regional geography essay

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20 The Regional Concept and Regional Geography

Dr. Janki Jiwan

I.  Introduction

Regional Concept and Regional Geography: A Historical Perspective

The region and regional geography have been a matter of discourse for scholars since Greek period. The word “region” comes from the Latin word “regime”, which means ‘to manage’. The region was regarded as the appropriate areal scale to manage parts of the kingdom or empire. In a broader sense, the region was defined as a bounded area, possessing some unity or organizing structures. Such study of unified geographical phenomena in a region can be termed as regional geography. In fact, this branch of geography has been viewed as one of the oldest branches. This concept of regional geography can be traced in the works of Herodotus. In the fifth century, B.C., Herodotus described threefold divisions of his known world namely Asia, Lybia and Europe. During the Greek and the Roman period, scholars regarded regional geography as a description of the empires, routes for their armies and for searching the wealth of conquered lands. For example, Strabo laid down the foundation of regional geography through in his 17 books. He used to describe human activities in a region. Such information would have been being used by military and political rulers. In addition, the word “chorology” associated with the regional concept has also been the oldest tradition in geographical inquiry, which aims at the study of the areal differentiation of the earth’s surface.

Gradually, the importance of the regional approach to geography grew during the Renaissance and the European colonial period. Various useful texts and maps describing the vegetation, the population, and the wealth of the new regions were created for European rulers. Later, during the nineteenth century, each colonial expedition was followed by writings in form of books, maps, and atlases of the travelled area. Therefore, for a century, regional geography had close relations with ruling European countries, trade companies, financing expeditions. In this background of common history between trade and geography, some of the publications like “Universal Geographies” and academic initiatives of Geographical Societies like the Royal Geographical Society laid the foundation of regional geography. In fact, due to links between geography and trade, the regional concept became asm a core theme for geography between mid of eighteen and end of the nineteenth century. Scholars like Philippe Buache (the France Geographer) brought about the concept of pure geography and demarcated region on the basis of the river basin. Later German geographer Christoph Gatterner supported the concept of river basin as a basis of identification of natural region. During this period, scholars from two main schools of geographical thought namely German and French were competing. Scholars began to redefine the regional concept from various perspectives. For example, German scholars came with the word ‘Landschaft’ and/or ‘landschaftskunde’ (landscape). Scholars give two meanings of ‘Landschaft’. One meaning is areal extent with some kind of geographical uniformity and another meaning is a tentative area of the earth in people’s mind. Although writing on the regional concept can be traced from pre-classical period to modern time of Ritter and Ratzel, but both meanings of Landschaft became popular only in the beginning of 19th century, especially in Germany. For example, Humboldt and Wimmer believed in the mental impression of the aesthetic character of an area, but surprisingly, Penck’ concept of ‘Landschaft’ did not include man. He pointed out that a region or ‘Landschaft’ must encompass only visible geographical phenomena. Likewise, French writers used the word ‘pays’ in both the meanings. In fact, Landschaft is analogous to Carl Sauer’s concept of cultural landscape. As per Sauer, the natural landscape is transformed into the cultural landscape through man’s interaction with nature in their cultural context and lifestyles. The contemporary American and British geographers used the word landscape as synonymous to the region. However, the word ‘Landschaftskunde (or landscape Science)’ was referring to the study of the types of regions and their classifications on various parameters. Regions are classified on the basis of variation of geographical features (physical, socio-economic, or both). While explaining the regional variation, Hettner focussed on the pattern of geographical features resulting from mainly physical factors in regions. Schluter concentrated on the study of distinctive regional appearance resulted from the interaction between features. Schluter’s concept of ‘Kulturlandschaft’ (cultural landscape) seems to be similar to French word ‘Pays’. ‘Pays’ refers to a small rural well-defined area showing functional relationship between man- environment for centuries. Schluter was in favour of inclusion of man as a part of the landscape. Each region or landscape is characterized by some attributes like areal extent, location, and boundaries.

   II.  Attributes of Region: There are some basic attributes of a region, which are being discussed as follows:

a)  The region has areal extent: Each region has spatial extent with some sort of homogeneity in its physical and cultural characteristics. For example, the Thar desert and Bundelkhand region in India and the Sahara desert in Africa.

b)  Regions have a location: Each region is often expressed in relation with its the regional name. For example, South Asia, the South-East Asia etc.

c)  The region has boundaries: Each region has a boundary. This boundary could be either well-defined or transitional in nature. For example, the Himalayan region and the Telugu regions in India.

d)  Regions may be either formal or functional: An area is defined as a formal region if there is homogeneity in its physical or cultural features. For example, the Deccan plateau, The monsoon region. After the 1960s, geographers inclined to demarcate the Functional region. A functional region is a dynamic concept which is demarcated on the basis of functional interactions and connections. Its boundaries change over the space and time depending upon interchanges of goods and services between the core and surrounding areas. For example City region like Delhi National Capital Region (Delhi-NCR) is demarcated on basis of supply of milk, fruits, vegetables, and newspapers.

e)  Regions are hierarchically arranged : Regions vary in types and sizes. For example, the Indo-Gangetic plain has many regions of second order like the Upper Ganga Plain and the Lower Ganga plain. Therefore, regions are hierarchically arranged.

Besides regions are of different types.

III.  Typology of Regions : The regions may be classified on various parameters. Regions may be based on physical characteristics, cultural characteristics, an amalgamation of the physical and cultural variables. As discussed previously, based on functionality, regions may be either formal or functional. Based on physical characteristics, regions

are as follows:

A . Physical Regions : It is a kind of formal region based on a single characteristic. Some are main physical regions are as follows:

1. Landform regions: The landform regions are delineated on the basis of relief, structure, configuration, Genesis, and age. The Himalayan region and the Brahmaputra valley are a good example.

    2. Climate region: An area with homogeneity in various combinations of climatic elements (temperature, rainfall etc.) is termed as a climatic region. For example, the Indian Monsoon region.

B.  Cultural Regions: An area with homogeneity in various combinations of the culture and cultural elements is defined as cultural regions. For example, population region, linguistic region, religious region etc.

C.  Political regions: In modern time, boundaries of political regions are defined after careful survey. Boundaries of the national state is a good example. Political boundaries in the national state may not be permanent, which is subjected to change as a result of internal and external pressure. The fall of the Berlin Wall in Germany is a good example.

D.  Economic regions: The economic regions are defined on the basis of homogeneity in economic activities and resources over the space. The economic region has been widely used for planning and in solving the problems of poverty, hunger, underdevelopment, and malnutrition.

E.  Mental regions (Mental map): People carry a mental image of a place which is termed as a mental map. The mental images may constitute some sort of political, social, cultural, and economic values. This mental image of the same place differs from person to person. For example, the mental map of tribes differs from those of the non-tribes.

F.  Natural Resource Regions: Resource regions are delineated on the basis of homogeneity in nature and types of natural resources. For example natural gas regions, coal regions, and iron ore regions.

G.  Urban Regions (Megalopolis): There is uniformity in urban activities like production, exchange, administration, distribution, and consumption in a region. Such region is defined as a formal. Urban regions are defined on the basis of interconnection and interaction between center and periphery. Such area is defined functional regions. For example, City region where people surrounding areas (periphery area) come to the central place for getting various services and goods. Such cities may be hierarchical structured. For example, Christaller in his Central Place Theory explains hierarchical structures of urban centers and regions. In some urban vast regions, there is continuous stretch of large and small cities. For example, in the USA, the north-eastern seaboard is the leading megalopolis region, where there is a continuous stretch of urban and suburban areas from New Hampshire to Northern Virginia, and from the Atlantic coast to the foothills of the Appalachian mountain. In reality, the majority of urban regions are functional in nature.

    IV.   Regionalism: A Concept

Regionalism is a sub-nationalism and political concept. It is a movement which seeks to politicize the territorial predicaments of its regions with the aim of protecting its regional interest. Generally, regionalism evolves on the basis of some social and cultural characteristics like ethnicity, caste, creed, language, color or culture. Sometimes local leaders use this concept for achieving greater autonomy and local power especially political and economic power. In fact, it is a political rhetoric and self-assertiveness based on a deep-seated mistrust of central government. Regionalism opposes pan-cultural concept. Despite globalization and modernization, regionalism is widely observed in both developed and developing countries across the world. Sometime regionalism may help in solving some socio-political and economic problems at local level, but it is one of the big obstacles in nation building process or national integration. Even in India, some emerging trends of regionalism are being observed in some states like Assam, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Maharashtra, Punjab, Kashmir, Tamil Nadu, etc. Such kind of sub-nationalism has already posed some serious problems for India, especially in form of Punjabiat and Kashmiriat. The Assamese (Ahoms), Nagas in North-East region and Maharashtrians in Western region occasionally give a strong impression of regionalism or sub-nationalism. Regionalists may have whatever the objectives, they create serious problems for the government and governance for developmental purposes. In the world, there are so many countries, where regionalism led to national disintegration. For example, powerful Soviet Union (USSR) has been disintegrated into several independent republics. Problems of regionalism are needed to be meaningfully solved.

V.  Approaches to Study of Regions

There are following approaches to study a region.

A.   Landscape Morphology: It refers to the study of forms and structures of visible geographical phenomena. In Landscape morphology, Schluter emphasized on the study of distinctive regional appearance resulted from the interaction between only visible geographical features, however, Hettner focussed on the uniqueness of a region resulting from either visible or non-visible geographical features. Hettner’s  approach seems to be more holistic to study all physical and socio-cultural structures in a region.

B.   Landscape Ecology : It is also called functional approach to study region. It studies interaction and interrelation of geographical phenomena within a region. For example, City region which is delimited by the degree of interaction of people between the city center and a periphery area.

C.   Landscape Chronology: It refers to the historical studies of developmental phases of a region in a sequential manner. For example, Whittlesey in 1929 discussed ‘Sequent Occupance’ and pointed out that each region follows sequential stages of development from an agrarian society to industrial society.

D.   Regionalization: The entire Earth or a country is divided into several regions depending upon homogeneity in some physical and socio-cultural features and functions. This process is called regionalization. Regionalization could be of many types like physical, economic and cultural regionalization. Therefore, this approach helps to study a region.

E. Landscape Classification: Classification of Landscape is another approach to study a region. For example, the landscape is classified into two parts viz., natural and cultural landscapes. The classification itself gives lots of information on a region or a landscape.

