quantitative research topics social issues

• Privacy Policy

Home » 500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

500+ Quantitative Research Titles and Topics

Table of Contents

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships among variables. This method is widely used in social sciences, psychology , economics , and other fields where researchers aim to understand human behavior and phenomena through statistical analysis. If you are looking for a quantitative research topic, there are numerous areas to explore, from analyzing data on a specific population to studying the effects of a particular intervention or treatment. In this post, we will provide some ideas for quantitative research topics that may inspire you and help you narrow down your interests.

Quantitative Research Titles

Quantitative Research Titles are as follows:

Business and Economics

• “Statistical Analysis of Supply Chain Disruptions on Retail Sales”
• “Quantitative Examination of Consumer Loyalty Programs in the Fast Food Industry”
• “Predicting Stock Market Trends Using Machine Learning Algorithms”
• “Influence of Workplace Environment on Employee Productivity: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Economic Policies on Small Businesses: A Regression Analysis”
• “Customer Satisfaction and Profit Margins: A Quantitative Correlation Study”
• “Analyzing the Role of Marketing in Brand Recognition: A Statistical Overview”
• “Quantitative Effects of Corporate Social Responsibility on Consumer Trust”
• “Price Elasticity of Demand for Luxury Goods: A Case Study”
• “The Relationship Between Fiscal Policy and Inflation Rates: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Factors Influencing E-commerce Conversion Rates: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Examining the Correlation Between Interest Rates and Consumer Spending”
• “Standardized Testing and Academic Performance: A Quantitative Evaluation”
• “Teaching Strategies and Student Learning Outcomes in Secondary Schools: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Relationship Between Extracurricular Activities and Academic Success”
• “Influence of Parental Involvement on Children’s Educational Achievements”
• “Digital Literacy in Primary Schools: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Learning Outcomes in Blended vs. Traditional Classrooms: A Comparative Analysis”
• “Correlation Between Teacher Experience and Student Success Rates”
• “Analyzing the Impact of Classroom Technology on Reading Comprehension”
• “Gender Differences in STEM Fields: A Quantitative Analysis of Enrollment Data”
• “The Relationship Between Homework Load and Academic Burnout”
• “Assessment of Special Education Programs in Public Schools”
• “Role of Peer Tutoring in Improving Academic Performance: A Quantitative Study”

Medicine and Health Sciences

• “The Impact of Sleep Duration on Cardiovascular Health: A Cross-sectional Study”
• “Analyzing the Efficacy of Various Antidepressants: A Meta-Analysis”
• “Patient Satisfaction in Telehealth Services: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Dietary Habits and Incidence of Heart Disease: A Quantitative Review”
• “Correlations Between Stress Levels and Immune System Functioning”
• “Smoking and Lung Function: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Influence of Physical Activity on Mental Health in Older Adults”
• “Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Community Hospitals: A Quantitative Study”
• “The Efficacy of Vaccination Programs in Controlling Disease Spread: A Time-Series Analysis”
• “Role of Social Determinants in Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Impact of Hospital Design on Patient Recovery Rates”
• “Quantitative Analysis of Dietary Choices and Obesity Rates in Children”

Social Sciences

• “Examining Social Inequality through Wage Distribution: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Parental Divorce on Child Development: A Longitudinal Study”
• “Social Media and its Effect on Political Polarization: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “The Relationship Between Religion and Social Attitudes: A Statistical Overview”
• “Influence of Socioeconomic Status on Educational Achievement”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Community Programs on Crime Reduction”
• “Public Opinion and Immigration Policies: A Quantitative Exploration”
• “Analyzing the Gender Representation in Political Offices: A Quantitative Study”
• “Impact of Mass Media on Public Opinion: A Regression Analysis”
• “Influence of Urban Design on Social Interactions in Communities”
• “The Role of Social Support in Mental Health Outcomes: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Examining the Relationship Between Substance Abuse and Employment Status”

Engineering and Technology

• “Performance Evaluation of Different Machine Learning Algorithms in Autonomous Vehicles”
• “Material Science: A Quantitative Analysis of Stress-Strain Properties in Various Alloys”
• “Impacts of Data Center Cooling Solutions on Energy Consumption”
• “Analyzing the Reliability of Renewable Energy Sources in Grid Management”
• “Optimization of 5G Network Performance: A Quantitative Assessment”
• “Quantifying the Effects of Aerodynamics on Fuel Efficiency in Commercial Airplanes”
• “The Relationship Between Software Complexity and Bug Frequency”
• “Machine Learning in Predictive Maintenance: A Quantitative Analysis”
• “Wearable Technologies and their Impact on Healthcare Monitoring”
• “Quantitative Assessment of Cybersecurity Measures in Financial Institutions”
• “Analysis of Noise Pollution from Urban Transportation Systems”
• “The Influence of Architectural Design on Energy Efficiency in Buildings”

Quantitative Research Topics

Quantitative Research Topics are as follows:

• The effects of social media on self-esteem among teenagers.
• A comparative study of academic achievement among students of single-sex and co-educational schools.
• The impact of gender on leadership styles in the workplace.
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic performance of students.
• The effect of mindfulness meditation on stress levels in college students.
• The relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction.
• The effectiveness of online learning compared to traditional classroom learning.
• The correlation between sleep duration and academic performance among college students.
• The impact of exercise on mental health among adults.
• The relationship between social support and psychological well-being among cancer patients.
• The effect of caffeine consumption on sleep quality.
• A comparative study of the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy and pharmacotherapy in treating depression.
• The relationship between physical attractiveness and job opportunities.
• The correlation between smartphone addiction and academic performance among high school students.
• The impact of music on memory recall among adults.
• The effectiveness of parental control software in limiting children’s online activity.
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction among young adults.
• The correlation between academic achievement and parental involvement among minority students.
• The impact of early childhood education on academic performance in later years.
• The effectiveness of employee training and development programs in improving organizational performance.
• The relationship between socioeconomic status and access to healthcare services.
• The correlation between social support and academic achievement among college students.
• The impact of technology on communication skills among children.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction programs in reducing symptoms of anxiety and depression.
• The relationship between employee turnover and organizational culture.
• The correlation between job satisfaction and employee engagement.
• The impact of video game violence on aggressive behavior among children.
• The effectiveness of nutritional education in promoting healthy eating habits among adolescents.
• The relationship between bullying and academic performance among middle school students.
• The correlation between teacher expectations and student achievement.
• The impact of gender stereotypes on career choices among high school students.
• The effectiveness of anger management programs in reducing violent behavior.
• The relationship between social support and recovery from substance abuse.
• The correlation between parent-child communication and adolescent drug use.
• The impact of technology on family relationships.
• The effectiveness of smoking cessation programs in promoting long-term abstinence.
• The relationship between personality traits and academic achievement.
• The correlation between stress and job performance among healthcare professionals.
• The impact of online privacy concerns on social media use.
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between teacher feedback and student motivation.
• The correlation between physical activity and academic performance among elementary school students.
• The impact of parental divorce on academic achievement among children.
• The effectiveness of diversity training in improving workplace relationships.
• The relationship between childhood trauma and adult mental health.
• The correlation between parental involvement and substance abuse among adolescents.
• The impact of social media use on romantic relationships among young adults.
• The effectiveness of assertiveness training in improving communication skills.
• The relationship between parental expectations and academic achievement among high school students.
• The correlation between sleep quality and mood among adults.
• The impact of video game addiction on academic performance among college students.
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating eating disorders.
• The relationship between job stress and job performance among teachers.
• The correlation between mindfulness and emotional regulation.
• The impact of social media use on self-esteem among college students.
• The effectiveness of parent-teacher communication in promoting academic achievement among elementary school students.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on carbon emissions
• The relationship between employee motivation and job performance
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between physical activity and cognitive function in older adults
• The effect of childhood poverty on adult health outcomes
• The impact of urbanization on biodiversity conservation
• The relationship between work-life balance and employee job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in treating trauma
• The correlation between parenting styles and child behavior
• The effect of social media on political polarization
• The impact of foreign aid on economic development
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational performance
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy in treating borderline personality disorder
• The correlation between childhood abuse and adult mental health outcomes
• The effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive function
• The impact of trade policies on international trade and economic growth
• The relationship between employee engagement and organizational commitment
• The effectiveness of cognitive therapy in treating postpartum depression
• The correlation between family meals and child obesity rates
• The effect of parental involvement in sports on child athletic performance
• The impact of social entrepreneurship on sustainable development
• The relationship between emotional labor and job burnout
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating dementia
• The correlation between social media use and academic procrastination
• The effect of poverty on childhood educational attainment
• The impact of urban green spaces on mental health
• The relationship between job insecurity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of virtual reality exposure therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between childhood trauma and substance abuse
• The effect of screen time on children’s social skills
• The impact of trade unions on employee job satisfaction
• The relationship between cultural intelligence and cross-cultural communication
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between childhood obesity and adult health outcomes
• The effect of gender diversity on corporate performance
• The impact of environmental regulations on industry competitiveness.
• The impact of renewable energy policies on greenhouse gas emissions
• The relationship between workplace diversity and team performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between parental involvement and social skills in early childhood
• The effect of technology use on sleep patterns
• The impact of government regulations on small business growth
• The relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic motivation in adolescents
• The effect of social media on political engagement
• The impact of urbanization on mental health
• The relationship between corporate social responsibility and consumer trust
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional development
• The effect of screen time on cognitive development in young children
• The impact of trade policies on global economic growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and innovation
• The effectiveness of family therapy in treating eating disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and college persistence
• The effect of social media on body image and self-esteem
• The impact of environmental regulations on business competitiveness
• The relationship between job autonomy and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of virtual reality therapy in treating phobias
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic achievement in college
• The effect of social media on sleep quality
• The impact of immigration policies on social integration
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee well-being
• The effectiveness of psychodynamic therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive function skills
• The effect of parental involvement on STEM education outcomes
• The impact of trade policies on domestic employment rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and mental health
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and social mobility
• The effect of social media on intergroup relations
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution and respiratory health.
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership effectiveness
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and language development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in STEM fields
• The impact of trade policies on income inequality
• The relationship between workplace diversity and customer satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and civic engagement in adolescents
• The effect of social media on mental health among teenagers
• The impact of public transportation policies on traffic congestion
• The relationship between job stress and job performance
• The effectiveness of group therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and cognitive development
• The effect of parental involvement on academic motivation in college
• The impact of environmental regulations on energy consumption
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee engagement
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in vocational education
• The effect of social media on academic achievement in college
• The impact of tax policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job flexibility and work-life balance
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and social competence
• The effect of parental involvement on career readiness in high school
• The impact of immigration policies on crime rates
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee retention
• The effectiveness of play therapy in treating trauma
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online learning
• The effect of social media on body dissatisfaction among women
• The impact of urbanization on public health infrastructure
• The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between early childhood education and social skills in adolescence
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in the arts
• The impact of trade policies on foreign investment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and decision-making
• The effectiveness of exposure and response prevention therapy in treating OCD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in special education
• The impact of zoning laws on affordable housing
• The relationship between job design and employee motivation
• The effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation therapy in treating traumatic brain injury
• The correlation between early childhood education and social-emotional learning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in foreign language learning
• The impact of trade policies on the environment
• The relationship between workplace diversity and creativity
• The effectiveness of emotion-focused therapy in treating relationship problems
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in music education
• The effect of social media on interpersonal communication skills
• The impact of public health campaigns on health behaviors
• The relationship between job resources and job stress
• The effectiveness of equine therapy in treating substance abuse
• The correlation between early childhood education and self-regulation
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in physical education
• The impact of immigration policies on cultural assimilation
• The relationship between workplace diversity and conflict resolution
• The effectiveness of schema therapy in treating personality disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in career and technical education
• The effect of social media on trust in government institutions
• The impact of urbanization on public transportation systems
• The relationship between job demands and job stress
• The correlation between early childhood education and executive functioning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in computer science
• The effectiveness of cognitive processing therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in homeschooling
• The effect of social media on cyberbullying behavior
• The impact of urbanization on air quality
• The effectiveness of dance therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and math achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in health education
• The impact of global warming on agriculture
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in character education
• The effect of social media on political participation
• The impact of technology on job displacement
• The relationship between job resources and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of art therapy in treating addiction
• The correlation between early childhood education and reading comprehension
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in environmental education
• The impact of income inequality on social mobility
• The relationship between workplace diversity and organizational culture
• The effectiveness of solution-focused brief therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in physical therapy education
• The effect of social media on misinformation
• The impact of green energy policies on economic growth
• The relationship between job demands and employee well-being
• The correlation between early childhood education and science achievement
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in religious education
• The impact of gender diversity on corporate governance
• The relationship between workplace diversity and ethical decision-making
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in dental hygiene education
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among adolescents
• The impact of renewable energy policies on energy security
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in social studies
• The impact of trade policies on job growth
• The relationship between workplace diversity and leadership styles
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in online vocational training
• The effect of social media on self-esteem among men
• The impact of urbanization on air pollution levels
• The effectiveness of music therapy in treating depression
• The correlation between early childhood education and math skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in language arts
• The impact of immigration policies on labor market outcomes
• The effectiveness of hypnotherapy in treating phobias
• The effect of social media on political engagement among young adults
• The impact of urbanization on access to green spaces
• The relationship between job crafting and job satisfaction
• The effectiveness of exposure therapy in treating specific phobias
• The correlation between early childhood education and spatial reasoning
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in business education
• The impact of trade policies on economic inequality
• The effectiveness of narrative therapy in treating PTSD
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in nursing education
• The effect of social media on sleep quality among adolescents
• The impact of urbanization on crime rates
• The relationship between job insecurity and turnover intentions
• The effectiveness of pet therapy in treating anxiety disorders
• The correlation between early childhood education and STEM skills
• The effect of parental involvement on academic achievement in culinary education
• The impact of immigration policies on housing affordability
• The relationship between workplace diversity and employee satisfaction
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction in treating chronic pain
• The correlation between parental involvement and academic success in art education
• The effect of social media on academic procrastination among college students
• The impact of urbanization on public safety services.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

500+ Physics Research Topics

300+ Social Media Research Topics

1000+ Sociology Research Topics

500+ History Research Paper Topics

500+ Environmental Research Topics

500+ Statistics Research Topics

We use cookies to give you the best experience possible. By continuing we’ll assume you’re on board with our cookie policy

• A Research Guide
• Research Paper Topics

40 Social Issues Research Paper Topics

Useful information: Where can I pay someone to write my research paper ?

List of 40 Social Issues Topics for College Students

• Religious gatherings and rituals
• Country-wide strikes and protest
• LGBTQ+ prides
• Worldwide flashmobs
• Social stratification
• Gender discrimination and anti-harassment movements
• The issues of orphanage kids
• Pornography and AI sex dolls
• Sex work or paid rape?
• Virtual reality
• Information overload: the society is overstressed with the amount of data
• Demographic crisis
• Beauty standards
• Social isolation of people with HIV/AIDS
• The fight against animal testing
• Internet safety
• Humanitarian missions
• Fighting racism
• The rights of ethnic minorities and native people
• Internet safety and cybercrimes
• The necessity of the death penalty
• Fighting poverty in the world
• Access to the drinking water in third world countries
• Free education for everyone: shall it be implemented?
• National identity versus globalization
• Women rights and trans people rights
• Obesity as an obstacle in social life. Fatshaming
• Civil rights: shall they be expanded?
• Abuse and neglect in asylums, orphanages, and care homes
• Church and state: shall they remain separate?
• The problem of bigotry in modern society
• Immigration and resocialization of the immigrants
• Sustainable consumption on a worldwide scale
• School violence
• Legalizing drugs: basic rights to choose or a danger to society?
• Social isolation. The hikikomori phenomenon
• Bullying at schools and colleges
• Kids transitioning: shall it be allowed?
• Advertisements: are they becoming too powerful?
• The global impact of the third world countries

By clicking "Log In", you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We'll occasionally send you account related and promo emails.

Sign Up for your FREE account

300 Social Issues Research Topics to Impress Your Professor and Get A

Researching social issues holds immense importance in our quest for knowledge and progress. It allows us to delve deeper into the complexities of society, unraveling the underlying causes, impacts, and potential solutions. However, the significance of a good research topic must be considered, which sets the stage for a high-scoring and impactful research endeavor. If you have difficulty finding a good social issue research topic, check out these lists from the experts working with a professional  paper writing services  provider.

Table of Contents

Comprehensive list of Unique Social Issue Research Topics

Scroll down and go through our list of unique topics and pick one that sparks your interest. Here you go with the first one: 

Women’s Social Issues Research Topics 

It’s crucial to look into the various aspects of women’s social issues if we want to get a better understanding of gender inequality. Here are some ideas to help you dig deeper into this topic.

• Prejudice against women in corporate culture
• Problems of pregnant women working in the corporate
• Harassment in educational institutes against women
• What strategies can governments adopt to ensure equal rights for women?
• Raising awareness of the problems of pregnant women
• How to develop a respectful attitude towards women and gender minorities in companies?
• Ill-treatment of women in the government sector
• Writing on essay topics related to problems with Syrian female immigrants
• The Role of Women in economic life and the World of Work
• Women’s political and electoral training
• Women in old homes: Research and Interviews for Problems and Concerns
• Toxic Masculinity in the Workplace: what can women do?
• Developing a workplace culture for fair treatment of every gender
• Role of Government in solving problems related to Women
• The economy of the United States: Income inequality in the U.S.
• Building a world where women have equal opportunities and fair treatment
• Essay Topics Related to Problems of Women in New York
• Financial problems for single mothers
• Women dealing with social issues in New Mexico
• Condition of Mexican immigrant women in the United States
• Women’s health: Key performance indicators, problems and obstacles
• Securing Women’s Rights with the Help of international law
• Education of women: The rights and responsibilities
• Better living conditions for older women
• A research study of the problems of pregnant women in California
• Health and welfare of older people, especially women
• Improving the quality of life for single mothers with better opportunities

Children’s Social Issues Research Topics 

It’s important to tackle the social issues that affect kids to create a better, more nurturing future for the next generation. Here are some interesting topics on this subject to get started with  writing your research paper . 

• School Bullying and social networks
• Problems and issues with children with a single parent
• A research study on the problems of children in foster homes
• How can we make foster care better and safer for children?
• Delinquency trends in children among marginalized communities
• modernity and technology at the cost of the destruction of childhood
• Issues that children from Mexican households in America have to face
• What are the advantages of multiculturalism in kindergarten?
• Problems of Assault and Molestation of Children
• Why Are Young People Committing Crimes These Days?
• Cyberbullying and Toxicity on social media
• Violence among children and young people
• Rehabilitation of juvenile offenders and improving their lives
• Illness and disability among kids living in developing countries
• The lack of tolerance among the teenagers
• Child labor in developing countries
• Psychology of kindergarten education
• School is a chance for every kid to learn tolerance and harmony
• Children facing with lack of empathy and bullying on social media
• The use of new technologies in education and adaptability in children
• Problems of immigrant children
• Child development and behavior

Social Issues Research Topics About Labor Rights

It’s essential to look into the social issues surrounding workers’ rights and fight for their well-being. Labor rights are the foundation of having fair and decent working conditions. Here are some topics if you want to research such subjects.

• The legal responsibility of entrepreneurs
• Workplace accident management
• Increased flexibility via remote working options
• Mental health problems caused by workers after the COVID pandemic
• The principle of equality today is related to labor rights
• Change wages or salaries
• Labor problems caused by the Covid pandemic
• Employees having to deal with additional work pressures
• Role of labor unions in social justice for Laborers
• Mental health problems in the Workplace
• What can we do to offer ideas for improvements in labor laws
• The desire to maintain a healthy work-life balance
• Hate speech and domestic violence against marginalized groups in large companies
• Academic paper for immigration disruptions in Canada and USA
• The employer’s right to manage employees and the abuse of it
• Role of human resources in identifying and solving problems of labor
• The job of the government and schools is to offer their members better career prospects
• Problems and issues related to a minimum period of employment
• The technology skills gap leads to problems with the laborers
• Improving the well-being of the company for its members
• Change wages or salaries impact and consequences
• How the global pandemic and Working from home changed the World
• Recruiting methods from passive to active: how to prepare
• Global labor shortages: problems and consequences
• What are the reasons for the labor shortage?
• Writing assignment about laborers dealing with the effects of long Covid
• Why is it essential for companies to take a public stand for social issues
• Mental health problems for workers in the field
• Relevant examples of social issues related to labor and employment
• How to empower workers against social injustice?

Social Issues Research Topics for the Environment

It’s important to dig into how social issues and the environment are connected when we’re trying to handle big problems like climate change, running out of resources, etc. Here are some  research topics  to think about.

• Health risks associated with the general environment and their perception and representation
• Climate change knowledge and expertise on health risks
• Health inequalities resulting from environmental and social factors
• What Role can environmental law play in protecting the environment at sea?
• Deforestation and chronic pollution are destroying biodiversity
• Importance of green energy conversion
• The Law of the Environment and sustainable development
• The Management of Pollution in Environmental Law
• Toward a better understanding of atmospheric pollution
• Utilizing environmental technologies and learning about them
• Waste and material resources of the World
• The destruction of ozone affects the environment and health
• Nature’s resources are being destroyed. What can we do as researchers to prevent this?
• Is it still imperative to preserve the environment during wartime?
• Combating armed conflict while preserving the environment
• The tourism industry and pollution management
• Environmental factors that affect cancer risk
• Cost-benefit analysis of the action based on legal or socioeconomic criteria
• Analyzing how different environmental factors contribute to the risk
• Investigating a variety of environmental issues and sectors
• Regions and specific areas of environmental perception
• The effects of climate change and global warming
• Factors contributing to a healthy environment
• The relationship between human rights and environmental law
• In environmental law, pollution management is a constant
• Worldwide implementation of sustainable development
• How consumption trends and international news can help the environmental cause

Social Issues Research Topics Related to Covid Pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic has changed how we live and has spotlighted all kinds of social issues that need to be looked into and solved. So, if you would like to research social issues related to the recent pandemic, check out this list for current social issues for research paper:

• Social panic caused after the COVID-19 breakdown
• Problems and social issues caused by the COVID-19 pandemic
• COVID-19 and financial problems on the rise
• Impact of COVID-19 on the people with middle class
• Police Procedure and criminal justice during the COVID-19
• The aftermath of COVID-19 has resulted in a social dilemma and economic disruption
• An influential aspect of the pandemic is mental health
• The Impact of social and territorial inequalities on health
• The ethical issues raised by the pandemic
• Writing research papers on social media’s Role during COVID-19
• Children and adolescents’ mental condition during the pandemic
• Problems in healthcare and Management of chronic diseases
• Disruption in modern society by the COVID-19
• How our social media accounts helped us during the darkest hours of covid
• Ensuring the delivery of criminal justice during covid
• Impact of COVID-19 on family life
• Role of the Pandemic in the Promotion of remote education
• Avoiding social media addiction during the quarantine

Social Issue Topics Related to American Society

Checking out the social problems in the U.S. gives us a great understanding of how complicated, varied and hard they can be for people and different communities. Here is another list of topics on social issues. 

