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Harsha - Facts about King Harshavardhana [NCERT Notes on Ancient Indian History For UPSC]

King Harshavardhana was also known as Harsha. He was the son of Prabhakar Vardhana, the founder of the Pushyabhuti Dynasty or the Vardhana Dynasty. Harshavardhana is considered as one of the most prominent Indian emperors in the 7th century AD.  He built a huge empire that extended from north & northwestern India till the Narmada in the South. His capital was Kannauj. His reforms and policies were generous and were always aimed at boosting the peace and prosperity of his people. This article will talk about key-facts about Harshavardhana, the empire of Harsha for the IAS Exam .

Candidates can refer to related Ancient History articles in the table below:

Harshavardhana (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

Facts about King Harshavardhana (Reign: 606 A.D to 647 A.D.)

• Harshavardhana was born in 590 AD to King Prabhakaravardhana of Sthaneshvara (Thanesar, Haryana).
• He belonged to the Pushyabhuti also called the Vardhana dynasty.
• He was a Hindu who later embraced Mahayana Buddhism.
• He was married to Durgavati.
• He had a daughter and two sons. His daughter married a king of Vallabhi whereas his sons were killed by his own minister.
• King Harshavardhana deeds were praised by Chinese Buddhist traveller Xuanzang in his writings.

Harsha Ascension

• After Prabhakara Vardhana died, his elder son Rajyavardhana ascended to the throne of Thanesar.
• Harsha had a sister, Rajyashri who was married to king Grahavarman of Kannauj. Sasanka, the Gauda king killed Grahavarman and kept Rajyashri prisoner. This prompted Rajyavardhana to fight against Sasanka. But Sasanka killed Rajyavardhana.
• This led the 16-year old Harshavardhana to ascend the throne of Thanesar in 606 AD.
• He vowed to avenge his brother’s murder and also rescue his sister.
• For this, he forged an alliance with Bhaskaravarman, the Kamarupa king. Harsha and Bhaskaravarman marched against Sasanka. Ultimately, Sasanka left for Bengal and Harsha became the king of Kannauj also.

Empire of Harsha – King Harshvardhana’s Empire

• On acquiring Kannauj, Harsha united the two kingdoms of Thanesar and Kannauj.
• He moved his capital to Kannauj.
• After the fall of the Guptas, North India was divided into many small kingdoms.
• Harsha was able to unite many of them under his command. He had under his control of Punjab and central India. After Sasanka’s death, he annexed Bengal, Bihar and Odisha.
• He also defeated the Vallabhi king in Gujarat. (The Vallabhi king and Harsha came to a truce by a marriage between Harsha’s daughter and the Vallabhi king Dhruvabhata.)
• However, Harsha’s plans to conquer lands to the south were hampered when the Chalukya king, Pulakesin II defeated Harsha in 618-619 A.D. This sealed Harsha’s southern territorial limit as the Narmada River.
• Direct territories: Central Provinces, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, Gujarat
• Feudatories: Jalandhar, Kashmir, Kamarupa, Sind, Nepal
• Even the feudatories were under the tight command of Harsha. Harsha’s reign marked the beginning of feudalism in India.
• Hiuen Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign. He has given a very favourable account of king Harsha and his empire. He praises his generosity and justice.
• Harsha was a great patron of the arts. He himself was an accomplished writer. He is credited with the Sanskrit works Ratnavali, Priyadarshika and Nagananda.
• Banabhatta was his court poet and he composed the Harshacharita which gives an account of Harsha’s life and deeds.
• Harsha generously supported the Nalanda University.
• He had a good tax structure. 1/4th of all the taxes collected were used for charity and for cultural purposes.
• Harsha was a competent military conqueror and an able administrator.
• Harsha was the last king to rule over a vast empire in India before the invasions by the Muslims.

Harsha’s death

• Harsha died in 647 AD after ruling for 41 years.
• Since he died without any heirs, his empire disintegrated very soon after his death.

These NCERT Notes on Harshavardhana are relevant to the UPSC civil services exam . These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like bank PO, SSC, state civil services exams, and so on.

Get Medieval History and Modern History notes from the links below:

• NCERT Medieval History Notes for UPSC
• NCERT Modern History Notes for UPSC

Frequently Asked Questions on King Harshvardhana

Q 1. who was harshvardhana, q 2. whi is king harshavardhana considered a prominent ruler.

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Harsha (born c. 590 ce —died c. 647) was the ruler of a large empire in northern India from 606 to 647 ce . He was a Buddhist convert in a Hindu era. His reign seemed to mark a transition from the ancient to the medieval period, when decentralized regional empires continually struggled for hegemony .

The second son of Prabhakaravardhana, king of Sthanvishvara (Thanesar, in the eastern Punjab), Harsha was crowned at age 16 after the assassination of his elder brother, Rajyavardhana, and an encouraging “communication” with a statue of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. He soon made an alliance with King Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa and warred against King Shashanka of Gauda , his brother’s assassin. At first he did not assume the title of king but merely acted as a regent; after making his position secure, however, he declared himself sovereign ruler of Kannauj (in Uttar Pradesh state) and formally transferred his capital to that city. Though never defeating Shashanka, his large army waged incessant warfare for six years, conquering the “five Indies”—thought to be Valabhi , Magadha , Kashmir , Gujarat , and Sindh . His influence extended from Gujarat to Assam , but the area directly under his control probably comprised no more than modern Uttar Pradesh state, with parts of Punjab and Rajasthan states. He attempted to conquer the Deccan ( c. 620) but was driven back to the Narmada River by the Chalukya emperor Pulakeshin II. Bringing most of the north under his hegemony, Harsha apparently made no attempt at building a centralized empire but ruled according to the traditional pattern, leaving conquered kings on their thrones and contenting himself with tribute and homage.

Harsha is known mainly through the works of Bana , whose Harṣacarita (“Deeds of Harsha”) describes Harsha’s early career, and of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang , who became a personal friend of the king, though his opinions are questionable because of his strong Buddhist ties with Harsha. Xuanzang depicts the emperor as a convinced Mahayana Buddhist, though in the earlier part of his reign Harsha appears to have supported orthodox Hinduism. He is described as a model ruler— benevolent , energetic, just, and active in the administration and prosperity of his empire. In 641 he sent an envoy to the Chinese emperor and established the first diplomatic relations between India and China. He established benevolent institutions for the benefit of travelers, the poor, and the sick throughout his empire. He held quinquennial assemblies at the confluence of the Ganges (Ganga) and Yamuna (Jumna) rivers at Allahabad, at which he distributed treasures he had accumulated during the previous four years. A patron of men of learning, Harsha sponsored the chronicler Bana and the lyric poet Mayura. Himself a poet, Harsha composed three Sanskrit works: Nāgānanda , Ratnāvalī , and Priyadarśikā .

A period of anarchy , or at least a splintering of his empire, followed Harsha’s death, with the later Guptas ruling over a portion of it.

Harshavardhan

Image Credit : https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/harsha-6231.php

Harshavardhana was one of the most important Indian emperors of the 7th Century. During the peak of his reign, Harshavardhana’s empire extended from north India to the Narmada River in central India. His rule was renowned for peace, stability and prosperity, and attracted many artists and scholars from far and wide. Xuanzang, a famous Chinese traveler, heaped a lot of praise on Harshavardhana for his generosity and administrative skills. Ruling from 606 to 647 CE, Harshavardhana became the most successful emperor of the Pushyabhuti dynasty until he was defeated by a South Indian ruler Pulakeshin II. The defeat of Harshavardhana marked the end of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.

Ascension to the Throne

The Pushyabhuti dynasty, also known as the Vardhana dynasty, came into prominence after the decline of the Gupta Empire. Prabhakara Vardhana, the first king of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, was instrumental in consolidating the small republics and monarchical states that had sprung up in North India after the downfall of the Gupta dynasty. When Prabhakara Vardhana passed away in 605 CE, his eldest son Rajya Vardhana became the new ruler. Harshavardhana was Rajya Vardhana’s brother and they also had a sister named Rajyashri. Rajyashri went on to marry the Maukhari King Grahavarman. Rajyashri’s husband, King Grahavarman, was defeated by the Malwa King Devagupta and Rajyashri was imprisoned. King Devagupta was now ruling over the subjects of King Grahavarman. Also, Rajyashri was ill-treated during her stay in the prison. Unable to tolerate the treatment given to his sister, Rajya Vardhana marshalled his troops into the kingdom of Devagupta and managed to defeat him. Around the same time, a Gauda ruler Shashanka entered Rajya Vardhana’s kingdom. Unfortunately, Rajya Vardhana failed to make out the motive behind Shashanka’s entry into his kingdom. Shashanka had posed as Rajya Vardhana’s friend, and had gained knowledge about his military affairs. But in reality, Shashanka was an ally of Rajya Vardhana’s arch-rival. Rajya Vardhana never suspected Shashanka’s intentions and he eventually paid the price for it as he was murdered by Shashanka. When Harshavardhana came to know about his brother’s death, he waged a war against Shashanka and defeated him convincingly. He then ascended the throne and took over the leadership of the Vardhana dynasty at the age of 16.

Administration and the Empire

Harshavardhana ruled over the entire North India from 606 to 647 CE. It is said that Harshavardhana’s empire reminded many of the great Gupta Empire as his administration was similar to that of the administration of the Gupta Empire. There was no slavery in his empire and people were free to lead their life according to their wish. His empire also took good care of the poor by building rest houses that provided all the amenities required. In many texts, Harshavardhana has been described as a noble emperor who made sure all his subjects stayed happy. He did not impose heavy taxes on his people and the economy was somewhat self-sufficient. His capital Kannauj (in present day Uttar Pradesh) attracted many artists, poets, religious leaders and scholars who traveled from far and wide. He also maintained cordial relations with the Chinese. He even sent an Indian mission to China, establishing a diplomatic relationship between India and China. The famous Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang spent eight years in his empire. He later recorded his experiences and even praised Harshavardhana for the way he went about ruling his empire. 

During the course of his rule, Harshavardhana built a strong army. Historical records suggest that he had 100,000 strong cavalry, 50,000 infantry and 60,000 elephants during the peak of his reign. He was also a patron of literature and art. Thanks to the numerous endowments that were made to the Nalanda University, a mighty wall enclosing the edifices of the university was constructed during his rule. This wall saved the university from attack and invasions by the enemies and that ensured the prosperity of this great centre of learning. Harshavardhana’s interest in the field of prose and poetry is well-documented. A famous Indian writer and poet named Banabhatta served as the ‘Asthana Kavi’ (primary poet of the kingdom) in the court of Harshavardhana. The emperor himself was a skilled writer as he had penned down three Sanskrit plays, namely ‘Ratnavali’, ‘Priyadarsika’ and ‘Nagananda.’ 

During Harshavardhana’s reign, there was paucity of coins in most parts of North India. This fact suggests that the economy was feudal in nature. People were more concerned about growing their own crops rather than creating a market for the crops grown. 

Harshavardhana’s kingdom was one of the earliest Indian kingdoms where we can see the practice of feudalism. This was similar to the feudal grants of Europe. Independent rulers, collectively known as ‘Mahasamantas,’ paid tribute to Harshavardhana and also helped him by supplying military reinforcements. This played an important role in the expansion of Harshavardhana’s empire. 

