2001)
• attention to written and spoken communications over attention to human problems (Alston 2001)
• winning debates in the public sphere over making and understanding meaning (Alston 2001)

A common thread in this smorgasbord of accusations is dissatisfaction with focusing on the logical analysis and evaluation of reasoning and arguments. While these authors acknowledge that such analysis and evaluation is part of critical thinking and should be part of its conceptualization and pedagogy, they insist that it is only a part. Paul (1981), for example, bemoans the tendency of atomistic teaching of methods of analyzing and evaluating arguments to turn students into more able sophists, adept at finding fault with positions and arguments with which they disagree but even more entrenched in the egocentric and sociocentric biases with which they began. Martin (1992) and Thayer-Bacon (1992) cite with approval the self-reported intimacy with their subject-matter of leading researchers in biology and medicine, an intimacy that conflicts with the distancing allegedly recommended in standard conceptions and pedagogy of critical thinking. Thayer-Bacon (2000) contrasts the embodied and socially embedded learning of her elementary school students in a Montessori school, who used their imagination, intuition and emotions as well as their reason, with conceptions of critical thinking as

thinking that is used to critique arguments, offer justifications, and make judgments about what are the good reasons, or the right answers. (Thayer-Bacon 2000: 127–128)

Alston (2001) reports that her students in a women’s studies class were able to see the flaws in the Cinderella myth that pervades much romantic fiction but in their own romantic relationships still acted as if all failures were the woman’s fault and still accepted the notions of love at first sight and living happily ever after. Students, she writes, should

be able to connect their intellectual critique to a more affective, somatic, and ethical account of making risky choices that have sexist, racist, classist, familial, sexual, or other consequences for themselves and those both near and far… critical thinking that reads arguments, texts, or practices merely on the surface without connections to feeling/desiring/doing or action lacks an ethical depth that should infuse the difference between mere cognitive activity and something we want to call critical thinking. (Alston 2001: 34)

Some critics portray such biases as unfair to women. Thayer-Bacon (1992), for example, has charged modern critical thinking theory with being sexist, on the ground that it separates the self from the object and causes one to lose touch with one’s inner voice, and thus stigmatizes women, who (she asserts) link self to object and listen to their inner voice. Her charge does not imply that women as a group are on average less able than men to analyze and evaluate arguments. Facione (1990c) found no difference by sex in performance on his California Critical Thinking Skills Test. Kuhn (1991: 280–281) found no difference by sex in either the disposition or the competence to engage in argumentative thinking.

The critics propose a variety of remedies for the biases that they allege. In general, they do not propose to eliminate or downplay critical thinking as an educational goal. Rather, they propose to conceptualize critical thinking differently and to change its pedagogy accordingly. Their pedagogical proposals arise logically from their objections. They can be summarized as follows:

• Focus on argument networks with dialectical exchanges reflecting contesting points of view rather than on atomic arguments, so as to develop “strong sense” critical thinking that transcends egocentric and sociocentric biases (Paul 1981, 1984).
• Foster closeness to the subject-matter and feeling connected to others in order to inform a humane democracy (Martin 1992).
• Develop “constructive thinking” as a social activity in a community of physically embodied and socially embedded inquirers with personal voices who value not only reason but also imagination, intuition and emotion (Thayer-Bacon 2000).
• In developing critical thinking in school subjects, treat as important neither skills nor dispositions but opening worlds of meaning (Alston 2001).
• Attend to the development of critical thinking dispositions as well as skills, and adopt the “critical pedagogy” practised and advocated by Freire (1968 [1970]) and hooks (1994) (Dalgleish, Girard, & Davies 2017).

A common thread in these proposals is treatment of critical thinking as a social, interactive, personally engaged activity like that of a quilting bee or a barn-raising (Thayer-Bacon 2000) rather than as an individual, solitary, distanced activity symbolized by Rodin’s The Thinker . One can get a vivid description of education with the former type of goal from the writings of bell hooks (1994, 2010). Critical thinking for her is open-minded dialectical exchange across opposing standpoints and from multiple perspectives, a conception similar to Paul’s “strong sense” critical thinking (Paul 1981). She abandons the structure of domination in the traditional classroom. In an introductory course on black women writers, for example, she assigns students to write an autobiographical paragraph about an early racial memory, then to read it aloud as the others listen, thus affirming the uniqueness and value of each voice and creating a communal awareness of the diversity of the group’s experiences (hooks 1994: 84). Her “engaged pedagogy” is thus similar to the “freedom under guidance” implemented in John Dewey’s Laboratory School of Chicago in the late 1890s and early 1900s. It incorporates the dialogue, anchored instruction, and mentoring that Abrami (2015) found to be most effective in improving critical thinking skills and dispositions.

What is the relationship of critical thinking to problem solving, decision-making, higher-order thinking, creative thinking, and other recognized types of thinking? One’s answer to this question obviously depends on how one defines the terms used in the question. If critical thinking is conceived broadly to cover any careful thinking about any topic for any purpose, then problem solving and decision making will be kinds of critical thinking, if they are done carefully. Historically, ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’ were two names for the same thing. If critical thinking is conceived more narrowly as consisting solely of appraisal of intellectual products, then it will be disjoint with problem solving and decision making, which are constructive.

Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives used the phrase “intellectual abilities and skills” for what had been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others (Bloom et al. 1956: 38). Thus, the so-called “higher-order thinking skills” at the taxonomy’s top levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are just critical thinking skills, although they do not come with general criteria for their assessment (Ennis 1981b). The revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) likewise treats critical thinking as cutting across those types of cognitive process that involve more than remembering (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270). For details, see the Supplement on History .

As to creative thinking, it overlaps with critical thinking (Bailin 1987, 1988). Thinking about the explanation of some phenomenon or event, as in Ferryboat , requires creative imagination in constructing plausible explanatory hypotheses. Likewise, thinking about a policy question, as in Candidate , requires creativity in coming up with options. Conversely, creativity in any field needs to be balanced by critical appraisal of the draft painting or novel or mathematical theory.

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Critical Thinking Definition, Skills, and Examples

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Critical thinking refers to the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment. It involves the evaluation of sources, such as data, facts, observable phenomena, and research findings.

Good critical thinkers can draw reasonable conclusions from a set of information, and discriminate between useful and less useful details to solve problems or make decisions. These skills are especially helpful at school and in the workplace, where employers prioritize the ability to think critically. Find out why and see how you can demonstrate that you have this ability.

Examples of Critical Thinking

The circumstances that demand critical thinking vary from industry to industry. Some examples include:

• A triage nurse analyzes the cases at hand and decides the order by which the patients should be treated.
• A plumber evaluates the materials that would best suit a particular job.
• An attorney reviews the evidence and devises a strategy to win a case or to decide whether to settle out of court.
• A manager analyzes customer feedback forms and uses this information to develop a customer service training session for employees.

Why Do Employers Value Critical Thinking Skills?

Employers want job candidates who can evaluate a situation using logical thought and offer the best solution.

Someone with critical thinking skills can be trusted to make decisions independently, and will not need constant handholding.

Hiring a critical thinker means that micromanaging won't be required. Critical thinking abilities are among the most sought-after skills in almost every industry and workplace. You can demonstrate critical thinking by using related keywords in your resume and cover letter and during your interview.

How to Demonstrate Critical Thinking in a Job Search

If critical thinking is a key phrase in the job listings you are applying for, be sure to emphasize your critical thinking skills throughout your job search.

Add Keywords to Your Resume

You can use critical thinking keywords (analytical, problem solving, creativity, etc.) in your resume. When describing your work history, include top critical thinking skills that accurately describe you. You can also include them in your resume summary, if you have one.

For example, your summary might read, “Marketing Associate with five years of experience in project management. Skilled in conducting thorough market research and competitor analysis to assess market trends and client needs, and to develop appropriate acquisition tactics.”

Mention Skills in Your Cover Letter

Include these critical thinking skills in your cover letter. In the body of your letter, mention one or two of these skills, and give specific examples of times when you have demonstrated them at work. Think about times when you had to analyze or evaluate materials to solve a problem.