VI.   Regional Geography: Regional Geography evolved as a branch in many countries Germany, France and England and USA. Evolution of regional geography and contributions of some prominent geographers to this branch is being discussed as follows:

A.  Regional Geography in Germany: Hettner was the German geographer who pointed out that geography is chorological science of the earth aiming at the study of areas and regions. He elaborated the concept of chorology. As previously discussed, he opposed the Schluter’ concept of landscape morphology. In 1906, Schluter pointed out that geography studies all forms and structures resulting from the interaction between only visible phenomena but Hettner was concerned about the only uniqueness of a region which has resulted from either by visible or non-visible phenomena. According to Hettner, the study of the uniqueness of a region is regional geography. Schluter opposed the chorological study of geography but his geography  is a distinct form of regional geography. Scholars from Germany wrote various books on region geography. Ritter’s book ‘Erdkunde’ in 19 volumes is a good example of regional geography. This book mainly covers Africa and parts of Asia. Richthofen was the first German geographer made difference between general and regional geography. He emphasized the points of regional geography must be descriptive to highlight the salient features of the region.

B.  Regional Geography in France: Regional geography was the most important branch of geography in France. Vidal de la Blache initiated regional studies through the development of a concept called ‘pays’ (small rural region). He opposed the concept of Reine Geography and river basin as a region. Man-environment relationship shaped small region (pays) making it unique for geographical studies. Other geographers like L. Gallois and E. De Martonne also contributed to regional geography. In addition, the trends of geological and historical studies led the growth of a concept of regional synthesis. Later this concept was accepted as an approach to do a geographical analysis of a region. During this period, the regional studies were so popular that numerous books were written and published. For example, Vidal De la Blache’s ‘Table De La Geographie’ and ‘De la France’ (1903), Demangeon’s ‘Picardie’ (1905), E. De Martonne’s ‘Les Alps’ (1926) and ‘An Essay on Middle Europe’ (1930-1931), R. Blanchard’s ‘French Alps’ were noted books which contained description of geographical features like landforms, climate, vegetation, settlement and other social-cultural structures and distinctiveness of each region and its unique man-environment relationship.

C.  Regional Studies in Britain: Evolution of regional studies and trends in Britain was significantly influenced by the concept of ‘Landschaft’ from Germany and ‘Pays’ from France. For example, British scholar Patrick Geddes focussed on field studies and regional surveys for demarcating regions and regional planning. Another British geography was Andrew J. Herbertson (1865-1915) who combined Geddesian tradition of regionalization and Darwinian heritage of deterministic approach in his study of natural regions. He pointed out that natural regions in the world must be demarcated on the basis of an association of surface features, climate, and vegetation. In addition, H. Fleury offered a regional classification of the world based on problems and difficulties faced by man in achieving its basic needs on the earth surface like nutrition, reproductions, well-being.

D.  Regional Geography in the USA: During early decades of the twentieth century, some American geographers were inclined to British approach to the delimitation of regions. Wesley Powell was one of the first geographers who divided the country into 16 physiographic regions but in 1914, W. L. G. Joerg used the word natural regions for dividing the regions into various small regions based on homogeneity in certain physical characteristics. Besides, N. M. Fenneman also published a study of physiographical divisions of United States in 1914. Further, C. R. Dryer came up with an approach to identify natural regions based on economic functions and natural characteristics. That is why he termed such regions as natural-economic regions. Some decades later Richard Hartshorne popularized the concept of regional paradigm in the USA. As per his view, Geography is the study of areal differentiation. Combined functions of geographical elements form a unique regional landscape. There is a difference between different regional landscapes. Such difference in regional landscapes is called areal differentiation. According to Hartshorne, geography has a unique methodology to study its region which was criticized by F. K. Schaefer. In other words, Schaefer rejected the concept of exceptionalism and pointed out Geography is a social science in which all scientific laws should apply. By the 1950s, geographers gradually disillusioned from the regional paradigm and inclined towards systematic geography.

VII. Summary and Recent trends

Between the mid of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, Regional geography like quantitative geography had been an important approach to the geographical study. This period was known as the time of regional paradigm but with the advent of quantitative revolution in the 1950s and onwards, various scholars like G. H. T. Kimble and Fred K. Schaefer criticised this paradigm because of its descriptiveness nature and lack of well-defined theories. Nevertheless, the concept of region and the regional geography paradigm influenced many branches like geomorphology, economic geography and urban geography (like city-region based on core and periphery interactions) etc. Moreover, since the 1980s, regional geography has seen observing a resurgence as a branch of geography in many universities across the world.

• Adhikari, S. 2016. Fundamentals of Geographical Thought, New Delhi: Orient Black Swan Publications.
• Isard W. 1975. Introduction to Regional Science, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs.
• Kimble, G.H.T. 1951. The Inadequacy of the Regional Concept, London Essays in Geography, ed. L.D. Stamp and S. W. Wooldridge, pp. 492-512.
• Schaefer, F. K. (1953): Exceptionalism in Geography: A Methodological Examination, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, vol. 43, pp. 226-245.
• Husain, M. 2004. Evolution of Geographical Thought, New Delhi: Rawat Publications.
• Preston E. J. & G. J. Martin.1972. All Possible Worlds: A History of Geographical Ideas, Second Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons.
• Richard Peet. 1998. Modern Geographical Thought, New Jersey, Wiley-Blackwell.
• Sauer C. O. 1925. The Morphology of Landscape, University of California Publication, California

World Regional Geography - People, Places and Globalization

(8 reviews)

Copyright Year: 2016

ISBN 13: 9781946135278

Publisher: University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing

Language: English

Formats Available

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Reviewed by Richard Miller, lecturer, Kapiolani Community College on 3/29/21

This book is fairly comprehensive and timely. It covers the world in a fairly standard regionalization and provides material on different dimensions of culture in each chapter. The introductory chapter could go a little more into the melding of... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

This book is fairly comprehensive and timely. It covers the world in a fairly standard regionalization and provides material on different dimensions of culture in each chapter. The introductory chapter could go a little more into the melding of physical and human geography and the geographic approach. The book contains no index or glossary.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

I noted no errors in my review of the book material. There are, however, very few tables and charts to provide comparison data and the ones that are there can be a little old. On the positive side, currency of tables and charts (and maps) is always a problem in geography texts.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The book was up to date despite the constantly changing subject matter of world regional geography. Since subjects are arranged by region and country, the text should be easily updated.

Clarity rating: 5

The text writing is in a very straight forward style that should be welcomed by students and faculty users. While there are map and photo illustrations, I would prefer more maps and other graphic illustrations be provided to give visual means of identifying spatial distributions and location.

Consistency rating: 5

Format and content including takeaways, study questions, and chapter summaries are consistent throughout the book.

Modularity rating: 5

The chapter arrangement by regions, beginning with Europe, is fairly standard and an instructor can easily rearrange the order to suit the progression desired.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

The organization of the book is fine. It can be rearranged easily to suit the instructor's needs.

Interface rating: 5

I found no interface issues when reviewing the book. Some of the pictures were a little blurry when printed.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I found no grammatical errors when reviewing the book.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The book attempts to keep a sensitive posture. I did not find any offensive language or culturally insensitive issues.

This book is suitable for an introductory world regional geography course. The order of the chapters, Europe being the first chapter, is a nod to academic geography's European roots and tradition. I believe an instructor would benefit from introducing more maps, cartograms, charts, tables, etc., to supplement the book's graphics and to suit their own teaching objectives.

Reviewed by James Tjaden, Ph D, Adjunct Professor, University of Missouri - Kansas City on 12/3/18

This book approaches each region in a well-organized, comprehensive way. Regions are introduced using standard geographic factors such as the Koppen climate typology, geology, and the affects of weather. Geographic interpretations of population,... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This book approaches each region in a well-organized, comprehensive way. Regions are introduced using standard geographic factors such as the Koppen climate typology, geology, and the affects of weather. Geographic interpretations of population, language, religion and other areas of study are also covered well for each region.

I found the text to be accurate. As in any geographic text the instructor will have to be aware of events which occur after writing.

The text follows an approach which allows the instructor to add material as needed. The freshman survey courses I teach cover a great deal of material in a short period of time. The format of this text allows me to focus on key points.

Actually, I find this to be one of the strong points. Some college texts use complex sentences which are difficult for underclass readers. I find the use of shorter sentences, each organized around a fact to be more understandable at this level.

Each region is approached the same way, which adds to clarity and understanding.

This is well done and should enhance the student's ability to follow along.

The text is organized in a traditional regional approach.

I found myself able to navigate through this text easily. The maps and illustrations were well chosen.

I found no grammatical errors.

The text is careful to approach such ethnically diverse areas as Sub Saharan Africa in a sensitive way. The many types of diversity such as language, religion, and culture are covered in a way which can lead to meaningful discussion.

A very usable introductory text and the freshman/sophomore level.

Reviewed by Alise Lamoreaux, Adult Basic & Secondary Education, Lane Community College on 6/20/17

The book achieves its stated goal of being “…designed for students to experience and study as much of the world as possible within a limited amount of time….” The book is written in a “student friendly” manner that encourages students who may... read more

The book achieves its stated goal of being “…designed for students to experience and study as much of the world as possible within a limited amount of time….” The book is written in a “student friendly” manner that encourages students who may lack the background knowledge in the subject matter to challenge themselves to read an unfamiliar content area. Students I work with frequently may feel confident as readers in general, but lack confidence in reading science specific topics. The book does a good job or presenting essential vocabulary in a clear manner. The book makes good use of a variety of images and charts which help students gain multiple layers of reading skills. Many of the concepts used in this book are interrelated. Understanding one concept can assist a reader in learning about another concept and how they apply to different geographic regions. The discussion, study questions, and activities at the end of each chapter are helpful in tying key concepts together for students. I have been looking for a book like this one!

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The content of this book is accurate. I like the use of images to support the reading content of the textbook, but I did notice in Chapter 1, section 1.2 Figure 1.19 is mislabeled. The photo says,” A man in Malawi carrying firewood for cooking and heating purposes.” The photo is titled,” Girls Carrying Firewood” by David Stanley. I think that would be important to correct this information if the book was adopted for classroom use, but that is the great thing about an OER, they can be adapted!