• Environment perception in specific areas and regions
• Climate change and global warming effects
• The factors that contribute to a healthy environment
• Cancer risk factors in the environment
• Workplace toxic masculinity: what can women do?
• The global labor shortage: problems and consequences
• Why does the U.S. have a shortage of labor?
• Workers dealing with the effects of Covid
• Problems related to mental issues among field workers
• Law and human rights concerning the environment
• Management of pollution is a constant concern in environmental law
• Impacts and consequences of changes in wages or salaries
• How to prepare for passive to active recruitment
• The problem of child labor in developing countries
• Kindergarten Education and Psychology
• Tolerance and harmony can be learned in school by every child
• Lack of empathy and bullying on social media among children
• Technology in Education and Children’s Adaptability
• Legal or socioeconomic cost-benefit analysis of the action
• A major social issue in the modern age is poverty
• Government’s Role in solving social problems
• Sustainable Development of the World
• Trafficking in drugs and Mexican cartels
• A culture of fair treatment for all genders in the Workplace
• Nature’s resources are being depleted.
• Management of pollution in the tourism industry
• How can we use social media to improve society and resolve social problems?
• A lack of respect for marginalized communities in the professional environment can be seen in several ways.
• Understanding social issues and the problems associated with them
• Materials and waste from around the World and the Impact they have on the environment
• The depletion of ozone is detrimental to the environment and human health
• Insights into the political and electoral training of women
• Taking a closer look at Women’s Problems and Concerns in old homes: Research and Interviews
• Issues and problems related to the minimum period of employment and the minimum wage
• The technological skills gap is causing labor shortages shortly
• Enhancing the well-being of the members of the company as a whole

Interesting Social Injustice Topics for College Students

As college students, exploring and engaging with interesting social issues topics expands our intellectual horizons and empowers us to become agents of change in our communities and beyond. Particularly when you include social problems examples. Here is another list of interesting topics.

• Developing better relationships with public institutions to solve problems
• The Role of social work in the Management of health problems
• Corporations discriminate against marginalized communities in the U.S.
• Sociology of the popular classes
• The reasons for the low human development index in African countries
• Social issues caused by class differences
• Drugs and anarchist behaviors
• Religious Differences and biased approaches to employment strategies
• Mexican cartels and the problem of drug trafficking
• Poverty is one of the most significant social issues in the Modern World
• Role of the Government in solving social issues
• How can we use social media to improve society and solve social issues?
• Prejudice against marginalized communities in the professional environment
• Understanding the problems related to social issues
• Role of problem-solving and understanding the root cause of social issues
• Major social issues in developing countries
• Role of Education in ending violence in Society
• Class Differences and the Impact on the human development index
• Differences in health facilities for different classes
• Social Norms and the Role of the Community
• Causes and solutions to human trafficking on the Mexican borders
• Human development index in India
• How to solve the poverty problem?
• What is the problem of social media bullying, and how to avoid it?
• How does financial illiteracy lead to a lack of development in developing countries?
• Impact of Terrorism on Society
• How to solve the terrorism problem?
• Mafia problems in the USA and how to deal with them
• Biased treatment of marginalized communities in the government sector
• The increasing problem of drug addiction
• Ethics and Artificial Intelligence: Emerging social issues
• Role of social media in increasing social issues

Police and Social Justice Research Papers Topics

Let’s unveil a curated collection of current social issues for a research paper. Here’s the list:

• Children’s safety and protection: The security job is of the utmost importance
• School bullying is a serious issue that needs to be addressed
• A few heartrending social issues examples 
• Using the Internet to disseminate terrorist content: a serious issue related to Cybersecurity
• Digital Platform Security Certification – A Guide to Cybersecurity Certifications
• The protection of minors in alcohol-serving establishments
• Concerns regarding cyber security in the United States
• An analysis of the spatial pattern of terrorism in the USA over the past two decades
• New York crime analysis, a look at the crime situation in the City
• Security technologies face several obstacles when it comes to their implementation
• Having the versatility to specialize and the specialization to be versatile in security matters
• Investigative requisitions from the judicial police
• Relationships between the police and the public: The need for improvement
• Conflict Management and Prevention in Communities
• The principle of secularism in sports must be respected
• Stopping the illicit trade in tobacco products
• Towns with small populations and cybersecurity
• Taking care of historical monuments
• Providing support to victims of aggression
• An analysis of the roadside check system in developing countries
• The challenges of reception at a police station for public security
• A system for protecting housing from illegal encroachment
• Anti-abuse and anti-fraud measures
• A diversity of expectations and feedback from the inhabitants
• Taking public security work seriously in terms of its relational dimension
• The issue of external assistance in the area of internal security
• Putting social networks to the test in terms of police ethics

As you have reached the conclusion paragraph of the blog post, you must have picked a topic or two to work for your social issue research paper. Most of the lists have focused on social issues today as they could be very interesting for the readers. Plus, there are a plethora of good topics for you to count on. Just remember that a good research subject must be able to answer, what is a social problem, what is a social issue, and more. Still if you are struggling with picking up a good topic, feel free to count on the expertise of  our writers .

What is an interesting social issue research topic?

What is research about social issues, how do i choose a social research topic.

Order Original Papers & Essays

Your First Custom Paper Sample is on Us!

Timely Deliveries

No Plagiarism & AI

100% Refund

Try Our Free Paper Writing Service

Related blogs.

Connections with Writers and support

Privacy and Confidentiality Guarantee

Average Quality Score

Top 100 HumSS Research Topics [Recently Updated]

The field of Humanities and Social Sciences, commonly referred to as HumSS, encompasses a wide range of academic disciplines focused on studying human society and culture. HumSS covers everything from literature and history to sociology and psychology. This field is crucial because it helps us understand the complexities of human behavior, societal structures, and cultural expressions. HumSS research topics involve various methodologies, both qualitative and quantitative, to analyze and interpret the human experience.

What Are The Common Problems In The HumSS Strand?

Table of Contents

In the Humanities and Social Sciences (HumSS) strand, common problems may include:

• Limited Funding: Securing resources for research projects and academic programs can be challenging due to competition with STEM fields.
• Interdisciplinary Integration: Integrating various disciplines within HumSS to address complex societal issues effectively can be difficult due to institutional silos.
• Ethical Considerations: Ensuring ethical research practices, especially when dealing with human subjects or sensitive cultural topics, requires careful navigation.
• Data Access and Analysis: Accessing relevant data sources and employing appropriate analytical methods, particularly in the age of big data, can pose challenges for HumSS researchers.
• Public Perception and Impact: Communicating the relevance and impact of HumSS research to the broader public and policymakers can be challenging, leading to perceptions of the field as less practical or valuable compared to STEM disciplines.
• Inclusivity and Diversity: Ensuring diversity and inclusivity in research topics, methodologies, and perspectives within HumSS remains an ongoing challenge, with underrepresentation of certain groups and perspectives.

Addressing these challenges requires collaborative efforts among researchers, institutions, funding agencies, and policymakers to support the advancement of HumSS research and its contributions to society.

Top 100 HumSS Research Topics: Category Wise

• How men and women are shown in today’s stories.
• Comparative analysis of Shakespearean tragedies and comedies.
• Postcolonial themes in Caribbean literature.
• The influence of mythology in modern fantasy literature.
• Digital storytelling: Exploring narratives in new media.
• The impact of the Industrial Revolution on society.
• Women’s suffrage movements around the world.
• Decolonizing history: Rethinking colonial narratives.
• How propaganda influences what happens in history.
• Cultural exchanges along the Silk Road.
• Ethical implications of artificial intelligence.
• Existential themes in contemporary cinema.
• The philosophy of happiness across cultures.
• Environmental ethics and sustainable development.
• Analyzing the concept of justice in political philosophy.

Arts and Culture

• Street art as a form of social commentary.
• Cultural appropriation in the fashion industry.
• The evolution of hip-hop music as a cultural movement.
• Indigenous art and its portrayal of identity.
• The impact of globalization on traditional crafts.

Social Sciences

• Social stratification and mobility in urban societies.
• The sociology of protest movements.
• The changing dynamics of family structures in the digital age.
• Cross-cultural perspectives on marriage and relationships.
• Social media and its influence on interpersonal relationships.
• Cultural variations in perception and cognition.
• Mental health stigma in different cultural contexts.
• The psychology of forgiveness and reconciliation.
• Parenting styles and their impact on child development.
• Cross-cultural studies on the experience of grief and loss.

Political Science

• Comparative analysis of democratic systems worldwide.
• The role of media in shaping political opinions.
• Political polarization and its impact on governance.
• International cooperation in addressing climate change.
• The rise of populism in contemporary politics.
• The economics of inequality and poverty alleviation.
• Behavioral economics and decision-making processes.
• The economic impact of migration on sending and receiving countries.
• Sustainable development and economic growth.
• The role of microfinance in empowering marginalized communities.

Anthropology

• Cultural variations in rites of passage ceremonies.
• The anthropology of food: Cultural significance and rituals.
• Exploring indigenous knowledge systems and practices.
• Evolutionary perspectives on human behavior.
• Cross-cultural studies on gender identity and expression.

Interdisciplinary

• How religion and politics come together in today’s world.
• Digital humanities approaches to analyzing historical texts.
• Environmental justice movements and their sociopolitical implications.
• Globalization and how it affects who we are and keeping special traditions alive.
• The psychology of social movements: Understanding collective behavior.
• The ethics of artificial intelligence in healthcare.
• Cultural representations of mental illness in literature and film.
• The political economy of natural resource management.
• Indigenous rights and environmental conservation efforts.
• The impact of globalization on indigenous languages and cultures.
• Urbanization and its effects on social cohesion and community dynamics.
• Cross-cultural perspectives on aging and elderly care.
• The sociology of education: Inequalities in access and outcomes.
• Political polarization in online communities: Echo chambers and filter bubbles.
• Economic development strategies in post-conflict societies.
• The philosophy of technology: Ethical considerations in AI and robotics.
• Gender stereotypes in media representations: A cross-cultural analysis.
• The role of art therapy in promoting mental health and well-being.
• The political economy of humanitarian aid and development assistance.
• Cultural relativism versus universal human rights: Debates in anthropology.
• Social media activism and its impact on social change.
• Cultural factors influencing health-seeking behaviors.
• The psychology of prejudice and discrimination: Intergroup dynamics.
• Economic globalization and labor migration patterns.
• Indigenous ecological knowledge and sustainable resource management.
• Urban planning and social justice: Creating inclusive cities.
• The impact of globalization on traditional agricultural practices.
• Cultural dimensions of conflict resolution and peacebuilding.
• The psychology of resilience: Cultural variations and coping mechanisms.
• Economic implications of climate change adaptation strategies.
• Diaspora communities and transnational identities.
• Cultural heritage preservation in the face of globalization.
• The intersection of religion and environmental ethics.
• The sociology of leisure and consumption patterns.
• Digital ethnography: Studying online communities and virtual cultures.
• Gender mainstreaming in development policies and programs.
• The psychology of environmental activism and sustainability behaviors.
• Economic development and gender equality: Bridging the gap.
• Indigenous land rights and environmental conservation efforts.
• Cultural diversity in healthcare practices and patient outcomes.
• Social capital and community resilience in times of crisis.
• The anthropology of pilgrimage: Sacred journeys across cultures.
• The politics of memory: Commemoration and historical narratives.
• Economic globalization and its impact on cultural industries.
• Cultural variations in approaches to conflict resolution.
• Digital privacy rights and ethical implications in the information age.
• The psychology of intercultural communication and misunderstandings.
• Economic theories of entrepreneurship and innovation.
• Indigenous knowledge systems and sustainable agricultural practices.
• Cross-cultural perspectives on environmental activism and advocacy.
• Social entrepreneurship and its role in addressing social challenges.
• The anthropology of religion: Rituals and beliefs in diverse cultures.
• Economic inequalities and their impact on social cohesion.
• Cultural representations of disability in literature and media.
• The intersectionality of race, gender, and class in social justice movements.

Emerging Trends and Contemporary Issues in HumSS

The landscape of HumSS research is continually evolving, influenced by new technologies, global interconnectedness, and contemporary societal challenges.

• Digital Transformation in HumSS Research

Digital tools and methods are revolutionizing HumSS research. For example, digital archives and databases allow for unprecedented access to historical documents and literary texts. Furthermore, tools for visualizing data assist researchers in spotting patterns and trends that were hard to see before.

• Interdisciplinary and Cross-Cultural Studies

Increasingly, researchers are recognizing the value of interdisciplinary approaches that draw on multiple fields to address complex issues. Cross-cultural studies, which compare and contrast different cultures, provide valuable insights into universal human experiences and diverse cultural practices.

• Globalization and Its Effects on HumSS

Globalization affects every aspect of human life, from economics to culture. Researchers in HumSS examine how global interconnectedness influences cultural identities, economic systems, and social structures.

• Ethical Considerations in HumSS Research

As HumSS research often involves human subjects, ethical considerations are paramount. Researchers must navigate issues related to consent, confidentiality, and the potential impacts of their work on communities and individuals.

Methodologies in HumSS Research

In HumSS research, different methods are used depending on the questions and data involved.

Qualitative Methods

• Ethnography: This immersive research method involves spending extended time with a community to understand their practices and beliefs from an insider’s perspective.
• Case Studies: In-depth studies of a single case (such as an individual, group, or event) provide detailed insights that can illuminate broader trends.
• Interviews and Focus Groups: These methods gather detailed information through direct conversations with individuals or groups.

Quantitative Methods

• Surveys and Questionnaires: These tools collect data from large numbers of people, allowing researchers to identify trends and correlations.
• Statistical Analysis: This involves analyzing numerical data to find patterns and test hypotheses.
• Experimental Designs: Controlled experiments test the effects of specific variables on human behavior or social phenomena.

Mixed Methods

• Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches: Mixed methods research integrates both qualitative and quantitative data to provide a more comprehensive understanding of a research question.
• Triangulation in HumSS Research: This technique uses multiple methods or sources to cross-check and validate findings.

Digital and Computational Methods

• Digital Humanities Tools: These include text analysis software, digital mapping, and online archives that facilitate new types of research in the humanities.
• Big Data Analysis in Social Sciences: Analyzing large datasets, such as social media activity, to uncover trends and patterns in human behavior.

Challenges and Opportunities in HumSS Research

HumSS researchers face several challenges, but these also present opportunities for innovation and growth.

• Funding and Resource Allocation:

Securing funding for HumSS research can be challenging, as these fields often compete with STEM disciplines for limited resources. However, successful research can demonstrate the value of HumSS in addressing societal issues, potentially attracting more support.

• Balancing Depth and Breadth in Research:

Researchers must find a balance between deeply exploring specific topics and addressing broader questions. This often requires interdisciplinary collaboration and innovative methodologies.

• Addressing Biases and Ensuring Inclusivity:

HumSS research must strive to be inclusive and avoid biases that can distort findings. This involves critically examining the researcher’s perspective and engaging with diverse communities.

• Dissemination and Impact of HumSS Research:

Effectively communicating research findings to a broad audience is crucial for maximizing impact. This includes publishing in accessible formats and engaging with policymakers, educators, and the public.

HumSS research topics that help us understand the human experience in all its complexity. From literature and history to sociology and economics, these disciplines offer valuable insights into our past, present, and future. As researchers continue to innovate and explore new methodologies, the importance of HumSS in addressing global challenges and fostering a deeper understanding of humanity will only grow.

Related Posts

Step by Step Guide on The Best Way to Finance Car

The Best Way on How to Get Fund For Business to Grow it Efficiently

A Quick Guide to Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences

(12 reviews)

Christine Davies, Carmarthen, Wales

Copyright Year: 2020

Last Update: 2021

Publisher: University of Wales Trinity Saint David

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Jennifer Taylor, Assistant Professor, Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi on 4/18/24

This resource is a quick guide to quantitative research in the social sciences and not a comprehensive resource. It provides a VERY general overview of quantitative research but offers a good starting place for students new to research. It... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This resource is a quick guide to quantitative research in the social sciences and not a comprehensive resource. It provides a VERY general overview of quantitative research but offers a good starting place for students new to research. It offers links and references to additional resources that are more comprehensive in nature.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The content is relatively accurate. The measurement scale section is very sparse. Not all types of research designs or statistical methods are included, but it is a guide, so details are meant to be limited.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The examples were interesting and appropriate. The content is up to date and will be useful for several years.

Clarity rating: 5

The text was clearly written. Tables and figures are not referenced in the text, which would have been nice.

Consistency rating: 5

The framework is consistent across chapters with terminology clearly highlighted and defined.

Modularity rating: 5

The chapters are subdivided into section that can be divided and assigned as reading in a course. Most chapters are brief and concise, unless elaboration is necessary, such as with the data analysis chapter. Again, this is a guide and not a comprehensive text, so sections are shorter and don't always include every subtopic that may be considered.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The guide is well organized. I appreciate that the topics are presented in a logical and clear manner. The topics are provided in an order consistent with traditional research methods.

Interface rating: 5

The interface was easy to use and navigate. The images were clear and easy to read.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I did not notice any grammatical errors.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The materials are not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

I teach a Marketing Research course to undergraduates. I would consider using some of the chapters or topics included, especially the overview of the research designs and the analysis of data section.

Reviewed by Tiffany Kindratt, Assistant Professor, University of Texas at Arlington on 3/9/24

The text provides a brief overview of quantitative research topics that is geared towards research in the fields of education, sociology, business, and nursing. The author acknowledges that the textbook is not a comprehensive resource but offers... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The text provides a brief overview of quantitative research topics that is geared towards research in the fields of education, sociology, business, and nursing. The author acknowledges that the textbook is not a comprehensive resource but offers references to other resources that can be used to deepen the knowledge. The text does not include a glossary or index. The references in the figures for each chapter are not included in the reference section. It would be helpful to include those.

Overall, the text is accurate. For example, Figure 1 on page 6 provides a clear overview of the research process. It includes general definitions of primary and secondary research. It would be helpful to include more details to explain some of the examples before they are presented. For instance, the example on page 5 was unclear how it pertains to the literature review section.

In general, the text is relevant and up-to-date. The text includes many inferences of moving from qualitative to quantitative analysis. This was surprising to me as a quantitative researcher. The author mentions that moving from a qualitative to quantitative approach should only be done when needed. As a predominantly quantitative researcher, I would not advice those interested in transitioning to using a qualitative approach that qualitative research would enhance their research—not something that should only be done if you have to.

Clarity rating: 4

The text is written in a clear manner. It would be helpful to the reader if there was a description of the tables and figures in the text before they are presented.

Consistency rating: 4

The framework for each chapter and terminology used are consistent.

Modularity rating: 4

The text is clearly divided into sections within each chapter. Overall, the chapters are a similar brief length except for the chapter on data analysis, which is much more comprehensive than others.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The topics in the text are presented in a clear and logical order. The order of the text follows the conventional research methodology in social sciences.

I did not encounter any interface issues when reviewing this text. All links worked and there were no distortions of the images or charts that may confuse the reader.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

There are some grammatical/typographical errors throughout. Of note, for Section 5 in the table of contents. “The” should be capitalized to start the title. In the title for Table 3, the “t” in typical should be capitalized.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

The examples are culturally relevant. The text is geared towards learners in the UK, but examples are relevant for use in other countries (i.e., United States). I did not see any examples that may be considered culturally insensitive or offensive in any way.

I teach a course on research methods in a Bachelor of Science in Public Health program. I would consider using some of the text, particularly in the analysis chapter to supplement the current textbook in the future.

Reviewed by Finn Bell, Assistant Professor, University of Michigan, Dearborn on 1/3/24

For it being a quick guide and only 26 pages, it is very comprehensive, but it does not include an index or glossary. read more

For it being a quick guide and only 26 pages, it is very comprehensive, but it does not include an index or glossary.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

As far as I can tell, the text is accurate, error-free and unbiased.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

This text is up-to-date, and given the content, unlikely to become obsolete any time soon.

The text is very clear and accessible.

The text is internally consistent.

Given how short the text is, it seems unnecessary to divide it into smaller readings, nonetheless, it is clearly labelled such that an instructor could do so.

The text is well-organized and brings readers through basic quantitative methods in a logical, clear fashion.

Easy to navigate. Only one table that is split between pages, but not in a way that is confusing.

There were no noticeable grammatical errors.

The examples in this book don't give enough information to rate this effectively.

This text is truly a very quick guide at only 26 double-spaced pages. Nonetheless, Davies packs a lot of information on the basics of quantitative research methods into this text, in an engaging way with many examples of the concepts presented. This guide is more of a brief how-to that takes readers as far as how to select statistical tests. While it would be impossible to fully learn quantitative research from such a short text, of course, this resource provides a great introduction, overview, and refresher for program evaluation courses.

Reviewed by Shari Fedorowicz, Adjunct Professor, Bridgewater State University on 12/16/22

The text is indeed a quick guide for utilizing quantitative research. Appropriate and effective examples and diagrams were used throughout the text. The author clearly differentiates between use of quantitative and qualitative research providing... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

The text is indeed a quick guide for utilizing quantitative research. Appropriate and effective examples and diagrams were used throughout the text. The author clearly differentiates between use of quantitative and qualitative research providing the reader with the ability to distinguish two terms that frequently get confused. In addition, links and outside resources are provided to deepen the understanding as an option for the reader. The use of these links, coupled with diagrams and examples make this text comprehensive.

The content is mostly accurate. Given that it is a quick guide, the author chose a good selection of which types of research designs to include. However, some are not provided. For example, correlational or cross-correlational research is omitted and is not discussed in Section 3, but is used as a statistical example in the last section.

Examples utilized were appropriate and associated with terms adding value to the learning. The tables that included differentiation between types of statistical tests along with a parametric/nonparametric table were useful and relevant.

The purpose to the text and how to use this guide book is stated clearly and is established up front. The author is also very clear regarding the skill level of the user. Adding to the clarity are the tables with terms, definitions, and examples to help the reader unpack the concepts. The content related to the terms was succinct, direct, and clear. Many times examples or figures were used to supplement the narrative.

The text is consistent throughout from contents to references. Within each section of the text, the introductory paragraph under each section provides a clear understanding regarding what will be discussed in each section. The layout is consistent for each section and easy to follow.