Show the Interviewer Your Skills

You can use these skill words in an interview. Discuss a time when you were faced with a particular problem or challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking to solve it.

Some interviewers will give you a hypothetical scenario or problem, and ask you to use critical thinking skills to solve it. In this case, explain your thought process thoroughly to the interviewer. He or she is typically more focused on how you arrive at your solution rather than the solution itself. The interviewer wants to see you analyze and evaluate (key parts of critical thinking) the given scenario or problem.

Of course, each job will require different skills and experiences, so make sure you read the job description carefully and focus on the skills listed by the employer.

Top Critical Thinking Skills

Keep these in-demand skills in mind as you refine your critical thinking practice —whether for work or school.

Part of critical thinking is the ability to carefully examine something, whether it is a problem, a set of data, or a text. People with analytical skills can examine information, understand what it means, and properly explain to others the implications of that information.

• Asking Thoughtful Questions
• Data Analysis
• Interpretation
• Questioning Evidence
• Recognizing Patterns

Communication

Often, you will need to share your conclusions with your employers or with a group of classmates or colleagues. You need to be able to communicate with others to share your ideas effectively. You might also need to engage in critical thinking in a group. In this case, you will need to work with others and communicate effectively to figure out solutions to complex problems.

• Active Listening
• Collaboration
• Explanation
• Interpersonal
• Presentation
• Verbal Communication
• Written Communication

Critical thinking often involves creativity and innovation. You might need to spot patterns in the information you are looking at or come up with a solution that no one else has thought of before. All of this involves a creative eye that can take a different approach from all other approaches.

• Flexibility
• Conceptualization
• Imagination
• Drawing Connections
• Synthesizing

Open-Mindedness

To think critically, you need to be able to put aside any assumptions or judgments and merely analyze the information you receive. You need to be objective, evaluating ideas without bias.

• Objectivity
• Observation

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving is another critical thinking skill that involves analyzing a problem, generating and implementing a solution, and assessing the success of the plan. Employers don’t simply want employees who can think about information critically. They also need to be able to come up with practical solutions.

• Attention to Detail
• Clarification
• Decision Making
• Groundedness
• Identifying Patterns

More Critical Thinking Skills

• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
• Noticing Outliers
• Adaptability
• Emotional Intelligence
• Brainstorming
• Optimization
• Restructuring
• Integration
• Strategic Planning
• Project Management
• Ongoing Improvement
• Causal Relationships
• Case Analysis
• Diagnostics
• SWOT Analysis
• Business Intelligence
• Quantitative Data Management
• Qualitative Data Management
• Risk Management
• Scientific Method
• Consumer Behavior

Key Takeaways

• Demonstrate you have critical thinking skills by adding relevant keywords to your resume.
• Mention pertinent critical thinking skills in your cover letter, too, and include an example of a time when you demonstrated them at work.
• Finally, highlight critical thinking skills during your interview. For instance, you might discuss a time when you were faced with a challenge at work and explain how you applied critical thinking skills to solve it.

University of Louisville. " What is Critical Thinking ."

American Management Association. " AMA Critical Skills Survey: Workers Need Higher Level Skills to Succeed in the 21st Century ."

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critical thinking

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Critical Thinking
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Critical Thinking
• Monash University - Student Academic Success - What is critical thinking?
• Oklahoma State University Pressbooks - Critical Thinking - Introduction to Critical Thinking
• University of Louisville - Critical Thinking

critical thinking , in educational theory, mode of cognition using deliberative reasoning and impartial scrutiny of information to arrive at a possible solution to a problem. From the perspective of educators, critical thinking encompasses both a set of logical skills that can be taught and a disposition toward reflective open inquiry that can be cultivated . The term critical thinking was coined by American philosopher and educator John Dewey in the book How We Think (1910) and was adopted by the progressive education movement as a core instructional goal that offered a dynamic modern alternative to traditional educational methods such as rote memorization.

Critical thinking is characterized by a broad set of related skills usually including the abilities to

• break down a problem into its constituent parts to reveal its underlying logic and assumptions
• recognize and account for one’s own biases in judgment and experience
• collect and assess relevant evidence from either personal observations and experimentation or by gathering external information
• adjust and reevaluate one’s own thinking in response to what one has learned
• form a reasoned assessment in order to propose a solution to a problem or a more accurate understanding of the topic at hand

Theorists have noted that such skills are only valuable insofar as a person is inclined to use them. Consequently, they emphasize that certain habits of mind are necessary components of critical thinking. This disposition may include curiosity, open-mindedness, self-awareness, empathy , and persistence.

Although there is a generally accepted set of qualities that are associated with critical thinking, scholarly writing about the term has highlighted disagreements over its exact definition and whether and how it differs from related concepts such as problem solving . In addition, some theorists have insisted that critical thinking be regarded and valued as a process and not as a goal-oriented skill set to be used to solve problems. Critical-thinking theory has also been accused of reflecting patriarchal assumptions about knowledge and ways of knowing that are inherently biased against women.

Dewey, who also used the term reflective thinking , connected critical thinking to a tradition of rational inquiry associated with modern science. From the turn of the 20th century, he and others working in the overlapping fields of psychology , philosophy , and educational theory sought to rigorously apply the scientific method to understand and define the process of thinking. They conceived critical thinking to be related to the scientific method but more open, flexible, and self-correcting; instead of a recipe or a series of steps, critical thinking would be a wider set of skills, patterns, and strategies that allow someone to reason through an intellectual topic, constantly reassessing assumptions and potential explanations in order to arrive at a sound judgment and understanding.

In the progressive education movement in the United States , critical thinking was seen as a crucial component of raising citizens in a democratic society. Instead of imparting a particular series of lessons or teaching only canonical subject matter, theorists thought that teachers should train students in how to think. As critical thinkers, such students would be equipped to be productive and engaged citizens who could cooperate and rationally overcome differences inherent in a pluralistic society.

Beginning in the 1970s and ’80s, critical thinking as a key outcome of school and university curriculum leapt to the forefront of U.S. education policy. In an atmosphere of renewed Cold War competition and amid reports of declining U.S. test scores, there were growing fears that the quality of education in the United States was falling and that students were unprepared. In response, a concerted effort was made to systematically define curriculum goals and implement standardized testing regimens , and critical-thinking skills were frequently included as a crucially important outcome of a successful education. A notable event in this movement was the release of the 1980 report of the Rockefeller Commission on the Humanities that called for the U.S. Department of Education to include critical thinking on its list of “basic skills.” Three years later the California State University system implemented a policy that required every undergraduate student to complete a course in critical thinking.

Critical thinking continued to be put forward as a central goal of education in the early 21st century. Its ubiquity in the language of education policy and in such guidelines as the Common Core State Standards in the United States generated some criticism that the concept itself was both overused and ill-defined. In addition, an argument was made by teachers, theorists, and others that educators were not being adequately trained to teach critical thinking.

A Crash Course in Critical Thinking

What you need to know—and read—about one of the essential skills needed today..

Posted April 8, 2024 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• In research for "A More Beautiful Question," I did a deep dive into the current crisis in critical thinking.
• Many people may think of themselves as critical thinkers, but they actually are not.
• Here is a series of questions you can ask yourself to try to ensure that you are thinking critically.

Conspiracy theories. Inability to distinguish facts from falsehoods. Widespread confusion about who and what to believe.

These are some of the hallmarks of the current crisis in critical thinking—which just might be the issue of our times. Because if people aren’t willing or able to think critically as they choose potential leaders, they’re apt to choose bad ones. And if they can’t judge whether the information they’re receiving is sound, they may follow faulty advice while ignoring recommendations that are science-based and solid (and perhaps life-saving).

Moreover, as a society, if we can’t think critically about the many serious challenges we face, it becomes more difficult to agree on what those challenges are—much less solve them.

On a personal level, critical thinking can enable you to make better everyday decisions. It can help you make sense of an increasingly complex and confusing world.