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

The textbook has been updated since its original publishing and seems current enough for today’s use. Chapters like the first one, that includes many basic geography concepts, lends itself more easily to staying current without needing much attention. I noticed in Chapter 4, which is about Regions of the United States and Canada, in section 4.5 the author doesn’t seem to know much about the Pacific Northwest and mentions that Bill Gates lives near Seattle. The detail seems out of place since the textbook doesn’t mention other specific people living in geographic areas. Details like that would need to be checked for accuracy in terms of updates when the textbook was used in the classroom.

The textbook is very clear and does an excellent job of explaining key vocabulary, especially for students new to topics related to geography. The textbook is very easy to read. The textbook integrates cross curriculum topics such as politics and economics and their relationship to geography which helps readers tie concepts together and understand interrelationships. The textbook also relates geography to other related science topics like hurricanes, earthquakes, plate tectonics etc. in a manner that helps create a “big picture” for readers.

The version of the textbook I evaluated was very consistent in the delivery and format of the material presented. I evaluated the textbook in the online format and found it very easy to view and use. The organization of the chapters begins with key concepts and builds from there. The integration of information in the cross-curriculum concepts helps students learn information efficiently while gaining a broader perspective of the overall topics.

The textbook has an effective and efficient format. Each chapter is a complete unit with an overview and subdivisions and concludes with discussion, study questions and/or activities at the end of each subsection. The chapters can be used in their entity or in smaller sections which makes the textbook very adaptable to classroom use. The format of the textbook uses standard heading and paragraph style with documentation at the end of each subsection. The images and charts are well documented and support the content of the chapters.

The organization and overall flow of the book worked for me. My goal was to find an open source textbook that would serve as an introduction to geographical concepts for students who have little to no information about geography. This textbook accomplishes what I was hoping to find. The PressBooks format makes it easy to see chapters and subsections which would allow for use of some or all of the material presented. It is a very useful open source textbook.

The interface of the textbook in its online format was very clear and easy to use. The interface reads well on computers as well as mobile devices. The Table of Contents organizes the material in a very usable format. The textbook is well organized in terms of chapters and subsections within the chapter aiding in the easy navigation of the textbook online. The use of supportive images and charts within the content of the textbook is visually appealing and creates appropriate breaks from long passages of text, as well as providing useful information.

No grammar errors were noted. I did find an image mislabeled in Chapter 1, section 1.2, figure 1.19. As noted, earlier in this review, the photo says,” A man in Malawi carrying firewood for cooking and heating purposes.” The photo is titled,” Girls Carrying Firewood” by David Stanley. I think that would be important to not and correct if the book was adopted for classroom use.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

The textbook was sensitive to cultural issues around the world as they relate to geography and its integration with other social issues such as economics and politics. The cultural issues presented in the textbook would be an area needing constant updating/evaluating for currency. As a textbook with a goal of providing students with as much world information in a limited time, it seems to be culturally appropriate. The text did not seem offensive or biased in its presentation of material.

This textbook met my expectations for finding an introductory level geography book to use with students who lack confidence reading scientific materials. As an open source textbook, it is well designed and easy to use in its online format, another aspect I was looking for. The discussion, study questions, and activities provided along with the content of the chapters make this resource very useful. Excellent find for my needs and those of my students!

Reviewed by Selima Sultana, Professor, University of North Carolina on 12/5/16

With the rise in the cost of textbooks, many students avoid buying textbooks and instead, try to rely heavily on lecture notes, which cannot cover course material alone. So, many instructors are mostly concerned to find an open textbook that would... read more

With the rise in the cost of textbooks, many students avoid buying textbooks and instead, try to rely heavily on lecture notes, which cannot cover course material alone. So, many instructors are mostly concerned to find an open textbook that would be interesting for students to read and at the same time covers contemporary physical and human aspects of the world from a geographic perspective. This open access textbook meets these criteria. The book covers a good understanding about the concept of contemporary globalization and the world. An understanding of the world can be learned so many different ways, but a student must understand the concepts of geography first and then concepts like globalization can be better explained to understand today’s world. This textbook did that job very well in a brief and concise manner.

I like the fact all of the regions of the world are covered in this textbook that including treating Southeast Asia and East Asia separately. This book has balance between physical and human aspects of each regions and interconnection between economic development and the physical environment. While this book is not as comprehensive as one might intendeds to cover in the class, instructors can collect information from other sources for their lecture materials such as short video clips, readings etc... Despite having to use other works, I like the fact that it is an open textbook and it will allow students to read and follow the outline of lecture notes. Bolder fonts emphasize key terms in the text making it easier for students to follow. The subheadings also make this book more easy to read.

In terms of content and accuracy, this book is fine.

This book is clearly well-written and up-to-date and holds a good understanding about the concept of contemporary globalization and the world. However, some chapters are too inadequate. For example, only India is discussed in South Asia chapter, which is miss representation of the regions. Other limitation of this textbook can be absence of contemporary environmental, cultural, political or economic “point-counterpoint” view sections. However, one can address the limitation by adding supplementary readings on topics.

This book is clearly well-written and up-to-date on topics . The author covers topics in a story-like fashion without using too much technical jargon—very easy and interesting to follow. The colors of the illustrations are aesthetically appealing. The ratio of maps to photos seemed appropriate.

This open textbook is compatible for entry-level undergraduate students and used traditional methods to illustrate geographic views such as presenting the concepts of regions for each chapter. The geographic concepts and terminology are well explained and consistent throughout the textbook, making it easier for students to follow.

Modularity rating: 4

The table of contents of the book translate well for most world regional geography syllabus. This book presented each chapter with a series of objectives—very easy to follow. I think it is important for students to understand the physical settings of each region before approaching human concepts and this book meet that expectations. Each chapter of the book provided physical settings (e.g. landforms, climate, vegetation) of a region and then subdivided the discussion on the human and environmental aspects.

The organizational structure of this book is logical and should make appealing to world regional geography instructors.

With the increase in ease of access to information technology over the years, we have witnessed that the vast majority of today’s students love reading online. The PDF format of the book makes it much easier for students to navigate.

The text contains no grammatical errors.

This textbook doesn’t provide sections that are offensive to anyone.

Though this textbook is not grounded with theoretical foundations, the straightforward writing style of the book will certainly be more attractive to students. Given the cost associated with the textbook, if any instructors/institutions is trying to save the cost for their students, this open textbook is exactly what we need for engaging students in the course.

Reviewed by Andrea Williams, Director of International Studies, Colorado State University on 1/7/16

The book provides a comprehensive, if somewhat superficial, introduction to the subject of geography. It does a good job of covering all world regions, but it falls short of its stated goal to present geography as the study of the world as a... read more

The book provides a comprehensive, if somewhat superficial, introduction to the subject of geography. It does a good job of covering all world regions, but it falls short of its stated goal to present geography as the study of the world as a whole. Chapters are divided by world region. Beyond the introduction (Chapter 1), which discusses the aims, subdisciplines, and fundamental concepts of geography, the book does not integrate multiple world regions or draw comparisons or connections among them. In addition, the book suffers from the absence of a conclusion. It also lacks an index, but as an online, open source text available exclusively in PDF form, the text technically is searchable.

The book's depiction of world geography is constructive and well balanced, with relatively equal attention to all world regions. It objectively reflects world geography's fundamental concepts and content.

The book is most successful at presenting themes within physical and environmental geography. It deals relatively well with controversial topics such as deforestation and climate change. Its treatment of such issues is current and up-to-date, but broad enough that the book will remain relevant in the short term to medium.

It is less successful at presenting new themes, currents, and debates within cultural geography. The book's depiction of this subfield is somewhat outdated already. It almost entirely ignores the deeply theoretical nature of contemporary cultural and historical geography. Instead, it perpetuates some of the field's former narratives, such as environmental determinism and the idea of group / national culture and identity.

The book is extremely straightforward. Its prose is clear and succinct. Concepts are explained clearly and fully, and occasionally illustrated with maps or other images.

The book is consistent in its approach to the subject.

The book is clearly divided into distinct chapters, and the number of chapters (13) translates well to a semester schedule. The length of these chapters varies significantly, and some of them (e.g. Chapter 2: Europe) are too long for a weekly reading assignment. At over 1,000 pages, the book as a whole is a bit long for a semester survey course, but the added length improves its comprehensiveness.

The book is very clearly organized. As a textbook on "World Regional Geography," its organization according to geographical world region is straightforward and logical.

Interface rating: 3

The book's format (PDF) makes it much harder to navigate than a hard copy textbook or a more interactive online resource. A few of the charts, maps, graphs, and images could be improved or sharpened. The url links to certain maps are a helpful addition.

The text contains very few proofreading issues.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

The book is not offensive in any way, but certain aspects could be viewed as culturally insensitive. For example, equating the evolution of group culture and identity with climatic and environmental factors is a pursuit that most contemporary scholars within the field of geography have rejected because it has the potential to suggest the superiority of certain peoples over others. While the latter obviously is not the book's intention or implication, the text would benefit from an update in its geographical theory.

Overall, the book presents a decent, cost-effective, no-frills introduction to the subject.

Reviewed by Randy Morris, Geography Instructor, Portland Community College on 1/7/16

The focus of this text is "regional geography", and it carries this out very well, especially considering that this text can save student upwards of $100. While the concept of "region" in geography can be problematic, it is part of the range of... read more

The focus of this text is "regional geography", and it carries this out very well, especially considering that this text can save student upwards of $100. While the concept of "region" in geography can be problematic, it is part of the range of study, and the text is comprehensive in its coverage and breakdowns. The section covering Africa is a good example; in this section, the author incorporates an extensive description of the physical and historical geography along with the analysis of social and economic geography that addresses the thematic issue of modern globalization. The book's introduction contributes to the comprehensive nature by covering important technological aspects of contemporary geographic practice, and does a decent job of introducing key general geographic concepts.

A caveat here: I believe strongly that the quest for sterile "objectivity" is both impossible and undesirable. The time has come for geographers to take a stand on the issues we study. Having said that, this text does a reasonable job of remaining fair in its biases, and the book is extremely accurate to the best of my knowledge. I found no glaring errors.

Considering the original publication year of 2012, I have been impressed with the relevance of the content. The use of Wikipedia links for well-proven supplemental or tangential information contributes to the continued viability of the material, as wiki's are routinely maintained and updated as world events unfold, or as new research-based knowledge is constructed.