The contents are visible and address each section of the text. A total of seven sections, including a reference section, is in the contents. Each section is outlined by what will be discussed in the contents. In addition, within each section, a heading is provided to direct the reader to the subtopic under each section.

The text is well-organized and segues appropriately. I would have liked to have seen an introductory section giving a narrative overview of what is in each section. This would provide the reader with the ability to get a preliminary glimpse into each upcoming sections and topics that are covered.

The book was easy to navigate and well-organized. Examples are presented in one color, links in another and last, figures and tables. The visuals supplemented the reading and placed appropriately. This provides an opportunity for the reader to unpack the reading by use of visuals and examples.

No significant grammatical errors.

The text is not offensive or culturally insensitive. Examples were inclusive of various races, ethnicities, and backgrounds.

This quick guide is a beneficial text to assist in unpacking the learning related to quantitative statistics. I would use this book to complement my instruction and lessons, or use this book as a main text with supplemental statistical problems and formulas. References to statistical programs were appropriate and were useful. The text did exactly what was stated up front in that it is a direct guide to quantitative statistics. It is well-written and to the point with content areas easy to locate by topic.

Reviewed by Sarah Capello, Assistant Professor, Radford University on 1/18/22

The text claims to provide "quick and simple advice on quantitative aspects of research in social sciences," which it does. There is no index or glossary, although vocabulary words are bolded and defined throughout the text. read more

The text claims to provide "quick and simple advice on quantitative aspects of research in social sciences," which it does. There is no index or glossary, although vocabulary words are bolded and defined throughout the text.

The content is mostly accurate. I would have preferred a few nuances to be hashed out a bit further to avoid potential reader confusion or misunderstanding of the concepts presented.

The content is current; however, some of the references cited in the text are outdated. Newer editions of those texts exist.

The text is very accessible and readable for a variety of audiences. Key terms are well-defined.

There are no content discrepancies within the text. The author even uses similarly shaped graphics for recurring purposes throughout the text (e.g., arrow call outs for further reading, rectangle call outs for examples).

The content is chunked nicely by topics and sections. If it were used for a course, it would be easy to assign different sections of the text for homework, etc. without confusing the reader if the instructor chose to present the content in a different order.

The author follows the structure of the research process. The organization of the text is easy to follow and comprehend.

All of the supplementary images (e.g., tables and figures) were beneficial to the reader and enhanced the text.

There are no significant grammatical errors.

I did not find any culturally offensive or insensitive references in the text.

This text does the difficult job of introducing the complicated concepts and processes of quantitative research in a quick and easy reference guide fairly well. I would not depend solely on this text to teach students about quantitative research, but it could be a good jumping off point for those who have no prior knowledge on this subject or those who need a gentle introduction before diving in to more advanced and complex readings of quantitative research methods.

Reviewed by J. Marlie Henry, Adjunct Faculty, University of Saint Francis on 12/9/21

Considering the length of this guide, this does a good job of addressing major areas that typically need to be addressed. There is a contents section. The guide does seem to be organized accordingly with appropriate alignment and logical flow of... read more

Considering the length of this guide, this does a good job of addressing major areas that typically need to be addressed. There is a contents section. The guide does seem to be organized accordingly with appropriate alignment and logical flow of thought. There is no glossary but, for a guide of this length, a glossary does not seem like it would enhance the guide significantly.

The content is relatively accurate. Expanding the content a bit more or explaining that the methods and designs presented are not entirely inclusive would help. As there are different schools of thought regarding what should/should not be included in terms of these designs and methods, simply bringing attention to that and explaining a bit more would help.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 3

This content needs to be updated. Most of the sources cited are seven or more years old. Even more, it would be helpful to see more currently relevant examples. Some of the source authors such as Andy Field provide very interesting and dynamic instruction in general, but they have much more current information available.

The language used is clear and appropriate. Unnecessary jargon is not used. The intent is clear- to communicate simply in a straightforward manner.

The guide seems to be internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework. There do not seem to be issues in this area. Terminology is internally consistent.

For a guide of this length, the author structured this logically into sections. This guide could be adopted in whole or by section with limited modifications. Courses with fewer than seven modules could also logically group some of the sections.

This guide does present with logical organization. The topics presented are conceptually sequenced in a manner that helps learners build logically on prior conceptualization. This also provides a simple conceptual framework for instructors to guide learners through the process.

Interface rating: 4

The visuals themselves are simple, but they are clear and understandable without distracting the learner. The purpose is clear- that of learning rather than visuals for the sake of visuals. Likewise, navigation is clear and without issues beyond a broken link (the last source noted in the references).

This guide seems to be free of grammatical errors.

It would be interesting to see more cultural integration in a guide of this nature, but the guide is not culturally insensitive or offensive in any way. The language used seems to be consistent with APA's guidelines for unbiased language.

Reviewed by Heng Yu-Ku, Professor, University of Northern Colorado on 5/13/21

The text covers all areas and ideas appropriately and provides practical tables, charts, and examples throughout the text. I would suggest the author also provides a complete research proposal at the end of Section 3 (page 10) and a comprehensive... read more

The text covers all areas and ideas appropriately and provides practical tables, charts, and examples throughout the text. I would suggest the author also provides a complete research proposal at the end of Section 3 (page 10) and a comprehensive research study as an Appendix after section 7 (page 26) to help readers comprehend information better.

For the most part, the content is accurate and unbiased. However, the author only includes four types of research designs used on the social sciences that contain quantitative elements: 1. Mixed method, 2) Case study, 3) Quasi-experiment, and 3) Action research. I wonder why the correlational research is not included as another type of quantitative research design as it has been introduced and emphasized in section 6 by the author.

I believe the content is up-to-date and that necessary updates will be relatively easy and straightforward to implement.

The text is easy to read and provides adequate context for any technical terminology used. However, the author could provide more detailed information about estimating the minimum sample size but not just refer the readers to use the online sample calculators at a different website.

The text is internally consistent in terms of terminology and framework. The author provides the right amount of information with additional information or resources for the readers.

The text includes seven sections. Therefore, it is easier for the instructor to allocate or divide the content into different weeks of instruction within the course.

Yes, the topics in the text are presented in a logical and clear fashion. The author provides clear and precise terminologies, summarizes important content in Table or Figure forms, and offers examples in each section for readers to check their understanding.

The interface of the book is consistent and clear, and all the images and charts provided in the book are appropriate. However, I did encounter some navigation problems as a couple of links are not working or requires permission to access those (pages 10 and 27).

No grammatical errors were found.

No culturally incentive or offensive in its language and the examples provided were found.

As the book title stated, this book provides “A Quick Guide to Quantitative Research in Social Science. It offers easy-to-read information and introduces the readers to the research process, such as research questions, research paradigms, research process, research designs, research methods, data collection, data analysis, and data discussion. However, some links are not working or need permissions to access them (pages 10 and 27).

Reviewed by Hsiao-Chin Kuo, Assistant Professor, Northeastern Illinois University on 4/26/21, updated 4/28/21

As a quick guide, it covers basic concepts related to quantitative research. It starts with WHY quantitative research with regard to asking research questions and considering research paradigms, then provides an overview of research design and... read more

As a quick guide, it covers basic concepts related to quantitative research. It starts with WHY quantitative research with regard to asking research questions and considering research paradigms, then provides an overview of research design and process, discusses methods, data collection and analysis, and ends with writing a research report. It also identifies its target readers/users as those begins to explore quantitative research. It would be helpful to include more examples for readers/users who are new to quantitative research.

Its content is mostly accurate and no bias given its nature as a quick guide. Yet, it is also quite simplified, such as its explanations of mixed methods, case study, quasi-experimental research, and action research. It provides resources for extended reading, yet more recent works will be helpful.

The book is relevant given its nature as a quick guide. It would be helpful to provide more recent works in its resources for extended reading, such as the section for Survey Research (p. 12). It would also be helpful to include more information to introduce common tools and software for statistical analysis.

The book is written with clear and understandable language. Important terms and concepts are presented with plain explanations and examples. Figures and tables are also presented to support its clarity. For example, Table 4 (p. 20) gives an easy-to-follow overview of different statistical tests.

The framework is very consistent with key points, further explanations, examples, and resources for extended reading. The sample studies are presented following the layout of the content, such as research questions, design and methods, and analysis. These examples help reinforce readers' understanding of these common research elements.

The book is divided into seven chapters. Each chapter clearly discusses an aspect of quantitative research. It can be easily divided into modules for a class or for a theme in a research method class. Chapters are short and provides additional resources for extended reading.

The topics in the chapters are presented in a logical and clear structure. It is easy to follow to a degree. Though, it would be also helpful to include the chapter number and title in the header next to its page number.

The text is easy to navigate. Most of the figures and tables are displayed clearly. Yet, there are several sections with empty space that is a bit confusing in the beginning. Again, it can be helpful to include the chapter number/title next to its page number.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

No major grammatical errors were found.

There are no cultural insensitivities noted.

Given the nature and purpose of this book, as a quick guide, it provides readers a quick reference for important concepts and terms related to quantitative research. Because this book is quite short (27 pages), it can be used as an overview/preview about quantitative research. Teacher's facilitation/input and extended readings will be needed for a deeper learning and discussion about aspects of quantitative research.

Reviewed by Yang Cheng, Assistant Professor, North Carolina State University on 1/6/21

It covers the most important topics such as research progress, resources, measurement, and analysis of the data. read more

It covers the most important topics such as research progress, resources, measurement, and analysis of the data.

The book accurately describes the types of research methods such as mixed-method, quasi-experiment, and case study. It talks about the research proposal and key differences between statistical analyses as well.

The book pinpointed the significance of running a quantitative research method and its relevance to the field of social science.

The book clearly tells us the differences between types of quantitative methods and the steps of running quantitative research for students.

The book is consistent in terms of terminologies such as research methods or types of statistical analysis.

It addresses the headlines and subheadlines very well and each subheading should be necessary for readers.

The book was organized very well to illustrate the topic of quantitative methods in the field of social science.

The pictures within the book could be further developed to describe the key concepts vividly.

The textbook contains no grammatical errors.

It is not culturally offensive in any way.

Overall, this is a simple and quick guide for this important topic. It should be valuable for undergraduate students who would like to learn more about research methods.

Reviewed by Pierre Lu, Associate Professor, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley on 11/20/20

As a quick guide to quantitative research in social sciences, the text covers most ideas and areas. read more

As a quick guide to quantitative research in social sciences, the text covers most ideas and areas.

Mostly accurate content.

As a quick guide, content is highly relevant.

Succinct and clear.

Internally, the text is consistent in terms of terminology used.

The text is easily and readily divisible into smaller sections that can be used as assignments.

I like that there are examples throughout the book.

Easy to read. No interface/ navigation problems.

No grammatical errors detected.

I am not aware of the culturally insensitive description. After all, this is a methodology book.

I think the book has potential to be adopted as a foundation for quantitative research courses, or as a review in the first weeks in advanced quantitative course.

Reviewed by Sarah Fischer, Assistant Professor, Marymount University on 7/31/20

It is meant to be an overview, but it incredibly condensed and spends almost no time on key elements of statistics (such as what makes research generalizable, or what leads to research NOT being generalizable). read more

It is meant to be an overview, but it incredibly condensed and spends almost no time on key elements of statistics (such as what makes research generalizable, or what leads to research NOT being generalizable).

Content Accuracy rating: 1

Contains VERY significant errors, such as saying that one can "accept" a hypothesis. (One of the key aspect of hypothesis testing is that one either rejects or fails to reject a hypothesis, but NEVER accepts a hypothesis.)

Very relevant to those experiencing the research process for the first time. However, it is written by someone working in the natural sciences but is a text for social sciences. This does not explain the errors, but does explain why sometimes the author assumes things about the readers ("hail from more subjectivist territory") that are likely not true.

Clarity rating: 3

Some statistical terminology not explained clearly (or accurately), although the author has made attempts to do both.

Very consistently laid out.

Chapters are very short yet also point readers to outside texts for additional information. Easy to follow.

Generally logically organized.

Easy to navigate, images clear. The additional sources included need to linked to.

Minor grammatical and usage errors throughout the text.

Makes efforts to be inclusive.

The idea of this book is strong--short guides like this are needed. However, this book would likely be strengthened by a revision to reduce inaccuracies and improve the definitions and technical explanations of statistical concepts. Since the book is specifically aimed at the social sciences, it would also improve the text to have more examples that are based in the social sciences (rather than the health sciences or the arts).

Reviewed by Michelle Page, Assistant Professor, Worcester State University on 5/30/20

This text is exactly intended to be what it says: A quick guide. A basic outline of quantitative research processes, akin to cliff notes. The content provides only the essentials of a research process and contains key terms. A student or new... read more

This text is exactly intended to be what it says: A quick guide. A basic outline of quantitative research processes, akin to cliff notes. The content provides only the essentials of a research process and contains key terms. A student or new researcher would not be able to use this as a stand alone guide for quantitative pursuits without having a supplemental text that explains the steps in the process more comprehensively. The introduction does provide this caveat.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

There are no biases or errors that could be distinguished; however, it’s simplicity in content, although accurate for an outline of process, may lack a conveyance of the deeper meanings behind the specific processes explained about qualitative research.

The content is outlined in traditional format to highlight quantitative considerations for formatting research foundational pieces. The resources/references used to point the reader to literature sources can be easily updated with future editions.

The jargon in the text is simple to follow and provides adequate context for its purpose. It is simplified for its intention as a guide which is appropriate.

Each section of the text follows a consistent flow. Explanation of the research content or concept is defined and then a connection to literature is provided to expand the readers understanding of the section’s content. Terminology is consistent with the qualitative process.

As an “outline” and guide, this text can be used to quickly identify the critical parts of the quantitative process. Although each section does not provide deeper content for meaningful use as a stand alone text, it’s utility would be excellent as a reference for a course and can be used as an content guide for specific research courses.

The text’s outline and content are aligned and are in a logical flow in terms of the research considerations for quantitative research.

The only issue that the format was not able to provide was linkable articles. These would have to be cut and pasted into a browser. Functional clickable links in a text are very successful at leading the reader to the supplemental material.

No grammatical errors were noted.

This is a very good outline “guide” to help a new or student researcher to demystify the quantitative process. A successful outline of any process helps to guide work in a logical and systematic way. I think this simple guide is a great adjunct to more substantial research context.

Table of Contents

• Section 1: What will this resource do for you?
• Section 2: Why are you thinking about numbers? A discussion of the research question and paradigms.
• Section 3: An overview of the Research Process and Research Designs
• Section 4: Quantitative Research Methods
• Section 5: the data obtained from quantitative research
• Section 6: Analysis of data
• Section 7: Discussing your Results

Ancillary Material

About the book.

This resource is intended as an easy-to-use guide for anyone who needs some quick and simple advice on quantitative aspects of research in social sciences, covering subjects such as education, sociology, business, nursing. If you area qualitative researcher who needs to venture into the world of numbers, or a student instructed to undertake a quantitative research project despite a hatred for maths, then this booklet should be a real help.

The booklet was amended in 2022 to take into account previous review comments.  

About the Contributors

Christine Davies , Ph.D

Contribute to this Page

The Biggest 15 Social Issues We Are Facing Today

No matter where we live, what communities we belong to or what we care about, we are affected by social issues. It’s the price of living in a society, and while challenges like poverty, climate change and discrimination can feel overwhelming, we have the power to take action. The first step is understanding what issues we’re up against. In this article, we’ll explore 15 of the biggest social issues facing the world today.

#1. The global housing crisis

Shelter is a human right, but hundreds of millions of people lack adequate, affordable housing. According to the World Bank, the housing crisis is global, and it could impact as many as 1.6 billion people by 2025. That number will only grow with time. By 2030, the world needs to build 96,000 new affordable homes per day to meet the needs of 3 billion people. What’s driving the global housing crisis? According to Albert Saiz in a paper for the MIT Center for Real Estate, economic factors like rising costs and income inequality are prevalent. Addressing these issues now is critical to protecting people in the future.

#2. Gender inequality

Societies have been working to improve gender inequality for centuries, but we still have a long way to go. Globally, women still make less money than men, have poorer health outcomes, have fewer opportunities and endure more gender–based violence. According to 2023 data, the global gender gap won’t close until 2154 . Even the most gender-equal country, which is Iceland , still has social issues to address. Some of the issues are recognized – women are still being subjected to physical and sexual violence – while there are gaps in data related to things like unpaid care, domestic work, gender and the environment, and so on.

#3. Climate crisis

The climate crisis is one of today’s most urgent social issues. Earth.org outlines a list of major climate events in 2023 , including severe droughts, wildfires, higher ocean surface temperatures and storms. That same year, the IPCC released a summary of its previous five reports, showing how human activity is causing severe damage to the planet, and, if trends continue, parts of the earth will become unlivable in just a few decades. The world can fight the climate crisis, but we have to significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and turn to renewable energy sources.

#4. Overconsumption

Greenhouse gas emissions are a primary driver of climate change, but overconsumption is hurting the planet, too. Unfathomable amounts of food, clothing, plastic and other things are thrown into landfills and the ocean every day. However, it’s not a problem for everyone. According to research, just 20% of the world’s population is responsible for consuming 80% of the globe’s natural resources. The richest 500 million people release half of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions. To break it down even further, if every person in the world consumed resources at the rate as people in Canada and the United States did, we would need at least five earths .

#5. Global hunger

Global food insecurity is a serious problem. According to data, about 735 million people endured chronic hunger in 2022, and with issues like climate change, the lingering effects of the pandemic and conflict, it will be very challenging to end hunger by 2030. Children typically suffer the most. When kids don’t get enough to eat, they become more vulnerable to diseases like measles, malaria and diarrhea. According to the World Food Programme, “hotspots” for hunger include Burkina Faso, Mali, South Sudan and Palestine.

#6. Threats to LGBTQ+ rights

At the same time as LGBTQ+ rights have expanded, certain countries have pushed back. In the summer of 2023, the first Ugandan was charged with “aggravated homosexuality,” a crime punishable by death. In its 2023 review, the Electronic Frontier Foundation also found an increase in anti-LGBTQ sentiment , including more laws that restrict privacy and freedom of expression, and censorship of LGBTQ+ websites. Even in places like the United States, which is seen by many as a haven for the LGBTQ+ community, legislative threats are on the rise .

#7. Reproductive justice

Reproductive justice, which includes things like abortion access and maternal health, is a social issue affecting every corner of the world. According to the Center for Reproductive Rights, most countries are expanding abortion rights, while just four – the United States, Poland, Nicaragua, and El Salvador – rolled back abortion rights . Globally, about 40% of women live in places with “restrictive” abortion laws. Related social issues include menstrual health, prenatal and maternal health, access to contraception and so on.

#8. Educational disparities

When people get a good education, they’re more likely to have higher incomes, better health, healthier children and other benefits. On a larger scale, education also helps countries achieve overall wealth and health. There’s been significant progress on closing the gender gap in education. According to a blog on the World Bank, boys and girls complete primary school at almost an equal rate . However, around 130 million girls are still being denied an education. Wealth also plays a role in educational disparities. In the United States, one study found that wealth affects a student’s chances of finishing college. On a global scale, wealth also impacts where a family lives and what school options are available, as well as tutoring opportunities, whether a student needs a job and much more.

#9. Health and healthcare

Health and the ability (or inability) to access good healthcare are major social issues. Unfortunately, healthcare systems around the world are struggling. COVID-19 continues to be a problem, but hospitals are also facing staff shortages and competition . Not everyone is affected equally. According to the World Health Organization, refugees and migrants experience worse health outcomes due to language barriers, cultural differences, discrimination and legal restrictions on what services they can access.

#10. Income inequality

Global income inequality fluctuates, but according to a 2023 Oxfam study , the world’s richest 1% took almost ⅔ of all the new wealth created since 2020. That gave them almost twice the amount of money held by the bottom 99%. Income inequality can cause serious problems , such as lower economic growth, worse social cohesion and political polarization. There are also ethical consequences to income inequality, which human rights and social justice advocates often discuss. Can society ever be truly good or free when only a handful of people hold all the wealth?

#11. Global unemployment (and underemployment)

High unemployment rates – and low-paying jobs – drive income inequality and poverty. In a 2023 report, the International Labour Organization found that the world is still experiencing slow employment growth . There was a slight recovery in 2021, but as the economy slows again, people are forced to take jobs that pay less, provide fewer hours and/or offer poor working conditions. South Africa, which is the most industrialized economy in Africa, also has one of the highest unemployment rates. According to Reuters, reasons include structural issues related to the shadows of colonialism and apartheid. To fight issues like poverty and gender inequality, countries need to address unemployment and low-paying jobs.

#12. Increased migration

People move all the time, but issues like war and climate change force people to leave their homes. Sometimes, they move within the borders of one country, but other times, they’re forced to take long, dangerous journeys to countries they’ve never visited. According to the Migration Policy Institute, “humanitarian migration” increased in 2023, while policies could impact elections in 2024. The social issues related to migration, such as the rights of migrants, affordable housing, health services and more, will all be relevant for the foreseeable future.

#13. Artificial intelligence

The presence of artificial intelligence has exploded in recent years, but the technology has several issues. Ethics is just one of them. According to a guide on UMA Libraries, AI has problems with gender and racial bias, plagiarism, generating fake news and supporting scams. It also takes a lot of energy to train and run AI programs, so as the use of AI increases, so will its carbon footprint . As the technology continues to develop, new regulations, legislation and guidelines will need to be created, as well.

#14. Debt bondage

Rates of labor trafficking have been increasing over the years. According to research, about ⅕ of those in forced labor trafficking are in debt bondage . Debt bondage is a very common type of trafficking where a person is forced to work off a loan. However, because the debt is often so high and they are paid so little, it’s impossible to escape the situation. Perpetrators also often have no intention of freeing the people they’re exploiting; debt bondage can even pass on to children. While bonded labor is technically illegal in some places, like India, it persists , especially in rural areas. Because trafficking is an illicit practice, it’s very difficult to get accurate numbers, but it’s most likely worse than what’s reported.

#15. Threats to journalism

By providing vital information to the public, journalists are essential to freedom of speech, freedom of expression, democracy and the protection of other human rights. In recent years, journalism has been under threat. According to the 2023 World Press Freedom Index , the environment for journalism was “bad” in seven out of 10 countries, while it was “satisfactory” in just three out of 10 countries. The reasons include a surge in fake news and propaganda. Journalists also face threats to their lives. UNESCO found that in 2023, there was a near doubling of deaths of journalists working in conflict zones. As conflicts in Ukraine, Palestine and other countries continue, the safety of journalism will remain a social issue.