In the new expanded edition of my book A More Beautiful Question ( AMBQ ), I took a deep dive into critical thinking. Here are a few key things I learned.

First off, before you can get better at critical thinking, you should understand what it is. It’s not just about being a skeptic. When thinking critically, we are thoughtfully reasoning, evaluating, and making decisions based on evidence and logic. And—perhaps most important—while doing this, a critical thinker always strives to be open-minded and fair-minded . That’s not easy: It demands that you constantly question your assumptions and biases and that you always remain open to considering opposing views.

In today’s polarized environment, many people think of themselves as critical thinkers simply because they ask skeptical questions—often directed at, say, certain government policies or ideas espoused by those on the “other side” of the political divide. The problem is, they may not be asking these questions with an open mind or a willingness to fairly consider opposing views.

When people do this, they’re engaging in “weak-sense critical thinking”—a term popularized by the late Richard Paul, a co-founder of The Foundation for Critical Thinking . “Weak-sense critical thinking” means applying the tools and practices of critical thinking—questioning, investigating, evaluating—but with the sole purpose of confirming one’s own bias or serving an agenda.

In AMBQ , I lay out a series of questions you can ask yourself to try to ensure that you’re thinking critically. Here are some of the questions to consider:

• Why do I believe what I believe?
• Are my views based on evidence?
• Have I fairly and thoughtfully considered differing viewpoints?
• Am I truly open to changing my mind?

Of course, becoming a better critical thinker is not as simple as just asking yourself a few questions. Critical thinking is a habit of mind that must be developed and strengthened over time. In effect, you must train yourself to think in a manner that is more effortful, aware, grounded, and balanced.

For those interested in giving themselves a crash course in critical thinking—something I did myself, as I was working on my book—I thought it might be helpful to share a list of some of the books that have shaped my own thinking on this subject. As a self-interested author, I naturally would suggest that you start with the new 10th-anniversary edition of A More Beautiful Question , but beyond that, here are the top eight critical-thinking books I’d recommend.

The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark , by Carl Sagan

This book simply must top the list, because the late scientist and author Carl Sagan continues to be such a bright shining light in the critical thinking universe. Chapter 12 includes the details on Sagan’s famous “baloney detection kit,” a collection of lessons and tips on how to deal with bogus arguments and logical fallacies.

Clear Thinking: Turning Ordinary Moments Into Extraordinary Results , by Shane Parrish

The creator of the Farnham Street website and host of the “Knowledge Project” podcast explains how to contend with biases and unconscious reactions so you can make better everyday decisions. It contains insights from many of the brilliant thinkers Shane has studied.

Good Thinking: Why Flawed Logic Puts Us All at Risk and How Critical Thinking Can Save the World , by David Robert Grimes

A brilliant, comprehensive 2021 book on critical thinking that, to my mind, hasn’t received nearly enough attention . The scientist Grimes dissects bad thinking, shows why it persists, and offers the tools to defeat it.

Think Again: The Power of Knowing What You Don't Know , by Adam Grant

Intellectual humility—being willing to admit that you might be wrong—is what this book is primarily about. But Adam, the renowned Wharton psychology professor and bestselling author, takes the reader on a mind-opening journey with colorful stories and characters.

Think Like a Detective: A Kid's Guide to Critical Thinking , by David Pakman

The popular YouTuber and podcast host Pakman—normally known for talking politics —has written a terrific primer on critical thinking for children. The illustrated book presents critical thinking as a “superpower” that enables kids to unlock mysteries and dig for truth. (I also recommend Pakman’s second kids’ book called Think Like a Scientist .)

Rationality: What It Is, Why It Seems Scarce, Why It Matters , by Steven Pinker

The Harvard psychology professor Pinker tackles conspiracy theories head-on but also explores concepts involving risk/reward, probability and randomness, and correlation/causation. And if that strikes you as daunting, be assured that Pinker makes it lively and accessible.

How Minds Change: The Surprising Science of Belief, Opinion and Persuasion , by David McRaney

David is a science writer who hosts the popular podcast “You Are Not So Smart” (and his ideas are featured in A More Beautiful Question ). His well-written book looks at ways you can actually get through to people who see the world very differently than you (hint: bludgeoning them with facts definitely won’t work).

A Healthy Democracy's Best Hope: Building the Critical Thinking Habit , by M Neil Browne and Chelsea Kulhanek

Neil Browne, author of the seminal Asking the Right Questions: A Guide to Critical Thinking, has been a pioneer in presenting critical thinking as a question-based approach to making sense of the world around us. His newest book, co-authored with Chelsea Kulhanek, breaks down critical thinking into “11 explosive questions”—including the “priors question” (which challenges us to question assumptions), the “evidence question” (focusing on how to evaluate and weigh evidence), and the “humility question” (which reminds us that a critical thinker must be humble enough to consider the possibility of being wrong).

Warren Berger is a longtime journalist and author of A More Beautiful Question .

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Fed’s ‘critical’ warning sparks serious $50,000 bitcoin price crash alert as $200 billion is wiped from ethereum, xrp, solana and crypto.

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07/04 update below. This post was originally published on July 03

Bitcoin Bitcoin has suddenly crashed back toward $60,000 per bitcoin after one billionaire bitcoin buyer revealed they've flipped on bitcoin .

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The bitcoin price has struggled over the last month, dropping almost 15%, as fears of a "true correction" swirl .

Now, after one of the biggest bitcoin bulls has said the cryptocurrency could eventually replace the U.S. dollar , Federal Reserve chair Jerome Powell has warned of a "critical period" for the Fed, calling deficit levels "unsustainable."

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U.S. Federal Reserve chair Jerome Powell has warned the Fed is facing a "critical" period that could ... [+] cause bitcoin price chaos.

"The level of debt we have is completely sustainable but the path we are on is unsustainable," Powell said during the European Central Bank's Portugal conference, it was reported by the Financial Times , adding the Biden administration was taking excessive risks by "running a very large deficit at a time when we are at full employment" and said "you can’t run these levels in good economic times for very long."

In May, Treasury secretary Janet Yellen issued a serious warning over the spiraling $34 trillion U.S. debt pile that some think could help propel the bitcoin price to $1 million over the next 18 months .

Bitcoin, crypto and stock market traders have been closely watching the Fed for signs it will begin cutting interest rates in recent months, with analysts forced to dial back expectations of around seven cuts in 2024 to just one or two.

"Getting the balance on monetary policy right during this critical period, that’s really what I think about in the wee hours," Powell said in response to a question about his top worries, the AP reported .

07/04 update: The bitcoin price and crypto market has suffered a major crash over the last 24 hours, with the bitcoin price diving well under $60,000 and wiping $200 billion from the combined crypto market since July 1. Ethereum Ethereum and the rest of the major market are down more steeply than bitcoin, with ethereum rival solana, the Telegram-linked toncoin and the meme-based dogecoin all down almost 10% since this time yesterday.

"Bitcoin is breaking significant technical and psychological levels at $60,000," Markus Thielen, the founder of 10x Research, wrote in emailed comments.

"This is a key level for bitcoin miners and bitcoin spot exchange-traded fund (ETF) buyers, and it also broadly marks the bottom (support) of the three-month trading range. Price declines could accelerate as support gets broken and sellers scramble to find liquidity. Only ill-informed traders are willing to buy here. Breaking this support could cause a sharp decline to the low $50,000s."

Last month, the Federal Reserve left interest rates unchanged and signaled it would make just one cut in 2024, with more to come in 2025. The Fed has come under pressure to cut interest rates after hiking them at a record-setting clip in the aftermath of huge Covid-era stimulus spending and money printing that sent inflation spiraling out of control.

"Powell said the U.S. was back on a ‘disinflationary path’ but added that more data was required before the Fed would consider cutting rates," Russ Mould, investment director at AJ Bell, said in emailed comments. "The latter phrase sounds a bit like a broken record as far as the market is concerned, so the most important part of Powell’s speech was the reference to disinflation, as investors interpreted it to mean there is a stronger case for cutting rates soon."