The general clarity of the book is just fine. The most important enhancement to clarity found in the document is the wonderful call-outs that float over key words when moused-over, providing a definition or example for readers without cluttering the prose.

The book is fairly consistent. After an introduction to the general geographic delineation of a region, each of the "realm" sections start with a focus on historical geography, thereby setting a linear stage for contemporary geography. Even as the book primarily utilizes "Core-periphery" to to frame subject conversations, it continues to weave historical context into the narrative.

Although there are three format versions of this book available from Saylor, only the html online format provides ready modularity. This is mainly by virtue of the table of contents, which is notably absent in both the PDF and DOCx versions available for download. The html version may be found by following the link to Saylor's website at the bottom of their pdf pages. Using the html book allows a user to access each chapter and subsets of each chapter, on top of the ability to search for specific text within the web pages. Apart from the introductory chapter, each chapter covers a general geographic "region". This generalization is then used as a framework for exploring geographic relations within the region, as well as between various regional entities. This provides an important continuity, reminding students that no "region" is truly isolated, while simultaneously allowing the instructor to compartmentalize material for instruction.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The chapters are laid-out in similar format, providing consistent structure and flow. It is hard to justify any particular organization in the "regional" geography model that is any better than the one that the author has chosen. Having said that, I would have appreciated seeing a region OTHER than Europe as the first one described. Euro-centrism persists, and should be undermined wherever possible.

Interface rating: 4

Use the html version, or manually reformat the pdf or docx version to mimic the functionality of the html web-interface, which is good.

No perceived grammatical errors.

I found this book to be quite culturally sensitive overall. The author addresses important issues of globalization by placing it in context to people actually living in the regions, often referring to the local struggles against extra-regional forces. This is in stark contrast to the relative lack of exposure students will have had via mainstream media to the cultural struggles of people outside their own narrow identification groups.

Reviewed by Benjamin Timms, Associate Professor, California Polytechnic State University on 7/15/14

For an open access textbook this is a comprehensive and serviceable resource for classes in world regional geography. It begins with an introductory chapter that covers, in a rather basic fashion, human and physical geography and then progresses... read more

For an open access textbook this is a comprehensive and serviceable resource for classes in world regional geography. It begins with an introductory chapter that covers, in a rather basic fashion, human and physical geography and then progresses to cover the world in 12 regional chapters that add considerable and appropriate depth to geographical themes. The regional chapters are divided into: Europe, Russia, North America, Middle America, South America, Sub-Saharan Africa, North Africa and Southwest Asia, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia and New Zealand, and the Pacific and Antarctica. The assignment of regions is always contested, but here they are clear and well delineated; e.g. dividing 'Latin America' into Middle America and South America as well as treating the Pacific Islands separate from Australia and New Zealand. The inclusion of Antarctica with the Pacific is a bit awkward, but the additional coverage of Antarctica turns out to be an improvement over other world regional geography texts. Further, and importantly, each regional chapter begins with a general overview of the physical and human geography of each region and then subdivides them for more specific coverage; e.g. Middle America broken up into Mexico, Central America, and then the Caribbean. That being said, the pdf document lacks a table of contents and a glossary which places extra effort on the instructor to create their own.

The content of the textbook is accurate and unbiased, with minimal errors. Any discrepancies can be easily handled by the instructor in terms of their perspectives or areas of emphasis.

This version was published in 2012 and includes excellent up-to-date content and current issues, which I was impressed with. However, 'current issues' are constantly changing and requires instructors to provide supplementary up-to-date information, which is a constant for courses in world geography.

The text is extremely clear and easy to read in very concise sentences with description of geographical terminology. The conciseness is welcomed, but initially lacks depth in exploring topics in greater detail, particularly in the introductory chapter. However, in relevant chapters themes are expanded upon in greater detail. For example, the political geography of nation-state formation is expanded upon in the chapter on Europe. And from a physical geography perspective, the science behind hurricanes is provided in the Middle America chapter. These are just two examples, and I found the development of depth in human and physical geography themes within relevant regional chapters a significant strength of the textbook.

Consistency rating: 3

The textbook is consistent with terminology and framework. It begins with concise and simple themes in human and physical geography but builds upon them in more depth in the relevant chapters.

This textbook is well organized for dividing it into smaller assignments. Each regional chapter begins with a broad overview of the region and then subdivides it into more specific 'regions within the region'.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 2

The main weakness of the textbook is in the ordering of topics within chapters. It tends to jump from one topic to the next without a proper transition, e.g. Middle America chapter discusses the colonial era and then, afterwards, addresses Native American cultures as they existed before the colonial era. I found the sequence of topics disjointed in many of the chapters. However, the material was excellent, just not ordered correctly.

The interface of a single document that is over 1000 pages without an index or glossary is troublesome, and students will need a good version of Adobe Acrobat to navigate the document easily. The separation of chapters and sections within the chapter are not clear. The images, maps, and graphs are simple but very effective and tied to the text material well.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

The grammar is excellent, only a few minor formatting issues in terms of spacing between words here and there and between paragraphs.

The text is culturally relevant and unbiased without offensive material to multiple races, ethnicities, or backgrounds.

This open textbook resource should be seriously considered by instructors looking to reduce student costs and contributing to open access learning. While it has some limitations in terms of the interface and constant need for updating for current events, these should be easily overcome by minimal instructor additions. It provides an excellent basis for studying world regional geography and allows for the instructor to add content in their own courses.

Reviewed by David Sibley, Adjunct Professor, University of Northwestern - St. Paul on 7/15/14

The book attempts to cover both the basics of geography and specifics about the different regions of the world. As such the author needed to chose which concepts to include that would be necessary when studying the different regions. Concepts... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

The book attempts to cover both the basics of geography and specifics about the different regions of the world. As such the author needed to chose which concepts to include that would be necessary when studying the different regions. Concepts included were necessary, but the instructor of the course would have to add both depth as well as other necessary concepts not included. (Migration was a concept that would need more coverage). A second decision by the author, was to cover each country in a region, unlike some other world geography texts that give more general information about each region. This approach attempts to give specifics, but some countries only get 3-4 lines- not really enough information to know about a country. Had the book chosen to organize information more general topics, more details could have been included. The book includes review questions, but there is no glossary or index. One last item concerns the choice of what to cover. For example, in North America, the author talks about minority populations and religion, but doesn't discuss energy resources or politics.

The content is accurate, but doesn't avoid bias. Words chosen to describe people, events, and situations contain the author's perspective- words like "sadly, dominion, violently, and fortunate". In most cases, it would be hard to argue with the descriptions chosen, but they don't present an objective view of the content. A minor problem was missing text on p.149 and the word "country" instead of "county" was found on p. 240.

The book does make short term predictions about political and economic trends that would be outdated in a short time. However, finding and updating those portions of the text would not be too difficult a process. The majority of the information is fairly stable and newer additions would not be necessary. There is a mixture of data that creates a a complete look at population, economics, etc., but the some of the data is very current, while other parts are from the 2000 census.

The clarity is one of the strong points of the book. The language used is free of jargon (although when previously defined geographic terms are used, they are not reviewed when used again). The readability of the text is similar to a newspaper. Variations in sentence length and the use of common vernacular makes the text easily understandable.

The text is very consistent in what is described for each region as well as perspectives that are taken. There is history, physical geography, resources, and current trends or issues for the region/countries involved. Rural to urban migration is an example of a concept that is used frequently throughout the book since it is a world-wide phenomenon.

The book lends itself to a very efficient format- each chapter is a different region. The table of contents gives reference numbers which makes it easy to locate any particular section. Within each section, there are sub-headings, but there are also places where a change in topic occurs with a new paragraph, but no heading to indicate the change. The pictures and charts are well marked and legends are included. Because of the need for space on a screen-page for a chart or map to fit, sometimes the title is on one page, and the object shows up on the next page. Once you figure this out, you know to keep scrolling to find what you're looking for.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

The overall layout of the book is logical. It topics presented within each region are consistent (as mentioned previously), but there is no self-evident reason for the organization within each region. The order the countries are discussed, the topics for each region do not have a obvious pattern, so if the reader was searching for a country within a region, they would have to scroll within a region to find the country (the table of contents only lists the order of the regions- it doesn't give page numbers for the chapters or anything within the chapters). The lack of page numbers is definitely an issue when attempting to find something. I was searching for information about Sudan and it took a fair amount of time scrolling through the North African region in order to find what I was looking for.

The only issues have already been mentioned: lack of page numbers for finding a region/section or when object titles appear on one page and the object appears on the next page.

No grammatical error encountered. I did find that the one page which ended in mid-sentence, and a map that showed counties by said "countries" in the title.

The authors seemed to pay special attention to covering issues related to culture- especially in areas where culture currently plays a significant role in the lives of the people within the region. Examples would include the immigration issue that faces both the United States and developed countries in Europe (both of which attempt to maintain their cultural heritage while integrating peoples from other cultures into their perspective societies. Also, coverage was given to ethnic cleansing the occurred in eastern Europe and the conflicts in the Darfur region of Sudan.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Introduction to the World
• Chapter 2: Europe
• Chapter 3: Russia
• Chapter 4: North America
• Chapter 5: Middle America
• Chapter 6: South America
• Chapter 7: Subsaharan Africa
• Chapter 8: North Africa and Southwest Asia
• Chapter 9: South Asia
• Chapter 10: East Asia
• Chapter 11: Southeast Asia
• Chapter 12: Australia and New Zealand
• Chapter 13: The Pacific and Antarctica

Ancillary Material

About the book.

World Regional Geography: People, Places and Globalization is designed for students to experience and study as much of the world as possible within a limited amount of time. It gives students the fundamental concepts and the latest data regarding world places in a concise, easy-to-read format.

This World Regional Geography textbook focuses on the primary issues that have created our cultural and societal structures, and presents them within a framework for global understanding. A pattern of development is outlined from the imprint that European colonialism had on culture to the impact that giant retail corporations like Wal-Mart have on consumerism.

Within this framework, the textbook takes a regional approach to globalization and world geography, as each chapter focuses on one subject or region. The first unit covers the basic concepts of location, the environment, and global economic dynamics. Then, these basic concepts, theories, and principles are presented for each region on a chapter-by-chapter basis.