Can Quantitative Research Solve Social Problems? Pragmatism and the Ethics of Social Research

• November 2020
• Journal of Business Ethics 167(1):41-48
• 167(1):41-48
• This person is not on ResearchGate, or hasn't claimed this research yet.

Discover the world's research

• 25+ million members
• 160+ million publication pages
• 2.3+ billion citations
• Poornima Tapas
• Jukka Luoma

• Lia Hartika
• Indri Dithisari

• Crit Perspect Account

• Joel Bothello
• J BUS ETHICS
• Henrik Rydenfelt
• Michael J. Zyphur

• Leif D. Nelson
• Uri Simonsohn
• C. Wright Mills
• William James
• STRATEG ORGAN
• Thomas C. Powell
• Andrew Gelman
• Russell B Goodman

• Christine R. Harris

• Harold Pashler
• Recruit researchers
• Join for free
• Login Email Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google Welcome back! Please log in. Email · Hint Tip: Most researchers use their institutional email address as their ResearchGate login Password Forgot password? Keep me logged in Log in or Continue with Google No account? Sign up

189+ Good Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students

Quantitative research is an essential part of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields. It involves collecting and analyzing numerical data to answer research questions and test hypotheses. 

In 2023, STEM students have a wealth of exciting research opportunities in various disciplines. Whether you’re an undergraduate or graduate student, here are quantitative research topics to consider for your next project.

If you are looking for the best list of quantitative research topics for stem students, then you can check the given list in each field. It offers STEM students numerous opportunities to explore and contribute to their respective fields in 2023 and beyond. 

Whether you’re interested in astrophysics, biology, engineering, mathematics, or any other STEM field.

Also Read: Most Exciting Qualitative Research Topics For Students

What Is Quantitative Research

Table of Contents

Quantitative research is a type of research that focuses on the organized collection, analysis, and evaluation of numerical data to answer research questions, test theories, and find trends or connections between factors. It is an organized, objective way to do study that uses measurable data and scientific methods to come to results.

Quantitative research is often used in many areas, such as the natural sciences, social sciences, economics, psychology, education, and market research. It gives useful information about patterns, trends, cause-and-effect relationships, and how often things happen. Quantitative tools are used by researchers to answer questions like “How many?” and “How often?” “Is there a significant difference?” or “What is the relationship between the variables?”

In comparison to quantitative research, qualitative research uses non-numerical data like conversations, notes, and open-ended surveys to understand and explore the ideas, experiences, and points of view of people or groups. Researchers often choose between quantitative and qualitative methods based on their research goals, questions, and the type of thing they are studying.

How To Choose Quantitative Research Topics For STEM

Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to choose quantitative research topics for STEM:

Step 1:- Identify Your Interests and Passions

Start by reflecting on your personal interests within STEM. What areas or subjects in STEM excite you the most? Choosing a topic you’re passionate about will keep you motivated throughout the research process.

Step 2:- Review Coursework and Textbooks

Look through your coursework, textbooks, and class notes. Identify concepts, theories, or areas that you found particularly intriguing or challenging. These can be a source of potential research topics.

Step 3:- Consult with Professors and Advisors

Discuss your research interests with professors, academic advisors, or mentors. They can provide valuable insights, suggest relevant topics, and guide you toward areas with research opportunities.

Step 4:- Read Recent Literature

Explore recent research articles, journals, and publications in STEM fields. This will help you identify current trends, gaps in knowledge, and areas where further research is needed.

Step 5:- Narrow Down Your Focus

Once you have a broad area of interest, narrow it down to a specific research focus. Consider questions like:

• What specific problem or phenomenon do you want to investigate?
• Are there unanswered questions or controversies in this area?
• What impact could your research have on the field or society?

Step 6:- Consider Resources and Access

Assess the resources available to you, including access to laboratories, equipment, databases, and funding. Ensure that your chosen topic aligns with the resources you have or can access.

Step 7:- Think About Practicality

Consider the feasibility of conducting research on your chosen topic. Are the data readily available, or will you need to collect data yourself? Can you complete the research within your available time frame?

Step 8:- Define Your Research Question

Formulate a clear and specific research question or hypothesis. Your research question should guide your entire study and provide a focus for your data collection and analysis.

Step 9:- Conduct a Literature Review

Dive deeper into the existing literature related to your chosen topic. This will help you understand the current state of research, identify gaps, and refine your research question.

Step 10:- Consider the Impact

Think about the potential impact of your research. How does your topic contribute to the advancement of knowledge in your field? Does it have practical applications or implications for society?

Step 11:- Brainstorm Research Methods

Determine the quantitative research methods and data collection techniques you plan to use. Consider whether you’ll conduct experiments, surveys, data analysis, simulations, or use existing datasets.

Step 12:- Seek Feedback

Share your research topic and ideas with peers, advisors, or mentors. They can provide valuable feedback and help you refine your research focus.

Step 13:- Assess Ethical Considerations

Consider ethical implications related to your research, especially if it involves human subjects, sensitive data, or potential environmental impacts. Ensure that your research adheres to ethical guidelines.

Step 14:- Finalize Your Research Topic

Once you’ve gone through these steps, finalize your research topic. Write a clear and concise research proposal that outlines your research question, objectives, methods, and expected outcomes.

Step 15:- Stay Open to Adjustments

Be open to adjusting your research topic as you progress. Sometimes, new insights or challenges may lead you to refine or adapt your research focus.

Following are the most interesting quantitative research topics for stem students. These are given below.

Quantitative Research Topics In Physics and Astronomy

• Quantum Computing Algorithms : Investigate new algorithms for quantum computers and their potential applications.
• Dark Matter Detection Methods : Explore innovative approaches to detect dark matter particles.
• Quantum Teleportation : Study the principles and applications of quantum teleportation.
• Exoplanet Characterization : Analyze data from telescopes to characterize exoplanets.
• Nuclear Fusion Modeling : Create mathematical models for nuclear fusion reactions.
• Superconductivity at High Temperatures : Research the properties and applications of high-temperature superconductors.
• Gravitational Wave Analysis : Analyze gravitational wave data to study astrophysical phenomena.
• Black Hole Thermodynamics : Investigate the thermodynamics of black holes and their entropy.

Quantitative Research Topics In Biology and Life Sciences

• Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) : Conduct GWAS to identify genetic factors associated with diseases.
• Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics : Study drug interactions in the human body.
• Ecological Modeling : Model ecosystems to understand population dynamics.
• Protein Folding : Research the kinetics and thermodynamics of protein folding.
• Cancer Epidemiology : Analyze cancer incidence and risk factors in specific populations.
• Neuroimaging Analysis : Develop algorithms for analyzing brain imaging data.
• Evolutionary Genetics : Investigate evolutionary patterns using genetic data.
• Stem Cell Differentiation : Study the factors influencing stem cell differentiation.

Engineering and Technology Quantitative Research Topics

• Renewable Energy Efficiency : Optimize the efficiency of solar panels or wind turbines.
• Aerodynamics of Drones : Analyze the aerodynamics of drone designs.
• Autonomous Vehicle Safety : Evaluate safety measures for autonomous vehicles.
• Machine Learning in Robotics : Implement machine learning algorithms for robot control.
• Blockchain Scalability : Research methods to scale blockchain technology.
• Quantum Computing Hardware : Design and test quantum computing hardware components.
• IoT Security : Develop security protocols for the Internet of Things (IoT).
• 3D Printing Materials Analysis : Study the mechanical properties of 3D-printed materials.

Quantitative Research Topics In Mathematics and Statistics

Following are the best Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students in mathematics and statistics.

• Prime Number Distribution : Investigate the distribution of prime numbers.
• Graph Theory Algorithms : Develop algorithms for solving graph theory problems.
• Statistical Analysis of Financial Markets : Analyze financial data and market trends.
• Number Theory Research : Explore unsolved problems in number theory.
• Bayesian Machine Learning : Apply Bayesian methods to machine learning models.
• Random Matrix Theory : Study the properties of random matrices in mathematics and physics.
• Topological Data Analysis : Use topology to analyze complex data sets.
• Quantum Algorithms for Optimization : Research quantum algorithms for optimization problems.

Experimental Quantitative Research Topics In Science and Earth Sciences

• Climate Change Modeling : Develop climate models to predict future trends.
• Biodiversity Conservation Analysis : Analyze data to support biodiversity conservation efforts.
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) : Apply GIS techniques to solve environmental problems.
• Oceanography and Remote Sensing : Use satellite data for oceanographic research.
• Air Quality Monitoring : Develop sensors and models for air quality assessment.
• Hydrological Modeling : Study the movement and distribution of water resources.
• Volcanic Activity Prediction : Predict volcanic eruptions using quantitative methods.
• Seismology Data Analysis : Analyze seismic data to understand earthquake patterns.

Chemistry and Materials Science Quantitative Research Topics

• Nanomaterial Synthesis and Characterization : Research the synthesis and properties of nanomaterials.
• Chemoinformatics : Analyze chemical data for drug discovery and materials science.
• Quantum Chemistry Simulations : Perform quantum simulations of chemical reactions.
• Materials for Renewable Energy : Investigate materials for energy storage and conversion.
• Catalysis Kinetics : Study the kinetics of chemical reactions catalyzed by materials.
• Polymer Chemistry : Research the properties and applications of polymers.
• Analytical Chemistry Techniques : Develop new analytical techniques for chemical analysis.
• Sustainable Chemistry : Explore green chemistry approaches for sustainable materials.

Computer Science and Information Technology Topics

• Natural Language Processing (NLP) : Work on NLP algorithms for language understanding.
• Cybersecurity Analytics : Analyze cybersecurity threats and vulnerabilities.
• Big Data Analytics : Apply quantitative methods to analyze large data sets.
• Machine Learning Fairness : Investigate bias and fairness issues in machine learning models.
• Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) : Study user behavior and interaction patterns.
• Software Performance Optimization : Optimize software applications for performance.
• Distributed Systems Analysis : Analyze the performance of distributed computing systems.
• Bioinformatics Data Mining : Develop algorithms for mining biological data.

Good Quantitative Research Topics Students In Medicine and Healthcare

• Clinical Trial Data Analysis : Analyze clinical trial data to evaluate treatment effectiveness.
• Epidemiological Modeling : Model disease spread and intervention strategies.
• Healthcare Data Analytics : Analyze healthcare data for patient outcomes and cost reduction.
• Medical Imaging Algorithms : Develop algorithms for medical image analysis.
• Genomic Medicine : Apply genomics to personalized medicine approaches.
• Telemedicine Effectiveness : Study the effectiveness of telemedicine in healthcare delivery.
• Health Informatics : Analyze electronic health records for insights into patient care.

Agriculture and Food Sciences Topics

• Precision Agriculture : Use quantitative methods for optimizing crop production.
• Food Safety Analysis : Analyze food safety data and quality control.
• Aquaculture Sustainability : Research sustainable practices in aquaculture.
• Crop Disease Modeling : Model the spread of diseases in agricultural crops.
• Climate-Resilient Agriculture : Develop strategies for agriculture in changing climates.
• Food Supply Chain Optimization : Optimize food supply chain logistics.
• Soil Health Assessment : Analyze soil data for sustainable land management.

Social Sciences with Quantitative Approaches

• Educational Data Mining : Analyze educational data for improving learning outcomes.
• Sociodemographic Surveys : Study social trends and demographics using surveys.
• Psychometrics : Develop and validate psychological measurement instruments.
• Political Polling Analysis : Analyze political polling data and election trends.
• Economic Modeling : Develop economic models for policy analysis.
• Urban Planning Analytics : Analyze data for urban planning and infrastructure.
• Climate Policy Evaluation : Evaluate the impact of climate policies on society.

Environmental Engineering Quantitative Research Topics

• Water Quality Assessment : Analyze water quality data for environmental monitoring.
• Waste Management Optimization : Optimize waste collection and recycling programs.
• Environmental Impact Assessments : Evaluate the environmental impact of projects.
• Air Pollution Modeling : Model the dispersion of air pollutants in urban areas.
• Sustainable Building Design : Apply quantitative methods to sustainable architecture.

Quantitative Research Topics Robotics and Automation

• Robotic Swarm Behavior : Study the behavior of robot swarms in different tasks.
• Autonomous Drone Navigation : Develop algorithms for autonomous drone navigation.
• Humanoid Robot Control : Implement control algorithms for humanoid robots.
• Robotic Grasping and Manipulation : Study robotic manipulation techniques.
• Reinforcement Learning for Robotics : Apply reinforcement learning to robotic control.

Quantitative Research Topics Materials Engineering

• Additive Manufacturing Process Optimization : Optimize 3D printing processes.
• Smart Materials for Aerospace : Research smart materials for aerospace applications.
• Nanostructured Materials for Energy Storage : Investigate energy storage materials.
• Corrosion Prevention : Develop corrosion-resistant materials and coatings.

Nuclear Engineering Quantitative Research Topics

• Nuclear Reactor Safety Analysis : Study safety aspects of nuclear reactor designs.
• Nuclear Fuel Cycle Analysis : Analyze the nuclear fuel cycle for efficiency.
• Radiation Shielding Materials : Research materials for radiation protection.

Quantitative Research Topics In Biomedical Engineering

• Medical Device Design and Testing : Develop and test medical devices.
• Biomechanics Analysis : Analyze biomechanics in sports or rehabilitation.
• Biomaterials for Medical Implants : Investigate materials for medical implants.

Good Quantitative Research Topics Chemical Engineering

• Chemical Process Optimization : Optimize chemical manufacturing processes.
• Industrial Pollution Control : Develop strategies for pollution control in industries.
• Chemical Reaction Kinetics : Study the kinetics of chemical reactions in industries.

Best Quantitative Research Topics In Renewable Energy

• Energy Storage Systems : Research and optimize energy storage solutions.
• Solar Cell Efficiency : Improve the efficiency of photovoltaic cells.
• Wind Turbine Performance Analysis : Analyze and optimize wind turbine designs.

Brilliant Quantitative Research Topics In Astronomy and Space Sciences

• Astrophysical Simulations : Simulate astrophysical phenomena using numerical methods.
• Spacecraft Trajectory Optimization : Optimize spacecraft trajectories for missions.
• Exoplanet Detection Algorithms : Develop algorithms for exoplanet detection.

Quantitative Research Topics In Psychology and Cognitive Science

• Cognitive Psychology Experiments : Conduct quantitative experiments in cognitive psychology.
• Emotion Recognition Algorithms : Develop algorithms for emotion recognition in AI.
• Neuropsychological Assessments : Create quantitative assessments for brain function.

Geology and Geological Engineering Quantitative Research Topics

• Geological Data Analysis : Analyze geological data for mineral exploration.
• Geological Hazard Prediction : Predict geological hazards using quantitative models.

Top Quantitative Research Topics In Forensic Science

• Forensic Data Analysis : Analyze forensic evidence using quantitative methods.
• Crime Pattern Analysis : Study crime patterns and trends in urban areas.

Great Quantitative Research Topics In Cybersecurity

• Network Intrusion Detection : Develop quantitative methods for intrusion detection.
• Cryptocurrency Analysis : Analyze blockchain data and cryptocurrency trends.

Mathematical Biology Quantitative Research Topics

• Epidemiological Modeling : Model disease spread and control in populations.
• Population Genetics : Analyze genetic data to understand population dynamics.

Quantitative Research Topics In Chemical Analysis

• Analytical Chemistry Methods : Develop quantitative methods for chemical analysis.
• Spectroscopy Analysis : Analyze spectroscopic data for chemical identification.

Mathematics Education Quantitative Research Topics

• Mathematics Curriculum Analysis : Analyze curriculum effectiveness in mathematics education.
• Mathematics Assessment Development : Develop quantitative assessments for mathematics skills.

Quantitative Research Topics In Social Research

• Social Network Analysis : Analyze social network structures and dynamics.
• Survey Research : Conduct quantitative surveys on social issues and trends.

Quantitative Research Topics In Computational Neuroscience

• Neural Network Modeling : Model neural networks and brain functions computationally.
• Brain Connectivity Analysis : Analyze functional and structural brain connectivity.

Best Topics In Transportation Engineering

• Traffic Flow Modeling : Model and optimize traffic flow in urban areas.
• Public Transportation Efficiency : Analyze the efficiency of public transportation systems.

Good Quantitative Research Topics In Energy Economics

• Energy Policy Analysis : Evaluate the economic impact of energy policies.
• Renewable Energy Cost-Benefit Analysis : Assess the economic viability of renewable energy projects.

Quantum Information Science

• Quantum Cryptography Protocols : Develop and analyze quantum cryptography protocols.
• Quantum Key Distribution : Study the security of quantum key distribution systems.

Human Genetics

• Genome Editing Ethics : Investigate ethical issues in genome editing technologies.
• Population Genomics : Analyze genomic data for population genetics research.

Marine Biology

• Coral Reef Health Assessment : Quantitatively assess the health of coral reefs.
• Marine Ecosystem Modeling : Model marine ecosystems and biodiversity.

Data Science and Machine Learning

• Machine Learning Explainability : Develop methods for explaining machine learning models.
• Data Privacy in Machine Learning : Study privacy issues in machine learning applications.
• Deep Learning for Image Analysis : Develop deep learning models for image recognition.

Environmental Engineering

Robotics and automation, materials engineering, nuclear engineering, biomedical engineering, chemical engineering, renewable energy, astronomy and space sciences, psychology and cognitive science, geology and geological engineering, forensic science, cybersecurity, mathematical biology, chemical analysis, mathematics education, quantitative social research, computational neuroscience, quantitative research topics in transportation engineering, quantitative research topics in energy economics, topics in quantum information science, amazing quantitative research topics in human genetics, quantitative research topics in marine biology, what is a common goal of qualitative and quantitative research.

A common goal of both qualitative and quantitative research is to generate knowledge and gain a deeper understanding of a particular phenomenon or topic. However, they approach this goal in different ways:

1. Understanding a Phenomenon

Both types of research aim to understand and explain a specific phenomenon, whether it’s a social issue, a natural process, a human behavior, or a complex event.

2. Testing Hypotheses

Both qualitative and quantitative research can involve hypothesis testing. While qualitative research may not use statistical hypothesis tests in the same way as quantitative research, it often tests hypotheses or research questions by examining patterns and themes in the data.

3. Contributing to Knowledge

Researchers in both approaches seek to contribute to the body of knowledge in their respective fields. They aim to answer important questions, address gaps in existing knowledge, and provide insights that can inform theory, practice, or policy.

4. Informing Decision-Making

Research findings from both qualitative and quantitative studies can be used to inform decision-making in various domains, whether it’s in academia, government, industry, healthcare, or social services.

5. Enhancing Understanding

Both approaches strive to enhance our understanding of complex phenomena by systematically collecting and analyzing data. They aim to provide evidence-based explanations and insights.

6. Application

Research findings from both qualitative and quantitative studies can be applied to practical situations. For example, the results of a quantitative study on the effectiveness of a new drug can inform medical treatment decisions, while qualitative research on customer preferences can guide marketing strategies.

7. Contributing to Theory

In academia, both types of research contribute to the development and refinement of theories in various disciplines. Quantitative research may provide empirical evidence to support or challenge existing theories, while qualitative research may generate new theoretical frameworks or perspectives.

Conclusion – Quantitative Research Topics For STEM Students

So, selecting a quantitative research topic for STEM students is a pivotal decision that can shape the trajectory of your academic and professional journey. The process involves a thoughtful exploration of your interests, a thorough review of the existing literature, consideration of available resources, and the formulation of a clear and specific research question.

Your chosen topic should resonate with your passions, align with your academic or career goals, and offer the potential to contribute to the body of knowledge in your STEM field. Whether you’re delving into physics, biology, engineering, mathematics, or any other STEM discipline, the right research topic can spark curiosity, drive innovation, and lead to valuable insights.

Moreover, quantitative research in STEM not only expands the boundaries of human knowledge but also has the power to address real-world challenges, improve technology, and enhance our understanding of the natural world. It is a journey that demands dedication, intellectual rigor, and an unwavering commitment to scientific inquiry.

What is quantitative research in STEM?

Quantitative research in this context is designed to improve our understanding of the science system’s workings, structural dependencies and dynamics.

What are good examples of quantitative research?

Surveys and questionnaires serve as common examples of quantitative research. They involve collecting data from many respondents and analyzing the results to identify trends, patterns

What are the 4 C’s in STEM?

They became known as the “Four Cs” — critical thinking, communication, collaboration, and creativity.

Similar Articles

13 Best Tips To Write An Assignment

Whenever the new semester starts, you will get a lot of assignment writing tasks. Now you enter the new academic…

How To Do Homework Fast – 11 Tips To Do Homework Fast

Homework is one of the most important parts that have to be done by students. It has been around for…

Leave a Comment Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

2.4 Research Methods for Social Problems

Theories discuss the why of particular social problems. They begin to systematically explain, for example, why socioeconomic class is prevalent in industrialized societies, or why implicit bias is so common. But how do sociologists develop the theories in the first place or figure out if the theories are useful? For that, they must observe people interacting, and collect data. The ways in which social scientists collect, analyze, and understand research information are called research methods.

However, science isn’t the only way to understand the world. You may experience many more ways of knowing. When you consider why you know something, this knowledge may be based on different sources or experiences. You may know when the movie starts because a friend told you, or because you looked it up on Google. You may know that rain is currently falling because you feel it on your head. You may know that it is wrong to kill another person because it is a belief in your religious tradition or part of your own ethical understanding. You may know because you have a gut feeling that a situation is dangerous, or a choice is the right one. You may know that your friend will be late to class because past experience predicts it. Or, instead of the past, you can imagine the future, knowing that eating a hamburger will satisfy your hunger, just by seeing the picture on the menu. Finally, you may know something because the language you use supports you in noticing particular details. For example, how many ways can you describe the water that falls from the sky? People who live in Oregon, for instance, use several distinct words for rainy weather: drizzle, downpour, showers. Partly cloudy doesn’t change their plans, but they may throw a jacket in the car. In other regions, it may be more useful to describe snow or heat in great detail. The formation of language itself structures how you know something. The table in figure 2.23 organizes these ways of knowing.

Figure 2.23 Ways of Knowing and Examples

Each of these ways of knowing is useful, depending on the circumstances. For example, when my wife and I bought our house, we did research on home prices, home loans, and market value—reason. We talked about what home felt like to us—emotion. We walked through houses and pictured what life would look like in a particular house—imagination. Ultimately, when we drove down the cedar and fir-lined driveway, welcomed by the warm light through the window—sense perception—we turned to each other and said, “I hope this house is still for sale,” because we both knew we had found our home—intuition.

Of all of these ways of knowing, though, reason allows us to use logic and evidence to draw conclusions about what is true. Reason, as used in science, is unique among all of the ways of knowing because it allows us to propose an idea about how a social situation might work, observe the situation, and find out whether our idea is correct. Sociology is a unique scientific approach to understanding people. Let’s explore this more deeply.