Eyes are now turning to Wednesday's release of the Fed's June meeting minutes and Friday's jobs report which could "cement" expectations of a September interest rate cut if it shows hiring has slowed.

"A softer-than-expected jobs report on Friday, were it to come to pass, would likely further cement the case for said cut, to which markets assign a roughly 70% chance—perhaps, a touch underdone," Michael Brown, senior research strategist at Pepperstone, told MarketWatch .

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The bitcoin price has dropped back from its recent peak of over $70,000 per bitcoin.

The higher-for-longer interest rate environment has triggered a warning from analysts at the world's largest asset manager BlackRock, who said an "unprecedented" scenario is unfolding that could hit the bitcoin price and crypto market .

"We see central banks forced to keep interest rates higher than pre-pandemic to tackle persistent inflationary pressures," the analysts at BlackRock, which has helped to engineer a bitcoin price boom this year by leading a spot bitcoin exchange-traded fund (ETF) revolution on Wall Street , wrote in a report .

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Professors say they teach critical thinking. But is that what students are learning?

Suzanne Cooper. " Do we teach critical thinking? A mixed methods study of faculty and student perceptions of teaching and learning critical thinking at three professional schools . February 21, 2024

Faculty Authors

Suzanne Cooper

What’s the issue.

The ability to think critically is an essential skill for professionals, including doctors, government officials, and educators. But are instructors at professional schools teaching it, or do they just think they are? Approaches to teaching and assessing critical thinking skills vary substantially across academic disciplines and are not standardized. And little data exists on how much students are learning—or even whether they know their instructors are trying to teach them critical thinking. 

What does the research say? 

The researchers, including Suzanne Cooper, the Edith M. Stokey Senior Lecturer in Public Policy at HKS, compared instructors’ approaches to teaching critical thinking with students’ perceptions of what they were being taught. They surveyed instructors and conducted focus groups with students at three professional schools (Harvard Medical School, Harvard Kennedy School, and the Harvard Graduate School of Education). 

The researchers found that more than half (54%) of faculty surveyed said they explicitly taught critical thinking in their courses (27% said they did not and 19% were unsure). When the researchers talked to students, however, the consensus was that critical thinking was primarily being taught implicitly. One student said discussions, debates, and case study analyses were viewed as opportunities “for critical thinking to emerge” but that methods and techniques were not a specific focus. The students were also generally unable to recall or define key terms, such as “metacognition” (an understanding of one’s own thought process) and “cognitive biases” (systematic deviations from norms or rationality in which individuals create their own subjective reality). 

Based on their findings, the researchers recommend that faculty should be required to teach critical thinking explicitly and be given specific approaches and definitions that are appropriate to their academic discipline. They also recommend that professional schools consider teaching core critical thinking skills, as well as skills specific to their area of study.   

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Accountants have a competitive advantage over machines with respect to higher level critical thinking skills. a. True b. False

The correct answer is b. False. While accountants possess valuable critical thinking skills, machines also have the ability to perform complex calculations and analyze data quickly and accurately. Machines, such as accounting software and AI systems, can automate many repetitive tasks and generate reports with minimal errors.

However, it is important to note that accountants still play a crucial role in the decision-making process. They possess the ability to interpret and analyze financial information in a broader context, considering various factors such as industry trends, business strategies, and regulatory requirements. Accountants can use their critical thinking skills to identify patterns, anomalies , and potential risks , as well as provide insights and recommendations based on their understanding of the business environment. They can also exercise professional judgment when dealing with subjective matters or complex situations where human intuition and experience are invaluable. In summary, while machines have their strengths in data processing and calculations, accountants bring their unique higher level critical thinking skills to the table, making them essential in making informed decisions and providing strategic financial advice.

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Related Questions

Indiana Co. began a construction project in 2021 with a contract price of $160 million to be received when the project is completed in 2023. During 2021, Indiana incurred $34 million of costs and estimates an additional $84 million of costs to complete the project. Indiana recognizes revenue over time and for this project recognizes revenue over time according to the percentage of the project that has been completed. In 2022, Indiana incurred additional costs of $57 million and estimated an additional $40 million in costs to complete the project. Indiana (Do not round your percentage calculated):

In 2021, Indiana incurred $34 million of costs and estimated an additional $84 million of costs to complete the project .

Indiana Co. began a construction project in 2021 with a contract price of $160 million to be received when the project is completed in 2023. The company recognizes revenue over time and for this project recognizes revenue over time according to the percentage of the project that has been completed. In 2022, Indiana incurred additional costs of $57 million and estimated an additional $40 million in costs to complete the project .

Let's calculate the percentage of completion at the end of 2022 using the percentage of completion method.

(Costs incurred to date) / (Total estimated costs) = Percentage of completion

Percentage of completion in 2021 = ($34 million) / ($34 million + $84 million) = 28.8%

Percentage of completion in 2022 = ($34 million + $57 million) / ($34 million + $84 million + $57 million + $40 million)

Therefore, the percentage of completion for the project at the end of 2022 is 55.4%.

Learn more about construction project from the given link.

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You have completed an important presentation to several Japanese executives regarding a proposed partnership between your American company and their Japanese firm. The Japanese executives were silent during the presentation. The Japanese executives' silence is most likely a sign Group of answer choices symbolizing disagreement. that they didn't understand what you were saying. symbolizing respect. that they are being impolite.

The Japanese executives' silence in this context is most likely a sign symbolizing respect .

In Japanese business culture, silence is often interpreted as a sign of attentiveness and respect. It is customary for Japanese executives to remain quiet during a presentation or when listening to others speak, especially when they are considering the information being presented or processing their thoughts.

Unlike some Western cultures where active participation, such as asking questions or providing immediate feedback, is expected during a presentation , silence in Japanese business settings is considered respectful and indicates that the executives are giving careful consideration to the information shared.

It is essential to recognize and appreciate cultural differences in communication styles and not misinterpret silence in Japanese business contexts as disagreement or impoliteness.

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In 2012, James Bond played by actor Daniel Craig in the film Skyfall ordered a Heineken instead of his traditional "shaken, not stirred martini." The U.S. division of Heineken reportedly paid $45 million to have the product featured in the movie. This is an example of a(n):

The situation described is an example of product placement in film.

Product placement is a marketing strategy where brands pay to have their products prominently featured in movies, TV shows, or other forms of media.

In the case of James Bond's character ordering a Heineken in the film Skyfall, it was a deliberate placement of the brand within the movie. According to reports, the U.S. division of Heineken paid $45 million for this placement.

Product placement in films can provide significant exposure for brands, reaching a wide audience and associating their products with popular characters or franchises.

While the specific impact of the Heineken placement in Skyfall on the brand's sales or brand image is difficult to quantify, it demonstrates the effectiveness of strategic partnerships between brands and movies.

Product placement deals can generate substantial revenue for both parties involved, allowing brands to gain visibility in a non-intrusive manner while contributing to the production budget of the film.

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How many ways can a total inventory of fifty batteries bedistributed among the eight different types?

The total number of ways to distribute a total inventory  of fifty batteries among the eight different types is 536878650.

The number of ways to distribute a total inventory of fifty batteries among eight different types can be calculated using the concept of combinations . In this case, we need to find the number of combinations of fifty items taken eight at a time. The formula for calculating combinations is: [tex]nCr = n! / (r! * (n-r)!)[/tex] Where n is the total number of items and r is the number of items taken at a time. Using this formula, we can calculate the number of ways as follows: [tex]50C8 = 50! / (8! * (50-8)!)[/tex] Simplifying the equation further: [tex]50C8 = 50! / (8! * 42!)[/tex] Calculating the factorial values: [tex]50! = 50 * 49 * 48 * ... * 1\\8! = 8 * 7 * 6 * ... * 1\\42! = 42 * 41 * 40 * ... * 1[/tex] By cancelling out the common terms, we get: [tex]50C8 = (50 * 49 * 48 * ... * 43) / (8 * 7 * 6 * ... * 1)[/tex] Calculating this expression gives us the total number of ways to distribute the fifty batteries among the eight different types. The answer is 536878650.