Being one of the largest Indian empires of the 7th Century CE, it covered the entire North and Northwestern India. In the east, his empire extended till Kamarupa and ran all the way down to the Narmada River. It is said that his empire was spread across the present day states of Orissa, Bengal, Punjab and the whole of Indo-Gangetic plain. Harshavardhana defeated and conquered many kingdoms during his reign. When he thought of extending his empire beyond the Narmada River, his advisors came up with a plan to conquer South India. He then charted out a plan to attack Pulakeshin II of the Chalukya dynasty. Pulakeshin II controlled a major part of South India. Hence, Harshavardhana’s plan to fight Pulakeshin II suggests that he wanted to gain control over the whole of India. Unfortunately, Harshavardhana underestimated Pulakeshin II’s military prowess and was defeated in the battle, which took place on the banks of Narmada.  

According to historical sources, Harshavardhana’s ancestors were sun worshippers, but Harshavardhana was a Shaivite. He was an ardent devotee of Lord Shiva and his subjects described him as ‘Parama-maheshvara’ (supreme devotee of Lord Shiva). In fact, ‘Nagananda,’ a Sanskrit play which was written by him, was dedicated to Lord Shiva’s consort Parvati. Though he was an ardent Shaivite, he was also tolerant towards all other religions and extended his support as well. He did not force his religious beliefs on his subjects and they were free to follow and practice the religion of their choice. Sometime later in his life, he became a patron of Buddhism. Records suggest that his sister Rajyashri had converted to Buddhism and that encouraged King Harshavardhana to support and even propagate the religion. He got several Buddhist stupas constructed. The stupas built by him on the banks of the Ganges stood at 100-feet high. He also banned animal slaughter and started building monasteries all over North India. 

He built hospices and ordered his men to maintain them well. These hospices served as shelters to the poor and to the religious travelers across India. He also organized a religious assembly called ‘Moksha.’ It was organized once in every five years. Harshavardhana was also renowned for organizing a grand Buddhist convocation in 643 CE. This convocation was held at Kannauj and it was attended by hundreds of pilgrims and 20 kings who had come from far and wide. Chinese traveler Xuanzang penned down his experience of attending this massive convocation. Xuanzang also wrote about a 21-day religious festival which too, was held at Kannauj. This religious festival was centered on a life-sized statue of Buddha which was made out of pure gold. According to Xuanzang, Harsha, along with his subordinate kings, would perform daily rituals in front of the life-sized statue of the Buddha. It is still not clear if Harshavardhana converted to Buddhism. But Xuanzang has clearly mentioned in one of his writings that King Harshavardhana was not only favorable to Buddhist monks, but also treated scholars of other religious belief with equal respect. This suggests that he might not have converted to Buddhism. 

After ruling over most parts of North India for more than 40 years, King Harshavardhana left for the holy abode in the year 647 CE. Since he did not have any heirs his empire collapsed and disintegrated rapidly into small states. The demise of King Harshavardhana marked the end of the mighty Vardhana dynasty. 

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Harshacharita and Life in Harsha’s Time

• AUTHOR Nehal Rajvanshi
• PUBLISHED 15 April 2020

Travellers to Thanesar (in modern-day Haryana), the capital of the Vardhana dynasty in the 6th and 7th centuries, could enjoy fresh hand-pressed pomegranate and date juice. That’s how rich and advanced the region was. Thanesar would later become an important Hindu pilgrimage centre too, but at the time of the Vardhana dynasty, it was a prosperous city surrounded by fields full of wheat, rice and cowpeas. These were watered by wheel-made pots. Beyond the fields were orchards where spotted deer roamed freely.

These details, and various other aspects of life in Northern India at the time, were chronicled by Banabhatta in his 7th-century composition, the Harshacharita.

After the decline of the Gupta Empire in the early 6th century, the old feudatories within it proclaimed their independence. Prominent among these was the Pushyabhuti or Vardhana dynasty of Thanesar , which ruled from 500 CE to 647 CE. The most significant of its rulers was Harshavardhana, of whom much is known due to the accounts of the Chinese monk and traveller Hiuen Tsang, who visited India in the 7th century. But the most fascinating glimpses of Harshavardhana’s life and reign were left to us by his biographer and court poet, Banabhatta, also called Bana.

Harshavardhana ruled so much of Northern India between 606 and 647 CE that his empire stretched from Gujarat to Kamrupa (modern-day Assam), and to the south, went all the way to the Narmada River. His capital was Kanyakubja or Kannauj in present-day Uttar Pradesh (but more on that later). Bana’s biography details the dynasty’s lineage and the expansion of its empire through military expeditions. The focus is Harsha’s early years and royal life in general, but interestingly, the biography comes to a close after Harsha’s ascension to the throne. It also gives readers rare glimpses into the rural life of the time.

Through it, we also know a bit about Bana himself. The writer was born in the early 7th century, in the village of Pritikuta, situated along the river Shona in the region of Kannauj. Coming from a family of Brahmins, Bana spent his childhood studying the shastras (religious literature) and the Puranic tradition (genealogical history). After his father’s death, Bana, for a while, led the life of a wanderer, visiting holy places, royal courts and educational centres, meeting poets and scholars. When he returned to Kannauj, he received a summon from Harsha’s court to come and meet the emperor, who was then camping at a village called Manitara (now in present-day Odisha).

Initially sceptical of Bana’s abilities and character, King Harsha decided to keep him on for a few days nonetheless and was soon impressed by him. Royal honours were bestowed upon Bana by Harsha, who was himself a poet and a patron of literature.

The narrative about Harsha in Harshacharita begins with Bana returning home after spending some time at the court. It starts as a recitation in his hometown to a bunch of curious and delighted relatives and friends, who want to know all about Harsha, his life and his achievements.

Composed in panegyric style, the Harshacharita thus became, in a way, also an autobiography of the author. In Sanskrit literature, the Harshacharita is categorised as an akhyayika , a romanticised yet authentic historical account. As opposed to Bana’s other work, Kadambari , which is understood to be a fictional katha or prose romance.

– The Harshacharita , written in poetic-prose style, has eight chapters and follows a linear chronology of the events of the Vardhana dynasty leading up to Harsha’s ascension.

Chapters 3 and 4 describe the land of Srikantha, in which was situated Thanesar, an important capital under the Vardhana ruler Prabhakarvardhana. He was considered the first important ruler of the dynasty and ruled from 585 to 606 CE.

During his reign, he checked the Huns who had invaded major parts of Northern India between the 4th and 6th centuries. He defeated the rulers of Sindh, Gujarat and Gandhara (now parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan). He had two sons with his queen Yashomati, Rajyavardhana and Harshavardhana, and a daughter named Rajyashri. Rajyashri was married to Grahavarman of the Maukhari family, who was then ruling at Kanyakubja. In the next few chapters, we learn that things then took a tragic turn. While his sons were fighting the Huns, Prabhakarvardhana died. Meanwhile, Devagupta, king of Malwa, invaded Kanyakubja, killed Grahavarman and took Rajyashri prisoner.

Shashanka, then king of Gauda (now Bengal), invited Rajyavardhana to his kingdom, ostensibly to discuss an alliance, but then treacherously killed him. Thus, Harshavardhana became emperor of the Vardhana Kingdom. He was 16 years old. He led a campaign against the Malwa king, freed his sister, and thus took over Thanesar and Kanyakubja, and moved his capital from the former to the latter.

That’s riveting enough, but Bana also packs in interesting details about Indian society of the time, manners and customs, crops, domestic animals, even ornamental plants.

For instance, when describing the region near Malwa, as Harsha marched towards the kingdom where his sister was being held, he speaks of how the place was inhabited largely by farmers, hunters, blacksmiths and ‘forest householders’. The hunters used snares, axes, coiled traps and netted nooses, while the blacksmiths wore their ‘breakfast bundles’ (probably the packets carrying their food) on their necks and dressed in ragged clothes for fear of thieves. The women, he adds, travelled between villages carrying baskets of fresh fruit on their heads to sell.

His eye for detail makes even the descriptions of the vessels used to store and keep water cool interesting. He says ‘wooden stands (were) surmounted by an array of bustling water jars to steal away thirst, cool porous vessels with dripping bases for allaying weariness, pitchers black with moist aquatic plants for the purpose of keeping the water cold, bits of pink gravel taken from ewers to cool the air, and cups having pink flowers tied by straw wisps about their necks’. Small vessels of water were also constructed for birds and tied to the trees, he adds.

– There’s mention of pots full of buttermilk in the royal household, and carried about even by the kitchen bearers of the army. The cooks that travelled with the army, in fact, carried many utensils, including fire- trays, ovens, simmering pans and spits, notes Bana.

When Harsha was travelling through the Malwa region, villagers presented to him curd, molasses and candied sugar.

Bana’s chronicle also offers insight into the land revenue system of the time. Villages were measured in terms of the area that could be turned over with one plough pulled by a given number of oxen. A tax was then fixed for each such plough measure. Bana’s reference to the area of the village in terms of siras indicates that the land unit was known by this name, among others.

There were different agricultural practices prevalent in the period, which differed from region to region. Thanesar and Srikantha, he states, used irrigation and ploughing, which wasn’t the case in the Vindhya region. There is also reference to the use of manure in the Malwa region.

The long, metaphorical descriptions of attire and ornamentation are another intriguing part of the narrative. There’s frequent mention of white silk, which seemed to dominate the wardrobes of the royals, including Harsha and Rajyavardhana. There is also mention of pulakabandha (gaily coloured cloth) and puslzpapatta (floral-printed silk), and bark used by ascetics to cover their bodies.

Elephants, horses, camels and oxen feature frequently in the Harshacharita . Apart from their role in military campaigns, there is mention of how animals were used to transport goods. Bana writes, “Elephants were loaded with a cargo of utensils hurriedly tossed upon them by travel-practised domestics... Oxen were laden with utensils momentarily put upon them.”

A fascinating episode of royal life is presented as the family prepares for Harsha’s sister Rajyashri’s wedding and the whole palace comes alive as if celebrating a major festival. Skilled artisans, leather- workers, carpenters, goldsmiths, plasterers and many other workmen are called to decorate the palace with clay figurines, scented ponds, paintings and many other kinds of ornamentation.

Bana writes, “The palace was arrayed in textures flashing on every side like thousands of rainbows, textures of linen, cotton, bark silk, spider’s thread, muslin and shot silk… soft as the unripe plantain’s fruit, swaying at a breath, imperceptible except to the touch.” There is also mention of bamboo baskets, woollen fabric and cosmetics, among other bridal gifts and preparations.

Harsha spent the early years of his kingship (but the book had ended by then) on campaigns in Northern India with an army of 5,000 elephants, 20,000 horses and 50,000 infantry. Bana discusses Harsha’s army structures, weapons and logistics, and notes that horses were imported for Harsha’s cavalry from Vanayu (Waziristan, in Pakistan), Aratta (Vahika or Punjab), Kamboja (the Pamir region), Bharadvaja (northern Garhwal), Sindhu-desa (Sindh-Doab) and Parasika (Sasanian Iran). Some of these seem to be breeds of horses and others, place names. When he visits Harsha’s court for the first time, he mentions horses of six different colours in the king’s stables.

– Harsha’s army also maintained elephant doctors and special attention was given to their training, with figures of elephants used for this purpose.

It is mentioned that unlike the practice in the Vedic era, of the king riding a chariot, Harsha rode a horse. The foot soldiers of his army, says the Harshacharita , were dressed in half-sleeved tunics, dhotis and sandals with ankle straps.