The basic concepts are covered using real world examples to provide purpose and relevance for the students. And each lesson begins with learning objectives and ends with key takeaways to stimulate critical thinking about each topic or region. Basic spatial concepts are also tracked throughout the text to connect ideas and apply concepts to every region of the world. Special sections on relevant topics are also distributed throughout the book.

With each chapter focused on one region, the textbook provides professors with some course management and flexibility. The text is also brief enough to provide additional flexibility if professors want to include specialized information from outside sources.

World Regional Geography: People, Places and Globalization provides students with a working knowledge of world geography in an easy-to-read format. Basic geographic concepts of world places are presented in concise chapters, and each chapter provides a foundational framework for understanding the development patterns of world regions. See for yourself and take a look at the book today!

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2.1 Introducing the Realm

Learning objectives.

• Describe the various climate types and physical landforms of the European continent.
• Explain how Europe’s physical geography has supported its development.
• List Europe’s various natural resources.
• Summarize the environmental concerns Europe faces.

From the Roman Empire to the European Union (EU), Europe’s historical pattern of development is a model study in regional geography. From historic empires to diverse nation-states to a multicountry union, the continent struggles to confront the cultural forces that unite and divide it. The powerful impact European colonialism has had on the world since the Industrial Revolution is still felt today. The rural-to-urban shift prompted by the Industrial Revolution first impacted Europe and continues to impact developing countries. Understanding the geographic region of Europe is essential to understanding our world. This short summary of the basic concepts will provide a valuable lesson in globalization, which affects every human being on the planet. The concepts and principles that apply to Europe can also apply to other countries and regions.

Figure 2.1 Map of Europe

University of Texas Libraries

Location and Climate

Europe is a northern continent. All the British Isles, for example, fall above the fiftieth parallel. If we compare Europe’s position on a globe with that of the contiguous United States, we see that much of Europe lies north of the United States. Paris, France, is at about the same latitude as Fargo, North Dakota. Athens, Greece, is at about the same latitude as St. Louis, Missouri. Europe’s northern position affects its growing seasons and people’s moods, and it should be taken into consideration as an important influence in the evolution of the European character. Europe is also surrounded by bodies of water: the Atlantic Ocean borders Europe on the west, the Arctic Ocean borders Europe to the north, and many seas surround the various peninsulas and coastal regions.

The oceans exert significant influence on the world’s climates. The oceans collect and store vast amounts of solar energy, particularly around the equator, and transport that heat with their currents. Ocean currents can move water for thousands of miles from one temperature zone to another. Because oceans can absorb so much heat, maritime climates are often milder than continental ones, with smaller temperature variations from day to night as well as from winter to summer. This influences not only temperature but also precipitation patterns over wide regions of Europe and the rest of the world. Water moderates coast environments in a number of ways. Water heats and cools more slowly than land. This heat inertia allows coastal communities to have climates that tend to be more moderate than one might imagine for places so far north. Interior Europe does not benefit from coastal waters and can have winters as cold as those found within the upper midwestern United States.

Figure 2.2 The Dominant Climate Types of Europe

The Gulf Stream is perhaps the most important current for Western Europe’s climate and is responsible for producing a temperate climate for a northern latitude location. Most of Western Europe has a moderate type C climate. The Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico, where the waters are warmed. This powerful current follows the Eastern Seaboard of the United States before crossing the Atlantic Ocean for Europe. The Gulf Stream’s most dramatic effect can be found in the western coastal islands of Scotland, which has a mild enough climate to support some forms of tropical flora, even though it is a degree of latitude as far north as Hudson Bay, Canada.

The coast of Norway provides another example. While most of Norway’s coastal area lies within the Arctic region, it remains free of ice and snow throughout the winter. People living farther inland and closer to Eastern Europe and Russia encounter the colder type D climates. Colder air sweeps down from the Arctic north or from eastern Siberia and provides colder winters in this eastern region. The Mediterranean Sea moderates the temperature to the south, providing a type C climate around its shores. Type C climates meet up with type E climates at or near the Arctic Circle in Norway and in Iceland.

Four Main European Landforms

Europe has four main landforms, many islands and peninsulas, and various climate types. The four main landforms include the Alpine region , Central Uplands , Northern Lowlands , and Western Highlands . Each represents a different physical part of Europe. The wide-ranging physical environment has provided Europe with an abundance of biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to diversity of the number of species in an ecosystem and the quantity of members in each species. The physical environment also provides natural resources and raw materials for human activities. Europe’s moderate climates and favorable relative location are supported by its access to the many rivers and seas. These advantageous developmental factors supported the development of the Industrial Revolution in Europe, which gave rise to highly technical and urban societies. Europe has emerged as one of the core economic centers of the global economy. Associated with the urbanization of Europe are high human population densities that have placed a strain on the natural environment. As result, there has been significant deforestation and the loss of natural habitat, which has in turn has decreased the realm’s level of biodiversity.

Rivers are abundant in Europe and have provided adequate transportation for travel and trade throughout its history. Most of Europe is accessible by water transport either via the many rivers or along the extensive coastlines of the peninsulas and islands. Two main rivers divide Europe: the Danube and the Rhine . Both have their origins in the region of southern Germany on or near the border with Switzerland. The Rhine River flows north and empties into the North Sea in Rotterdam, Holland, one of the world’s busiest ports. The Danube flows east through various major European cities, such as Vienna, Budapest, and Belgrade before emptying into the Black Sea .

Figure 2.3 Four Main Landforms of Europe: Western Highlands, Northern Lowlands, Central Uplands, and the Alpine Region

Alpine Region

The High Alps , which range from eastern France to Slovenia, are central to the Alpine region . Included in the Alpine Range are the Pyrenees , located on the border between France and Spain; the Apennines , running the length of Italy; the Carpathians , looping around Romania from Slovakia; and finally, the shorter Dinaric Alps in former Yugoslavia. Mountains usually provide minerals and ores that were placed there when the earth’s internal processes created the mountains. Mountains also isolate people by acting as a dividing range that can separate people into cultural groups.

Figure 2.4 The Alpine Region: Eiger, Mönch, and Jungfrau from Männlichen—Swiss Alps

The Alpine region encircles the Mediterranean coastlines, which have more temperate type C climates that are particularly warm with hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters. This climate type allows for the cultivation of food products such as olives, citrus fruit, figs, apricots, and grapes. Evergreen scrub oaks and other drought-resistant shrubs are common in the Mediterranean region.

The Central Uplands

The region bordering the main Alps to the north, which includes a large portion of southern Germany extending eastward, is known as the Central Uplands . These foothills to the Alps are excellent sources of raw materials such as forest products and coal, which are valuable resources for industrial activities. The Central Uplands are also good locations for dairy farming and cattle raising. This middle portion of the continent has a mixed deciduous-coniferous forest, and the vegetation includes oak, elm, and maple trees intermingled with pine and fir trees. There are four distinct seasons in this region with moderate amounts of precipitation year round.

• Northern Lowlands

The Western Highlands meet the lowlands in central Scotland.

Photo by R. Berglee – CC BY-NC-SA.

Similar to the breadbasket of the midwestern United States, Europe’s Northern Lowlands possess excellent farmland. Major agricultural operations here provide for a large European population. The land is flat to rolling with relatively good soils. The Northern Lowlands are a great plain that extends across northern Europe from southern France, north through Germany, and then all the way to the Ural Mountains of Russia. This area is typified by prairies and areas of tall grasses and is mostly used as farmland. The lowlands area also contains bogs, heaths, and lakes. The eastern part of this great plain around Ukraine is characterized by a steppe biome. It is a flat and relatively dry region with short grasses and is generally an agricultural region. This eastern area has great swings in temperature, both from day to night and from summer to winter. Winter temperatures in the eastern steppe can drop to below −40 °F, with summer temperatures reaching as high as 105 °F. This is similar to the steppes of eastern Montana or western North Dakota in the United States.

• Western Highlands

On the western edges of the European continent arise short rugged mountains called highlands that extend throughout Norway, parts of Britain, and portions of the Iberian Peninsula of Portugal and Spain. These Western Highlands hold sparser populations and are less attractive to large farming operations. Agriculture is usually limited to grazing livestock or farming in the valleys and meadows. The Scottish Highlands are noted for their wool products and Highland cattle. In England, the central chain of highlands called the Pennines proved valuable during the Industrial Revolution because they enabled hydropower and, later, coal mining. Coal mining was prominent in the highland regions of Wales. In the far northern regions of Scandinavia , tundra environments prevail. In this coldest and driest biome, permafrost dominates the landscape, and the land becomes soggy for brief periods during the few weeks of summer. The flora consists primarily of lichens, mosses, low shrubs, and wildflowers.

Natural Resources in Europe

The physical landforms of Europe provide a diversity of geographic opportunities that have catapulted Europe through the Industrial Revolution and into the information age. With an abundance of natural resources, European countries have gained wealth from the land and leveraged their geographic location to develop a powerhouse of economic activity for the global marketplace. Europe has placed a strong focus on manufacturing activity to take advantage of its natural resources. The highly urbanized society has struggled to find a balance between modernization and environmental concerns. Industrial activities have contributed to the degradation of the environment and the demise of a number of species.

Different regions of Europe are blessed with fresh water supplies, good soils, and various minerals. Chief among the mineral deposits in Europe is iron ore, which can be found in Sweden, France, and Ukraine. Other minerals exist in smaller quantities, including copper, lead, bauxite, manganese, nickel, gold, silver, potash, clay, gypsum, dolomite, and salt. Extraction activities have supported the continent’s industrialization.

The ready access to vast areas of the Atlantic Ocean and a number of major seas, lakes, and rivers has elevated fish to an important natural resource in Europe. The seas around Europe provide about 10 percent of the world’s fish catches. Mirroring the situation around the world, European fishing activity increased as population increased. Europeans are becoming increasingly aware of the effects of overfishing. Stocks of Atlantic cod and Atlantic mackerel are considered to be at risk because of the twin threats of overfishing and changes in the environment that are affecting natural mortality and slowing spawning. Stocks of eastern North Atlantic bluefin tuna are also attracting attention for the same reason. Other species of fish in the North Atlantic and the Baltic Sea are considered overexploited. Changes to the fishery are a major concern for strictly ecological reasons and also because fish comprise such a significant portion of the European economy.