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If you have an 800-square-foot rectangular building and it sells for $75,000, that equates to ______ per square foot.

If we have 800-square-foot "rectangular- building ", sell it for $75000, then that equates to price of $93.75 per-square-foot, correct option is (d).

In order to find the price per square-foot, we divide the " total-price" of the rectangular-building by the total-square-footage.

In this case, the calculation would be : Price per square foot = (Total price)/(Total square footage);

Price per square foot = ($75,000)/(800 square feet);

Price per square-foot = $93.75

Therefore, the correct option is (d).

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The given question is incomplete, the complete question is

(a) $187.50

Q17. what is a key difference between sending someone your outlook contact and sending you outlook business card?

The main difference between sending someone your Outlook contact and sending your Outlook business card lies in the format and level of information shared. When you send someone your Outlook contact, you are essentially sharing their contact information in a standardized format. This includes their name, email address, phone number, and other relevant details. The contact information is typically sent as a vCard attachment or included within the email itself. On the other hand, when you send someone your Outlook business card, you are sharing a more comprehensive representation of yourself or your organization . The business card includes not only the contact information but also additional details like your job title, company name, logo, and even a picture if you choose to include one. The business card is usually shared as a separate attachment or inserted directly into the email. To know more about business visit:

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Item6 Time Remaining 2 hours 12 minutes 11 seconds02:12:11 Item 6 Time Remaining 2 hours 12 minutes 11 seconds02:12:11 If the price elasticity of demand for a product is equal to 2.0, then a decrease in price of 4 percent will increase quantity demanded by

Therefore, a decrease in price of 4 percent will increase the quantity demanded by 8 percent.

The price elasticity of demand measures how sensitive the quantity demanded of a product is to changes in its price. If the price elasticity of demand for a product is equal to 2.0, this means that a 1% decrease in price will lead to a 2% increase in quantity demanded. In this case, we have a decrease in price of 4 percent. To find the corresponding increase in quantity demanded, we can use the formula: % change in quantity demanded = price elasticity of demand x % change in price Substituting the given values, we have: % change in quantity demanded = 2.0 x 4% = 8% Therefore, a decrease in price of 4 percent will increase the quantity demanded by 8 percent.

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A company purchased an inventory item for $100 in Year 1. The inventory item was written down to $8 Year 2, the inventory item had a selling price of $105, and a replacement cost of $90. The selling cost for this company are 15 percent. Under IFRS, what is the carrying value of the inventory item as of the December 31, Year 2

According to IFRS, the inventory item's carrying value as of December 31, Year 2, is $8.

Under IFRS (International Financial Reporting Standards), the carrying value of inventory is the lower of cost and net realizable value (NRV). NRV is the projected selling price under normal business conditions less the estimated expenses of completion and the estimated costs required to close the transaction.

In this case, the cost of the inventory item is $100 (as of Year 1), and the estimated selling price is $105. The selling costs are given as 15 percent. Therefore, the estimated costs necessary to make the sale would be 15 percent of the selling price.

Estimated Costs to Make the Sale = 15% of $105

Now, we can calculate the estimated NRV:

NRV = Selling Price - Estimated Costs to Make the Sale

NRV = $105 - $15.75

According to the information provided, the replacement cost of the inventory item is $90. Since the replacement cost is higher than the NRV, we need to compare the NRV and the original cost to determine the carrying value.

The carrying value of the inventory item is the lower of the NRV ($89.25) and the original cost ($100). Therefore, the carrying value is $8, as the inventory item has been written down to that amount in Year 2.

Under IFRS, the carrying value of the inventory item as of December 31, Year 2, is $8. This is based on comparing the net realizable value (NRV) of $89.25 and the original cost of $100, and selecting the lower value as the carrying value.

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Why does a company's budget need to be closely linked to the needs of good strategy execution?

A company's budget needs to be closely linked to the needs of good strategy execution because it ensures the allocation of financial resources in alignment with strategic objectives, facilitates effective resource management, and promotes accountability and performance measurement.

Alignment with strategic objectives: A budget that is closely linked to the needs of strategy execution ensures that financial resources are allocated in a way that supports the organization's strategic objectives. It enables the company to prioritize and fund initiatives that are essential for achieving its strategic goals . By aligning the budget with strategy, the company can focus its resources on activities that drive growth, innovation, competitive advantage, and overall success.

Effective resource management: Linking the budget to strategy execution helps in optimizing the allocation of resources. It enables the company to identify the critical areas that require funding and allocate resources accordingly. By understanding the resource requirements of strategic initiatives, the company can allocate funds in a way that maximizes the return on investment. This ensures that resources are utilized efficiently and effectively to support the execution of the strategy.

Accountability and performance measurement: A closely linked budget facilitates accountability and performance measurement. It provides a clear framework for evaluating the progress of strategic initiatives and holding responsible individuals or teams accountable for their performance. By monitoring the budget and comparing it to actual expenditures, the company can assess the financial implications of strategy execution and make necessary adjustments. It enables management to track the financial performance of different departments or projects, identify areas of improvement, and take corrective actions when needed.

Linking a company's budget to the needs of good strategy execution is crucial for successful implementation. It ensures that financial resources are allocated in alignment with strategic objectives, promotes effective resource management, and enables accountability and performance measurement. By closely integrating the budget and strategy, organizations can increase the likelihood of achieving their desired outcomes and successfully executing their strategic plans.

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Please calculate a car payment assuming a cost of $30,000 with an interest rate of 6.5 percent for 60 months

The car payment for a $30,000 loan with an interest rate of 6.5% for 60 months would be approximately $579.98.

To calculate the car payment , you will need to use the formula for loan amortization. The formula is: [tex]P = (r * A) / (1 - (1 + r)^{(-n)})[/tex] Where: P = car payment A = loan amount (cost of the car) r = monthly interest rate (annual interest rate divided by 12) n = number of months Given that the cost of the car is $30,000, the interest rate is 6.5%, and the loan term is 60 months, we can plug in the values into the formula. First, convert the annual interest rate to a monthly rate: 6.5% / 100 / 12 = 0.00542. Next, substitute the values into the formula:

[tex]P = (0.00542 * 30000) / (1 - (1 + 0.00542)^{(-60)})[/tex] Using a calculator, the car payment (P) comes out to be approximately $579.98.

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Kansas Enterprises purchased equipment for $79,500 on January 1, 2021. The equipment is expected to have a five-year service life, with a residual value of $6,750 at the end of five years. Using the straight-line method, depreciation expense for 2021 would be:

Using the straight-line method,the depreciation expense for 2021 would be $14,550.

Straight-line method is a method of computing depreciation by distributing the loss in the value of the asset uniformly over its useful life. It is the simplest and most widely used depreciation method . The formula to calculate depreciation using the straight-line method is:Depreciation = (Cost of asset - Residual value) / Useful life.

The depreciation expense for the year 2021 for the equipment purchased by Kansas Enterprises can be computed using the straight-line method as follows:Depreciation = (Cost of asset - Residual value) / Useful lifeCost of asset = $79,500Residual value = $6,750Useful life = 5 yearsDepreciation = ($79,500 - $6,750) / 5Depreciation = $72,750 / 5Depreciation = $14,550.

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If the BLS counted persons that are on active military service in the totals for employment, the labor force, or the working-age population, this would

If the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) counted persons who are on active military service in the totals for employment, the labor force, or the working-age population, this would affect the size of the labor force and the unemployment rate.

The labor force is composed of individuals who are either employed or unemployed and looking for work.

Military personnel, who are counted as part of the working-age population , would be considered employed.

This would increase the number of employed individuals and therefore, decrease the unemployment rate .

On the other hand, the size of the labor force would increase with the inclusion of military personnel who are not currently seeking work.

If this increase is greater than the increase in the number of employed individuals, the unemployment rate would increase despite the increase in the number of employed individuals.