As you saw in Chapter 1, sociology is the systematic study of society and social interactions to understand our social world. Although sages, leaders, philosophers, and other wisdom holders have asked what makes a good life throughout human history, sociology applies scientific principles to understanding human behavior.

Like anthropologists, psychologists, and other social scientists, sociologists collect and analyze data in order to draw conclusions about human behavior. Although these fields often overlap and complement each other, sociologists focus most on the interaction of people in groups, communities, institutions, and interrelated systems.

More simply, sociologists study society, a group of people who live in a defined geographic area, who interact with one another, and who share a common culture. Sociologists study human interactions at the smallest micro unit of how parents and children bond, to the widest macro lens of what causes war throughout recorded history. They explore microaggressions, those small moments of interaction that reinforce prejudice in small but powerful ways. They also study the generationally persistent systems of systemic inequality. As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to rage and the climate crisis worsens, sociologists turn even greater attention to global and planetary systems to understand and explain our interdependence.

2.4.1 The Scientific Method

Scientists use shared approaches for figuring out how the social world works. The most common method is known as the scientific method , an established scholarly research process that involves asking a question, researching existing sources, forming a hypothesis, designing a data collection method, gathering data, and drawing conclusions. Often this method is shown as a straight line. Scientists proceed in an orderly fashion, executing one step after the next.

In reality, the scientific method is a circular process rather than a straight line, as shown in figure 2.24. The circle helps us to see that science is driven by curiosity and that learnings at each step move us to the next step, in ongoing loops. This model allows for the creativity and collaboration that is essential in how we actually create new scientific understandings. Let’s dive deeper!

Figure 2.24 The Scientific method as an ongoing process Figure 2.24 Image Description

2.4.1.1 Step 1: Identify a Social Issue/Find a Research Topic and Ask a Question

The first step of the scientific method is to ask a question, select a problem, and identify the specific area of interest. The topic should be narrow enough to study within a geographic location and time frame. “Are societies capable of sustained happiness?” would be too vague. The question should also be broad enough to be of significance. “What do personal hygiene habits reveal about the values of students at XYZ High School?” would be too narrow. Sociologists strive to frame questions that examine well-defined patterns and relationships.

2.4.1.2 Step 2: Review the Literature/Research Existing Sources

The next step researchers undertake is to conduct background research through a literature review, which is a review of any existing similar or related studies. A visit to the library, a thorough online search, and a survey of academic journals will uncover existing research about the topic of study. This step helps researchers gain a broad understanding of work previously conducted, identify gaps in understanding of the topic, and position their own research to build on prior knowledge. Researchers—including student researchers—are responsible for correctly citing existing sources they use in a study or that inform their work. While it is fine to borrow previously published material (as long as it enhances a unique viewpoint), it must be referenced properly.

To study crime, for example, a researcher might also sort through existing data from the court system, police database, and prison information. It’s important to examine this information in addition to existing research to determine how these resources might be used to fill holes in existing knowledge. Reviewing existing sources educates researchers and helps refine and improve a research study design.

2.4.1.3 Step 3: Formulate a Hypothesis

A hypothesis is a testable educated guess about predicted outcomes between two or more variables. In sociology, the hypothesis will often predict how one form of human behavior influences another. For example, a hypothesis might be in the form of an “if, then statement.” Let’s relate this to our topic of crime: If unemployment increases, then the crime rate will increase.

In scientific research, we formulate hypotheses to include an independent variable (IV) , which is the cause of the change, and a dependent variable (DV) , which is the effect , or thing that is changed. In the example above, unemployment is the independent variable and the crime rate is the dependent variable.

In a sociological study, the researcher would establish one form of human behavior as the independent variable and observe the influence it has on a dependent variable. How does gender (the independent variable) affect the rate of income (the dependent variable)? How does one’s religion (the independent variable) affect family size (the dependent variable)? How is social class (the dependent variable) affected by level of education (the independent variable)?

Figure 2.25 Examples of dependent and independent variables. Typically, the independent variable causes the dependent variable to change in some way.

Taking an example from figure 2.25, a researcher might hypothesize that teaching children proper hygiene (the independent variable) will boost their sense of self-esteem (the dependent variable). Note, however, this hypothesis can also work the other way around. A sociologist might predict that increasing a child’s sense of self-esteem (the independent variable) will increase or improve habits of hygiene (now the dependent variable). Identifying the independent and dependent variables is very important. As the hygiene example shows, simply identifying two related topics or variables is not enough. Their prospective relationship must be part of the hypothesis.

2.4.1.4 Step 4: Select a Research Method and Design a Study

Researchers select a research method that is appropriate to answer their research question in this step. Surveys, experiments, interviews, ethnography, and content analysis are just a few examples that researchers may use. You will learn more about these and other research methods later in this chapter. Typically your research question influences the type of methods that will be used.

2.4.1.5 Step 5: Collect Data

Next the researcher collects data. Depending on the research design (step 4), the researcher will begin the process of collecting information on their research topic. After all the data is gathered, the researcher will be able to systematically organize and analyze the data.

2.4.1.6 Step 6: Analyze the Data

After constructing the research design, sociologists collect, tabulate or categorize, and analyze data to formulate conclusions. If the analysis supports the hypothesis, researchers can discuss what this might mean. If the analysis does not support the hypothesis, researchers may consider repeating the study or think of ways to improve their procedure.

Even when results contradict a sociologist’s prediction of a study’s outcome, the results still contribute to sociological understanding. Sociologists analyze general patterns in response to a study, but they are equally interested in exceptions to patterns. In a study of education, for example, a researcher might predict that high school dropouts have a hard time finding rewarding careers. While many assume that the higher the education, the higher the salary and degree of career happiness, there are certainly exceptions. People with little education have had stunning careers, and people with advanced degrees have had trouble finding work. A sociologist prepares a hypothesis knowing that results may substantiate or contradict it.

2.4.1.7 Step 7: Report Findings

Researchers report their results at conferences and in academic journals. These results are then subjected to the scrutiny of other sociologists in the field. Before the conclusions of a study become widely accepted, the studies are often repeated in the same or different environments. In this way, sociological theories and knowledge develop as the relationships between social phenomena are established in broader contexts and different circumstances.

If you still aren’t quite sure about how sociologists use the scientific method, you might enjoy “ The Scientific Method: Steps, Examples, Tips, and Exercise [YouTube Video] ,” which explores why people smile. It also reminds us that people have been using logic and evidence to explore the world for centuries. The video credits Ibn al-Haytham , an eleventh-century Arab Muslim scholar with pioneering the modern scientific method in his study of light and vision (figure 2.26). If the video makes you curious about the science behind why people smile, you might want to check out this current research related to gender and smiling in this article, “ Women smile more than men, but differences disappear when they are in the same role, Yale researcher finds .”

Figure 2.26 Drawing of Ibn al-Hayatham

You might remember that in Chapter 1 , we talked about human society like a forest. We said that individual trees did not exist in isolation. Instead, they were interdependent. They formed a living community. The video in figure 2.27 describes the science behind this knowledge. Please watch at least the first 10 minutes to see if you can discover all the steps of the scientific method that Canadian female scientist Suzanne Simard used in her revolutionary science.

Figure 2.27 Suzanne Simard: How Trees Talk To Each Other [YouTube Video]

2.4.2 Interpretive Framework

You may have noticed that most of the early recognized sociologists in this chapter were White wealthy men. Often, they looked at economics, poverty, and industrialization as their topics. They were committed to using the scientific method. Although women like Harriet Martineau and Jane Addams examined a wide range of social problems and acted on their research, science, even social science, was considered a domain of men. Even in 2020, women are only less than 30% of the STEM (Science Technology Engineering and Math) workforce in the United States (American Association of University Women 2020).

Feminist scientists challenge this exclusion, and the kinds of science it creates. Feminist scientists argue that women and non-binary people belong everywhere in science.They belong in the laboratories and scientific offices. They belong in deciding what topics to study, so that social problems of gendered violence or maternal health are studied also. They belong as participants in research, so that findings apply to people of all gender identities. They belong in applying the results to doing something about social problems. In other words:

Feminists have detailed the historically gendered participation in the practice of science—the marginalization or exclusion of women from the profession and how their contributions have disappeared when they have participated. Feminists have also noted how the sciences have been slow to study women’s lives, bodies, and experiences. Thus from both the perspectives of the agents—the creators of scientific knowledge—and from the perspectives of the subjects of knowledge—the topics and interests focused on—the sciences often have not served women satisfactorily. (Crasnow 2020)

Figure 2.28 NASA “human computer” Katherine Johnson watches the premiere of Hidden Figures after a reception where she was honored along with other members of the segregated West Area Computers division of Langley Research Center.

You may have seen the movie Hidden Figures or read the book. In figure 2.28, Katherine Johnson, an African American mathematician, physicist, and space scientist, watches the premiere of the movie. In it, women, particularly Black women, were the computers for NASA, manually calculating all the math needed to launch and orbit rockets. However, politicians and leaders did not recognize their work. Even when they were creating equations and writing reports, women’s names didn’t go on the title pages.

The practice of science often excludes women and nonbinary people from leadership in research, research topics, and as research subjects. The feminist critque of the traditional scientific method, and other critiques around the process of doing traditional science created space for other frameworks to emerge.

One such framework is the interpretive framework. The interpretive framework is an approach that involves detailed understanding of a particular subject through observation or listening to people’s stories, not through hypothesis testing. Researchers try to understand social experiences from the point of view of the people who are experiencing them. They interview people or look at blogs, newspapers, or videos to discover what people say is happening, and how the people make sense of things. This in-depth understanding allows the researcher to create a new theory about human activity. The steps are similar to the scientific method, but not the same, as you see in figure 2.29.

Figure 2.29. Interpretive framework, Figure 2.29 I mage Description

White American researcher Brene Brown, who you will learn more about in Chapter 3 , describes the approach this way:

In grounded theory we don’t start with a problem or a hypothesis or a literature review, we start with a topic. We let the participants define the problem or their main concern about the topic, we develop a theory, and then we see how and where it fits in the literature. (Brown 2022)

In her own research she interviewed people who she considered resilient to understand how shame works. By listening to resilient people, she was able to develop a theory about how people recover from difficult situations in life. If you are interested in seeing her writing for yourself, check out this blog post on addressing social problems with the power of love: “ Doubling Down on Love .”

Even though both the traditional scientific method and the interpretive framework start with curiosity and questions, the people who practice science using the interpretive framework allow the data to tell its story. Using this method can lead to insightful and transformative results. You can find things you didn’t even know to expect, because you are listening to what the stories say.

2.4.3 Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods

In the video you saw in figure 2.20, Suzanne Simard describes the amazing science she does when she researches how trees talk to each other. The methods she uses, with the possible exception of bringing bear spray, don’t work very well when you study people. Instead social scientists use a variety of methods that allow them to explain and predict the social world. These research methods define how we do social science.

In this section, we examine some of the most common research methods. Research methods are often grouped into two categories: quantitative research , data collected in numerical form that can be counted and analyzed using statistics and qualitative research , non-numerical, descriptive data that is often subjective and based on what is experienced in a natural setting. These methods seem to contradict each other, but some of the strongest scientific studies combine both approaches. New research methods go beyond the two categories, exploring international and Indigenous knowledge, or doing research for the purpose of taking action.

2.4.3.1 Surveys

Do you strongly agree? Agree? Neither agree or disagree? Disagree? Strongly disagree? You’ve probably completed your fair share of surveys, if you’ve heard this before. At some point, most people in the United States respond to some type of survey. The 2020 U.S. Census is an excellent example of a large-scale survey intended to gather sociological data. Since 1790, the United States has conducted a survey consisting of six questions to receive demographic data of the residents who live in the United States.

As a research method, a survey collects data from subjects who respond to a series of questions about behaviors and opinions, often in the form of a questionnaire or an interview. Surveys are one of the most widely used scientific research methods. The standard survey format allows individuals a level of anonymity in which they can express personal ideas.

Not all surveys are considered sociological research. Many surveys people commonly encounter focus on identifying marketing needs and strategies rather than testing a hypothesis or contributing to social science knowledge. Questions such as, “How many hot dogs do you eat in a month?” or “Were the staff helpful?” are not usually designed as scientific research. Surveys gather different types of information from people. While surveys are not great at capturing the ways people really behave in social situations, they are a great method for discovering how people feel, think, and act—or at least how they say they feel, think, and act. Surveys can track preferences for presidential candidates or reported individual behaviors (such as sleeping, driving, or texting habits) or information such as employment status, income, and education levels.

2.4.3.2 Experiments

One way researchers test social theories is by conducting an experiment, meaning the researcher investigates relationships to test a hypothesis. This approach closely resembles the scientific method. There are two main types of experiments: lab-based experiments and natural or field experiments. In a lab setting, the research can be controlled so that data can be recorded in a limited amount of time. In a natural or field-based experiment, the time it takes to gather the data cannot be controlled but the information might be considered more accurate since it was collected without interference or intervention by the researcher. Field-based experiments are often used to evaluate interventions in educational settings and health (Baldassarri and Abascal 2017).

Typically, the sociologist selects a set of people with similar characteristics, such as age, class, race, or education. Those people are divided into two groups. One is the experimental group and the other is the control group. The experimental group is exposed to the independent variable(s) and the control group is not. To test the benefits of tutoring, for example, the sociologist might provide tutoring to the experimental group of students but not to the control group. Then both groups would be tested for differences in performance to see if tutoring had an effect on the experimental group of students. As you can imagine, in a case like this, the researcher would not want to jeopardize the accomplishments of either group of students, so the setting would be somewhat artificial. The test would not be for a grade reflected on their permanent record as a student, for example.

2.4.3.3 Secondary Data Analysis

While sociologists often engage in original research studies, they also contribute knowledge to the discipline through secondary data analysis. Secondary data does not result from firsthand research collected from primary sources. Instead secondary data uses data collected by other researchers or data collected by an agency or organization. Sociologists might study works written by historians, economists, teachers, or early sociologists. They might search through periodicals, newspapers, or magazines, or organizational data from any period in history.

2.4.3.4 Participant Observation

Participant observation refers to a style of research where researchers join people and participate in a group’s routine activities for the purpose of observing them within that context. This method lets researchers experience a specific aspect of social life. A researcher might go to great lengths to get a firsthand look into a trend, institution, or behavior. For instance, a researcher might work as a waitress in a diner, experience homelessness for several weeks, or ride along with police officers as they patrol their regular beat. Often, these researchers try to blend in seamlessly with the population they study, and they may not disclose their true identity or purpose if they feel it would compromise the results of their research.

At the beginning of a field study, researchers might have a question: “What really goes on in the kitchen of the most popular diner on campus?” or “What is it like to be homeless?” Participant observation is a useful method if the researcher wants to explore a certain environment from the inside. The ethnographer will be alert and open minded to whatever happens, recording all observations accurately. Soon, as patterns emerge, questions will become more specific, and the researcher will be able either make connections to existing theories or develop new theories based on their observations. This approach will guide the researcher in analyzing data and generating results.

2.4.3.5 In-depth interviews

Interviews, sometimes referred to as in-depth interviews, are one-on-one conversations with participants designed to gather information about a particular topic. Interviews can take a long time to complete, but they can produce very rich data. In fact, in an interview, a respondent might say something that the researcher had not previously considered, which can help focus the research project. Researchers have to be careful not to use leading questions. You want to avoid leading the respondent into certain kinds of answers by asking questions like, “You really like eating vegetables, don’t you?” Instead researchers should allow the respondent to answer freely by asking questions like, “How do you feel about eating vegetables?”

2.4.4 International Research

International research is conducted outside of the researcher’s own immediate geography and society. This work carries additional challenges considering that researchers often work in regions and cultures different from their own. Researchers need to make special considerations in order to counter their own biases, navigate linguistic challenges and ensure the best cross cultural understanding possible. This webpage shows a map and descriptions of field projects around the world by students at Oxford University’s Masters in Development Studies. What are some interesting projects that stand out to you?

For example, in 2021 Jörg Friedrichs at Oxford published his research on Muslim hate crimes in areas of North England where Islam is the majority religion. He studied police data of racial and religious hate crimes in two districts to look for patterns related to the crimes. He related those patterns to the wider context of community relations between Muslims and other groups, and presented his research to hate crime practitioners in police, local government and civil society (Friedrichs 2021).

2.4.5 Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous scientists also critique traditional ways of doing science. Often, Western science will break things down into parts to understand what each part does. While that may help understand details, it doesn’t give the whole picture of a process or help understand the interdependence in the social and physical world. Also, Western science values intellectual ways of knowing. Intuition, empathy, and connection are not valued. Robin Wall Kimmer, an Indigenous biologist from the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, writes this:

Native scholar Greg Cajete has written that in indigenous ways of knowing, we understand a thing only when we understand it with all four aspects of our being: mind, body, emotion, and spirit. I came to understand quite sharply when I began my training as a scientist that science privileges only one, possibly two, of those ways of knowing: mind and body. As a young person wanting to know everything about plants, I did not question this. But it is a whole human being who finds the beautiful path. (Kimmerer 2013)

When we can do science using all of our ways of knowing, our answers become richer. As the world becomes more aware of increases in the environmental crisis, researchers are more often acknowledging the ways that Indigenous peoples care for their ecological surroundings. As Indigenous communities conduct their own fieldwork to identify and document their own knowledge they are able to engage with research as agents of ecological conservation.

Figure 2.30 Consider This with Robin Wall Kimmerer [YouTube Video]

In the video in Figure 2.30, Kimmerer has a longer conversation about what it means to be American. Starting around minute 55:25 she shares the importance of naming, and how naming can sometimes shut down learning. Please listen to her words for yourself, and reflect on how the practices she introduces might change your own approach to science.

2.4.6 Community-Based Research and Participatory Action Research

Social problems sociologists and other social scientists often conduct their research so that they can take action. Action research is a family of research methodologies that pursue action (or change) and research (or understanding) at the same time. We see this when the government changes a policy based on data or when a community organization tries a new evidence-based approach for providing services. One of the most visible applications of social problems research is through humanitarian or social action efforts.

2.4.6.1 Humanitarian Efforts

One effective example of social action efforts is in the work of Paul Farmer. Farmer was a public health physician, anthropologist, and founder of partners in health. Until his death in 2022, he focused on epidemiological crises in low and middle income countries.

One trend that Farmer championed was the importance of good health and health care as human rights. He contributed to a broader understanding that poor health is a symptom of poverty, violence and inequality (Partners in Health 2009). If you want to learn more, please watch the NPR video essay, “ Paul Farmer: I believe in health care as a human right ” [YouTube Video] where he describes this view. What field experiences of Farmer’s do you see allowed him to develop this view?

Farmer applied this human rights perspective to pandemics. His book, Fevers, Feuds and Diamonds: Ebola and the Ravages of History , looks at the 2014 Ebola crisis, and what we can learn from it to apply to the COVID-19 epidemic. In a PBS Newshour interview he spoke of his work during the Ebola outbreak:

>Early in the Ebola outbreak, almost all of our attention was turned towards clinical services. But we kept on bumping into things we didn’t understand and sometimes even our colleagues from Sierra Leone and Liberia didn’t understand. And that just triggered an interest in a deeper understanding of the place, the culture, the history. (Public Broadcasting Service 2021).

Farmer shares his experiences both as a medical doctor and a researcher, asking the questions: “Who is most impacted by disease? How might things have been done differently? What can be done now?” His research on Ebola focused on circumstances in West Africa where lack of medical resources and decades of war played a role in the epidemic, and how the epidemic itself, as we experience in the United States with Covid, revealed underlying problems and inequities in society (Public Broadcasting Service 2021). We’ll explore topics of health, inequality and interdependence more deeply in Chapter 7 .

2.4.6.2 Community-Based Action Research

Community-based research takes place in community settings. It involves community members in the design and implementation of research projects. It demonstrates respect for the contributions of success that are made by community partners. Research projects involve collaboration between researchers and community partners, whether the community partners are formally structured community-based organizations or informal groups of individual community members. The aim of this type of research is to benefit the community by achieving social justice through social action and change.

2.4.6.3 Participatory Action Research

Community-based research is sometimes called participatory action research (Stringer 2021). In partnership with community organizations, researchers apply their social science research skills to help assess needs, outcomes, and provide data that can be used to improve living conditions. The research is rigorous and often published in professional reports and presented to the board of directors for the organization you are working with. As it sounds, action research suggests that we make a plan to implement changes. Often with academic research, we aim to learn more about a population and leave the next steps up to others. This is an important part of the puzzle, as we need to start with knowledge but action research often has the goal of fixing something or at least quickly translating the newly acquired findings into a solution for a social problem.

To learn more about participatory action research, check out this short 4 minute clip for an introduction with Shirah Hassan of Just Practice (figure 2.31):

Figure 2.31 Participatory Action Research with Shirah Hassan  [YouTube Video]

Community-based action research looks for evidence. As new insights emerge, the researchers adjust the question or the approach. This type of research engages people who have traditionally been referred to as subjects as active participants in the research process. The researcher is working with the organization during the whole process and will likely bring in different project design elements based on the needs of the organization. Social scientists can bring more formalized training, but they draw both on existing research/literature and goals of the organization they are working with. Community-based research or participatory research can be thought of as an orientation for research rather than strictly a method. Often a number of different methods are used to collect data. Change can often be one of the main aims of the project, as we will see in the box below.

2.4.7 Research Ethics

How we do science and how we apply our results is more challenging than it might first appear. The American Sociological Association (ASA) is the major professional organization of sociologists in North America. ASA is a great resource for students of sociology as well. The ASA maintains a code of ethics —formal guidelines for conducting sociological research—consisting of principles and ethical standards to be used in the discipline. These formal guidelines were established by practitioners in 1905 at John Hopkins University, and revised in 1997. When working with human subjects, these codes of ethics require researchers’ to do the following:

• Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
• Respect subjects’ rights to privacy and dignity
• Protect subject from personal harm
• Preserve confidentiality
• Seek informed consent
• Acknowledge collaboration and assistance
• Disclose sources of financial support

2.4.8 Unethical Studies

Unfortunately, when these codes of ethics are ignored, it creates an unethical environment for humans being involved in a sociological study. Throughout history, there have been numerous unethical studies, as we’ll explore in the following sections.

2.4.8.1 The Tuskegee Experiment

This study was conducted 1932 in Macon County, Alabama, and included 600 African American men, including 399 diagnosed with syphilis. The participants were told they were diagnosed with a disease of “bad blood.” Penicillin was distributed in the 1940s as the cure for the disease, but unfortunately, the African American men were not given the treatment because the objective of the study was to see “how untreated syphilis would affect the African American male” (Caplan 2007). This study was shut down in 1972, because a reporter wrote that at least 128 people had died from syphillis or related complications (Nix 2020).