Sati was practised, even by queens. Bana vividly describes how, after the death of Prabhakarvardhana, his queen Yashomati plunged into the fire. Towards the end of the narrative, when Harsha rescues his sister Rajyashri, she too is about to jump into the fire, after her husband, king Grahavarman was killed.

There are different episodes in the composition that tell us that Buddhism, along with Shaivism and Brahmanism, flourished side by side during Harsha’s reign. Bana talks of sacrifices being conducted, and different rituals and prayers invoked before military campaigns and other important events. While Harsha is said to be a Buddhist, he can also be seen worshipping Shiva, in the text. In the last chapter, Bana refers to Buddhists and Brahmins of every sect who were “all diligently following their own tenets, pondering, urging objections, raising doubts and resolving them, giving etymologies, studying, and explaining, and all gathered here as His (God / the Creator’s) disciples”.

The Harshacharita comes to a close when Harsha rescues his sister from the Malwa kingdom and ascends to the throne of Thanesar and Kanyakubja. While some scholars consider the Harshacharita an incomplete account since it doesn’t discuss Harsha’s defeats or his life after this point, others argue that it contains all the necessary stages, from beginning to conclusion (ascension). The end of the Harshacharita is considered an assumption of Harsha’s royal glory and achievements.

The first commentary on the Harshacharita is said to be Sanketa , a work by a scholar called Shankara from Kashmir, written in the 12th century. Another Kashmiri scholar, Ruyyaka, believed to be Shankara’s contemporary, is also said to have written a commentary after that, called the Harshacharita Vartika . Later scholars from Bombay and Calcutta published editions of the original Sanskrit composition by Banabhatta during the 19th century, while rare copies of the original Sanskrit manuscript are said to have once lingered in Indian libraries. To make this insightful text available to a larger audience, the editions were collated, analysed and translated into English by Sanskrit Scholars E B Cowell and F W Thomas at Cambridge University in 1897.

These translations and commentaries act as an important medium, helping us understand this historical account and what it says about the social, economic and political life of that era. Banabhatta, to this day, is regarded highly for his elegant Sanskrit prose.

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Harshavardhana

Home » Ancient Indian History » Post Gupta Age » Harshavardhana

Introduction

• Harsha , also called Harshavardhana , (born c. 590 CE—died c. 647), was a ruler of a large empire in northern India from 606 to 647 CE.
• Harsha’s reign seemed to mark a transition from the ancient to the medieval period , when decentralized regional empires continually struggled for hegemony.
• He was the last ruler of the Vardhana Empire , the last great empire in ancient India before the Islamic Invasion.
• After the fall of great Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century CE, under whom India saw its own golden age, it was Harshavardhana who unified most of northern India and ruled for four decades from his capital Kanyakubja

History and Extent

• He was succeeded by his elder son, Rajyavardhana.
• After his brother’s death, at the age of 16, Harshavardhana became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar (modern-day Haryana).
• In the east, his empire extended till Kamarupa and ran all the way down to the Narmada River.
• It is said that his empire was spread across the present day states of Orissa, Bengal, Punjab and the whole of Indo-Gangetic plain.
• The Vardhana Empire consisted of two distinctive types of territories : areas directly under Harsha’s rule such as Central Provinces, Gujarat, Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, and the states and kingdoms which had become feudatories under him including Jalandhar, Kashmir, Nepal, Sind, Kamarupa (modern-day Assam).

Administration and the Empire

• There was no slavery in his empire and people were free to lead their life according to their wish.
• His empire also took good care of the poor by building rest houses that provided all the amenities required.
• In many texts, Harshavardhana has been described as a noble emperor who made sure all his subjects stayed happy.
• He did not impose heavy taxes on his people and the economy was somewhat self-sufficient.
• His capital Kannauj (in present day Uttar Pradesh) attracted many artists, poets, religious leaders and scholars who traveled from far and wide.
• He also maintained cordial relations with the Chinese. He even sent an Indian mission to China, establishing a diplomatic relationship between India and China. The famous Chinese monk and traveler Xuanzang spent eight years in his empire.
• Historical records suggest that he had 100,000 strong cavalry, 50,000 infantry and 60,000 elephants during the peak of his reign.
• Independent rulers, collectively known as ‘ Mahasamantas ,’ paid tribute to Harshavardhana and also helped him by supplying military reinforcements.
• This played an important role in the expansion of Harshavardhana’s empire.

Art and Education

• Harsha was a patron of both art and education. He himself was an author and wrote three Sanskrit plays, Nagananda, Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. One-fourth of his revenue went for patronizing scholars.
• Nalanda had around 10,000 students and 2,000 teachers.
• The curriculum included Vedas, Buddhism, philosophy, logic, urban planning, medicine, law, astronomy, etc.
• Also, a famous Indian writer and poet named Banabhatta served as the ‘Asthana Kavi’ (primary poet of the kingdom) in the court of Harshavardhana.

Ruins of Nalanda University

Society and Religion

• Caste system was prevalent among Hindus. They were divided into four castes or varna: Brahmana, Vaishya, Kshariya and Shudra, which among them had their own subcastes.
• Satipratha (widow immolation) was common, and widow remarriage was not allowed in higher castes.
• Yet, he was tolerant of other faiths.
• With a view to popularize and propagate the doctrines of Mahayana Buddhism, Harsha arranged at Kanyakubja a great assembly which was presided over by Hiuen Tsang, in 643 CE.
• Also, every five years religious ceremonies were celebrated at the ancient city of Allahabad. Here, he held the ceremony of Dana, or giving, which lasted for three months. During this, most of the wealth accumulated in the last five years was exhausted.

Death and Legacy

• Land was granted in villages, which made the local landlords powerful.
• This led to the weakening of the empire and gave rise to local feuds . Harsha had to be in constant movement to keep things in order.
• Since he did not have any heirs his empire collapsed and disintegrated rapidly into small states.
• The demise of King Harshavardhana marked the end of the mighty Vardhana dynasty.

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14 Harshavardhana

P. Bhaskar Reddy

1. Introduction

The decline of the Gupta Empire was followed by a period of political disorder and disunity in north India. The subsequent period is generally referred to as early medieval period. It saw the emergence of numerous ruling dynasties in different parts of the country. The most important ruling family that rose to prominence, soon after the Guptas, was that of Pushyabhutis of Thaneswar. Harshnavardhana’s accession to the throne in 606 CE heralded an age in the history of Ancient India. His reign witnessed the last attempt to realize political unification of north India by a Hindu king.

The main sources of information for the career and achievements of Harshavardhana were; Bana’s Harshacharita ; the dramas written by Harsha namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika; Si-yu-ki; the account of the Chinese pilgrim HiuenTsang; Madhubhan and Bhanskhera copper plate inscriptions of Harsha; Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II; and Coins of Harsha. They form the primary sources of information to know about Harsha.

3. Political conditions of India

The political scenario of north India on the eve of the rise of Harshavardhana was as follows. The period that followed the Guptas was a period of confusion and obscurity. The weakness of the later Gupta rulers, the Hun invasions and the economic crisis fostered the forces of disintegration. The subordinates of the Guptas asserted independence and carved out independent principalities, thereby systematically broke the political unity of north India. From the decline of the Guptas until the rise of Harsha in 7th century Four kingdoms held power in North India ; the Guptas of Magadha, the Maukharis of Kanuaj, the Pushayabhutis of Thaneswar and the Maitrakas of Vallabhi.

The Guptas of Magadha were not part of the main Gupta dynasty, but was a minor line bearing the same name. The Maukharis rose to power in the later half of 6th century. They were often engaged in bitter conflicts with the later Guptas. The Maukharis at first held the region of western Uttar Pradesh around Kanauj and gradually ousted the Magadhan Guptas from their kingdom. Originally, they were tributary rulers who established an independent kingdom, changing their title maharaja to maharajadhiraja , doubtless in imitation of the early Guptas. The most remarkable king of this dynasty was Ishanavarman who successfully  fought against the Huns. The last of the line was Grahavarman who sought to strengthen his position by marrying Rajyasri, the daughter of Prabhakaravardhana, the king of Thaneswar.

The Maitrakas who were administrative officers under the Guptas, ruled in Saurashtra in Gujarat and developed Vallabhi, their capital, into an important centre of commerce and learning.

The Pushyabhutis ruled in Thaneswar or Sthaneswar North of Delhi. A marriage alliance with the Maukharis led, on the death of the last Maukhari king, to the unification of the two kingdoms, which were eventually ruled by Harsha. They brought the other feudatories under their control and played a far more significant part in the history of India.

On the periphery of these four there were a number of lesser dynasties the Manas and Shailodbhavas in Orissa, the Varmans in Assam, the Aulikas with various others recorded in the inscriptions. The Gaudas of Bengal, after the down fall of the Guptas came to power asserted their independence. Sasanka was the most powerful king of Bengal. He had his capital at Karna-suvarna in the Murshidabad district. Sasanka played pivotal role in the politics of north India. A branch of Huns known as Gurjaras founded a small kingdom in southern Rajasthan and some parts of North western provinces.

Thus the 6th century CE, after the fall of the Guptas, north India was deprived of a paramount political power. The entire region was divided into innumerable independent political segments and ruled over by pretty chiefs.

4. Early History

Pushyabhuti was the founder of the dynasty, but very little is known about him. The Pushyabhutis came to lime light under the dynamic rule of Prabhakaravardhana. He played very important part in giving direction, status and stability to the kingdom which he had established. His capital was Thaneswar and assumed the titles Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka.

He had distinguished himself by waging successfully wars against the Malawas, the Huns of the north western Punjab and Gurjaras of Rajaputana. The Maukharis of Kanauj contracted diplomatic matrimonial alliances with him. Rajyasri, the daughter of Prabhakaravardhana, was given in marriage to Grahavarman, the son of Avantivarman. This act broke the balance of power in North India, for it brought the Pushyabhutis and Maukharis become very strong whereas the later Guptas and Gaundas weak. This resulted in cliques and wars in between them.

5. Harshavardhana – Early Life and Career

Harsha was the son of Prabhakaravardhana. He had an elder brother named Rajayavardhana and a sister by name Rajyasri. When the Huns attacked the kingdom Thaneswar Prabhakaravardhana sent both Rajayavardhana and Harshavardhana to fight against the Huns. While the sons were away on the battle field, Prabhakaravardhana suddenly fell ill and died. Then Rajyavardhana who was successful in subduing the Huns hurried back to the capital and ascended the throne of Thaneswar (605 CE). It was at this movement of sorrow, the tragic news reached the Thaneswar, that Devagupta of Malwa assisted by Sasanka, killed Grahavarman and imprisoned Rajyasri. Thereupon Rajyavardhana marched against Devagupta and defeated him with ease. But before he could return to his capital, he was treacherously murdered by Sasanka of Bengal. In the meantime, Rajyasri escaped from her prison into the Vindhyas. At this critical juncture Harsha succeeded his brother at Thaneswar in 606 CE at the tender age of 16. Prabhakaravardhana’s desire for conquest was eventually fulfilled by his younger son, Harshavardhana, generally known as Harsha.

Harshavardhana reigned between 606 and 647 CE. He commemorated his accession to the throne by founding a new era came to be known as the Harsha Era. Harsha has extended his authority through his military achievements, administration and religious policy.