The countries of Europe, with the formation of the EU, began to work toward shared research and policies with respect to the fishery. The Common Fisheries Policy was drafted and includes strict and extensive rules and guidelines for fishing, particularly of cod. The rules are so strict and thus so controversial that Norway and Iceland decided to opt out of the EU rather than agree to abide by these rules. The effect of these rules is incompletely known, but the cod stocks in the North Sea do not seem to be rebounding as quickly or substantially as expected.

Forest covers more than 40 percent of the continent’s land area, with the majority on the Russian side. Forests exist primarily in the less populous Nordic and Baltic countries and in Central Europe. About half the forest land in Europe is privately owned. Interestingly, there are several different forms of private ownership, including large family holdings, holdings by forest industries, and small to very small holdings by thousands of individuals. Most of the forested land is managed, and about 85 percent of the forests produce exploitable resources. The percentage of forested land in Europe is rebounding because of an extensive tree-planting initiative since 2000. Pollution has caused great harm to the forests of Poland, the Czech Republic, and eastern Germany, and acid rain and air pollution have seriously harmed forests such as the Black Forest of southern Germany, which has also experienced heavy logging activity.

Soil resources are of critical importance. Soil is necessary for growing food, supporting livestock, supporting other natural resources such as the forests, and supplying groundwater. Soil resources are only just beginning to receive attention in Europe. Problems to be addressed include loss of topsoil from development and building activities, older-style agricultural practices, mining, contamination from industries and other sources, and acidification as a result of acid rain.

Coal, now substantially depleted, is abundant in several areas of Great Britain, including some offshore areas, as well as in the industrial centers of Germany and in Ukraine. Other coals deposits are found in Belgium, France, Spain, the Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia, and Russia. The burning of coal has produced high levels of air pollution. Acid rain has been a major concern in the northern countries, where wind currents carry pollutants north into Scandinavia from the industrial regions of Central Europe. In Scandinavia, acid rain has diminished fish populations in many of the lakes. Forest health is also being challenged, which is diminishing the economic conditions of regions that depend on forests for their economic survival.

Petroleum and natural gas deposits exist underneath the North Sea and were first tapped in the 1970s. Five European countries have rights to these resources, including Norway, the United Kingdom, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Germany, with Norway holding the bulk of the rights. The governments of these five nations agree that, although tapped only decades ago, half the North Sea oil reserves have been consumed.

Before the extraction of petroleum products from the North Sea, Russia and the former Soviet Union’s other republics supplied petroleum to Europe. These areas still have a number of active extraction operations. Hydroelectric power has been important in Europe as well. With both coal and oil resources largely depleted and the desire to avoid the environmental damage caused by dams, the European Energy Commission is devoting substantial energy and resources to encouraging use of renewable resources such as wind and solar energy. In March 2007, European leaders agreed that a binding target of 20 percent of all energy must be from alternative sources by 2020. Also, 10 percent of the transportation fuels used by EU members must be sustainable biofuels.

Key Takeaways

• The Gulf Stream provides a moderate type C climate for much of Western Europe. Eastern Europe can experience colder type D climates.
• Europe has four main physical landforms that provide a diversity of natural resources. The North European Lowland holds the majority of its agricultural potential.
• An increase in population has also increased the demand on the environment. Various environmental concerns are becoming more evident. Acid rain from industrialization has caused extensive damage to forests and fish populations in northern Europe. Atlantic fisheries are also experiencing a decline in production.

Discussion and Study Questions

• Identify and locate the four main physical landforms of Europe. What are the main features of each?
• How do these landforms and natural resources provide wealth, opportunities. and advantages to the European community?
• Why is there a higher concentration of acid rain in northern Europe? How is acid rain affecting the environment?
• What two rivers act to naturally divide Europe? Which rivers flow through Paris and London?
• Track the flow of each of the two main rivers and identify the major cities that each flows through.
• Where are the major mountain ranges of the Alpine region?
• How does the Alpine region contribute to the economies of the countries of Europe?
• Why do the countries of Western Europe have more moderate type C climates even though they are in the northern latitudes?
• How does agricultural production vary with physical landforms or climate changes?
• How are Europeans addressing the decline in the North Atlantic fishing industry?

Geography Exercise

Identify the following key places on a map:

• Alpine region
• Black Forest
• Carpathians
• Central Uplands
• Danube River
• Dinaric Alps
• Iberian Peninsula
• Mediterranean Sea
• Rhine River
• Scottish Highlands
• Strait of Gibraltar
• Ural Mountains

World Regional Geography Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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This volume gathers a collection of the most seminal essays written by leading experts in the field, which identify or signal many of the changing directions of regional research in geography during the past fifty years. Various forms of 'new regionalism' or 'new regional geography' have emerged over the last several decades, especially in political and economic geography, but in general the region has been a concept in declining use. Despite this, the region has gained new currency in sub-areas of political and economic geography and a so-called 'new regionalism' has emerged in studies of the changing nature of the nation-state in a globalizing economy. Taken together, the essays in this volume provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of academic developments in this area of geographical research.

146 Impressive Geography Research Topics Every Student Will Like

Are you a student seeking inspiration for your next geography research project? Look no further! In this article, we present you with a treasure trove of 146 original and top-quality geography research topics, completely free of charge. Whether you’re pursuing a degree in geography or simply passionate about exploring the world around you, these topics cover a wide range of fascinating subjects.

From human geography and cultural landscapes to physical geography and environmental sustainability, we’ve got you covered. Each topic is carefully crafted to ignite your curiosity and help you delve deeper into the field. Get ready to embark on an exciting journey of exploration and discovery as you uncover unique research ideas that will captivate both you and your readers.

Areas Of Geography

Geography is a field of study that explores the Earth’s physical features, human activities and their interactions. It examines the spatial patterns, processes, and relationships between the environment and society. Geographers investigate the Earth’s surface, analyzing its landscapes, climate, ecosystems and resources, as well as the distribution of populations, cultures, economies, and political systems. There are several types of geography, each focusing on specific aspects of the Earth’s physical and human dimensions:

Physical geography examines natural phenomena like landforms, weather and ecosystems. Human geography studies human activities, such as population distribution, urbanization and cultural landscapes. Economic geography explores the spatial patterns of economic activities, trade and resource distribution. Political geography analyzes the political systems, boundaries and geopolitical relationships between regions. Environmental geography investigates the interactions between humans and the environment, including environmental issues and sustainability. Geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing employ technology to analyze spatial data and maps.

These subfields together provide a comprehensive understanding of the Earth’s complexities and its relationship with human society.

Easy Geography Research Paper Topics

Want to write your paper in just a couple of hours? Explore a curated list of accessible and easy geography research paper topics that will make your geography research paper writing a breeze:

• The impact of climate change on coastal regions
• Exploring the relationship between geography and tourism
• Analyzing urbanization trends in developing countries
• Investigating the effects of deforestation on biodiversity
• Examining the role of geography in natural disaster management
• Studying the cultural landscape of a specific region
• Analyzing the geography of food production and distribution
• Exploring the impact of transportation on urban development
• Investigating the geography of renewable energy sources
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of population growth
• Studying the impact of globalization on local economies
• Examining the geography of water resources and management

Human Geography Research Topics

Improve your chances of getting a top grade! Delve into the complex interplay between humans and their environment with this comprehensive list of human geography research topics:

• Exploring the social implications of gentrification in urban areas
• Analyzing the influence of gender on migration patterns
• Investigating the impact of globalization on cultural identity
• Examining the geography of poverty and social inequality
• Studying the relationship between health and geographical location
• Analyzing the spatial distribution of ethnic communities in cities
• Investigating the geography of political power and governance
• Exploring the role of geography in shaping human behavior
• Analyzing the impacts of urban sprawl on communities
• Studying the geography of education access and quality
• Examining the spatial patterns of crime and its socio-economic factors
• Investigating the geography of healthcare provision and disparities

Cultural Geography Research Topics

Interested in cultural geography? Immerse yourself in the rich tapestry of cultures and their geographical influences with this captivating list of cultural geography research topics:

• Analyzing the cultural landscapes of indigenous communities
• Exploring the impact of globalization on cultural diversity
• Investigating the geography of language and its preservation
• Examining the influence of religion on cultural landscapes
• Studying the role of cultural heritage in tourism development
• Analyzing the geography of cultural festivals and events
• Investigating the spatial patterns of cultural diffusion
• Exploring the impact of migration on cultural identities
• Analyzing the geography of music and its regional variations
• Investigating the role of food culture in shaping identities
• Examining the spatial distribution of cultural institutions
• Studying the geography of art and its impact on communities

Physical Geography Research Topics

Do you want to write about physical geography? Investigate the natural processes and phenomena shaping our planet through this collection of compelling physical geography research topics:

• Analyzing the processes of coastal erosion and their impacts
• Investigating the formation and characteristics of river systems
• Examining the effects of climate change on glacial landscapes
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of soil erosion and conservation
• Investigating the biogeography of specific ecosystems
• Exploring the impacts of climate on vegetation patterns
• Analyzing the geography of water resources and hydrology
• Investigating the formation and classification of landforms
• Examining the spatial distribution of biodiversity hotspots
• Studying the interactions between humans and the natural environment
• Exploring the impacts of urbanization on natural landscapes

Geography Thesis Topics

Are you busy planning your thesis? Engage in an in-depth exploration of geographic concepts and theories with this thought-provoking list of geography thesis topics:

• Investigating the geographical aspects of sustainable development
• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on vulnerable communities
• Exploring the role of geography in disaster risk reduction
• Studying the geography of migration and refugee movements
• Examining the relationship between urban planning and social equity
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of energy consumption and renewable solutions
• Exploring the geographical dimensions of political conflicts and peacebuilding
• Investigating the role of geography in land use planning and conservation
• Examining the impacts of globalization on local economies

Urban Geography Thesis Topics

Are you interested in writing about urban geography? Analyze the complexities of urban landscapes and urbanization processes with this curated selection of urban geography thesis topics:

• Analyzing the effects of gentrification on urban neighborhoods
• Investigating the role of urban design in creating sustainable cities
• Examining the spatial patterns of urban sprawl and its consequences
• Studying the geography of social segregation in urban areas
• Analyzing the impacts of transportation systems on urban mobility
• Investigating the relationship between urbanization and public health
• Exploring the geography of informal settlements and slums
• Analyzing the impacts of urban green spaces on quality of life
• Investigating the geography of urban food systems and food security
• Examining the role of technology in shaping smart cities
• Studying the spatial distribution of cultural and recreational amenities in cities