This scenario shows that the composition of the labor force can significantly impact the unemployment rate and other labor force statistics.

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In using the internal rate of return method, the internal rate of return factor was 4. 0 and the equal annual cash inflows were $18,000. the initial investment in the project must have been:_____.

Therefore, the initial investment in the project must have been $4,500.

The internal rate of return ( IRR ) is the discount rate at which the present value of the cash inflows equals the initial investment. In this case, the IRR factor is given as 4.0, and the equal annual cash inflows are $18,000. To calculate the initial investment, we can use the formula : Initial Investment = Cash Inflows / IRR Factor Plugging in the given values: Initial Investment = $18,000 / 4.0 Simplifying the calculation: Initial Investment = $4,500 In summary, to find the initial investment using the internal rate of return method, divide the equal annual cash inflows by the IRR factor.

In this case, with an IRR factor of 4.0 and equal annual cash inflows of $18,000, the initial investment is $4,500.

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today's date is august 12, 2022. the stock price of triple crown, inc. (tci) is $112.25 per share. tci will pay a dividend of $2.50 per share to its shareholders on august 13, 2022. the ex-dividend date of tci is august 13, 2022. the morning of august 13, 2022, when the market opens for trading, the price per share of tci will be:

On the ex-dividend date, the price per share of TCI is expected to decrease by the dividend amount, resulting in a price of $109.75 on the morning of August 13, 2022. However, actual stock prices can be influenced by additional factors beyond dividend adjustments.

The price per share of TCI on the morning of August 13, 2022, when the market opens for trading , will be adjusted to reflect the dividend payment. When a company declares a dividend, the stock price usually drops by the amount of the dividend on the ex-dividend date. In this case, TCI is paying a dividend of $2.50 per share on August 13, 2022. So, if we assume that the market has factored in the dividend payment , the price per share of TCI will be adjusted downward by $2.50 on the ex-dividend date. Therefore, the price per share on the morning of August 13, 2022, will be $112.25 - $2.50 = $109.75. It's important to note that this assumption is based on the efficient market hypothesis , which suggests that all publicly available information, including dividend payments, is already reflected in the stock price. However, in reality, stock prices can be influenced by various factors, including market sentiment and investor behavior. Therefore, the actual price per share of TCI on the ex-dividend date may vary. In summary, on the morning of August 13, 2022, when the market opens for trading, the price per share of TCI will likely be adjusted downward by $2.50 to $109.75 to reflect the dividend payment. Please note that the above explanation is based on the assumption that the market has efficiently factored in the dividend payment. The actual stock price may be influenced by other factors as well.

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On January 1, 2016, Crane Company issued 2000 of its 10%, $1,000 bonds for $2080000. These bonds were to mature on January 1, 2026 but were callable at 101 any time after December 31, 2019. Interest was payable semiannually on July 1 and January 1. On July 1, 2021, Crane called all of the bonds and retired them. Bond premium was amortized on a straight-line basis. Before income taxes, Crane's gain or loss in 2021 on this early extinguishment of debt was

Crane Company's loss in 2021 on the early extinguishment of debt was $159,980,000 before income taxes.

To calculate Crane Company's gain or loss on the early extinguishment of debt in 2021, we need to consider the bond carrying value and the amount paid to retire the bonds.

Given information:

First, let's determine the bond carrying value on July 1, 2021. This will be the sum of the remaining unamortized premium and the face value of the bonds.

To calculate the unamortized premium, we need to determine the premium amortization per bond per period. Since the premium is amortized on a straight-line basis, we divide the total premium by the number of periods (semiannual periods remaining until maturity):

Premium amortization per bond per period = (Issue price - Face value) / (Number of periods)

Number of periods remaining from July 1, 2021, to January 1, 2026, is 10 years (20 semiannual periods).

Premium amortization per bond per period = ($2,080,000 - $2,000,000) / 20

Premium amortization per bond per period = $4,000

Total unamortized premium = Premium amortization per bond per period x Number of periods remaining

Total unamortized premium = $4,000 x 20

Total unamortized premium = $80,000

Carrying value per bond on July 1, 2021 = Face value + Unamortized premium

Carrying value per bond on July 1, 2021 = $1,000 + $80,000

Carrying value per bond on July 1, 2021 = $81,000

Total carrying value of all bonds on July 1, 2021 = Carrying value per bond x Number of bonds

Total carrying value of all bonds on July 1, 2021 = $81,000 x 2000

Total carrying value of all bonds on July 1, 2021 = $162,000,000

Now, let's determine the amount paid to retire the bonds. Since the bonds were called at 101% of face value, the amount paid will be:

Amount paid to retire the bonds = Face value x Number of bonds x 101%

Amount paid to retire the bonds = $1,000 x 2000 x 101%

Amount paid to retire the bonds = $2,020,000

To calculate the gain or loss on the early extinguishment of debt, we subtract the amount paid to retire the bonds from the carrying value:

Gain or loss = Amount paid to retire the bonds - Total carrying value of all bonds

Gain or loss = $2,020,000 - $162,000,000

Gain or loss = -$159,980,000

Therefore, Crane Company's loss in 2021 on the early extinguishment of debt was $159,980,000 before income taxes.

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What+is+the+apr+of+$200,000,+30+year+loan+(monthly+payments)+at+4%+plus+two+points?

The APR (Annual Percentage Rate) of a $200,000, 30-year loan (with monthly payments) at 4% plus two points can be calculated by following these steps: Step 1: Convert the APR to a decimal. The APR is 4%, so it can be written as 0.04. Step 2: Calculate the points. Two points is equal to 2% of the loan amount. To find the points, multiply 0.02 (2%) by $200,000. This gives us $4,000. Step 3: Calculate the total interest paid over the life of the loan. Multiply the loan amount ($200,000) by the APR (0.04) to find the annual interest paid. Then divide it by 12 to find the monthly interest paid. Multiply the monthly interest by the number of months in the loan term (30 years x 12 months/year) to find the total interest paid over the life of the loan. Step 4: Calculate the APR. Add the total interest paid over the life of the loan to the points paid. Then divide this sum by the loan amount ($200,000) to find the APR. Therefore, the APR of a $200,000, 30-year loan (with monthly payments) at 4% plus two points is calculated to be [APR calculation result].

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During the year, Tempo Inc. has monthly cash expenses of $179,069. On December 31, its cash balance is $1,103,426. The ratio of cash to monthly cash expenses (rounded to one decimal place) is a.6.2 months b.16.2 months c.14.7 months d.7.2 months

The ratio of cash to monthly cash expenses for the monthly expenses is given by option a. 6.2 months (rounded to one decimal place) .

To calculate the ratio of cash to monthly cash expenses ,

divide the cash balance by the monthly cash expenses.

Monthly cash expenses = $179,069

Cash balance on December 31 = $1,103,426

Ratio of cash to monthly cash expenses = Cash balance / Monthly cash expenses

Ratio of cash to monthly cash expenses = $1,103,426 / $179,069

Ratio of cash to monthly cash expenses ≈ 6.161 (rounded to one decimal place)

Therefore, the ratio of cash to monthly cash expenses (rounded to one decimal place) is approximately option a. 6.2 months.

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because puts and calls derive their value from the behavior of some other real or financial​ asset, they are known as derivative securities.

Puts and calls are derivative securities because their value is derived from the behavior of another underlying asset. They provide investors with the opportunity to profit from price movements in the underlying asset without owning the asset itself.

Because puts and calls derive their value from the behavior of some other real or financial asset, they are known as derivative securities. Derivatives are financial instruments that derive their value from an underlying asset, such as stocks, bonds, commodities, or currencies. Puts and calls are two types of options, which are a specific type of derivative. A put option gives the holder the right, but not the obligation , to sell the underlying asset at a specified price (known as the strike price) within a specific time frame. On the other hand, a call option gives the holder the right, but not the obligation, to buy the underlying asset at a specified price within a specific time frame. The value of a put or call option is influenced by various factors, including the price of the underlying asset, the time remaining until expiration, the volatility of the asset's price, and the prevailing interest rates . By trading these options, investors can speculate on the future price movement of the underlying asset or use them as hedging tools to protect against potential losses.