5.1. Military Achievements

Harsha on coming to the throne had to face a sea of troubles. He had to rescue his sister, the Maukari queen Rajyasri, the widow of Grahavarman, who already had fled from her confinement. He had to avenge the death of his elder brother. In this connection his arch rivals were Devagupta and Sasanka. Finally he had to expand and consolidate his authority in two kingdoms i.e. Thaneswar and Kanuaj, over which he was called upon to rule.

• His first act was to rescue his widow sister. The recovery of Rajyasri was affected within a short time.
• Harsha then diverted his fury towards Devagupta, the ally of Sasanka. He defeated him and occupied his Magadha region. These two acts helped Harsha not only to unite Thaneswar and Kanauj but also enabled Harsha to follow the policy of expansion. Later, he shifted his capital from Thaneswar to Kanuaj. Thus Kanauj became the centre of political activity in the subsequent years.
• Harsha entered into a treaty of alliance with Bhaskaravarman the ambitious king of Kamarupa in modern Assam. This was a master-stroke of diplomacy on the part of Harsha. He successfully did it and thereby weakened Sasanka and attacked him.
• It is evident from the account of HiuenTsang that Harsha is said to have waged incessant warfare for a period of six years. It is said that Harsha brought the “Five Indies” stated to be the Punjab, Kanauj, Gauda, Mithila, and Orissa under his control. However, Sasanka proved to be a formidable opponent. His power seemed to have continued undiminished till 619 C.E. Harsha succeeded in strengthening his position in the home territories, including the greater part of Bengal, the eastern part of the Punjab and the Saurashtra region which was then under the control of the Vallabhis. According to Hiuen Tsang, the army of Harsha consisted of 50,000 infantry, 60,000 elephants and 1,00,000 cavalry.
• In 620 CE Harshavardhana invaded the Chaulukya kingdom in the Deccan which was then ruled by Pulakesin II. But the Chaulukya resistance proved tough for Harshavardhana and he was defeated. Both the accounts of HiuenTsang and the inscriptions of Pulakesin-II provide the details of this campaign. After this a treaty was concluded between the two according to which the territorial integrity was honored by these two kings.
• Harsha in 634 C.E., waged a successful war against the Maitrakas of Vallabhi and defeated Druvasena Baladitya II, the king of Vallabhi. It is said that Harsha made friendship with Druvasena II and strengthened it by giving his daughter in marriage to him.
• Harsha established control over Kashmir and its ruler sent tributes to him. The last campaign of Harsha was in 643 C.E., and it was directed against Ganjam and had conquered the odra region in Odissa. It is also said that Harsha attacked Sindh whose king was deprived of his royal fortune.
• Harshavardhana at the same time maintained diplomatic and cordial relation with China. In 641 C.E. he sent a Brahmin envoy to China, who returned in 643 C.E., accompanied by a Chinese mission.

Thus Harsha established his hold over the whole of north India. Harsha’s supremacy extended on the West upto the Vallabhi kingdom in Saurashtra and on the East up to the borders of Assam. The southern boundary was the river, Narmada while in the North it included the whole of upper India except the Punjab region. The kings of Assam and Nepal acknowledged his supremacy. Harsha was regarded as a great conqueror and a powerful emperor.

6. Administration

The administration of Harsha, in many ways resembled the Gupta polity, where decentralization played an important part. A pivot of administration, he efficiently governed  his empire and personally looked into the affairs of the state. The king in theory was the head of the state. He was assisted by a Council of Ministers headed by the Bhandi . The council of ministers was more or less an advisory body in the Mauryan period, but the same played a very important part during the time of Harsha.

The empire was divided into Bhukti (provinces), Vishaya (districts), Pathaka (taluks), Grama (villages). They were kept under the control of officials of various ranks and status. The local administration for all practical purposes was independent of the centre. The official’s in-charge of provinces and districts were the link between the local administration and the centre.

The inscriptions and the account of Hiuen Tsang state that the salaries of the officials were paid not in cash but in grants of the land. The practice of granting the king’s share of revenue to the officials, in lieu of their services to the state later on paved the way for the emergence of a new politico-economic system.

The main source of revenue to the king was derived from the crown lands and it was assessed at one-sixth of the produce. He maintained a vast standing army by which he not maintained only law and order in the state but also expanded his empire. Criminal law was severe. Offenders were punished by a cruel sort of punishment as well as by the mutilation of limbs. Minor offences were punished with fine. Trial by ordeal was in practice during this period. In spite of such severe punishments, the roads were not safe from robbers. For example Hiuen Tsang himself was robbed twice.

7. Royal Tours

Harsha maintained contact with the public opinion both through his officers and by his own tours, which will give him an opportunity to supervise the working of officials at various administrative units. By the seventh century a centralized system, was unworkable in the context of political and economic relations in northern India and Harsha’s extensive tours were an attempt at compromise. He took up on himself, as it were the duties of royal inspector and looked into the collection of taxes, listened to complaints, inspected the general working of the administration and in addition gave charitable donations.

8. Religious Policy

The ancestors of Harsha, were the followers of Brahmanical religion and worshipers of Vishnu. Harsha originally was a follower of Saivism but later on Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism. He erected a number of stupas and viharas all over his kingdom for travellers to rest. He also erected monasteries at the sacred places of Buddhists.

The seventh century C.E., clearly shows that there prevailed an atmosphere of hostility between the followers of various religions and sects. The Buddhists were divided into not less than eighteen sects. The old centre of Buddhism had fallen and new centers sprang up. Nalanda became the greatest centre of the Mahayana school of Buddhism. The followers of Mahayana sect were mostly in the region of Champa, Takshasila, Kullu, Magadha, Orissa and Vidarbha.

Once in five years he convened a gathering of representatives of all religions and honoured them with gifts and costly presents. He brought the Buddhist monks together frequently to discuss and examine the Buddhist doctrines.

8.1 Kanauj Assembly:

Harsha organized assembly at Kanauj to honour HiuenTsang and propagate Mahayana Buddhism which he patronized. He invited representatives of all religious sects. This assembly reflected Harsha‘s policy of toleration. The assembly was attended by twenty kings, besides some thousands of Buddhists, Jains and Hindu theologians and priests. The assembly went on 23 days. Hiuen Tsang explained the values of Mahayana doctrine and established its superiority over others. On the final day of the Assembly Hiuen Tsang was honoured with costly presents.

8.2 Allahabad Conference:

Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference held at Allahabad i.e. Prayaga. The main aim of Harsha for conducting the assembly at Prayaga was to see the end of socio- religious tensions and to restore peace and tranquility in his empire. It is said that the assembly at Prayaga was attended by about 5,00,000 people who had been summoned by Harsha from the distant corners of the “Five Indies” to receive the gifts from emperor. Harsha participated in this assembly along with Hiuen Tsang. Images of Buddha, Aditya (the Sun) and Isvaradeva (Siva) were installed on successive days and precious article were distributed in charity on each occasion.

The great distribution arena was the immense sandy plain between the rivers and the proceedings lasted for seventy five days, commencing with an impressive procession. The religious services were of the curiously eclectic kind, so characteristic of Hindu society and worship.

This Mahamokshaparishad was also conducted throughout a month to distribute charity to the poor, the orphans and the needy. By this time the accumulated treasures were exhausted and then the king Harsha gave away even his personal belongings. This activity of the king catalyzed a moral decency and spirit of sacrifice for the society and state. Like Ashoka, he erected rest houses and hospitals to the people and distributed food, medicine etc., freely. Such examples of charity and benevolence are rare in the annals of Indian history.

The rule of Harsha had a moral personality and the same could break the speed of the fast decadence in the moral and cultural life. All these aspects contributed for the upkeep of moral and ethical standards of the society.

Though Harsha was attracted to Buddhism, he was extremely tolerant towards other faiths. This was evident by his worship of Sun and Siva. He also gave liberal donations to Brahmins as well as Jains during the Five year Assemblies.

Saivism and Vaishnavism were the dominating sects in Hinduism. The members of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, the Maitrakas of Vallabhi were the devotees of Siva.

During this period Vaishnavism was well established. The kings were called Paramabhagavatas. The mythology of Vishnu, the popularity of dasavataras, the worship of Hari-Hara, and the influence of the tantric cult on the mother goddesses were the notable features of this period.

Jainism had still enjoyed some popularity in the eastern and western India. It was widespread in some regions, especially in Gujarat. Hieuen Tsang found the monks of both Svetambara and Digambara sects near Taxila, Vipula Pudravardhana and Samatata.

9. Society and Economy

The varna system continued to play a dominating role in the social setup of the period. The people who belonged to the first three social orders enjoyed power and status. The position of Sudras was deplorable. Hiuen Tsang describes Sudras as “Agriculturists”.

The women belonged to the upper strata of society enjoyed considerable freedom in political and social life of the age. It is well supported by the evidence that Rajyasri, played an important role in the Prayaga assembly. Besides the courtesans and Buddhist Nuns enjoyed socio-religious freedom. The practice of sati was prevalent. Re-marriage of widows was not permitted but child marriages were encouraged.

It is evident from the accounts of Hiuen Tsang that agriculture, Industry and trade prospered during this period. The developments in trade and Industry resulted in emergence of cities. Prayaga, Kanauj, Ujjain, Sravasthi, Benares, Saranath etc., were some of the renowned cities of the period.

It should be noted here that the decline of the Roman empire, the Hun invasions and the unsettled conditions of North India disturbed considerably both inland and over-seas trade after Harsha.

10. Learning and Education

Harsha’s reign witnessed hectic activity in the field of learning and education. Pataliputra lost its glory and magnificence. Its place was occupied by Kanauj and became the centre of trade and commerce and intellectual activity.

10.1 Nalanda University

The accounts of Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing give us valuable information about the Nalanda University. It became prime centre of learning and education. When Hiuen Tsang visited this university, it was having 10,000 students on its rolls. He states that there were about 1,500 teachers who delivered among themselves hundred different discourses on different subjects every day. It provided free education, boarding and lodging facilities to the students. The professors of the university were called pandits. Some of the renowned scholars were Dignaga, Dharmapala, Shriramati and Silabhadra. The university specialized in the study of Mahayana doctrine, but its curriculum included the study of the literature of both Buddhist sects as well as Brahmanical literature. More than lectures, discussion – played an important part. The medium of instruction was Sanskrit. The university had a splendid library housed in three imposing buildings and contained valuable works on various subjects. The splendid buildings of the Nalanda University, its extensive curriculum, unique educational atmosphere, gatherings of students coming from distant places, diffusion of knowledge by way of discussions, profound scholarship of teachers and yhe taught were the pride of this age. In addition to Nalanda, Taxila, Ujjain were other centers of learning. Recent archeological excavations brought to light the ruins of the Nalanda University.

Harsha donated vast sums of money to Nalanda University. The account of HiuenTsang states that the university and other monastic establishments were maintained by the revenue derived from 100 to 200 villages endowed by different rulers.

Harsha himself was a great patron of learning and a scholar in Sanskrit. Despite his duties as king and administrator, Harsha is said to have written three plays viz., Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarsika . Bana the author of Harshacharitha and Kadambari was his court poet. The other literary figures were Jayasena, Matanga, Mayura, Divakara etc.,

11. Summary

The seventh century in Indian history is said to be the Age of Harsha. His reign marks an important epoch in Indian History. He was a great general, good administrator, outstanding poet, and great patron of letters. To conclude in the words of H.G. Rawlinson, “ soldier and administrator, unwearied in his efforts for the good of his subjects, pious and merciful, a patron of literature and himself a poet, he stands forth on the pages of history, a bright and fascinating figure ”. Harsha was a great ruler of ancient India.