PhD Research Topics In Geography

Expand the boundaries of geographical knowledge and contribute to the field with this diverse and stimulating list of PhD research topics in geography:

• Analyzing the geography of environmental justice in urban areas
• Investigating the impacts of climate change on indigenous communities
• Examining the role of geography in disaster risk governance
• Studying the spatial patterns of land use change in rapidly urbanizing regions
• Analyzing the impacts of transportation infrastructure on accessibility and equity
• Investigating the geographical dimensions of health inequalities
• Exploring the relationship between globalization and urbanization processes
• Analyzing the geography of political conflicts and territorial disputes
• Investigating the impacts of natural resource extraction on local communities
• Studying the spatial dynamics of international migration and its consequences
• Exploring the geography of innovation and knowledge economies in cities

Captivating Research Topics In Geography

Looking for some captivating research topics in geography? Ignite curiosity and scholarly interest with this awesome collection of research topics that delve into various aspects of geography:

• Investigating the geography of mega-cities and their challenges
• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on vulnerable coastal regions
• Exploring the spatial patterns of cultural landscapes and heritage sites
• Studying the geography of borderlands and transnational interactions
• Examining the impacts of tourism on local communities and environments
• The role of geography in understanding human-environment interactions
• Analyzing the spatial distribution of environmental pollution and its impacts
• Exploring the geography of global food systems and agricultural practices
• Investigating the impacts of natural disasters on urban resilience
• Examining the role of geography in understanding urban inequalities
• Studying the geography of geopolitical conflicts and their implications
• Exploring the impacts of technological advancements on landscapes

Interesting Geography Research Topics

Discover a wide range of interesting geography research topics that will pique your professor’s curiosity and offer new insights into the world of geography:

• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on glacier retreat and water resources
• Investigating the geography of renewable energy transition and its challenges
• Examining the spatial patterns of urban heat islands and their mitigation strategies
• Studying the impacts of land use change on biodiversity conservation
• Investigating the role of geography in understanding cultural diversity
• Exploring the geography of disease outbreaks and their spatial spread
• Investigating the impacts of natural hazards on human vulnerability and resilience
• Examining the spatial distribution of ecological corridors
• Studying the geography of regional economic disparities and development strategies
• Exploring the impacts of transportation infrastructure on urban accessibility
• The role of geography in understanding weather patterns

Good Geography Research Topics For 2023

Looking for some current topics to write about? Choose from a list of good geography research topics for 2023 that showcase the relevance and significance of geography in today’s world:

• Impacts of population growth on urban infrastructure and services in geography
• Geography of water scarcity and its implications for communities
• Spatial patterns of environmental conservation and protected areas in geography
• Impacts of land degradation on agricultural productivity and food security
• Geography of natural resource management and sustainable practices
• Relationship between climate change and human migration patterns in geography
• Spatial distribution of environmental justice and marginalized communities
• Impacts of urbanization on water pollution and ecosystem degradation
• Geography of renewable energy sources and their integration into the grid
• Role of geography in understanding regional conflicts over natural resources
• Impacts of deforestation on biodiversity loss and ecosystem services

Geography Topics For Research For College

Need some great geography topics for research for college? Explore a comprehensive list of geography research topics tailored for college-level studies, offering opportunities for critical analysis and exploration:

• Impacts of transportation infrastructure on urban air quality in geography
• Geography of urban gentrification and displacement
• Spatial patterns of urban food waste and its environmental consequences
• Impacts of tourism development on fragile ecosystems in geography
• Geography of environmental migration and its social implications
• Role of geography in understanding climate adaptation strategies
• Spatial distribution of environmental inequalities and environmental racism
• Impacts of land use change on water quality in agricultural regions
• Geography of geopolitical conflicts and territorial disputes
• Impacts of industrial pollution on urban health and well-being
• Role of geography in understanding disaster preparedness

Interesting Geography Topics For High School

Get the most interesting geography topics for high school. Foster geographical curiosity and critical thinking skills with this intriguing list of essay topics designed specifically by our best dissertation service writers for high school students:

• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on the polar regions
• Investigating the geography of natural hazards
• Examining the spatial distribution of endangered species
• Studying the impacts of urbanization on wildlife habitat fragmentation
• Exploring the geography of cultural diversity and multiculturalism in cities
• Investigating the role of geography in understanding climate variability
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of population distribution and density
• Investigating the geography of international migration and refugee flows
• Examining the impacts of tourism on local communities and cultures
• Studying the geography of natural resources
• Exploring the role of geography in understanding global inequality

Engaging Geographical Research Topics

Embark on a captivating journey of geographical exploration with this diverse collection of engaging geographical research topics, connecting people, places and the environment through insightful investigations:

• Urban sprawl impacts on land use and ecosystem services in geography
• Geography of renewable energy transition and its challenges
• Spatial patterns of urban heat islands and impacts on residents
• Impacts of climate change on coastal erosion and shoreline management
• Geography of water scarcity and implications for human populations
• Role of geography in understanding geopolitical conflicts and peacebuilding
• Spatial distribution of environmental pollutants and health effects
• Impacts of globalization on local economies and cultural landscapes
• Geography of gender inequalities and spatial dimensions
• Impacts of natural disasters on vulnerable communities and recovery
• Role of geography in understanding migration dynamics and urbanization
• Geography of political borders and their social and economic implications

Affordable Thesis Help You Can Rely On

When it comes to working on a geography research paper or a thesis for Master’s degree , our company is your trusted source for comprehensive writing help. Our team of expert writers consists of experienced professionals who specialize in geography, ensuring that you receive top marks for your school or class. We pride ourselves on delivering high quality and impressive custom written theses tailored to your specific requirements.

With our secure and fast online service, you can access thesis help that is not only affordable but available 24/7. Rest assured that your work will be handled by native English-speaking experts (ENL writers), guaranteeing exceptional quality and adherence to academic standards. Trust us for all your thesis needs and achieve academic success with ease.

Make sure to check our posts with other topics before you leave:

• 122 Best Ecology Topics To Sparkle Your Writing
• 195 Top Anthropology Topics For Great Thesis
• 170 Fantastic Astronomy Topics For High Scoring Tests

Why is choosing a great topic important when writing a geography essay?

Choosing a great topic ensures that your essay is engaging, relevant, and allows you to demonstrate your understanding of key geographical concepts while capturing the reader’s interest.

How can I choose a great topic for my geography essay?

To choose a great topic, consider current geographical issues, areas of personal interest and the availability of reliable sources. Additionally, ensure that the topic aligns with your essay’s objectives and requirements.

What are some strategies for narrowing down a geography essay topic?

To narrow down your topic, focus on specific geographical regions, phenomena, or concepts. Consider exploring the intersections between different aspects of geography, such as human and physical geography, to create a unique and well-rounded essay topic.

Can I get assistance in choosing a great topic for my geography essay?

Yes, you can seek guidance from your instructor, consult reputable academic resources or utilize online platforms that provide topic suggestions. Engaging in discussions with peers or experts in the field can also help generate ideas and refine your topic choice.

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1st Edition

Regions Critical Essays in Human Geography

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Description

This volume gathers a collection of the most seminal essays written by leading experts in the field, which identify or signal many of the changing directions of regional research in geography during the past fifty years. Various forms of 'new regionalism' or 'new regional geography' have emerged over the last several decades, especially in political and economic geography, but in general the region has been a concept in declining use. Despite this, the region has gained new currency in sub-areas of political and economic geography and a so-called 'new regionalism' has emerged in studies of the changing nature of the nation-state in a globalizing economy. Taken together, the essays in this volume provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of academic developments in this area of geographical research.

Table of Contents

J. Nicholas Entrikin

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Geography - Higher

A big and diverse course, if you are comfortable writing essays this is a subject for you.

With seven or more essays to be written, timing is crucial in the written exam. It's really important that you keep an eye on the clock and avoid the temptation to run over time perfecting one essay at the cost of not finishing your last question. The examiner will be looking for SRPs (single relevant points) in your essay. A SRP can be described as a "single meaty statement", a sentence or paragraph with one clear and true point. At higher level, an SRP is worth 2 marks so a typical 30-mark essay will need at least 15 SRPs. The Geographical Investigation is usually submitted in April of 6th year and is worth 20% of the final grade. 

Higher Level Course Content:

• Aerial photos
• Earthquakes & Volcanoes
• Economic - Developing Economies
• Economic - Energy
• Economic - Environmental impact
• Economic - European Union
• Economic - Multinationals & Globalisation
• Elective - Economic
• Elective - Human
• Human - Population
• Human - Urban Geography
• Karst Regions
• Option - Atmosphere & Ocean
• Option - Culture & Identity
• Option - Geoecology
• Option - Global Interdependence
• Plate Tectonics
• PROJECT - Investigation
• Regions - Continental
• Regions - European
• Regions - Ireland
• Rocks, Weathering & Mass Movement
• Tables/Graphs Questions
• Urban Land uses
• Weather & Climate

Ordinary Level Course Content:

• Economic - Ireland & the EU
• Graph style questions
• Geographical Investigation Report (20%)
• Written Examination (80%)

There is one written paper for both Higher and Ordinary levels, which lasts for 2 hours and 50 minutes. There are three parts to the written paper. 

Twelve short questions where you will be marked out of your best ten. (25 mins, 80 marks)

Essay style questions where you have a choice of ONE question from three in each section. Spend no more than 30 mins on each question (80 marks).

• Section 1: Physical Geography (Q1, Q2, Q3 - Pick one)
• Section 2: Regional Geography (Q4, Q5, Q6 - Pick one)
• Section 3: Human Elective (Q7, Q8, Q9 - Pick one) OR Economic Elective (Q10, Q11, Q12 - Pick one)
• Section 4: Options (Questions 13-24) - Higher level only. You will be given 4 questions on your chosen option and you pick one. Each question will require you to write a single longer essay where you discuss three or four aspects of the theme in detail in 30 minutes (80 marks)

Geographical Investigation Report

The SEC will publish a list of topics and students will report on a geographical investigation based on one of these topics. 

Future Careers with Leaving Certificate Geography

Some Universities accept Geography as a Science subject. Future careers include; Earth Scientist, Planner, Environmental Science, and Fishing Industry.