2.4.8.2 Milgram Experiment

In 1961, psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted an experiment at Yale University. Its purpose was to measure the willingness of study subjects to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience. People in the role of teacher believed they were administering electric shocks to students who gave incorrect answers to word-pair questions. No matter how concerned they were about administering the progressively more intense shocks, the teachers were told to keep going. The ethical concerns involve the extreme emotional distress faced by the teachers, who believed they were hurting other people. (Vogel 2014). Today this experiment would not be allowed because it would violate the ethical principal of protecting subjects from personal harm.

2.4.8.3 Philip Zimbardo and the Stanford prison experiment

In 1971, psychologist Phillip Zimbardo conducted a study involving students from Stanford University. The students were put in the roles of prisoners and guards, and were required to play their assigned role accordingly. The experiment was intended to last two weeks, but it only lasted six days due to the negative outcome and treatment of the “prisoners.” Beyond the ethical concerns, the study’s validity has been questioned after participants revealed they had been coached to behave in specific ways. Today, this experiment would not be allowed because it would violate a participants right to dignity, and protection from harm.

2.4.8.4 Laud Humphreys

In the 1960s, Laud Humphreys conducted an experiment at a restroom in a park known for same-sex sexual encounters. His objective was to understand the diversity of backgrounds and motivations of people seeking same-sex relationships. His ethics were questioned because he misrepresented his identity and intent while observing and questioning the men he interviewed (Nardi 1995). Today this experiment would not be allowed because participants did not provide informed consent, among other issues.

2.4.9 Licenses and Attributions for Research Methods for Social Problems

2.4 Research methods for social problems.

Puentes and Gougherty https://docs.google.com/document/d/1BOCrIQ5xDJD1RbVdmS1glMeaKurj4fHgF5hkn2P77-U/edit#heading=h.lc1f68rgruem Slightly summarized

Figure 2.23 – Ways of Knowing and Examples by Kimberly Puttman. License: CC-BY-ND

Figure 2.24 The Scientific Method as an Ongoing Process by Michaela Willi Hooper and Jennifer Puentes. License: CC-BY-4.0.

Figure 2.25 Examples of dependent and independent variables. Typically, the independent variable causes the dependent variable to change in some way. [c] [d]

Figure 2.26 Drawing of Ibn al-Hayatham by Unknown Artist, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons public domain.

Figure 2.27 “ How Trees Talk To Each Other ” by Suzanne Simard. License Terms: Standard YouTube license.

2.4.2 Interpretive Frameworks by Kimberly Puttman. License: CC-BY-4.0

Figure 2.28 “ Hidden Figures Premiere ” by NASA/Aubrey Gemignani, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons public domain.

Figure 2.29. Interpretive Framework Source – Kim Puttman [e]

Figure 2.30 “ Consider This with Robin Wall Kimmerer ” by Oregon Humanities . License Terms: Standard YouTube license.

Figure 2.31 “ Participatory Action Research ” with Shirah Haasan by Vera Instit ute of Justice . License Terms: Standard YouTube license.

Social Problems Copyright © by Kim Puttman. All Rights Reserved.

Share This Book

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods

Published on June 12, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio).

Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

• What is the demographic makeup of Singapore in 2020?
• How has the average temperature changed globally over the last century?
• Does environmental pollution affect the prevalence of honey bees?
• Does working from home increase productivity for people with long commutes?

Table of contents

Quantitative research methods, quantitative data analysis, advantages of quantitative research, disadvantages of quantitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about quantitative research.

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental research.

• In descriptive research , you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.
• In correlational research , you investigate relationships between your study variables.
• In experimental research , you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses , or predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations based on the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that translate abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of feelings and energy levels).

Note that quantitative research is at risk for certain research biases , including information bias , omitted variable bias , sampling bias , or selection bias . Be sure that you’re aware of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data to prevent them from impacting your work too much.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example, survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can use statistical analysis to answer your research questions .

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your data and check for any trends or outliers.

Using inferential statistics , you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data. You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter .

First, you use descriptive statistics to get a summary of the data. You find the mean (average) and the mode (most frequent rating) of procrastination of the two groups, and plot the data to see if there are any outliers.

You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to indicate how consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you wanted them to.

Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings . Strengths of this approach include:

• Replication

Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible definitions of abstract concepts.

• Direct comparisons of results

The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of participants. Results can be compared statistically.

• Large samples

Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent procedures through quantitative data analysis.

• Hypothesis testing

Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to carefully consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods before coming to a conclusion.

Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex research topics. Its limitations include:

• Superficiality

Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.

• Narrow focus

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant observations.

• Structural bias

Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing data , imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the wrong conclusions.

• Lack of context

Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

In mixed methods research , you use both qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to answer your research question .

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

Operationalization means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioral avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalize the variables that you want to measure.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). What Is Quantitative Research? | Definition, Uses & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved September 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/quantitative-research/

Is this article helpful?

Pritha Bhandari

Other students also liked, descriptive statistics | definitions, types, examples, inferential statistics | an easy introduction & examples, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Quantitative Methods
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

Quantitative methods emphasize objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques . Quantitative research focuses on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a particular phenomenon.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Muijs, Daniel. Doing Quantitative Research in Education with SPSS . 2nd edition. London: SAGE Publications, 2010.

Need Help Locating Statistics?

Resources for locating data and statistics can be found here:

Statistics & Data Research Guide

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Your goal in conducting quantitative research study is to determine the relationship between one thing [an independent variable] and another [a dependent or outcome variable] within a population. Quantitative research designs are either descriptive [subjects usually measured once] or experimental [subjects measured before and after a treatment]. A descriptive study establishes only associations between variables; an experimental study establishes causality.

Quantitative research deals in numbers, logic, and an objective stance. Quantitative research focuses on numeric and unchanging data and detailed, convergent reasoning rather than divergent reasoning [i.e., the generation of a variety of ideas about a research problem in a spontaneous, free-flowing manner].

Its main characteristics are :

• The data is usually gathered using structured research instruments.
• The results are based on larger sample sizes that are representative of the population.
• The research study can usually be replicated or repeated, given its high reliability.
• Researcher has a clearly defined research question to which objective answers are sought.
• All aspects of the study are carefully designed before data is collected.
• Data are in the form of numbers and statistics, often arranged in tables, charts, figures, or other non-textual forms.
• Project can be used to generalize concepts more widely, predict future results, or investigate causal relationships.
• Researcher uses tools, such as questionnaires or computer software, to collect numerical data.

The overarching aim of a quantitative research study is to classify features, count them, and construct statistical models in an attempt to explain what is observed.

  Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using quantitative methods :

• Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not appropriate in this section.
• Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
• Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
• Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure ; provide a rationale for its use and a reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
• Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they were not violated.
• When using inferential statistics , provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals, and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction, the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
• Avoid inferring causality , particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further experimentation.
• Use tables to provide exact values ; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever possible.
• Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures .

NOTE:   When using pre-existing statistical data gathered and made available by anyone other than yourself [e.g., government agency], you still must report on the methods that were used to gather the data and describe any missing data that exists and, if there is any, provide a clear explanation why the missing data does not undermine the validity of your final analysis.

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Quantitative Research Methods. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Basic Research Design for Quantitative Studies

Before designing a quantitative research study, you must decide whether it will be descriptive or experimental because this will dictate how you gather, analyze, and interpret the results. A descriptive study is governed by the following rules: subjects are generally measured once; the intention is to only establish associations between variables; and, the study may include a sample population of hundreds or thousands of subjects to ensure that a valid estimate of a generalized relationship between variables has been obtained. An experimental design includes subjects measured before and after a particular treatment, the sample population may be very small and purposefully chosen, and it is intended to establish causality between variables. Introduction The introduction to a quantitative study is usually written in the present tense and from the third person point of view. It covers the following information:

• Identifies the research problem -- as with any academic study, you must state clearly and concisely the research problem being investigated.
• Reviews the literature -- review scholarship on the topic, synthesizing key themes and, if necessary, noting studies that have used similar methods of inquiry and analysis. Note where key gaps exist and how your study helps to fill these gaps or clarifies existing knowledge.
• Describes the theoretical framework -- provide an outline of the theory or hypothesis underpinning your study. If necessary, define unfamiliar or complex terms, concepts, or ideas and provide the appropriate background information to place the research problem in proper context [e.g., historical, cultural, economic, etc.].

Methodology The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study will be achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed assessment of the methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem. The methods section should be presented in the past tense.

• Study population and sampling -- where did the data come from; how robust is it; note where gaps exist or what was excluded. Note the procedures used for their selection;
• Data collection – describe the tools and methods used to collect information and identify the variables being measured; describe the methods used to obtain the data; and, note if the data was pre-existing [i.e., government data] or you gathered it yourself. If you gathered it yourself, describe what type of instrument you used and why. Note that no data set is perfect--describe any limitations in methods of gathering data.
• Data analysis -- describe the procedures for processing and analyzing the data. If appropriate, describe the specific instruments of analysis used to study each research objective, including mathematical techniques and the type of computer software used to manipulate the data.

Results The finding of your study should be written objectively and in a succinct and precise format. In quantitative studies, it is common to use graphs, tables, charts, and other non-textual elements to help the reader understand the data. Make sure that non-textual elements do not stand in isolation from the text but are being used to supplement the overall description of the results and to help clarify key points being made. Further information about how to effectively present data using charts and graphs can be found here .

• Statistical analysis -- how did you analyze the data? What were the key findings from the data? The findings should be present in a logical, sequential order. Describe but do not interpret these trends or negative results; save that for the discussion section. The results should be presented in the past tense.

Discussion Discussions should be analytic, logical, and comprehensive. The discussion should meld together your findings in relation to those identified in the literature review, and placed within the context of the theoretical framework underpinning the study. The discussion should be presented in the present tense.

• Interpretation of results -- reiterate the research problem being investigated and compare and contrast the findings with the research questions underlying the study. Did they affirm predicted outcomes or did the data refute it?
• Description of trends, comparison of groups, or relationships among variables -- describe any trends that emerged from your analysis and explain all unanticipated and statistical insignificant findings.
• Discussion of implications – what is the meaning of your results? Highlight key findings based on the overall results and note findings that you believe are important. How have the results helped fill gaps in understanding the research problem?
• Limitations -- describe any limitations or unavoidable bias in your study and, if necessary, note why these limitations did not inhibit effective interpretation of the results.

Conclusion End your study by to summarizing the topic and provide a final comment and assessment of the study.

• Summary of findings – synthesize the answers to your research questions. Do not report any statistical data here; just provide a narrative summary of the key findings and describe what was learned that you did not know before conducting the study.
• Recommendations – if appropriate to the aim of the assignment, tie key findings with policy recommendations or actions to be taken in practice.
• Future research – note the need for future research linked to your study’s limitations or to any remaining gaps in the literature that were not addressed in your study.

Black, Thomas R. Doing Quantitative Research in the Social Sciences: An Integrated Approach to Research Design, Measurement and Statistics . London: Sage, 1999; Gay,L. R. and Peter Airasain. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Applications . 7th edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merril Prentice Hall, 2003; Hector, Anestine. An Overview of Quantitative Research in Composition and TESOL . Department of English, Indiana University of Pennsylvania; Hopkins, Will G. “Quantitative Research Design.” Sportscience 4, 1 (2000); "A Strategy for Writing Up Research Results. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper." Department of Biology. Bates College; Nenty, H. Johnson. "Writing a Quantitative Research Thesis." International Journal of Educational Science 1 (2009): 19-32; Ouyang, Ronghua (John). Basic Inquiry of Quantitative Research . Kennesaw State University.

Strengths of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative researchers try to recognize and isolate specific variables contained within the study framework, seek correlation, relationships and causality, and attempt to control the environment in which the data is collected to avoid the risk of variables, other than the one being studied, accounting for the relationships identified.

Among the specific strengths of using quantitative methods to study social science research problems:

• Allows for a broader study, involving a greater number of subjects, and enhancing the generalization of the results;
• Allows for greater objectivity and accuracy of results. Generally, quantitative methods are designed to provide summaries of data that support generalizations about the phenomenon under study. In order to accomplish this, quantitative research usually involves few variables and many cases, and employs prescribed procedures to ensure validity and reliability;
• Applying well established standards means that the research can be replicated, and then analyzed and compared with similar studies;
• You can summarize vast sources of information and make comparisons across categories and over time; and,
• Personal bias can be avoided by keeping a 'distance' from participating subjects and using accepted computational techniques .

Babbie, Earl R. The Practice of Social Research . 12th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage, 2010; Brians, Craig Leonard et al. Empirical Political Analysis: Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods . 8th ed. Boston, MA: Longman, 2011; McNabb, David E. Research Methods in Public Administration and Nonprofit Management: Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches . 2nd ed. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2008; Singh, Kultar. Quantitative Social Research Methods . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2007.

Limitations of Using Quantitative Methods

Quantitative methods presume to have an objective approach to studying research problems, where data is controlled and measured, to address the accumulation of facts, and to determine the causes of behavior. As a consequence, the results of quantitative research may be statistically significant but are often humanly insignificant.

Some specific limitations associated with using quantitative methods to study research problems in the social sciences include:

• Quantitative data is more efficient and able to test hypotheses, but may miss contextual detail;
• Uses a static and rigid approach and so employs an inflexible process of discovery;
• The development of standard questions by researchers can lead to "structural bias" and false representation, where the data actually reflects the view of the researcher instead of the participating subject;
• Results provide less detail on behavior, attitudes, and motivation;
• Researcher may collect a much narrower and sometimes superficial dataset;
• Results are limited as they provide numerical descriptions rather than detailed narrative and generally provide less elaborate accounts of human perception;
• The research is often carried out in an unnatural, artificial environment so that a level of control can be applied to the exercise. This level of control might not normally be in place in the real world thus yielding "laboratory results" as opposed to "real world results"; and,
• Preset answers will not necessarily reflect how people really feel about a subject and, in some cases, might just be the closest match to the preconceived hypothesis.

Research Tip

Finding Examples of How to Apply Different Types of Research Methods

SAGE publications is a major publisher of studies about how to design and conduct research in the social and behavioral sciences. Their SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases database includes contents from books, articles, encyclopedias, handbooks, and videos covering social science research design and methods including the complete Little Green Book Series of Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences and the Little Blue Book Series of Qualitative Research techniques. The database also includes case studies outlining the research methods used in real research projects. This is an excellent source for finding definitions of key terms and descriptions of research design and practice, techniques of data gathering, analysis, and reporting, and information about theories of research [e.g., grounded theory]. The database covers both qualitative and quantitative research methods as well as mixed methods approaches to conducting research.

SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases

• << Previous: Qualitative Methods
• Next: Insiderness >>
• Last Updated: Sep 4, 2024 9:40 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

Can Quantitative Research Solve Social Problems? Pragmatism and the Ethics of Social Research

• Open access
• Published: 13 June 2019
• Volume 167 , pages 41–48, ( 2020 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Thomas C. Powell 1  

26k Accesses

9 Citations

3 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Journal of Business Ethics recently published a critique of ethical practices in quantitative research by Zyphur and Pierides (J Bus Ethics 143:1–16, 2017). The authors argued that quantitative research prevents researchers from addressing urgent problems facing humanity today, such as poverty, racial inequality, and climate change. I offer comments and observations on the authors’ critique. I agree with the authors in many areas of philosophy, ethics, and social research, while making suggestions for clarification and development. Interpreting the paper through the pragmatism of William James, I suggest that the authors’ arguments are unlikely to change attitudes in traditional quantitative research, though they may point the way to a new worldview, or Jamesian “sub-world,” in social research.

Explore related subjects

• Artificial Intelligence

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

I was invited by the editors of this journal to comment on an article called “Is Quantitative Research Ethical? Tools for Ethically Practicing, Evaluating, and Using Quantitative Research” (Zyphur and Pierides 2017 ). The topic of the article is important and of great intrinsic interest to me, so I am pleased to offer this commentary. As will become clear, I agree with much of what the authors wrote, and with their overall philosophical orientation. The authors presented a compelling critique of traditional approaches to quantitative research (QR) in the social sciences, offering an ethical orientation for organizational research and providing helpful examples of ethical approaches to QR in management studies.

Of course, agreement makes uninteresting commentary and it is pointless to repeat the authors’ arguments and agree with them. What I have done instead is to play the devil’s advocate, selecting a few key points from the paper and evaluating them from the perspective of a traditional QR practitioner. For example, the authors argued that traditional approaches to QR are not objective but value-laden. I agree with this (see Powell 2001a ), but I evaluate whether the authors’ proposals alleviate this problem or make it worse. The authors argued that quantitative researchers should do their part to solve human problems. I agree with this (see Powell 2014a ), but I consider whether the problems they discussed were caused by quantitative methods, and whether it is reasonable to expect any research method to solve them. The authors endorsed a pragmatist epistemology as against foundationalist or “correspondence” epistemologies. I agree with this (see Powell 2001b , 2002 , 2003 , 2014b ), but I review the origins of pragmatist philosophy and consider whether pragmatism can legitimately be used to justify the social agendas of academic researchers.

My overall theme is that we should be careful what we wish for. If all social research is value-laden, then we should be wary of privileging the values of a particular community, including the community of socially minded elites working in universities, or of academic journal editors who aspire to make social impacts in the world. Many of us want to solve human problems but we should also examine ourselves, asking if we are the right people for the job, working in the right places, carrying the right tools. The authors’ pragmatic philosophy can help explain the nature of research practices, but it may not be the best platform for choosing between the competing values of academic researchers.

In the next section, I briefly summarize the argument in Zyphur and Pierides ( 2017 ) and provide overall comments. After that, I explore a few of the authors’ arguments in detail, considering their wider implications for social research. I conclude with a discussion of pragmatism in social research, examining the pragmatism of William James and its consequences for ethics in social research.

Overview of Zyphur and Pierides ( 2017 )

Zyphur and Pierides ( 2017 ) offered an ethical critique of traditional quantitative research (QR) in the social sciences. The authors challenged the philosophical foundations of traditional QR, such as its rationalist-materialist ontology and presumed scientific “objectivity.” They also challenged specific methods and practices in social research, including “best practices” in research design, sampling, measurement, hypothesis testing and data analysis.

The authors’ core message was that traditional QR practices are not objective but value-laden. Implicitly or otherwise, traditional QR takes an ethical position that impedes research that might address the real problems facing humankind today, such as racial inequality, poverty, corruption, and climate change. The authors did not reject QR as an enterprise, but criticized the assumption that standard QR “best practices” are objective and value-free. The authors called for a new “built for purpose” approach, in which researchers make their ethical purposes clear at the start, adapting research designs and analytical methods to those purposes.

The authors criticized traditional assumptions of “representation,” “correspondence,” and “probabilistic inference.” In traditional QR, researchers begin by defining theoretical constructs or variables that purportedly represent tangible or intangible objects in the real world. QR practitioners assume that these labels correspond to things in the external world with a degree of one-to-one accuracy; and they propose correlational or causal relations, which presumably correspond with how these objects relate in the real world. These relations are then tested by drawing samples which presumably correspond to larger populations. To establish the correspondence of sample results to populations, researchers use probabilistic inference, which they represent by statistical artefacts such as regression coefficients, confidence intervals and p -values.

The authors argued that the assumptions of traditional QR—that labels correspond to things; that hypothesized relations correspond to actual relations; that samples correspond to populations; that probabilistic inference allows valid inductions—are open to philosophical and methodological objections across the board, some of which the authors discussed in the paper. More to the point, however, traditional QR methods smuggle hidden values into the research process, dictating which research questions can be asked, how constructs can be measured, and how data can be gathered and analysed. According to the authors, these values, operating under a cover of scientific respectability, impede social researchers who would use QR to improve the human condition.

As an alternative to traditional QR, the authors proposed a “built for purpose” approach, in which researchers do not mimic traditional QR, but develop QR practices capable of addressing real human problems in the world. Instead of starting with representations and correspondences, researchers should start with a clear ethical purpose—for example, to combat corporate corruption or to eliminate racial discrimination. Instead of focusing on concept validity, construct validity, and other correspondences, researchers should maximize “relational validity”—that is, the “mutual fitness” of research designs, analytical methods, and ethical purposes. According to the authors, “relational validity offers a novel response to the centuries old problem of induction.” (p. 12).

The authors argued that a “built for purpose” approach requires new perspectives and research practices, which they called “orientations” and “ways of doing.” The new “orientations” require researchers to begin by asking, “Who is the research for?” “What is it trying to achieve?” and “How will it improve the human condition?” The new “ways of doing” require researchers to adapt research methods—measurement, sampling, data analysis, and causal inferences—to ethical purposes. In proposing this approach, the authors aimed to dispel traditional QR’s fixation on scientific objectivity by “putting QR to work for other purposes that are of greater concern—inequality, global warming, or corruption.” (p. 2).

Comments on Zyphur and Pierides ( 2017 )

To evaluate the paper on its own terms, I want to say what I think the authors were trying to do, and not trying to do. In particular, I do not think the authors were making an exhaustive technical critique of quantitative methods in social research. The authors criticized certain tendencies in QR practice—such as data-mining for low p -values (“ p -hacking”), and focusing on averages in regression analysis—but seemed less concerned with statistical technique than with the broader goal of “disrupting the universality” of scientific method. Their main recommendations—that researchers should focus on human problems, “built for purpose” research designs, and the “mutual fitness” of methods and purposes—could be applied equally to quantitative or qualitative research. If the authors had intended the paper as a technical deconstruction of QR in the social sciences, much more could have been said, and indeed has been said by other authors (e.g. Gelman 2015 ; Schwab et al. 2011 ; Simmons et al. 2011 ; Vul et al. 2009 ).

But the authors focused on a different point; namely, that traditional QR practices impede research on social problems even when these practices are used as they were intended. Researchers should avoid obvious errors in statistical inference, such as inferring causation from correlation. But if the real problem in QR is unthinking obedience to the orthodoxies of scientific method, the issues are behavioural rather than statistical. For example, replicability and generalizability are sound QR principles, but they incentivize research on repeatable problems while neglecting specific or non-replicable contexts; and representative sampling improves probabilistic inference, but many human problems involve minorities facing unique hardships. Hence the authors focused less on QR technique than on the need for new “orientations” and “ways of doing” in the choice and implementation of QR methods.