Harshavardhana died in about 647 CE. Soon after his death, there was disorder in Northern India. During this period the conquest of the Muslims, Indian history degenerated around numerous kingdoms in the north and the south.

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harsha
• http://www.mapsofindia.com/history/harshavardhana-empire.html
• http://www.jatland.com/home/Harshavardhana
• http://www.preservearticles.com/2011081610838/complete-biography-of-emperor-harshavardhana-thegreatest-ruler-of-india.html
• http://indiansaga.com/history/post_gupta_harsha.html
• http://www.indianmirror.com/dynasty/vardhandynasty.html
• http://www.historytuition.com/harshavardana/early_life_of_harsha.html

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(590?–647?). Harsha ruled a large empire in northern India from ad 606 to 647. During his reign regional empires constantly struggled for domination. Harsha (also spelled Harsa) was also called Harshavardhana.

Harsha was born about ad 590. He was the second son of Prabhakaravardhana, a king in northwestern India. Harsha was crowned at age 16 after his older brother was assassinated. He soon made an alliance with King Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa (a state in northeastern India). Harsha warred against his brother’s assassin, King Shashanka of Gauda (in eastern India). At first Harsha did not assume the title of king but merely acted as a regent. However, after making his position secure, he declared himself sovereign ruler of Kannauj (in what is now Uttar Pradesh state). He then formally transferred his capital to that city.

Though Harsha never defeated Shashanka, he waged continual warfare for six years. Harsha’s influence extended from Gujarat to Assam . However, the area directly under his control was much smaller (probably modern Uttar Pradesh state, with parts of Punjab and Rajasthan states). Harsha attempted to conquer southern India about 620 but was driven back. Nonetheless, he brought most of the north under his authority. Harsha apparently made no attempt at building a centralized empire. Instead, he left conquered kings on their thrones and accepted their tribute and homage.

Historians mainly know about Harsha through the works of two men, Bana and Xuanzang . Bana wrote Harsacarita (about 640; “The Life of Harsha”), which describes Harsha’s early career. Xuanzang was a Chinese pilgrim who became a personal friend of Harsha. He depicts Harsha as a Buddhist , though earlier the emperor appears to have followed Hinduism. Xuanzang describes Harsha as benevolent, energetic, just, and active in the administration and prosperity of his empire. In 641 Harsha sent a representative to the Chinese emperor and established the first diplomatic relations between India and China . Throughout his empire he established institutions for the benefit of travelers, the poor, and the sick. He was also a patron of men of learning, and he himself composed poems.

Harsha died about 647. His empire subsequently splintered.

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27 Harsha and His Times

• Published: January 2007
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The ruler who extended his authority over all the other feudatories was Harshavardhana. He made Kanauj his seat of power, and from there he extended his authority in all directions. The early history of his reign is reconstructed from a study by Banabhatta. He is also called the last great Hindu emperor of India. His administration had become feudal and decentralized. Law and order was not well maintained in his empire. The reign of Harsha is historically important because of the visit of the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan Tsang. Nalanda was the most famous centre of Buddhism, which maintained a great Buddhist university meant for Buddhist monks. Nalanda had a huge monastic establishment during the reign of Harshavardhana. Harsha followed a tolerant religious policy. He is remembered not only for his patronage and learning but also for the authorship of three plays: Priyadarshika , Ratnavali , and Nagananda .

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Remembering Harsha: The Forgotten Vardhana Ruler of India

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Harsha was an Indian ruler who lived during the 7th century AD. He was a member of the Vardhana Dynasty, one of the regional powers that emerged in northern India following the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century AD. During his four decades on the throne, Harsha greatly expanded the territory of the Vardhana Dynasty. At the height of his power, Harsha was in control of much of northern and northwestern India. His attempt to expand into the south of India, however, was less successful, as he was defeated by the Chalukyas . This defeat marked the end of the Vardhana Dynasty, as he died childless and his throne was usurped.

Map of India in the 7th century, showing the vast territory of the Empire of Harsha. ( Public domain )

Succeeding the Guptas: Becoming Emperor Harsha Vardhana

Much of the information we have of Harsha, known also as Harshavardhana, comes from the Harshacharita (meaning “Deeds of Harsha”), a biography of the ruler written in Sanskrit by Banabhatta, a poet who lived at the court of Harsha.

According to E. B. Cowell and F. W. Thomas, who published an English translation of the Harshacharita in 1897, this work “appears to have been almost forgotten in India.” Although Harsha was a formidable ruler, he seems to have been not significant enough to be remembered. This might not be overly surprising if one considers the situation in India at that point of time.

Harsha belonged to the Vardhana Dynasty, known also as the Pushyabhuti Dynasty, one of the regional powers that succeeded the Gupta Empire. The Gupta are believed to have originally been a wealthy family from either Magadha or Prayaga (today the city of Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh, northern India). Towards the end of the 3rd century AD, the family accumulated enough power to become the rulers of Magadha. The first famous Gupta ruler was Chandragupta I, who came to power in around 320 AD. Although Chandragupta was the third Gupta king, he is often credited with the founding of the dynasty.

• The Monk and the Poet: Meet the Rebels behind the Legendary “Journey to the West”
• Gupta Empire of Ancient India Was Golden Age of Goodwill, Artistic Endeavors and Military Might
• The Art of Indian Warfare: From the Indus Valley to the Chola Empire

The Gupta Empire prospered between the 4th and the first half of the 5th centuries AD. To the east, a number of small kingdoms had been absorbed by the Gupta Empire , whereas in the west, the entire Indus Valley region had fallen under Gupta control. In the north, Gupta rule stretched all the way to the Himalayas , inclusive of Nepal , whilst in the south, the Guptas are said to have advanced all the way to the lands of the Pallavas . Additionally, in some of the more remote areas, defeated rulers were reinstated by the Guptas, thereby turning them into tributary states.

Around the middle of the 5th century AD, the Guptas were attacked by the Hunas, a group of nomadic tribes from Central Asia who entered the Indian subcontinent via the Khyber Pass. Although the Guptas managed to repulse the nomads’ first invasion, the Hunas continued their attacks on the Guptas in the decades that followed. By the first half of the 6th century AD, however, a coalition of Indian princes defeated the Hunas, who were led by Mihirakula, and succeeded in driving them out of India.

Nevertheless, the continuous attacks of the Hunas weakened the power of the Guptas, and, consequently led to the rise of successor dynasties in the 6th century AD. These post-Gupta dynasties included the Late Guptas, the Maukharis, and the Vardhanas. Thus, Harsha was only one of several kings vying for power in northern India after the fall of the Gupta Empire. This may have contributed to the Harshacharita being almost forgotten by the end of the 19th century.

Little remains from the rule of Harsha, although we can see his profile on this coin from the 7th century. (Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. / CC BY-SA 3.0 )

Harsha’s Tumultuous Rise to Power

According to the Harshacharita , Harsha was the son of Prabhakara, known also as Prabhakaravardhana, the ruler of the Vardhana Dynasty and King of Thanesar around the time of the Gupta Empire’s collapse. Harsha’s mother was Yasovati, Prabhakara’s chief wife, and he had two siblings, an elder brother by the name of Rajya and a sister named Rajyashri. Prabhakara died whilst his heir, Rajya, was away on a campaign against the Hunas. Harsha summoned his brother Rajya who returned immediately. Overwhelmed by grief, Rajya decided to become an ascetic , leaving the throne to Harsha.

Around the same time, however, news arrived regarding their sister, Rajyashri. The princess had married Grahavarman, a member of the Maukhari Dynasty, the ruling family at Kannauj. This marriage strengthened the alliance between the two dynasties, which did not sit too well with the Gaudas, who controlled Bengal . Therefore, the Gaudas allied themselves with the Malwas, whose kingdom was in central India.

The Gaudas and Malwas launched an attack on the Maukharis, killing Grahavarman and throwing Rajyashri into prison. When Rajya received this terrible news, he assembled an army and marched against his enemies. This military expedition was not only meant to rescue Rajyashri, but also to avenge the death of her husband. Whilst Rajya was away on this campaign, Harsha was left to run the kingdom as vice regent. Although Rajya was able to defeat his enemies easily, he was treacherously assassinated by the King of Gauda.

As a result of Rajya’s death, Harsha became the new ruler of the Vardhana Dynasty. As the new king, Harsha sent his cousin Bhandi after his brother’s killers, while he himself set off himself to rescue his sister. According to the Harshacharita , Harsha was able to find his sister just as she was about to mount her funeral pyre, thanks to the help of a Buddhist mendicant. Harsha rescued his sister and made a vow that they would both assume the garb of Buddhist mendicants once the King of Gauda was defeated.

Xuanzang famously travelled to India to find answers to the discrepancies and contradictions he discovered in Buddhist doctrine. There he visited Harsha’s palace and included a description of him in his writing. ( Public domain )

Harsha’s Inclination to Buddhism and the Travels of Xuanzang in India

It is not entirely clear, however, if Harsha did become a Buddhist. For instance, the Harshacharita makes note of the favor shown by Harsha towards Buddhism and its teachings. Nevertheless, Harsha is also said to have been tolerant towards his Hindu subjects. Harsha’s inclination towards Buddhism is also mentioned by Xuanzang, the famous Buddhist monk who travelled from China to India and brought hundreds of Buddhist scriptures back to his native land.

Xuanzang was born in 602 AD, when China was under the rule of the short-lived Sui Dynasty . Although Xuanzang received a classical Confucian education as a youth, he became interested in Buddhist teachings, thanks to his older brother’s influence. Consequently, Xuanzang converted to Buddhism, and eventually became a monk.

The Sui Dynasty fell in 618 AD, and was replaced by the Tang Dynasty . As a result of the ensuing political turmoil in the country, Xuanzang and his brother fled from their home in Henan to Chang’an, the Tang capital, and thence to Sichuan. There, Xuanzang continued his study of Buddhist doctrine. He soon realized, however, that there were many discrepancies and contradictions in the texts. The young monk consulted his Chinese masters, but they too were unable to address his doubts. These unresolved questions troubled Xuanzang, who made the decision to travel to the birthplace of Buddhism, India, where he hoped to find the answers to his questions.

Unfortunately for Xuanzang, at that point of time, the Chinese were at war with the Gokturks, which caused the emperor to issue a travel ban in China. This meant that Xuanzang was not able to obtain a travel permit for his journey to India . Although the young monk respected authority, he felt that his mission was much more important, since it was only by going to India that the problems found within the Chinese Buddhist texts could be resolved. Therefore, in 629 AD, Xuanzang left China under the cover of darkness, and essentially became a fugitive. In the years that followed, Xuanzang faced numerous challenges on his journey to India, finally arriving at his destination in 633 AD.

In India, Xuanzang travelled as a pilgrim to all the sacred sites connected with the life of the Buddha. Additionally, he made trips along the eastern and western coasts of the country. For the most part of his time in India, however, Xuanzang was based at the Nalanda monastery. This was the foremost center of Buddhist scholarship at the time, and Xuanzang used his time there to perfect his knowledge of Sanskrit , Buddhist philosophy, and Indian thought.