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What is the addressable market size for coracle? is the first-year goal of $1.5 million sales reasonable?

A comprehensive business plan, market research , and financial projections would provide a clearer understanding of the feasibility. It is challenging to assess its reasonableness without additional context.

To determine the addressable market size for a specific company like Coracle, you would need detailed market research and industry analysis. Factors such as target customers, geographic location, market trends, competition, and other variables would be considered to estimate the addressable market.

Regarding the first-year sales goal of $1.5 million for Coracle, it is challenging to assess its reasonableness without additional context. The reasonableness of a sales goal depends on various factors such as the company's industry, product/service offering, market conditions, competitive landscape, marketing strategies, and historical performance.

It's important to conduct a thorough analysis of the market, competitors, and internal capabilities to determine if the goal aligns with realistic expectations and is achievable.

A comprehensive business plan, market research, and financial projections would provide a clearer understanding of the feasibility of the sales goal.

If you have more specific information about Coracle or the industry it operates in, I may be able to provide further insights or assistance.

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Assume that an investment of $5000 earns an APR of 5.4% compounded monthly. How much money is in your account after 8 years

After 8 years, the account will have a total of $6,869.87.we can use the formula for compound interest:A = P(1 + r/n)^(nt). To calculate the amount of money in the account after 8 years, we can use the formula for compound interest:A = P(1 + r/n)^(nt) Where: A = the amount of money in the account after t years P = the initial investment or principal amount r = the annual interest rate (expressed as a decimal) n = the number of times the interest is compounded per year t = the number of years In this case, the initial investment is $5000, the annual interest rate is 5.4% (or 0.054 as a decimal), and the interest is compounded monthly (so n = 12).Plugging these values into the formula, we get: A = 5000(1 + 0.054/12)^(12*8) Simplifying the equation, we have: A = 5000(1.0045)^(96) Using a calculator or spreadsheet, we can find that (1.0045)^96 ≈ 1.37285. Multiplying this value by the initial investment, we get: A ≈ 5000 * 1.37285 ≈ $6,864.25 To know more about account , visit:

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The first space management skill a driver must develop is an effective ..............

The first space management skill a driver must develop is an effective scanning technique.

Space management is crucial for safe and efficient driving. It involves the ability to anticipate and respond to changes in the surrounding environment, allowing the driver to maintain an appropriate following distance, avoid collisions, and make informed-decisions on the road.

An effective scanning technique involves systematically observing and assessing the road and traffic conditions. Here are some steps to develop this skill: 1. Keep your eyes moving: Instead of fixating on one spot, scan the road ahead, to the sides, and in your mirrors. This helps you gather information about potential hazards , such as other vehicles, pedestrians, or obstacles. 2. Use your mirrors: Regularly check your rear-view and side mirrors to be aware of the traffic behind and beside you. Adjust them properly to eliminate blind spots. 3. Check blind spots: Before changing lanes or making turns, glance over your shoulder to check for vehicles or motorcycles in your blind spots. This helps you avoid colliding with vehicles that may not be visible in your mirrors. 4. Maintain a safe following distance: Keep a reasonable distance between your vehicle and the one ahead. This allows you to have enough time to react and maneuver if necessary. The general rule is to maintain a two-second gap, which increases to four seconds in adverse weather conditions. 5. Anticipate potential hazards: Look for signs of potential hazards, such as a car suddenly braking or a pedestrian about to cross the road. Anticipating these situations helps you prepare and respond appropriately. By developing these space management skills, drivers can enhance their ability to navigate the roads safely and reduce the risk of accidents .

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The first space management skill a driver needs is spatial awareness and judgment. This includes understanding how your car occupies space on the road and how to navigate it in relation to other vehicles and obstacles. By practicing scanning, using mirrors, understanding the car's dimensions, and feeling its responses, a driver can increase their spatial awareness.

The first space management skill a driver must develop is an effective understanding of spatial awareness and judgement. When behind the wheel, it is crucial to know how your vehicle occupies space on the road and how to properly maneuver your car in relation to other vehicles, pedestrians, and obstacles. The references show that this involves figuring out details on starting a car, braking, and handling turns.

To increase spatial awareness, a driver can practise scanning the environment, developing a good sense of timing in the utilization of mirrors, understanding the car's dimensions and getting a good feel for how the car responds to steering, acceleration, and braking.

The development of spatial awareness as a driver ties in with the broader process of learning something new, as the figure 8.3 suggests; initially, a lot of conscious effort is required in learning to drive, but with practice, the encoding of this information becomes more automatic.

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Gains and losses that are either unusual and/or infrequent are reported as part of continuing operations after normal revenues and expenses. items considered unusual and/or infrequent include:__________

Gains and losses that are either unusual and/or infrequent are reported as part of continuing operations after normal revenues and expenses. items considered unusual and/or infrequent include: restructuring charges, impairment charges, gains or losses from the disposal of business segments, and litigation settlements .

Gains and losses that are considered unusual and/or infrequent are reported as part of continuing operations after normal revenues and expenses.

These items are typically those that do not occur regularly in the normal course of business. Some examples of items that are considered unusual and/or infrequent include: 1. Restructuring charges: These are expenses incurred as a result of significant changes in the operations or structure of a company, such as plant closures or employee layoffs. 2. Impairment charges : These are losses recognized when the carrying value of an asset exceeds its recoverable amount. It indicates that the asset's value has significantly decreased. 3. Gain or loss from the disposal of a business segment: This refers to the profit or loss generated from the sale or disposal of a part of the business. 4. Litigation settlements: These are payments made to settle legal disputes, such as lawsuit settlements or fines imposed by regulatory authorities . In summary, gains and losses that are considered unusual and/or infrequent are reported separately from normal revenues and expenses as part of continuing operations. They include items such as restructuring charges, impairment charges, gains or losses from the disposal of business segments, and litigation settlements.

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The accelerator effect is the tendency for investment to ________ when aggregate output increases and ________ when aggregate output ________, ________the growth or decline of output.

The accelerator effect is the tendency for investment to increase when aggregate output increases and decrease when aggregate output decreases, influencing the growth or decline of output. In simpler terms, when the overall level of economic output (such as GDP) increases, businesses tend to increase their investment in new capital goods, such as machinery and equipment, in order to meet the growing demand for their products or services. This increase in investment then leads to further increases in output.Conversely, when the overall level of economic output decreases, businesses are likely to reduce their investment in new capital goods, which can lead to a decline in output. The accelerator effect works through a positive feedback loop.

Let me explain with an example: Imagine there is an increase in consumer demand for a certain product. As a result, the businesses producing that product would need to increase their output to meet the demand. To achieve this, they would need to invest in additional machinery and equipment . This increase in investment would then create job opportunities, increase employment, and boost the overall economy. To know more about investment , visit:

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A customer wishes to buy 5 ABC Jan 50 Calls and buy 5 ABC Jan 50 Puts, but does not wish to spend more than $7 for each combined position; and wants the orders executed as close together as possible. The appropriate order that should be placed is:

The appropriate order that should be placed by a customer who wishes to buy 5 ABC Jan 50 Calls and buy 5 ABC Jan 50 Puts, but does not wish to spend more than $7 for each combined position; and wants the orders executed as close together as possible is called the combination order.

A combination order is an order that includes two or more different types of orders that execute simultaneously as a single transaction. A combination order can also be called a combo order or a multi-leg order. In options trading, the most common types of combination orders include straddles and strangles. Straddles include buying a call and a put with the same strike price and expiration date , while strangles include buying a call and a put with different strike prices and the same expiration date. It also provides the opportunity to use different strategies , like straddles and strangles, to make a profit.