This approach places the authors in a tradition reminiscent of C. Wright Mills in The Sociological Imagination ( 1959 ). Mills criticized the “abstracted empiricism” of quantitative sociology in mid-20th century North America; that is, the trend of importing assumptions from the natural sciences, defining social constructs as if they were physical objects, and using statistical methods to define problems rather than the other way around. Like Zyphur and Pierides, Mills argued that social researchers should put the scientific method in the service of research problems: “Controversy over different views of ‘methodology’ and ‘theory’ is properly carried on in close and continuous relation with substantive problems.” (Mills 1959 , p. 83) Mills was concerned less with statistical methods than with the philosophies lurking beneath the supposed “objectivity” of quantitative social research:

As a matter of practice, abstracted empiricists often seem more concerned with the… Scientific Method. Methodology, in short, seems to determine the problems. And this, after all, is only to be expected. The Scientific Method that is projected here did not grow out of, and is not a generalization of, what are generally and correctly taken to be the classic lines of social science work. It has been largely drawn, with expedient modifications, from one philosophy of natural science. (Mills 1959 , pp. 39, 40)

The authors share not only Mills’ scepticism of scientific method but also his philosophical pragmatism. It is important to recognize the authors’ pragmatism and not to conflate it with ontologies aligned with nominalism, subjectivism, social constructionism, and postmodern social theory. The authors sympathize with these views, but to classify their position as “subjectivism” or “social constructionism” would be to misunderstand what they are saying. When the authors use a term like “correspondence,” they are not making a vague reference to similarity, but invoking the terminology of the pragmatist philosophy of science. Pragmatism anticipated many of the philosophical moves that would later characterize postmodern social theory, but the two approaches have different origins, and different consequences for social research.

Although the authors explained their pragmatism in an earlier paper (Zyphur et al. 2016 ), they might have done more in the current paper to guide readers through their philosophical position, linking pragmatism with their critique of traditional QR and recommendations for future QR practice. As it stands, the paper seems to blend non-pragmatist and pragmatist ideas together in a kind of free-floating subjectivist relativism that may strike some readers as confusing or unhelpful. For example, in explaining their approach, the authors used abstract language that is hard to place in any philosophical tradition:

To begin, we put forth two infinitely long and intersecting dimensions of QR practice that we call orientations and ways of doing, which connect purposes to QR practice. Instead of being ‘foundations’ or somehow fundamental in a representation correspondence sense, each category and its contents are akin to idioms or axiomatic lists that tend toward infinity because they can be populated indefinitely, limited only by the creativity of those who adopt them. They may also be orthogonal, indicating that each orientation can, at least in theory, be combined with any way of doing QR in order to achieve a given purpose. In what follows, we describe these dimensions, beginning to populate the lists that may constitute each dimension while illustrating the fruitfulness of combinations that emerge. However, there are two caveats to mentioned upfront which, if ignored, undermine our broader recommendations. (p. 4)

Due in part to the paper’s lack of clarity, both in language and narrative structure, a skeptical reader might argue that the authors have left their recommendations open to ethical misinterpretation, even by those who want to put them into practice. For example, a reader might interpret the authors’ “built for purpose” method roughly as follows: (1) Identify a serious social problem (poverty, racial inequality, climate change, etc.); (2) Choose a desired outcome (elimination of poverty, racial equality, climate stabilization, etc.); (3) Design a quantitative study that demonstrates the severity of the problem; (4) Use the quantitative results to campaign for social change that solves the problem.

This is an oversimplification of the authors’ advice, but a traditional QR practitioner might argue that the method ignores the crucial distinction between ethical outcomes and ethical processes . The received scientific method has many faults, but it recognizes, in principle, that scientists should not choose their desired outcomes or contrive their research processes to achieve those outcomes. Admittedly, scientists have abused scientific method in exactly this way, but the whole point of scientific method is to neutralize researchers’ preferences. Without a relatively objective process, researchers will choose the outcomes they want and manipulate research processes to achieve them. These manipulations may produce social changes, and some of the changes may be socially desirable—but this is not an ethical process unless we believe that “the ends justify the means” (consequentialist ethics) or that “bad people achieve their goals this way, so good people must do it too” (compensatory ethics). Either way, achieving social purposes comes at a high ethical price.

Similarly, a critic might stand behind the Rawlsian “veil of ignorance” (Rawls 1971 ) and ask: If we wanted accurate and reliable research on a social problem, would we prefer a team of researchers bound to a fixed research process they believe is ethical, or a team of researchers bound to a fixed social outcome they believe is ethical? Either team might have false beliefs, so the research process might actually be unethical, or the social outcome might be unethical. The problem is that a research team bound to a fixed outcome will reach the same conclusions whether the outcome is ethical or not, whereas a team that follows a fixed process has a chance of reaching new conclusions; and, if its process is ethical, of reaching conclusions independent of its own preferences. A reasonable person behind the Rawlsian veil might prefer a process capable of producing new or unbiased results, even if the process was imperfectly implemented.

Traditional quantitative researchers might also challenge the authors’ assumption that researchers who practice their methods are the ones who should define the world’s problems and decide which ideas get published. How do we know their values are trustworthy? If an ethical problem exists with scientific method, should we relocate our trust from the scientific community to a sub-community of socially minded university professors, journal editors and government funding agencies? Does this sub-community have a shared and coherent view of social ethics and human purposes—and if not, by what process will they define and prioritize social outcomes? What would stop an ambitious social researcher with political connections and a social media profile from hijacking the method to perpetrate mass social harm?

The authors rightly point out that traditional QR is not value-free, nor is scientific method in general. Scientists often allow quantitative methods to dictate research problems, and they have perverse incentives to find publishable results in their data. When QR is driven by methods indifferent to human purposes, it crowds out research that might address large-scale human problems. All of this is true. On the other hand, the authors’ claim that traditional QR is “ethics-laden” relies on the charge that it “produces an orientation toward ‘facts’ rather than ‘values.’” (p. 3). Therefore, the authors need to show how a commitment to facts undermines the solving of human problems, and how a commitment to values removes the ethical biases of traditional methods. Unfortunately the paper does not provide the needed clarity:

By separating facts from values, facts appear to be unrelated to ethics; and with a focus on facts, ethics appear irrelevant for QR validity… New understandings of validity are needed to address the ways that QR is an ethical act and ethically consequential. This ethicality may be unrelated to representation or correspondence, such as if QR is meant to produce images of society that change the way people think and act – an enactment of a reality that did not yet exist to be merely ‘represented’… (p. 7)

Many researchers, qualitative and quantitative alike, may disagree with the authors on the fundamental nature and purpose of social research. For example, the authors implicated traditional QR in the global financial crisis (p. 10), but many traditional researchers would reject any suggestion that the financial crisis can be laid at the doorstep of a research method—why not qualitative methods?—or that a research method can solve the world’s problems. Traditional QR practitioners would acknowledge that “Determine the nature and extent of human poverty” is a QR problem; but they would not acknowledge that “Eliminate human poverty” is a QR problem. In their worldview, it is a human problem, a social problem, an economic problem, a political problem, a gender problem, a racial problem, and many other kinds of problem. QR can help us understand what is going on in the domain of human poverty, and QR analysis provides input to policy-makers. But this does not prove that researchers should stop using “best practices,” but merely begs the question of whether traditional QR or “built for purpose” QR is the better method for understanding what is going on.

QR practitioners might also question the authors’ logical consistency in rejecting assumptions like “representation” and “correspondence.” Presumably, when the authors made statements about traditional QR—for example, that QR includes hypothesis testing and regression analysis—they were affirming that their sentences represented something, and that their ideas corresponded to something beyond words on a page. When the authors wrote “QR is often done in terms of representation and correspondence (Zyphur et al. 2016 )” (p. 2), they affirmed that this proposition, and the term “Zyphur et al. ( 2016 ),” corresponded to things and persons that possessed a reality independent of the words, even if that reality was a social construction rather than an objective material object. In other words, the authors seemed to be using representation and correspondence to critique representation and correspondence.

I think QR researchers will be especially interested in the illustrations of exemplary QR provided by the authors. Without critiquing the papers individually, the examples show that the search for better QR methods is fraught with pitfalls. Regardless of QR methods, social research is a human process concerned with human subjects. It is not obvious that researchers who follow the QR method of Zyphur and Pierides are behaving more ethically than researchers who follow traditional QR, even when they are researching worthy causes. The choice is not between ethical and unethical QR, but among a range of imperfect quantitative methods, each inviting its own forms of human error. Along with the authors, I hope that QR can make contributions to solving human problems; but I also believe that if we did not have something like traditional QR, we would have to invent it. Whatever its flaws, the question is not whether scientific method eliminates human error, but whether, among the imperfect alternatives available to us, it gives us the best explanations for what is going on in the world.

This is why we must be careful what we wish for. Humanity is confronted with many problems, and social researchers need to find a way to do their part. Whatever objections can be raised against the paper, I endorse what the authors are trying to achieve. But removing or reforming traditional QR will not solve the problems of the human condition because these problems are not caused by a research method. The problems of the human condition are caused by people, and shifting responsibility from one group of researchers to another will not improve the human condition. We should use QR to address human problems, while bearing in mind that the authors’ method confers power to solve the world’s problems on fallible people and institutions—academic elites, journal editors, and the governments, corporations and philanthropic agencies that fund social research—which have vested interests of their own, and are, to a significant degree, responsible for the problems we are trying to solve.

William James and Ethics in Management Research

I have written elsewhere about pragmatism and its relevance for organizational research Powell 2001a , 2002 , 2014a ). In this section, I want to show how pragmatism, or a version of it, relates to the ethical issues raised by Zyphur and Pierides. In particular, I want to examine the pragmatism of William James and its consequences for ethics in management research.

In doing this I am prompted by statements in Zyphur and Pierides ( 2017 ) and its predecessor (Zyphur et al. 2016 ), such as:

‘Best practices’… may be useful for the purpose of standardizing QR, but this… distracts from the task of putting QR to work for other purposes. (Zyphur and Pierides 2017 , p. 14) Inductive inference means actively working to enact research purposes, making research ‘true’ by helping it to shape the world. (Zyphur and Pierides 2017 , p. 13) Many pragmatists propose that organizing practical action is the point of thinking and speaking… (Zyphur et al. 2016 , p. 478) Instead of having to gather large samples to avoid statistical errors of inference, researchers would be better off trying to guard against actions that have unhelpful consequences. (Zyphur et al. 2016 , p. 478)

I agree with the authors’ turn to pragmatism and their rejection of conventional philosophical foundations. As a philosophy of science, pragmatism is concerned with human purposes, and the authors are right to cite pragmatism in supporting ethics in social research. However I hope that readers will not misconstrue pragmatism as a literal invitation to reject QR “best practices” while “putting QR to work for other purposes.” Philosophical pragmatism argues that most statements about truth and being (epistemology and ontology) can be resolved into statements about things people actually do, or might do. They do not resolve, however, into statements about what people should do. To explain why pragmatists make this distinction, and to show its consequences for the method proposed by Zyphur and Pierides, requires a brief digression on the origins of William James’s pragmatism.

William James developed his pragmatist philosophy over many years, exploring its consequences for psychology, epistemology, ontology and philosophy of science (e.g., James 1890a , 1902 , 1907 ). In the two-volume Principles of Psychology ( 1890b ), James linked psychology with philosophy through the concept of belief . He asked: What happens in the consciousness of a subjectively experiencing human being when confronted with a statement of fact, or proposition? What feelings are evoked? How does a person translate the words of a proposition into the state of consciousness we call “belief”?

James argued that belief occurs when a proposition evokes marked feelings of subjective rightness, like a puzzle piece fitting into place. Instead of discomfort or agitation, a proposition evokes a sense of cognitive and emotional harmony, producing a warm psychological glow of mental assent. In Jamesian psychology, belief is the warm psychological glow of mental assent. People justify their beliefs using underlying reasons or causes, such as sense data, logic, intuition, authority, persuasion, or common sense. But belief is a feeling, not a fact; and the belief that a belief is a fact and not a feeling, is also a feeling. In Jamesian psychology, a justification only counts as belief when it evokes the feeling, or psychological “yes” signal, that provides the glow of subjective rightness.

James’s theory of belief formed the psychological foundation for his pragmatism. An object becomes real for people when they believe in its existence; and a proposition becomes true for people when they believe in its truth. Scientific propositions become true for scientists when scientists believe in their truth. This does not mean that scientific propositions are arbitrary, or do not correspond with sense observations shared with other people. In Jamesian ontology, people have no direct access to metaphysical “truths” or “realities,” so their beliefs rely on sense data, logic, intuition, and other forms of justification. Indeed, other peoples’ beliefs are themselves unobservable, so we infer them from what people say and do. When we affirm that something is “true” for other people, what we mean is that we have observed people saying and doing things that make us believe that they believe that the thing is true. Human behaviour—what people say and do, including ourselves—comprises the whole of the evidence.

Despite his interest in the experiencing person, James did not see pragmatism as justifying a relativist or subjectivist social science, any more than it justified a positivist or objectivist one. James began as a physiologist, building his psychological theories on experimental physiology and the functional anatomy of the human brain; and his pragmatism did not deny the existence of the external world, the laws of propositional logic, or the validity of scientific method. James observed reality through the medium of human consciousness, which he held to speak for itself and not for things outside itself. James did not deny the existence of an external world, but saw the external world as becoming manifest through the meanings conferred on it in the perceptions and interpretations of human beings.

In Jamesian pragmatism, people adopt beliefs in order to solve problems in human consciousness, and these problems are infinitely varied. James did not propose pragmatism as a form of prescriptive advice to scientists, urging them to focus on final purposes instead of processes, or to “be practical” instead of thinking abstractly. The problems of poets and metaphysicians are not “practical” compared to the problems of engineers and airline pilots, but pragmatism does not urge poets to become more practical. Pragmatism is a descriptive theory of human ontology and epistemology which holds that people derive their ideas of truth and reality not from comparisons between propositions and realities, but by solving problems that arise in human consciousness. The theory makes no claims about the degree of “practicality” of interests or problems people may or should have.

Beyond affirming the centrality of human experience for psychology and philosophy of science, James argued that any phenomenon in the domain of human consciousness can become a legitimate object of human inquiry. Whatever has meaning for an experiencing human being has ontological reality, and there are no greater or lesser realities. The beliefs we call “scientific,” derived from theory and empirical observation, do not have higher ontological status, or “more reality,” than other propositions in human consciousness, and hence no superior claim on truth. Everything that enters human consciousness has the same eligibility for inquiry, examination and analysis, whether derived from sense experience, reasoning, dreams, delusions, hallucinations, mythology, or religious faith.

James saw the natural sciences as domains of human inquiry concerned with aspects of human consciousness associated with the natural world. While recognizing the widespread human impacts of science, James regarded the scientific community as one of many “sub-worlds” of human inquiry (see James 1890b , p. 291). A Jamesian sub-world, like a Wittgensteinian “language game,” denotes a community of inquiry with its own conventions, beliefs and vocabularies (on Wittgenstein’s reliance on James’s pragmatism, see Goodman 2002 ). By the conventions of the scientific sub-world, scientists follow a method of inquiry grounded in theory, quantification, measurement and experiment, while rejecting propositions grounded in private opinion or groundless speculation. James acknowledged the efficacy and significance of science, since its problems very often affect non-scientists, and solving them makes life better (or worse) for many people. At the same time, James affirmed that scientific problem-solving conventions do not give scientists superior access to extra-experiential realities, but function in human consciousness like other conventions.

James’s philosophy allowed for great pluralism among the sub-worlds of human inquiry; for example, there are sub-worlds of myth, literature, art and religion, each with its own conventions, beliefs, and vocabularies. James argued that these sub-worlds produced beliefs that were no less real or true, within their own conventions, than the beliefs of natural scientists—and that it was futile to judge the beliefs of one sub-world by the conventions of another: to the poet, a scientific discovery may seem misguided; or to a scientist, a religious inspiration may seem superstitious. Participants negotiate conventions within their own sub-worlds, but pragmatism does not make value judgments about the comparative legitimacy of sub-worlds. As in James’s The Varieties of Religious Experience ( 1902 ), any phenomenon that appears in human consciousness is fruitful subject matter for human inquiry.

And this is where ethics comes in. Pragmatists do not hold that truth is relative or a matter of preference. Each sub-world of inquiry follows its own problem-solving conventions, and these conventions become relatively hardened, even as they continue to evolve. Within the sub-world of science, truth is not groundless but evidence-based, and to pretend otherwise is not merely to get it wrong, but to behave unethically . Scientists can debate the kinds of evidence that bear on a particular question, but they cannot debate whether evidence bears on scientific questions. Theologians can debate whether God is known by faith, revelation, or church tradition, but they cannot debate whether God is relevant to theology. Outside claimants who deny the conventions of a sub-world, unlike insiders disputing how those conventions are applied, are perceived not merely as mistaken, but as immoral, ignorant or both. Disputes within a sub-world of practice can solve problems for participants, but disputes across sub-worlds tend to devolve into name-calling and ethical recrimination.

From a Jamesian pragmatist perspective, the debate initiated by Zyphur and Pierides is a dispute across sub-worlds rather than a conversation that can be progressed within the sub-world of QR practice. Quantitative social research is a legitimate sub-world of practice, and like the proposals by C. Wright Mills a half-century earlier, the authors’ proposals are unlikely to alter or deter that sub-world. From the perspective of the traditional QR sub-world, the debate initiated by the authors—dropping QR best practices and using QR to achieve researchers’ social aspirations—is not so much a challenge to QR practice as a kind of category mistake. The authors’ paper is not written in the language of quantitative researchers, it does not acknowledge their legitimacy, it does not anticipate or address their potential responses, and it proposes to overthrow the standards of their community without discussing the consequences of abandoning those standards. The authors seem to inhabit a different sub-world altogether, and the two sub-worlds do not have very much to say to each other.

I believe this is a good thing. If traditional QR is a legitimate sub-world of practice, so is the sub-world proposed by the authors. I can imagine a sub-world in which people put QR in the service of solving human problems, with its own conventions, beliefs and vocabularies. This sub-world cannot replace traditional QR or operate within it, but requires an independent code of practice and community of participants. To build this community within the conventions of traditional QR would constrain and diminish both traditional QR and what the authors are trying to accomplish. The authors have started the conversation by articulating a set of principles for purpose-driven QR. Perhaps now they can define the social and intellectual agenda for this community, and build the human and institutional infrastructure required for its growth and development. I support what they are trying to do and I hope they succeed.

Gelman, A. (2015). The connection between varying treatment effects and the crisis of unreplicable research: A Bayesian perspective. Journal of Management, 41 (2), 632–643.

Article   Google Scholar  

Goodman, R. B. (2002). Wittgenstein and William James . Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press.

Book   Google Scholar  

James, W. (1890a). The principles of psychology (Vol. I). New York: Henry Holt and Company.

Google Scholar  

James, W. (1890b). The principles of psychology (Vol. II). New York: Henry Holt and Company.

James, W. (1902). The varieties of religious experience: A study in human nature . London: Longmans, Green and Co.

James, W. (1907). Pragmatism: A new word for some old ways of thinking . London: Longmans, Green and Co.

Mills, C. Wright. (1959). The sociological imagination . New York: Oxford University Press.

Powell, T. C. (2001a). Competitive advantage: Logical and philosophical considerations. Strategic Management Journal, 22 (9), 875–888.

Powell, T. C. (2001b). Fallibilism and organizational research: The third epistemology. Journal of Management Research, 4, 201–219.

Powell, T. C. (2002). The philosophy of strategy. Strategic Management Journal, 23 (9), 873–880.

Powell, T. C. (2003). Strategy without ontology. Strategic Management Journal, 24 (3), 285–291.

Powell, T. C. (2014a). Strategic management and the person. Strategic Organization, 12 (3), 200–207.

Powell, T. C. (2014b). William James. In Jenny Helin, Tor Hernes, Daniel Hjorth, & Robin Holt (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of process philosophy and organization studies (pp. 166–184). Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Rawls, J. (1971). A theory of justice . Cambridge MA: Belknap.

Schwab, A., Abrahamson, E., Starbuck, W. H., & Fidler, F. (2011). Researchers should make thoughtful assessments instead of null-hypothesis significance tests. Organization Science, 22, 1105–1120.

Simmons, J., Nelson, L., & Simonsohn, U. (2011). False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allow presenting anything as significant. Psychological Science, 22, 1359–1366.

Vul, E., Harris, C., Winkielman, P., & Pashler, H. (2009). Puzzlingly high correlations in fMRI studies of emotion, personality, and social cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 4 (3), 274–290.

Zyphur, M. J., & Pierides, D. C. (2017). Is quantitative research ethical? Tools for ethically practicing, evaluating, and using quantitative research. Journal of Business Ethics, 143, 1–16.

Zyphur, M. J., Pierides, D. C., & Roffe, J. (2016). Measurement and statistics in ‘organization science’: Philosophical, sociological, and historical perspectives. In R. Mir, H. Willmott, & M. Greenwood (Eds.), The Routledge companion to philosophy in organization studies (pp. 474–482). Abingdon: Routledge.

Download references

The author received no funding to support this research.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Said Business School, University of Oxford, Park End Street, Oxford, OX1 1HP, UK

Thomas C. Powell

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Thomas C. Powell .

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest.

The author declares having no conflict of interest in this research.

Research Involving in Human and Animal Rights

The author declares that this article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by the author.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Powell, T.C. Can Quantitative Research Solve Social Problems? Pragmatism and the Ethics of Social Research. J Bus Ethics 167 , 41–48 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04196-7

Download citation

Received : 21 December 2017

Accepted : 23 May 2019

Published : 13 June 2019

Issue Date : November 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04196-7

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Quantitative research

Advertisement

• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Color Blindness Topics Topics: 49
• Animal Rights Research Topics Topics: 55
• Gender Inequality Topics Topics: 75
• Social Inequality Research Topics Topics: 77
• Gender Equality Research Topics Topics: 77
• Homelessness Topics Topics: 151
• Intersectionality Topics Topics: 58
• Domestic Violence Topics Topics: 160
• Gender Stereotypes Paper Topics Topics: 94
• Black Lives Matter Research Topics Topics: 112
• Animal Testing Topics Topics: 111
• Animal Abuse Topics Topics: 97
• Animal Cruelty Essay Topics Topics: 107
• Gender Issues Topics Topics: 101
• Animal Ethics Paper Topics Topics: 60

157 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about

Are you looking for the best social issues topics? You’re at the right place! StudyCorgi has prepared a list of social problems research topics and questions for your speech, essay, and other writing assignments. You’ll find titles about inequality, teenage pregnancy, violence, hunger, and other problems facing contemporary society.