Thanks to Harsha’s patronage that Xuanzang was able to journey back to China from India in 643 AD. ( Public domain )

The Friendship Between Xuanzang and Harsha

In time, Xuanzang’s reputation as a Buddhist scholar spread throughout India, and the monk attracted the attention of none other than Harsha himself. Incidentally, by this time, Harsha had become a mighty king, and ruled a large portion of northern India. Harsha’s rule, however, was indirect, as he did not annex the territories of the kings he had defeated. Instead, he left them on their thrones, collecting tribute and homage from them.

It is clear that Harsha was a ruler who valued culture and scholarship, as he expressed interest in meeting Xuanzang . Apart from that, the king was also a patron of learned men. In addition to Banabhatta, another poet, Mayura was also living at his court. Moreover, Harsha is reputed to be the author of three Sanskrit works of literature – Nagananda, Ratnavali, and Priyadarsika. Some scholars, however, are of the opinion that it was actually Banabhatta who wrote these works. In any case, Xuanzang eventually visited Harsha’s palace and a close personal friendship between the two men was formed.

Xuanzang’s Great Tang Records on the Western Regions contains a description of Harsha by the monk. According to Xuanzang, the king had been a Hindu during the earliest part of his reign, but converted to Mahayana Buddhism later on in his life. The king’s devotion to Buddhism may be seen, for instance, in the grand Buddhist convocation at Kannauj that he organized in 643 AD. Xuanzang wrote that the massive convocation was attended by hundreds of pilgrims and twenty kings.

Additionally, a religious assembly called Moksha was held once every five years. It is unsurprising, therefore, that Xuanzang praises the king as benevolent and just ruler, whose kingdom prospered thanks to his energetic administration. The monk’s portrayal of Harsha as a model ruler ought to be taken with a pinch of salt, considering that he was writing about a fellow Buddhist. In any case, it was largely thanks to Harsha’s patronage that Xuanzang was able to journey back to China in 643 AD.

The End of Harsha’s Rule

Two years before Xuanzang embarked on his journey home, Harsha sent an envoy to the Tang court, thereby establishing the first diplomatic relations between India and China. Emperor Taizong responded by sending a Chinese envoy, Wang Xuance, to India in 648 AD. Unfortunately for Xuance, Harsha had died in 647 AD, before the diplomatic mission even left China. Xuance and his party, however, only learned about the king’s death after arriving in India. Harsha’s death caused turmoil in northern India. As he died without leaving an heir, the Vardhana Dynasty came to an end, and the throne was usurped by Arunasva. The new king was hostile towards the Chinese, attacking Xuance and the diplomatic mission.

Fortunately for the envoy, he managed to escape, making his way to Tibet. Some records state that Xuance assembled an army from amongst the Nepalese and Tibetans, launching an attack on India. Thousands of captives were taken, including Arunasva. The defeated king was brought back to China and spent the rest of his life as an attendant of the Chinese emperor. Xuance’s war against Arunasva is an incredible tale. Since the story was only written several centuries after it was alleged to have taken place, its veracity is rather questionable.

To conclude, Harsha is portrayed by the available sources as an extraordinary king whose reign brought great prosperity to northern India. These sources, however, should be read with caution, due to the possible biases in them. Banabhatta for example was a court poet of Harsha, whilst Xuanzang was a close friend and co-religionist of the king. In spite of all that Harsha had achieved during his lifetime, he failed to ensure the survival of his dynasty. As he died without an heir, his throne was usurped and the Vardhana Dynasty came to an untimely end. Moreover, turmoil ensued in northern India following the king’s death. The short-lived Vardhana Dynasty didn’t have the chance to create a lasting impact on Indian history and was soon forgotten.

Top image: Harsha        Source: abir / Adobe Stock

By Wu Mingren

Asia Society, 2021. Xuanzang: The Monk who Brought Buddhism East. Available at: https://asiasociety.org/xuanzang-monk-who-brought-buddhism-east

Bana. 1897. The Harshacharita of Bana . [Cowell, E. B. & Thomas, F. W. (trans.)]. Available at: https://archive.org/details/harsacaritaofban00banaiala

No name. 2021. “The Gupta Dynasty” in UW Departents Web Server . Available at: https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/exhibit/guptas/guptas.html

No name. 2021. “Gupta Dynasty” in Know India . Available at: https://knowindia.gov.in/culture-and-heritage/ancient-history/gupta.php

No name. 2021. “Harshavardhana” in Know India . Available at: https://knowindia.gov.in/culture-and-heritage/ancient-history/harsha.php

Sen, T. 2016. Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of India–China Relations, 600-1400 . Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2019. “Harsha: Indian emperor” in Britannica . Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harsha

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2021. “Xuanzang” in Britannica . Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Xuanzang

No name. 2021. “Harshavardhan” in Cultural India . Available at: https://www.culturalindia.net/indian-history/ancient-india/harshavardhan.html

The take of Harsha last of the Vardhana Dynasty seems worthy of an Epic poem; or a play by Shakespeare.

Wu Mingren (‘Dhwty’) has a Bachelor of Arts in Ancient History and Archaeology. Although his primary interest is in the ancient civilizations of the Near East, he is also interested in other geographical regions, as well as other time periods.... Read More

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Pushyabhuti – Vardhana Dynasty (Harshavardhana) – UPSC Ancient History Notes

After the decline of the Gupta Empire in the mid-6th century, many independent kingdoms were born throughout India. Once again disunity prevailed in the political sphere of India. The following were the important kingdoms that evolved in the Post-Gupta period: Pushyabhuti Kingdom – Their capital was Sthaneswar (Haryana)Maukhari Kingdom – Their capital was Kanauj (Uttar Pradesh)Maitraka Kingdom- They ruled from Vallabhi (Gujarat)Kamarupa Kingdom – Prakjotishapura (Assam) was the capitalGauda Kingdom- They ruled Bengal, Karnasuvarna as the capital 

The Pushyabhuti or Vardhana Dynasty, led by the illustrious ruler Harshavardhana, marked a significant chapter in Indian history during the 6th and 7th centuries. Emerging in the aftermath of the Gupta Empire’s decline, Harsha, a member of the Pushyabhuti family, ascended the throne in 606 CE. His reign, primarily centered in Northern India, showcased remarkable political and cultural achievements. Harshavardhana was known for his military prowess, diplomatic acumen, and patronage of the arts. The famed Chinese traveler Xuanzang visited his court and documented the grandeur of Harsha’s rule. Despite a short-lived territorial expansion, Harsha’s governance was characterized by a focus on justice, welfare, and the propagation of Buddhism. The Vardhana Dynasty, under Harshavardhana’s rule, left an indelible imprint on India’s medieval history, symbolizing a period of political resilience and cultural flourishing.

The Deccan was ruled by Badami / Vatapi Chalukyas. They ruled the entire Deccan with Badami in Bagalkot district of Karnataka, as their capital.  South India was ruled by Pallavas with Kanchi in Tamil Nadu as their capital city.

Table of Contents

Pushyabhuti Kingdom

Maharaja pushyabhuti:.

He was the founder of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. His title Maharaja indicates that he was a vassal of Guptas.

Prabhakaravardhana:

He was the first independent king of the Pushyabhuti dynasty and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja. He gave his daughter Rajyasri in marriage to Grahavarman, who belonged to the Maukhari kingdom.

Rajyavardhana:

Rajyavardhana was the eldest son of Prabhakaravardhana. During his reign, Gauda Sasanka (Bengal) and Devagupta (Bihar) formed an alliance and invaded Maukahri kingdom. On the battlefield, they killed Grahavarman and occupied Kanauj. Rajyavardhana who went to save his brother-in-law was also killed by them.

Harsha Vardhana: 

Harsha, the younger son of Prabhakaravardhana, is the most famous ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. He is often referred to as Emperor Harsha. His reign is considered a golden period in ancient Indian history. Harsha was a great patron of literature and culture, and his court attracted many scholars, poets, and artists.

In A.D. 643, he organised a religious conference at Kanauj named ‘Kanauj Maha Sabha’. Hiuen Tsang a Chinese traveller who spent 14 years in India between A.D. 630 and 644, presided over the conference. He gave enormous information about contemporary India in his book called, Si-Yu-Ki. Under the influence of Hiuen Tsang, Harsha renounced Shaivism and embraced Mahayana Buddhism.

There is no information available regarding the Pushyabhuti dynasty after Harshavardhana. According to Chinese chronicles, an officer named Arunaswa captured the throne from the successors of Harshavardhana. A Chinese general named Wang- Yuvan-Tse was sent by the emperor of China who defeated Arunaswa and reinstated the successors of Harsha on the throne. Another Chinese traveller Itsing who visited India between A.D. 675-685 did not provide any information regarding the successors of Harsha.

According to the literary evidences, in the early 8th century, Kanauj was ruled by a king named Yasovarman, He authored a drama called ‘Ramabhyudaya in Sanskrit. 

Two noteworthy poets adorned his court. They were : 

Bhavabhuti- He authored Sanskrit kavyas namely Malathi Madhava, Mahavira Charitra and Uttara RamaNCharita.

Vakpati- A Prakrit kavya named Gaudavaho was written by him. It describes the conquest of the Gaudadesa (Bengal) by Yasovarman.

Pushyabhuti Dynasty Administration: 

Monarchical structure:.

The Pushyabhuti dynasty embraced a monarchical system of governance.

The king held the highest authority and wielded significant power.

Vast Empire Division:

Harsha’s empire spanned northern and northwestern India.

The territory was strategically divided into provinces or Bhuktis.

Provincial Governors (Samantas):

Each Bhukti was administered by provincial governors or officials known as Samantas.

Samantas played a crucial role in implementing the king’s directives and maintaining stability.

Hierarchical Structure:

Bhuktis were further subdivided into districts and villages.

This hierarchical structure facilitated systematic governance.

Local Governance through Ganas:

Local governance was carried out through village councils known as Ganas.

Ganas played a significant role in maintaining law and order at the grassroots level.

Decentralized Administration:

The administration focused on decentralization, empowering local communities.

Village councils allowed active participation in decision-making processes.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

1. who were the pushyabhutis, and what role did they play in indian history.

Answer: The Pushyabhutis were a dynasty that ruled over northern India during the 6th and 7th centuries. The most prominent ruler of this dynasty was Harshavardhana. They played a crucial role in the socio-political landscape of ancient India, contributing to the cultural and administrative development of the region.

2. Who was Harshavardhana, and what were his major achievements?

Answer: Harshavardhana, a member of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, was a notable ruler who ascended the throne in 606 CE. His reign is known for fostering cultural and intellectual growth, marked by the famous Kumbh Mela and the establishment of educational institutions. He also expanded his empire through military conquests and diplomatic alliances.

3. What impact did Harshavardhana have on religion and culture during his rule?

Answer: Harshavardhana was a patron of art, literature, and religion. He supported both Hinduism and Buddhism, promoting religious tolerance. His court was a center of learning, attracting scholars from various backgrounds. The famous Chinese traveler, Xuanzang, visited his kingdom during this period, providing valuable insights into the cultural and religious practices of the time.

4. How did the Pushyabhutis contribute to the economic development of their empire?

Answer: The Pushyabhuti dynasty, under Harshavardhana’s rule, actively engaged in trade and commerce. The Silk Road, connecting India to Central Asia and beyond, flourished during this period. Harsha’s administration focused on efficient revenue management and infrastructure development, contributing to economic prosperity in his empire.