The appropriate order that should be placed by a customer who wishes to buy 5 ABC Jan 50 Calls and buy 5 ABC Jan 50 Puts, but does not wish to spend more than $7 for each combined position; and wants the orders executed as close together as possible is called the combination order. Straddles include buying a call and a put with the same strike price and expiration date, while strangles include buying a call and a put with different strike prices and the same expiration date.

Therefore, A combination order offers a convenient way to execute multiple orders simultaneously as a single transaction. It also provides the opportunity to use different strategies, like straddles and strangles , to make a profit.

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Bookmark question for later leverage items are typically commodities. what are some other characteristics of leverage items?

Leverage items, such as commodities, have several characteristics. Here are some of them: 1. High degree of price volatility: Leverage items tend to have significant price fluctuations. This volatility allows traders to potentially earn higher profits but also exposes them to higher risks. 2. Limited supply: Many leverage items have a limited supply, which can contribute to their price volatility. For example, commodities like oil or gold have finite quantities available, making them susceptible to supply and demand imbalances. 3. Market liquidity : Leverage items usually have a high level of market liquidity, meaning there is a sufficient volume of buyers and sellers. This liquidity allows traders to enter and exit positions easily, ensuring smooth trading operations. 4. Regulatory oversight: Leveraged items often fall under the regulatory purview of government agencies or financial institutions. These regulations aim to protect investors and maintain market integrity. 5. Margin requirements: Leveraged items often require investors to provide a percentage of the total value as collateral, known as margin. This allows traders to control larger positions with a smaller initial investment, amplifying both potential profits and losses. It is important to note that leverage items can vary in terms of characteristics depending on the specific asset class and market dynamics.

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A seller receives $18,000 proceeds from the sale of her home. The mortgage balance was $32,000, she paid a commission of 7%, and her closing costs were 3%. What was the sales price

A seller receives $18,000 proceeds from the sale of her home. The mortgage balance was $32,000, she paid a commission of 7%, and her closing costs were 3% .Therefore, the sales price of the home is $55,555.56.

The sales price of the home can be determined by subtracting the mortgage balance, the commission, and the closing costs from the proceeds received by the seller. Step 1: Calculate the commission: The commission is calculated by multiplying the sales price by the commission rate. In this case, the commission rate is 7%, so the commission can be calculated as follows: Commission = 7% of Sales Price Step 2: Calculate the closing costs: The closing costs are calculated by multiplying the sales price by the closing cost rate. In this case, the closing cost rate is 3%, so the closing costs can be calculated as follows: Closing Costs = 3% of Sales Price Step 3: Calculate the sales price: The sales price can be calculated by adding the mortgage balance, the commission, and the closing costs to the proceeds received by the seller. In this case, the proceeds received by the seller are $18,000, so the sales price can be calculated as follows: Sales Price = Mortgage Balance + Commission + Closing Costs + Proceeds Given: Proceeds = $18,000 Mortgage Balance = $32,000 Commission = 7% of Sales Price Closing Costs = 3% of Sales Price Let's substitute the values into the equation: Sales Price = $32,000 + (7% of Sales Price) + (3% of Sales Price) + $18,000 Now, let's solve the equation: Sales Price = $32,000 + 0.07(Sales Price) + 0.03(Sales Price) + $18,000 Sales Price = $50,000 + 0.1(Sales Price) To solve this equation, we can subtract 0.1(Sales Price) from both sides: 0.9(Sales Price) = $50,000 Then, divide both sides by 0.9 to solve for the Sales Price: Sales Price = $50,000 / 0.9 By performing the calculation, we find that the Sales Price is $55,555.56. Therefore, the sales price of the home is $55,555.56.

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Natasha invests $3,000 at age 18 from the signing bonus of her new job. She hopes the investment will be worth $300,000 when she turns 40. If the interest compounds continuously, approximately what rate of growth will she need to achieve her goal

Natasha will need to achieve a growth rate of approximately 0.0902, or 9.02%, in order to reach her goal.

To calculate the rate of growth Natasha needs to achieve her goal, we can use the continuous compound interest formula:

A = P * e^(rt)

A is the final amount she hopes to have ($300,000)

P is the initial amount she invests ($3,000)

e is the mathematical constant approximately equal to 2.71828

r is the rate of growth she needs to find

t is the time in years (40 - 18 = 22 years)

Plugging in the values, we can rearrange the formula to solve for r:

300,000 = 3,000 * e^(r * 22)

Dividing both sides of the equation by 3,000 gives us:

100 = e^(r * 22)

Taking the natural logarithm of both sides, we get:

ln(100) = r * 22

Now we can solve for r:

r = ln(100) / 22

Using a calculator, we find:

So, Natasha will need to achieve a growth rate of approximately 0.0902, or 9.02%, in order to reach her goal .

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atech has fixed costs of $7 million and profits of $4 million. its competitor, ztech, is roughly the same size and this year earned the same profits, $4 million. but it operates with higher fixed costs of $8 million and lower variable costs.

Atech and Ztech are two companies with similar profits of $4 million, but Atech has lower fixed costs of $7 million compared to Ztech's fixed costs of $8 million. However, Ztech operates with lower variable costs.

The difference in fixed costs between Atech and Ztech implies that Atech has a more favorable cost structure. Atech's lower fixed costs of $7 million enable them to generate the same level of profits as Ztech, which incurs higher fixed costs of $8 million. This indicates that Atech is more efficient in managing its fixed expenses, allowing them to achieve similar profitability with lower costs.

While Atech has lower fixed costs, Ztech compensates for it by having lower variable costs. Variable costs are costs that change with the level of production or sales. By operating with lower variable costs, Ztech can achieve the same profit level despite having higher fixed costs. This suggests that Ztech may have implemented cost-saving measures in their operations or has negotiated more favorable terms with their suppliers.

In summary, Atech and Ztech both earned profits of $4 million, but Atech has the advantage of lower fixed costs, while Ztech has lower variable costs. Each company has implemented different strategies to manage their cost structure and achieve profitability.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Question Workspace Check My Work Critical time is the amount of time that the task could be late without pushing back the completion date of the entire project. a. True b. False

The statement "Critical time is the amount of time that the task could be late without pushing back the completion date of the entire project " is false.

Critical time refers to the amount of time that a task can be delayed without causing a delay in the project's overall completion date. In other words, it represents the maximum amount of time that a task can be delayed before it starts to impact the project's timeline. It is important to identify critical tasks and ensure they are completed on time to avoid project delays.

However, if a task is delayed beyond its critical time, it can have a cascading effect on other tasks and potentially push back the completion date of the entire project. Therefore, it is crucial to carefully manage critical tasks to keep the project on track.

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Using your responses to the questions above as a guide, compose two well-written paragraphs that answer this question: Is a minimum wage a benefit for society

Supporters of a minimum wage argue that it provides several benefits to society. Firstly, it helps to ensure that workers are paid a fair wage for their labor, reducing income inequality and promoting social justice. By setting a minimum standard for wages, it helps to prevent exploitation of workers and improves their overall well-being. Additionally, a minimum wage can stimulate economic growth . When workers have more disposable income due to higher wages, they are likely to spend more, which in turn boosts consumer demand and drives economic activity. This can lead to job creation and increased business revenue, benefitting society as a whole. However, critics argue that a minimum wage may have negative consequences for society. For instance, it can lead to job losses, especially for low-skilled workers. If businesses are unable to afford to pay the mandated minimum wage, they may reduce their workforce or cut back on hiring new employees. This can particularly impact small businesses and industries with thin profit margins. Furthermore, some argue that a minimum wage may increase the cost of goods and services. If businesses are faced with higher labor costs, they may pass on these costs to consumers through higher prices. This can potentially lead to inflation and decrease the purchasing power of individuals. In conclusion, whether a minimum wage is a benefit for society depends on various factors and perspectives. While it can provide a safety net for workers and stimulate economic growth, it may also have unintended consequences such as job losses and increased costs. The impact of a minimum wage on society needs to be carefully evaluated and balanced with other economic considerations. To know more about minimum wage visit: https://brainly.com/question/29128876 #SPJ11