⚠️ 7 Social Issues Topics 2024

✅ easy social issues to write about, 🏆 best social issues essay topics, 👍 good social problems research topics & essay examples, 🎓 most interesting social issues research topics, 💡 simple social issues topics for project, ❓ research questions on social issues, 🔎 current research topics on social issues, 🗣️ social issues topics for speech.

• Poverty as a Social Problem
• Migration as a Social Problem
• Violence: The Social Problem
• Juvenile Delinquency as Social Problem Within Education Institutions
• Social Deviance Contribution to Social Problems
• Bullying: A Serious Social Problem
• Oppression as a Social Problem

If you need to write a paper on social issues and wonder what social problems to write about, here are a few easy options you can consider:

• The Role of Social Workers in Addressing Teenage Obesity The social worker should be the bridge uniting obese individuals and society advertising social changes, and ending injustice and discrimination.
• Juvenile Delinquency as Social Problem of Vulnerable Populations The theme of this paper is such a problem of vulnerable populations as juvenile delinquency, its interconnection with other social problems, and possible ways of its solution.
• Social Problem Analysis: Social Inequality in Education This paper encompasses the persistent issue of social inequality that we can witness as a routine practice every day. This topic analysis social inequality in educational institutions.
• Social Problems and Policy: Youth Unemployment and Mental Health In the history of the US, the federal and state governments have been at the forefront to facilitate effective social programs.
• The Social Problem of Bullying and the School System The present paper focuses on the connection between the social problem of bullying and the school system, describing each of these concepts.
• Substance Abuse: The Cause of Social Problems Substance abuse is a contributing factor to social problems but cannot be said to be the one that is most responsible.
• Educational Institutions’ Social Problems: Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency is the problem that profoundly affects educational institutions as its representatives are people involved in education the most.
• Social Problems Related to Alcohol and Drugs The present paper will explain the content of three articles relating to the issue of Alcohol and drug use while also providing a personal reflection on the readings.
• Social Problems Assignment: Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency or illegal behaviors committed by underage children is a significant social problem in the United States and worldwide.
• Development of Children’s Friendship and Social Problems This analysis was reached upon following a close thirty-minute observation of infants, and it suggests various types of behaviors presented by children in play.
• Social Problems of People with Disabilities People living with disabilities go through several challenges in life because society is yet to appreciate their presence.
• The Covid-19 Related Social Problems The paper discusses the Covid-19 pandemic that has caused devastating social disruption where millions of individuals have fallen into extreme poverty.
• Analyzing Social Problems – Case Study: Jake Levy The analysis of Jake Levy’s case led to lobby the state legislature to start a suicide prevention program for veterans who are getting mental health services.
• Solving Social Problems With a Nudge The speaker’s perspective is on the human mind’s diversity and complexity, making people manufacture irrational behavior, perpetuating poverty, corruption, and discrimination.
• Childhood Obesity: Medical Complications and Social Problems The children have also suffered from the adverse effects that have been instilled into our society. Obesity has become a common problem in children of American and European countries.
• Modern American Social Problems The essay lists the current American social problems and describes the key point of each problem the society faced nowadays.
• American Social Problems: Family and Education The family and education are major socializing agents in society and to be particular the United States of America.
• American Modern Social Problem The United States is not renowned to having one of the best systems of health care worldwide, rather the U .S. is known for its best system in emergency care worldwide.
• Modern Social Problems Through the Sociological Imagination Prism This paper aims to discuss the concept of the sociological imagination and its significance in understanding contemporary social problems.
• The Use of Statistics in Evaluating Social Problems Statistics are an important tool for researchers and policymakers when analyzing particular social-related issues. The types of statistics are objective or subjective.
• Rawls vs. Nozick on Social Problems and Criminal Justice The essay reflects on the articles of Rawls and Nozick to compare their key points and determine whose theory is most applicable to social problems and criminal justice.
• The Social Problems Behind the Military Suicide
• How Overpopulation Causes Social Problems?
• Ethical and Social Problems of Genetic Engineering
• The Economic and Social Problems of the 1930s
• Social Problems Among College Students
• Alphonso Pinkney’s Black American: Chronic Social Problems
• Race and Gender Impact on Social Problems
• Behavior and Social Problems in Classrooms
• Social Problems About School Drop Outs
• Current Political and Social Problems of Pakistan
• Social Problems Associated With Street Gangs
• Social Problems and the Theories of Emile Durkheim
• Unemployment and Social Problems in the Post-war United States
• Social Problems and Issues in Pakistan
• Sociology and Various Social Problems
• The Major Social Problems Facing the Teenagers of Today
• Values, Social Problems, and Balanced Development in Malaysia
• Political, Economic and Social Problems of France
• Social Problems Associated With Health and Happiness
• The Environment and Social Problems
• Social Problems Amongst the Homeless
• Mauritius: Tourism and Social Problems
• Social Problems Affecting Youth Today and Ways To Solve Them
• Nature and Social Problems
• Social Problems and Drug Abuse
• Critical Social Problems Affecting African Americans
• Social Problems Arise From the Views and Values of the Society
• Connection Between Social Problems and Urbanization
• Unemployment Social Problems Faced by China and West
• Social Problems Among Youth in Malaysia
• A Framework for Analyzing Social Problems The paper provides a framework for analyzing social problems by defining what constitutes a social problem and identifying credible social science data.
• How Does Gang Affiliation Become a Social Problem? Despite the intention to create a positive and supportive environment, there are many conditions under which people continue experiencing social pressure.
• Addressing Teenage Obesity in America The paper states that adolescence is one of the most crucial developmental phases of human life during which the issue of obesity must be solved.
• Queer (LGBTQ) Community as a Social Problem in Canada The Canadian government has shown interest in LGBTQ matters in recent years. Canadian queer persons are more likely to be victims of violent crime.
• Policies for Social Problems Social problems dominate in different parts of the world. Good policies should be devised to make it possible to pronounce dominant sociological problems.
• The Most Crucial Social Problems To conclude, it is essential not to forget about less fortunate people who have nothing to eat and nowhere to live.
• Social Problems Within Educational Institutions It is necessary to understand and analyze the connection between various social problems within U.S. educational institutions.
• Perspectives on the Central Social Problem in Modern Society Social ills plaguing modern society have been a basic concern for many prominent philosophers throughout the ages.
• Social Problem and Policy Analysis Human rights and social work perspectives show how standardized testing promotes inequality and increases the barriers for non-white individuals.
• Social Problem: Hunger in the United States Hunger problem, income gap, race discrimination, poverty in rural regions, and COVID-19 outbreak have severe effects on the hunger problem.
• Potential Threat of Coronavirus as a Social Problem in Haines City, Florida SARS coronavirus is only a potential threat for Haines City so far, but preventing misinformation and potential panic is still an important social problem.
• Analyzing Social Problems: Health Disparities This discussion will examine the unequal access to healthcare and its cause, investigate its prevalence, describe vulnerable populations.
• Benchmark as Social Problems The impact of social phenomenon, for instance, social inequality, vulnerable population and other problems with politics, on poverty from a macro and micro perspectives.
• Social Problems: Exploring the Main Types There are four main social problems; crime, violence, drug abuse, and environmental problems. The other social problems are very closely related to the above.
• America’s Social Problems Through the Song “Cookie Jar” by J. Johnson The song Cookie Jar is a song written by Jack Johnson song talks about the blame game that is going on and in American society.
• American Social Problems of Women and the Elderly The issues of social discrimination experienced by women and elderly people have their roots in two fundamental perspectives of social life.
• Americas Social Problems Nowadays The article explains the social, economic, political, technological, and legal impacts of war and how the global community can address the reality of terrorism.
• Social Problems in Wilson’s “Fences” Play People who have been subjected to social oppression have a good chance of developing mental health problems in the future.
• World Poverty as a Global Social Problem Poverty and the key methods helping to reduce it attract the attention of numerous researchers in different areas of expertise.
• Meth Epidemic as a Social Problem: Film Analysis Drug consumption has become a major social problem for many states in the US as many drug users and addicts consider meth as their top choice.
• The Issue of Adolescent Pregnancy as a Major Social Problem The purpose of this study is to investigate the issue of adolescent pregnancy as a significant challenge that affects society across the globe.
• Texting and Driving: Social Problems Texting and driving refers to the act of receiving, reading and sending text messages while operating a motor vehicle, which is a hazardous practice that causes many fatalities.
• Social Problem of Inequality Studies of social inequality included non-urban areas and social inequality factors that had not been included in previous studies.
• Social Problems Exam Practice
• PRS and Its Social Problems
• Social Problems and Legalization of Marijuana
• The Increasing Social Problems of Violence in the 20th Century
• Child Abuse – Social Problems
• Social Problems and Solutions Chart
• The Social Problems Facing Homeless Youth
• Social Problems Are Due to Society’s Tolerance of Immorality
• Realist and Constructivist Approaches to Social Problems
• Social Problems During the Industrial Revolution
• Emile Durkheim and Social Problems
• Literature During the Old Times Until Now Contribute To Address Social Problems
• Substance Abuse and Social Problems
• Public Education and the Impact of Social Problems
• Social Problems Facing Our US Veterens
• Physiological and Social Problems in the Middle East
• Social Problems and Homelessness in Savannah, Georgia
• Technical and Social Problems of Nuclear Waste
• Social Problems Associated With Interfaith Marriages
• Technology and Social Problems
• Social Problems Affecting Students and Schools in the US
• Ethnography: Social Problems
• Social Problems Affecting Society, Big and Small
• Appalachia: Culture and Social Problems
• Social Problems Associated With Racial Discrimination
• Political, Economic, and Social Problems in India
• Social Problems Behind Sexual Deviance
• Poor Neighborhoods Give Rise to Social Problems
• Literary Realism and Social Problems
• Prevalent Social Problems That Impacts Society
• What Are the Ethical and Social Issues of Genetic Engineering?
• What Social Problems Occur in Substance Abuse?
• What Are the Main Social Issues among the Youth in Malaysia?
• What Are the Social Problems behind War Suicide?
• What Are the Economic and Social Issues of Women Entrepreneurs in Turkey?
• What Are the Incentives for Solving Social Problems?
• What Business and Social Problems Does Data Center?
• Why Do Poor Neighborhoods Give Rise to Social Problems?
• What Are the Reasons for the Social Problems of Adolescents?
• What Are the Economic and Social Issues of the Caribbean?
• What Social Problems Arise Because of Society’s Tolerance for Immorality?
• What Are the Various Social Issues Faced by Black Women in the American South?
• How Social Problems Caused by the Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601?
• What Are Pakistan’s Current Political and Social Problems?
• What Are the Common Social Problems Affecting Society?
• What Is the Influence of Literary Realism on Social Problems?
• What Business and Social Problems Does Data Center Power Consumption Cause?
• How Does the Media Impact Social Problems?
• What Social Problems Are Revealed in the Great Gatsby?
• What Are the Social Problems Associated with Interfaith Marriages?
• Should the State Pay More Attention to Solving the Pressing Social Problems of Our Time?
• What Is the Connection between Social Policy and Social Problems?
• What Are the Social Problems Faced by Homeless Youth?
• What Are the Physiological and Social Problems in the Middle East?
• Online misinformation and its effects on society.
• Racial bias and discrimination in policing.
• The impact of populism on democracies.
• Factors perpetuating the gender pay gap.
• The influence of climate change on vulnerable populations.
• The impact of automation on the job market.
• The effects of cyberbullying on adolescents.
• The social consequences of rapid urbanization.
• Youth unemployment and social exclusion.
• Social implications of genetic modification technologies.
• Strategies to prevent cyberbullying and online harassment.
• The impact of social media on youth.
• Access to quality education for all.
• The importance of safeguarding personal information online.
• Encouraging youth to get involved in the democratic process.
• The influence of technology on social interactions.
• Ways to combat human trafficking.
• Raising awareness of human rights violations in conflict zones.
• The effects of social media on body image.
• Why should guns be prohibited?

Cite this post

• Chicago (N-B)
• Chicago (A-D)

StudyCorgi. (2022, March 1). 157 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-problems-essay-topics/

"157 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about." StudyCorgi , 1 Mar. 2022, studycorgi.com/ideas/social-problems-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . (2022) '157 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about'. 1 March.

1. StudyCorgi . "157 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-problems-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

StudyCorgi . "157 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-problems-essay-topics/.

StudyCorgi . 2022. "157 Social Problems Essay Topics & Research Questions to Write about." March 1, 2022. https://studycorgi.com/ideas/social-problems-essay-topics/.

These essay examples and topics on Social Problems were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 24, 2024 .

• Write my thesis
• Thesis writers
• Buy thesis papers
• Bachelor thesis
• Master's thesis
• Thesis editing services
• Thesis proofreading services
• Buy a thesis online
• Write my dissertation
• Dissertation proposal help
• Pay for dissertation
• Custom dissertation
• Dissertation help online
• Buy dissertation online
• Cheap dissertation
• Dissertation editing services
• Write my research paper
• Buy research paper online
• Pay for research paper
• Research paper help
• Order research paper
• Custom research paper
• Cheap research paper
• Research papers for sale
• Thesis subjects
• How It Works

HumSS Research Topics – Humanities & Social Sciences Topics

Humss (Humanities & Social Sciences) is an interesting field of study featuring college courses like Journalism, Communication Arts, and Education. Research projects for humss revolve around intellect, change, societal issues, and human conditions. Finding humss research topics is not as hard as it seems. For instance, you should know that research topics for humss differ from science topics because scholars are more interested in questions than answers. Also, your topics should be interesting and controversial to capture your readers. Choosing the right research topic about humss will simplify finding content and buy research paper .

Exciting Research Topic about Humss Strand

Interesting research topic related to humss strand, good research topics for humss students, quality research title about humanities and social science, topics on research problem about humss strand, topics on quantitative research for humss students, quantitative research title examples for humss students, qualitative research topics for humss students, awesome research topics related to humss, best research topics for humss students, perfect humss strand research topics, topics on social issues about humss strand, research topic ideas for humss students, key topics related to humss, research titles for humss students, concept paper topics about humss, humss background design topics, quantitative humss research topics.

Humss strand is one of the courses offered to students who want to pursue college degrees in education, liberal arts, or other social sciences. Choose any of the exciting topics below for your high school humss research project:

• The impact of aging on social interactions
• Anti-vaccination is the latest trending social movement
• Remote working is the latest trend in the corporate world
• What is the root cause of social media addiction?
• Is there a valid connection between social class and success?
• How much control should parents have over their kid’s social life?
• What is the appropriate age to start teaching students about gender studies?
• The impact of single parenting on a child’s social connection

Choosing interesting research about humss strand will help you stand out from the rest and impact the quality of your paper. Below are some thought-provoking humss research topics you can explore:

• Feminism in the corporate place: a critical analysis
• Does parental control influence a child’s social personality?
• Conventional families: how do they impact a child’s development?
• Growing up in an LGBTQ family: How does it influence a child’s sexual identity?
• The effects of social media on teens and youths
• The outcomes of social networking
• Are unconventional families beneficial for child development?
• Young motherhood: How does it impact a child’s wellbeing?

Are you a humss student looking for good topics for your research paper about the humss strand? Below are some ideas worth considering:

• The impacts of foreign education on professional growth
• The link between economic prosperity and the feeling of patriotism among citizens
• The right to privacy: a critical analysis in the digital era
• Social media preferences among different age and social groups
• Does social media increase or reduce loneliness among individuals?
• Is there a link between social media addiction and age?
• How important is adding food education to the modern education curriculum?
• A case study on the correlation between food and national identity

Whether you specialize in education, media, communication, liberal arts, or other social sciences, your humss research topic will influence your grade. You can choose an example of a research title about humss strand from the suggestions below:

• The changes that feminism has bought on gender roles at home
• The social perception of vegetarianism in different cultures
• Spirituality and raw food diets: what is the connection?
• Factors that affect students’ productivity during their free time
• Social media activism: is it as effective as old-fashioned street protests?
• Why you should take body language seriously during online interviews
• Twitter: How it shifted from an ordinary social media platform to a political platform
• Gender bias: concept definition

You can make your essay or research paper stand out and earn good marks by selecting quality topics. Pick a topic about humss strand from the ideas below:

• How has the digital era negatively influenced the social concept of morality?
• The impact of social media on people’s ability to understand others’ feelings
• Justice and wars: Who is the right person to judge?
• The influence of the mass media on political attitudes and statistics
• Awareness of public choice: Why is it so important?
• Framing: What is its role in the political sector?
• The root cause of reduced voter turnout: A case study of the United States
• What impact do advertisements have on political views?

Quantitative research involves collecting and analyzing data from deductive approaches like questionnaires while focusing on testing a specific theory. Finding a good top quantitative research topic about humss strand can make your study easier and more effective. Here are some noteworthy ideas:

• The electoral process in Michigan (specify location): A quantitative analysis
• The cultural practices related to childbirth rates in third-world countries
• An evaluation of the factors promoting teenage pregnancies in the 21 st century
• The rate of teenage pregnancies in third-world countries Vs. first-world countries
• Mass Media: Its impact on political statistics and voter behaviors
• How critical are self-defending networks?
• A critical analysis of the voter turnout in the recent elections in (state country or state)
• Can technology upgrades influence relationships?

Quantitative research involves data collection using questionnaires, interviews, and online or offline surveys. Below are some interesting topics you can write about in this area:

• How can cyber-crimes affect human lives?
• Racial bullying on social media: a critical analysis
• Drug testing in the workplace: is it necessary?
• How practical are modern components of sex education in High Schools?
• The impacts of the government controlling women’s reproductive rights?
• The root cause of stereotypes in society
• How gambling feels to an addict
• Group social education: What are its benefits?

Qualitative research depends on data obtained through first-hand observation, recordings, or focus groups. You can pick a good qualitative research topic about the humss strand from the following examples:

• Why do many students perform poorly in sciences?
• The rate of college acceptance in developing nations
• Academic preparedness of university students in the United States
• Victims of bullying in schools: a case study of (state a specific school or location)
• The relationship between android and apple products
• Online digital marketing: what is it all about?
• Virtual reality worlds: their role in transforming society
• Should kids under four years get a preschool education?

Humss is a vast field with thousands of research topic options for students with various specialties. Choose a research topic related to humss from the following option:

• The cultural construct of the masculine and feminine identity
• How individuals interact with various physical elements
• Inter-nation relationships: what challenges hinder healthy relationships between nations?
• The value of language in societal success
• How has the political sector in the United States evolved in the past century?
• The implications of philosophical studies for the growth of a society
• Diversity: how does it make society better?
• Peace and harmony: why are differences vital for peace and harmony?

Choosing a research title about humss can be challenging if you have not done one before. For this reason, we prepared the following title ideas:

• Religious discrimination in the digital era
• The conflict between religion and the digital era
• Social relations between Islam and Christianity
• The unification of Germany: a look at the process
• The great migration: a critical analysis
• Feminism movements and their impacts on society
• Does studying social sciences give you a better chance of success?
• The impact of the Ottoman Empire on socialization

When choosing the perfect research topics for humss, you should consider your specialization and research type (qualitative or quantitative). Here are some examples to consider:

• The impact of the pandemic on people’s social media behaviors
• Internet purchases: how sales taxes affect them
• The significance of understanding history in studying humanities
• Are all human beings anatomically similar?
• The role of humanities in higher learning institutions
• Do humanities help students achieve higher analytical and problem-solving skills?
• Why do universities require multiple humanities courses?
• The influence of William Shakespeare’s plays on modern literature

Focusing on a social issue is the best way to get a unique and interesting research topic for humss students. Here are some examples:

• The beginning of the feminist era
• How has the pandemic influenced the education sector?
• The implications of social media on religion and culture
• The impact of healthy doctor-patient relationships on the healthcare sector
• The relationship between social media interaction and personality development
• How is the digital era affecting the elderly in society?
• Modern inter-nation wars: implications of the war between Ukraine and Russia
• Is the United States still the most powerful country in the world?

Writing a research paper is as easy or hard as the topic you choose. Here are some humss research title ideas:

• The relationship between empathy and the experience of illness
• The impact of media on the study of medicine
• The relationship between social media and education
• Is diversity vital in society?
• The impact of gun violence on school attendance
• Modern aspects of poetry: a critical analysis
• The COVID-19 pandemic’s influence on social media addiction
• Social media addiction and age: what is the correlation?

Below are some key ideas on the topic about humss you can focus your research on:

• How do parents influence their children’s social behaviors
• Social education: how it helps students develop
• How do teachers include their student’s course choices?
• Boarding schools for boys Vs. boarding schools for girls
• How has social media influenced people’s views of celebrities?
• The role of social influencing in purchasing behaviors
• When is military force justifiable
• Should community service be mandatory for all students?

Your research title for humss will help you determine your paper’s outline and research methods. Below are some incredible topics you should consider:

• Do advertisements still influence people’s purchasing behaviors?
• Social media marketing Vs. conventional advertising
• Dual nationality: its impact on political views
• The implications of personality on political attitudes
• The correlation between collective action and public policies
• Do changes in public policies influence public opinions?
• The correlation between law-making and bureaucracy
• The influence of public policy on innovation

A concept paper provides your research’s purpose, background, and outline. Therefore, choosing the perfect topic is vital. Below are some ideas to look into:

• The US-Mexico Border Dilemma: an analysis
• Perfectionist policy: concept definition
• Why are more people turning to digital work in the 21 st century?
• Ethical issues in the dialysis of homelessness
• Effects of stigma among leaders
• How is technology reshaping the future of social interaction?
• Importance of practical counseling sessions for Psychology students
• How can parents cope with their kids’ disabilities

A good humss research paper should have a background research topic. Here are some great examples:

• The root cause of international cyber-attacks
• The history of Europe and its importance in humanities studies
• The root of punishment in households
• Should religious freedom be granted to kids under 18 years?
• The growth and spread of Islam in African nations
• How missionaries shaped Africans’ views on religion
• The impact of the Great Awakenings on US history
• The growth of Pentecostalism in Latin nations

Quantitative research is a dominant research technique in social sciences, where students can focus on topics like politics and elections. Here are some good ideas:

• The effectiveness of home care against nursing homes
• The development of telehealth in the 21 st century
• How effective are cardiovascular treatments?
• The link between mortality rates and gender
• The changes in critic ratings and their impact on equity returns
• Do people’s decision-making processes depend on their subconscious?
• Impact of racism on mental health
• Social anxiety triggers in youths

Let’s Help You

The humss strand is so vast that you can easily find a topic depending on your area of specialization. You can also pick a topic based on interesting social issues . Also, you must be keen on selecting a quality research title that stands out and makes your writing easier. If you feel overwhelmed choosing a title or writing a humss paper, we are here to help you. Talk to us now!

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

The PMC website is updating on October 15, 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Korean Med Sci
• v.37(16); 2022 Apr 25

A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.