5. What led to the decline of the Pushyabhuti dynasty?

Answer: The Pushyabhuti dynasty faced a decline after the death of Harshavardhana in 647 CE. His empire faced internal strife and external invasions, notably by the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas. The decentralization of power and the absence of a strong central authority contributed to the eventual fragmentation of the empire, leading to the decline of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.

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Emperor Harsha Vardhana (606-647 A.D.) | Indian History

In this article we will discuss about the reign of emperor Harsha Vardhana (606-647 A.D.) in India.

After the murder of his elder brother Rajya Vardhana, Harsha Vardhana ascended the throne of Thaneswar with the consent of councillors of the State. He proved himself as the greatest ruler of the Pushyabhuti dynasty. Of course, he has not been accepted as one of the great Indian rulers, yet he occupies an important place in Indian history as a capable, just and benevolent ruler.

The first task before Harsha Vardhana was to avenge the murder of his brother and free his sister Rajyasri from the captivity of Deva Gupta. He swore vengeance on Sasanka and marched towards Kannauj with a large army. In the way, he met an emissary of Bhaskara Varman, king of Kamrupa and entered into an alliance with that State.

Having received the news that Rajyasri had been set free by Deva Gupta and that she had retired to the Vindhya forest in disgust, he first tried to trace her and succeeded in doing so at the moment she was going to throw herself into fire. He brought her back to Kannauj and then proceeded against Sasanka.

Extension of the Empire of Harsha Vardhana:

ADVERTISEMENTS:

Though the inscription at Nalanda and Banskhera and coins of that age also provide us some information regarding Harsha’s reign, the most useful information is provided by Harsha Charita of Banabhatta and the description of the Chinese traveller, Hiuen Tsang. Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha conquered the entire country within the first six years of his reign.

However, the statement is not to be taken seriously. Harsha did not occupy even North India completely nor his wars and conquests were limited to the first six years of his reign. Harsha first invaded Bengal. The campaign was not very successful because evidences prove that Sasanka continued to rule over the greater part of Bengal and Orissa till 637 A.D. It was only after the death of Sasanka that Harsha succeeded in his mission.

The armies of Harsha and Bhaskara Varman, king of Kamrupa, attacked Bengal after the death of Sasanka and succeeded. East Bengal was occupied by Bhaskara Varman and West Bengal was occupied by Harsha. Dr R.C. Majumdar has expressed the view that Harsha conquered Magadha and Orissa as well, after the death of Sasanka.

Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha ruled over Kannauj from the beginning of his reign. But it is not correct. He first carried on the administration of the kingdom of Kannauj in the name of his sister, Rajyasri and it was six years after the beginning of his reign that he united the kingdom of Kannauj with that of his own at the request of its ministers. He then also transferred his capital to Kannauj which, thereafter, became the centre of gravity of politics in Northern India.

Towards the West, the Malavas, the Gurjaras and the rulers of Gujarat were the hereditary enemies of Harsha. Harsha first succeeded against Dhruvasena II or Dhruvabhatta of Gujarat (Vallabhi) but Dhruvasena revived his strength with the help of the Gurjaras and other neighbouring rulers.

However, the rivalry between the two kingdoms ended with the marriage of Dhruvasena with the daughter of Harsha. Dr D.C. Sarkar has opined that the rulers of Gujarat accepted the sovereignty of Harsha while Dr R.C. Majumdar says that Gujarat remained an independent kingdom.

The progress of Harsha towards the South was checked by the Chalukya king Pulakesin II who was trying to be the sovereign of the Deccan. The battle between Harsha and Pulakesin II took place near the bank of the river Narmada or most probably much further towards the north. Harsha had taken the aggressive step but he failed to defeat Pulakesin and retreated.

There occurred certain border disputes between Harsha and the rulers of Sindh, Kashmir and Nepal but these kingdoms remained independent of the influence of Harsha.

Thus, the attempts of Harsha to create an extensive empire in India succeeded only partially. Hiuen Tsang has made frequent references to campaigns of Harsha though he has not given their details. Banabhatta also gives us an impression that the entire Northern India was included in his empire. Some modern historians have also accepted this view.

Dr K.M. Panikkar describes that the empire of Harsha extended from Kainrupa in the East to Kashmir in the West and from the Himalayas in the North to the Vindhyas in the South. But Dr R.C. Majumdar has strongly refuted this view. He has maintained that the empire of Harsha included only Eastern Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa, though his power was recognised by his neighbouring states in North India as was the case with the rulers of Vallabhi, Kutch and Kamrupa.

However, Kashmir, Western Punjab, Sindh, Rajputana, Nepal and Kamrupa were certainly independent states in his days. Yet, Harsha has been regarded as a powerful emperor who, certainly, succeeded in providing unity to a large part of Northern India after the fall of the great Guptas.

Administration under Harsha Vardhana:

Harsha maintained the administrative set-up of his empire on the model of previous great Hindu rulers. He himself was the head of the state, and all administrative, legislative and judicial powers were concentrated in his hands. He was also the first Commander-in-Chief of his army. Harsha assumed the titles of Maharajadhiraja and Param Bhattaraka. He was a benevolent ruler and supervised the administration personally.

He was not only a capable ruler but was also very hard working. Hiuen Tsang writes, “He was indefatigable and the day was too short for him.” He regarded the welfare of his subjects as his foremost duty and, except the rainy season, constantly travelled over different parts of his empire to see things with his own eyes. He was in touch with his village-subjects to look after their welfare.

The king was assisted by a council of ministers which was quite effective. It advised the king both in matters of foreign policy and internal administration. Harsha was offered the throne of Thaneswar and, later on, the throne of Kannauj by the then ministers of the respective states. Besides the ministers there were many other important officials of the state of whom a detailed list has been given by Banabhatta in his Harshacharita.

Among the high imperial officers were a Mahasandhivigrahadhikrita, a Mahabaladhikrita and a Mahapratihara. Besides, Avanti was the officer who looked after the affairs of war and peace; the Commander-in-Chief of the army was called the Singhanada; Kuntala was the head of the cavalry; Skanda Gupta was the head of war-elephants; and the head of the civil administration was called the Samanta-Maharaja.

The empire was divided into bhuktis (provinces) and then further into vishayas (districts) for the sake of administrative convenience. The village was the smallest unit of administration. The principal officer of a province was Uparika, that of a district Vishayapati and that of a village Gramika.

Various other officers of the local administration bearing the titles bhogpati, ayuktaka and pratipalaka purushas are referred to in Harsha-charita. Thus, the administrative units of Harsha and their officers were similar to those of the great Gupta rulers.

Harsha also utilised the service of his feudatories for the administration of his empire who were called Mahasamantas or Samanta Maharajas. The high officers of the state were not paid in cash. They were assigned jagirs in return of their services. Thus, jagirdari system (feudalism) was given further impetus during the reign of Harsha.

Hiuen Tsang described that the ministers and high officials of Harsha were not paid salaries in cash. Instead cities or lands were assigned to them as jagirs. According to Hiuen Tsang 1/4 land of the state was kept reserved for the officials of the state and 1/4 was kept reserved for public welfare and religious purposes.

Harsha did not put much burden of taxation on his subjects and also reduced the administrative expenditure of the state. Therefore, he could spend larger part of the income of the state on public welfare works. The primary source of income of the state was land revenue called bhaga which was 1/6th of the produce and was paid in kind. Hirnya, Bali, sales-tax, toll tax etc. were other sources of income besides presentation by feudatory chiefs to the emperor.

On the whole, the burden of taxation was not heavy on the subjects. The main items of expenditure were the personal expenditure of the king and his household and palace, the army, the salary of civil officers, public welfare works, charity etc.

Harsha organised religious assemblies every fifth year of his reign at Prayag (Allahabad). He held six such assemblies during his reign. Whatever was left in the state treasury after five years, Harsha used to give it all in charity at that time. It is said that he used to distribute in charity even his personal belongings.

Harsha kept a strong standing army at the Centre. The cavalry, the infantry, chariots and war-elephants were the chief constituents of his army. According to Hiuen Tsang the army of Harsha constituted 60,000 war-elephants, 50,000 strong cavalry and 1,00,000 strong infantry. Hiuen Tsang described that the war elephants were given swords in their trunks. The Commander-in-Chief fought while on the back of an elephant. The chariots were drawn by four horses. High officers sat in them while fighting.

The infantary-soldiers were hereditary professionals, courageous and fought well with the help of sword, bow and arrow, shield, etc. The commander of the army was called Baladhikrata or Mahabaladhikrita and that of the cavalry Vrahadasvatara. Above them was the maha-senapati of all the armed forces. Yet, the supreme commander of the force was the king himself.

As compared to the Guptas, the administration of justice was severe during the reign of Harsha. The usual punishments were imprisonment for life, banishment and loss of limbs. Ordeals by fire, water etc. were sometimes resorted to for determining the innocence or guilt of an accused person.

But, in spite of the severity of laws and punishments, there was no peace and security within the empire as compared to the Gupta period. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang himself was looted and deprived of his belongings several times while travelling through the country.

Harsha pursued the policy of matrimonial alliances with the rulers of neighbouring states in order to extend his power and influence. He married his daughter to Dhruvasena II. ruler of Gujarat (Vallabhi) and always maintained cordial relations with Bhaskar Varman, ruler of Kamrupa. He had good relations with China as well and sent his emissary to that country in 641 A.D. and. in return, received two emissaries from that country in 643 A.D. and 646 A.D. respectively.

Harsha succeeded in providing a fairly good administration to his subjects. However, it remained inferior to that of Guptas and the Mauryas. Harsha gave everything in charity, took many useful public welfare steps and tried to maintain peace and order by strict punishment to offenders.

But, he succeeded neither in providing public services to his subjects as compared to the Mauryas nor in maintaining law and order as compared to the Guptas. Yet, he was a kind and generous king and his subjects were happy and prosperous.

Culture and Civilization during Harsha Vardhana:

There did not occur any significant change in the culture and civilization of India during the period of Harsha. The traditions and values which were established during the Gupta age continued during this period in all spheres of life.

I. Social Condition:

The four-fold division of the Hindu society in castes continued to be effective though, of course, sub-castes were also emerging. The caste-system was getting more rigid though interdining and intercaste marriages were possible. The downward trend in the position of women persisted during this age.

The practice of Sati was getting encouragement, though restricted only to higher castes. There was no Purdah system but there were several restrictions on the movements of women in society. However, public morality was high. People pursued a simple and moral life and avoided consumption of meat, onion and liquor.

II. Economic Condition:

In general, there was prosperity within the empire. Agriculture, industries and trade, both internal and external, were in a flourishing condition. Cities like- Peshawar and Taxila in the North-West were, of course, destroyed by the invasions of the Hunas and Mathura and Pataliputra had lost their previous significance, but Prayag (Allahabad), Banaras and Kannauj were prosperous cities within the empire.

The capital city, Kannauj was an extensive, prosperous and well protected city. It had large buildings, beautiful gardens and swimming-pools. It was inhabited by the rich, cultured and highly learned people. The people, in general, were interested in literary activities and fine arts.

III. Religious Condition:

Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism were still the popular religions in India. Hinduism was continuing its popular hold on the people and temples of various gods and goddesses were built in large numbers. Vishnu and his different incarnations and Siva were the most popular gods of the Hindus. Prayag and Banaras were the main centres of Hinduism. The popular sect of Buddhism was Mahayanism.

Its main centres were Kashmir, Jalandhar, Kanyakubja. Gava and Swetpur. Nalanda was the primary centre of Buddhist learning and its university had gained fame far and wide. Jainism was also quite popular in different parts of India. Thus, all the three religions of India coexisted with a spirit of mutual toleration though Hinduism was the predominant religion at that time also.

What was the religion of Harsha? Banabhatta described him as a Hindu-Saiva while Hiuen Tsang stated that he was a Buddhist. It seems that he was a devotee of Siva and worshipped Surya as well during the early period of his life. However, during the later period of his life, he was attracted towards Buddhism. He is said to have erected many Buddhist Stupas and monasteries. He summoned a convocation of the Buddhist monks annually for discussion of religious problems.

He prohibited the slaughter of animals and, like Asoka, made arrangements for free supply of food and medicines to the poor and the destitute. But, Harsha was never a convert to Buddhism and continued to worship Siva and Surya even during the later period of his life. Thus, he practised tolerance of every faith. Harsha used to have a religious assembly at Prayag every fifth year. He had six such religious assemblies during his reign.

These assemblies were proofs of his tolerant religious views. Buddha was worshipped on the first day of each such assembly. Siva was worshipped on the second day and Surya was worshipped on the third day. Harsha distributed money and articles generously to all people on each day and on the fourth and final day he used to give even his personal clothing and ornaments in charity and request his sister Rajyasri to give him something to cover his body.

Harsha also called an assembly at Kannauj in honour of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang. The assembly was presided over by Hiuen Tsang and religious discourses continued for twenty-one days. It was a favour to Buddhism and Hiuen Tsang.

This infuriated a section of orthodox Hindus which also resulted in an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Harsha. However, when the assembly was over, Harsha honoured both Hindu priests and Buddhist monks by giving them many things in charity. Thus, Harsha was a religious minded man and a tolerant king to all his subjects of different faiths.

IV. Education and Literature:

Harsha himself was a scholar and wrote three plays, entitled the Nagananda, the Ratnavali and the Priyadarsika. As Sanskrit was the popular and predominant language at that time, he wrote these plays in Sanskrit and each of them has received wide acclaim from Indian scholars. Besides, Harsha was a patron of learning and scholars. It has been said that he spent one-fourth of his income on education and learning.

He patronised the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang while Banabhatta, the celebrated author of the Harshacharita and the Kadambari, and scholars like Mauiya, Divakara and Jayasena were at his court. The universities of Nalanda, Valabhi and the one run by Divakara in Vindhya forest were centres of learning at that time. According to Banabhatta the institution looked after by Divakaramitra in the forest of Vindhyas provided education primarily in Rindu-shashtras but also looked after the study of Jaina and Buddhist texts.

There, facilities were available not only for the study of philosophy but that of law and physical sciences as well. Hiuen Tsang described that the students and teachers of that university led lives of Sanyasins, were after search for truth, travelled far and wide for providing education and also in search of learned ones and avoided receiving protection of the court.

Among universities, the University of Nalanda was the most celebrated where students and scholars from all parts of the country as well as from foreign countries gathered for education and learning. Nearly 5.000 students received free education there. It was not only the centre of learning of Buddhist studies but also of Hindu-texts and religion.

In certain inscriptions, it has been described as Mahagrahahara. There were nearly 1,500 teachers in the university and when Hiuen Tsang visited India, its chief Acharya was a Brahamana named Shailabhadra. Besides him, there were scholars like Dharmpal, Gunamati. Prabhamitra, Jinamitra, etc. at that time.

Hiuen Tsang himself received education there for five years. Nearly 1,000 lectures were delivered every day in the university. Seminars were also held there wherein both students and teachers participated. The University was patronised by Harsha. Thus, Harsha helped in the growth of learning and education during his age. According to Sardar K.M. Panikkar India was the most educated country at that time.

V. Indian Culture in Foreign Countries:

Indian culture continued to spread in foreign countries during the period of Harsha. While the Hindu religion increased its popularity in the countries of South East Asia, the Buddhist monks and scholars went as far as Tibet and China for propagation of Buddhism.

Among those who went to China, Kumarajiva, Parmartha, Sudhakara and Dharamdeva were the most prominent ones while among those who went to Tibet Shan- tarakshita, Padmasambhava, Kamalashila, Sthirmati and Buddhakirti were the noted ones.

These scholars translated Buddhist texts in the local languages of the people and, thus, formed a solid base for the propagation of Buddhism in those countries. Thus, both Buddhism and Hinduism made progress in different foreign countries.

An Estimate of Harsha:

Banabhatta and Hiuen Tsang have described Harsha as one of the greatest rulers of Northern India. Many modern historians have accepted their version and have, therefore, concluded that “Harsha was the last great empire-builder of Hindu period and his death marked the end of all successful attempts to restore the political unity of India.” But Dr R.C. Majumdar, though recognising him as a powerful ruler of Northern India, is not prepared to accept him as one of the last empire-builders and Hindu rulers of India.

He writes, “It would be quite wrong to assume, as many have done, that Harsha was the last great emmpire- builder in the Hindu period.” He argues that many empires rose and fell both in the North and the South in the next five centuries after the death of Harsha.

In the North, the empire of Lalitaditva in Kashmir, Yasovarman at Kannauj and of Ganga and Karma of Kalachuri dynasty were not less than the empire of Harsha in extension of territories while those of Pala and Pratihara dynasties were certainly more extensive and proved more duraole than the empire of Harsha.

In the South, the Rastrakuta kings Dhruva and Govinda III, the Chalukaya ruler Vikramaditya VI and the Chola ruler Rajendra, certainly, established far extensive empires than the empire of Harsha. Thus, according to Dr R.C. Majumdar, it would be an act of injustice to Indian history if we accept Harsha as the last empire-builder of Hindu-India. However, Dr Majumdar accepts many virtues of Harsha.

He writes, “While, therefore, it would be idle to pretend that Harsha Vardhan’s reign constitutes a distinctive age or marks an epoch in Indian history in any way, we cannot withhold our tribute of praise and admiration which is due to him as a great ruler, a brave military leader, a patron of arts and letters, and a men of noble impulses and distinguished personality.” The opinion which has been expressed by D Majumdar is based on facts and therefore, is now widely accepted.

Harsha was a brave ruler and possessed qualities of a practical statesman which helped him in establishing quite an extensive empire in Northern India. He succeeded his brother when the kingdom of Thaneswar was one of some other equally powerful kingdoms of Northern India and its position was quite critical.

On the North-West and West, he had enemy states while in the East Deva Gupta of Malwa and Sasanka of Bengal had succeeded in killing Graha Varman, his brother-in-law and Rajya Vardhana, his brother and had occupied Kannauj. Under these conditions, his own kingdom was not secure.

But, Harsha took bold steps and pursued an aggressive policy. He entered into diplomatic alliance with Bhaskara Varman, ruler of Kamrupa, occupied Kannauj and finally succeeded in occupying Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal. He fought against the ruler of Vallabhi which ultimately resulted in a matrimonial alliance between the two and helped in strengthening his position in the North.

However, his effort to penetrate in the Deccan was checked by Pulakesin II, the Chalukya king of the South. Yet, Harsha succeeded in creating a most powerful and extensive empire of his age in Northern India and we have no hesitation in accepting him as one of the empire- builders of Northern India.

Harsha was a capable commander but certainly no military genius or a great conqueror. He did not succeed much against Sasanka and, probably, was defeated by Pulakesin II while the friendship of Vallabhi ruler was bargained by entering into matrimonial alliance with him. Therefore, Harsha cannot be regarded as a successful military commander though, of course, he was respected by his neighbouring rulers, both friends and foes, who certainly did not dare to attack his kingdom but, on the contrary, decided to befriend him.

Harsha was certainly a capable, scholarly and tolerant king. His subjects were happy and prosperous under his rule. Harsha personally supervised the details of administration, worked hard for the welfare of his subjects and certainly succeeded in it. He was a generous king who used to distribute even his personal belongings among his subjects at his assemblies at Prayag.

Hiuen Tsang described that Harsha constructed Punvashalas on the side of every highway within his empire wherein provision was made for free food, stay, etc. for the travellers and free medical care for the poor ones. Banabhatta has also praised very much the public welfare works of Harsha. Of course, his administration was not as much successful as that of the great Guptas or the Mauryas, yet he succeeded in maintaining unity, peace and order within the frontiers of his empire.

Harsha was a scholarly king and patronized scholars, education and learning. He wrote three scholarly dramas, honoured all scholars of his kingdom and patronised the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. He patronised learning. The famous University of Nalanda became a great centre of learning and education because of his active support and protection. Harsha was also very much tolerant in religious affairs. It has been described that previously he was a devotee of Shiva.

The inscriptions at Banskhera and Madhubana describe him as Param Maheswara. Prior to his departure for fighting every war, he used to worship Rudra-Shiva. Of course, during the later period of his life he was certainly more inclined towards Buddhism, yet he never failed to show his respect towards Hinduism and provide equal justice to all religions.

Therefore, Harsha has been regarded as a capable ruler and has been assigned a respectable place among the rulers of ancient India. Yet, he was neither the last great empire-builder nor a great emperor of ancient India.

Harsha failed to provide that unity and emotional integrity to his empire which could succeed in the establishment of a great and enduring empire in India. Therefore, his empire broke up soon after his death.

Thus, the success of Harsha was personal and proved short-lived which proves that he lacked the qualities which would have succeeded in providing an enduring progress and unity to India. That is why he fails to be ranked among the great emperors of India though, of course, he has been rightly accepted as one of the great rulers of his own times.

Related Articles:

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• Disintegration of Harsha Vardhana’s Empire | India
• The Empire of Harsha Vardhana
• Harsha Vardhana After the Downfall of Gupta Empire

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‘One of the Truly Awful and Self-Indulgent Performances of Our Time’: The Best and Worst Moments From Night 4 of the Convention

By New York Times Opinion

Did the night help Trump?

Welcome to Opinion’s commentary for Night 4 of the Republican National Convention. In this special feature, Times Opinion writers rate the evening on a scale of 0 to 10: 0 means the night was a disaster for Donald Trump; 10 means it could lead to a big polling bump. Here’s what our columnists and contributors thought of the event, which culminated in Trump’s acceptance speech.

Best Moment

Kristen Soltis Anderson, contributing Opinion writer Donald Trump gave a compelling and moving description of what it was like to be under fire and pledged to represent all of America, not just half of America. That may be easier said than done.

David Brooks, Times columnist The first 20 minutes of the Trump speech. If he’d done the story about the assassination attempt and then added 15 minutes of policy, he would be cruising toward victory. He could have plausibly argued that he is a changed man.

Jane Coaston, contributing Opinion writer Hulk Hogan’s speech was his best performance since he beat Macho Man Randy Savage at WrestleMania V.

Matthew Continetti, fellow at the American Enterprise Institute Trump’s account of the attempt on his life was gripping. He displayed a vulnerability and humility that most people had never seen before. And when he kissed the fireman’s helmet of Corey Comperatore, the husband and father who was killed during last weekend’s shooting, Trump created yet another indelible image. It won’t be soon forgotten.

David French, Times columnist Trump’s tribute to Comperatore was touching and appropriate. Placing his uniform on the stage was a powerful visual reminder of the loss.

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