Download the Leaving Cert Geography Syllabus

Download the Leaving Cert Geography Chief Examiner's Report (2012) 

Download the Leaving Cert Geography Guidlines for Teachers

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I would like to extend my thanks to the author of the OER textbook, World Regional Geography: People, Places, and Globalization , that I have drawn from, revised, remixed, or shared-alike. The intent of this textbook is to update and build upon the body of knowledge that exists within the geographic discipline.

Unless otherwise noted within each chapter of the textbook, this body of work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License .

Before making any of the educational content or resources freely available to the public, the author has reviewed all material extensively to determine the correct ownership of the material and obtain appropriate attribute licenses to make the material available. The author will promptly remove any material that is determined to be infringing on the rights of others. If you believe that any portion of the educational content violates copyright laws, let the author know right away at [email protected].

To file a formal notification, you must be either the copyright owner of the work or an individual authorized to act on behalf of the copyright owner. Your notification must include:

• Identification of the copyrighted work, or, in the case of multiple works at the same location, a representative list of such works at that site.
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• A statement that the claimant believes that the use of the material has not been authorized by the copyright owner or an authorized agent.
• A statement that the information in the notification is accurate and that the claimant is, or is authorized to act on behalf of, the copyright owner.

(This notification process and language were adapted from Lumen Learning and the MIT OpenCourseWare Terms of Use , licensed CC BY NC SA.)

Introduction to World Regional Geography Copyright © 2020 by R. Adam Dastrup, MA, GISP is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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GEOG101: World Regional Geography

Course introduction.

• Time: 45 hours
• College Credit Recommended ($25 Proctor Fee) -->
• Free Certificate

Our goal is to begin understanding each region's physical and human attributes from a spatial perspective and place them within a global framework. We will use maps to locate places and features within regions to help us understand global issues, such as international conflict, cooperation, environmental degradation, population growth, and globalization.

We will respond to the following questions, among many others.

• How does a regional approach to studying the world help us understand it?
• What tools and methods do geographers use to study the world?
• Who lives in each region?
• What languages do they speak there, and why?
• What explains the locations of their cities?
• How does geography help explain conflicts in some regions?
• Why do so many earthquakes occur in some places?
• Why does the landscape look different from region to region?

Keep in mind that this course is designed to look at the world from a geographical perspective. We only touch on many aspects of local and regional history and political situations that are more appropriate as topics for another type of course.

Course Syllabus

First, read the course syllabus. Then, enroll in the course by clicking "Enroll me". Click Unit 1 to read its introduction and learning outcomes. You will then see the learning materials and instructions on how to use them.

Unit 1: Introduction to Geography

Geography comes from the Greek words geo (Earth) and graphia (to write). It examines the physical features of the Earth, its atmosphere, the human landscape, and the spatial relationships between them. Geographers seek to identify, explain, and predict human and physical patterns across space to understand how the spaces in between are connected. In this unit, we introduce the discipline of geography and the importance of the spatial perspective. We investigate the different types of locations and regions, the use of maps, and the role of technology. We also introduce the components of physical and human geography that we will examine across the world's regions.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 3 hours.

Unit 2: Europe

Let's begin our study of the world's regions in Europe. While humans did not originate in Europe, and we do not consider it the "cradle of civilization", this region has profoundly affected the world's other regions, primarily due to colonization. Europe's geography has been an essential component of its economic history. Its geography influenced the movement of its people, and its natural resources facilitated its economic development during the Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions.

However, Europe's socioeconomic success has contributed to the challenges it now faces. The influx of immigrants from places it once colonized has led to a rise in nationalism. Globalization has also contributed to forces that divide rather than unify many Europeans. In this unit, we also investigate themes we introduced in Unit 1 as part of the European context.

Unit 3: Russia

Russia is the largest country in the world in terms of physical area. It is nearly twice the size of the United States. Russia's extensive landscapes include major metropolitan areas such as Moscow, vast territories in the Arctic north, the immense forests of Siberia, the deepest lake in the world, massive grain farms, volcanoes on the Kamchatka Peninsula, and mountain communities in the Caucasus.

Russia is rich in natural resources, but its population is slowly declining and sees extremes of wealth and poverty. Russia recently invaded Ukraine to expand its territory, creating a war that is draining its resources and prompting other countries to boycott Russian goods. Russia is becoming increasingly isolated.

This unit explores Russia's physical characteristics, cultural diversity, and environmental challenges. We examine the historical development patterns of Russia and its economy and the human landscape of Russia today in the early 2020s.

Unit 4: North America

The region of North America includes the United States and Canada, which have similar physical characteristics and a history of colonialism. These two countries comprise more than 13 percent of the world's total landmass. North America is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, the Pacific Ocean on the west, and the Arctic Ocean to the north.

The population in North America has highly urbanized: approximately 80 percent of the population lives in cities. Most of North America's diverse population consists of immigrants or descendants of immigrants. The United States is the world's largest economy – Canada and the United States enjoy relatively high standards of living.

We begin this unit by exploring North America's physical geography, paying particular attention to its seismically active west coast, its water resources, the potential for sustainable agriculture, and the impact of fossil fuels on the landscape. Next, we explore the pattern of human settlement, the influence of European colonialism, and the institution of slavery. Then, we take a close look at industrial development, urban and suburban growth, patterns of inequality, and globalization.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 4 hours.

Unit 5: Middle and South America

Middle America is the geographic realm between the United States and South America. It consists of three main regions: the Caribbean, Mexico, and Central America. The Caribbean, the most culturally diverse of the three regions, includes more than 7,000 islands that stretch from the Bahamas to Barbados. The four largest islands of the Caribbean are the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, and Puerto Rico. Hispaniola is comprised of two halves: Haiti in the west and the Dominican Republic in the east. The smaller islands, extending all the way to South America, make up the Lesser Antilles. Trinidad is the farthest south, just off the coast of Venezuela. The Bahamas are closest to the mainland United States.

Central America refers to the seven states south of Mexico: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The Pacific Ocean borders Central America to the west, while the Caribbean Sea is on the east coast. Most of these countries straddle the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. However, Belize only has a shoreline on the Caribbean, and El Salvador is only on the Pacific.

The continent of South America has diverse physical landscapes, from the Andes mountains to the tropical forests of the Amazon basin. Venezuela and Columbia have abundant precious metals and fossil fuels, while the Amazon basin is a source of lumber and, more recently, some of the largest iron-ore mines in the world. The massive plains of Brazil and the rich soils of the Pampas allow for enormous agricultural operations. Even the inhospitable Atacama region in northern Chile holds some of the world's largest copper reserves. The wide variety of climate zones allows for a diverse ecosystem, and the extremes of physical geography have created both barriers and opportunities for those who live there.

In this Unit, we investigate the physical characteristics of Middle and South America. Then, we will explore the human landscape before colonization, including the Mayan, Aztec, and Incan Empires. We identify the effects of European colonialism, especially how Spanish colonizers influenced patterns of land-holding and urban development. This region is highly urbanized, so we learn about the phenomena of primate cities and megacities. Finally, we return to the themes of inequality and globalization within the context of Middle and South America.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 5 hours.

Unit 6: Sub-Saharan Africa

Sub-Saharan Africa includes the countries south of the Sahara Desert and many of the countries in the Sahel, or African Transition Zone. This swath of land marks a climatic shift from the desert in the north to the savannas and tropics of the south. The geography and climate of this region play a critical role in the social and political life of its residents.

Unit 7: North Africa and Southwest Asia

The region of North Africa and Southwest Asia is incredibly wide and spans more than 100° degrees of longitude. Although its east-west extent is not as wide as Russia's, this vast area has connected Eastern Europe and Western Asia since 100 BCE. Consequently, this region has an extraordinary level of ethnolinguistic diversity.

The region of North Africa and Southwest Asia includes countries in the sub-region of North Africa, with countries on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea: Western Sahara, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. It also borders the Atlantic Ocean, the Sahara Desert, and African Transition Zone (the Sahel). Egypt's Sinai Peninsula includes territory in Africa and Asia. Southwest Asia also includes sub-regions.

Because there are so many variations within this region, we occasionally focus on one sub-region to highlight some key concepts. Depending on the map you are studying, different countries are often categorized into different sub-regions.

Here is a list of countries that comprise these sub-regions. Note that geographers may include different countries in these lists.

• Caucasus: Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan
• Central Asia (also called Turkestan): Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan
• Middle East: Israel, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Iran
• Arabian Peninsula: Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Qatar, UAE (United Arab Emirates), and Kuwait

This region is also the hearth of the three largest monotheistic religions in the world and is home to sacred places for Christians, Jews, and Muslims. This proximity has caused centuries of conflict among religious and ethnic groups throughout a region that has its own history of conquest. Finally, we will apply the themes of urbanization and inequality, which we have studied throughout this course.

Unit 8: South Asia

South Asia is the birthplace of two of the world's largest religions: Hinduism and Buddhism. Today, South Asia also includes a large Muslim population and many followers of other religions. South Asia is an active region tectonically and home to Earth's highest mountains. It is also known for its monsoon winds. Like the other regions we have explored, South Asia has its own history of colonization that is still evident today. Religious and ethnic conflicts also characterize this region.

In this unit, we explore and analyze the diverse physical, cultural, political, and economic characteristics of South Asia. First, we look at the physical geography of the region, paying special attention to its climate and the monsoon weather pattern. Then, we explore the region's population growth, including the pattern of urbanization and the impact of megacities.

Balancing natural capital and population growth remains a major issue in the region. South Asia is highly populated, with about 1.8 billion people across a wide range of ethnic and cultural groups. We close out this unit by analyzing its globalizing forces.

Unit 9: East and Southeast Asia

The region of East and Southeast Asia is home to nearly one-third of the world's population. China is its largest country in terms of area and population. The region is highly urbanized because many of the countries are small islands – it includes some of the largest, most densely populated cities in the world. The physical geography is diverse, although much of the region has a tropical climate. The region is tectonically active due to its proximity to the Ring of Fire, with earthquake, volcano, and tsunami hazards.

A history of colonialism within and beyond the region continues to influence its human geography. Like other regions, it is culturally diverse and sees conflicts among its ethnic and religious groups. Territorial disputes continue to this day, especially with respect to China. East and Southeast Asia is a critical player in the global economy because it is home to several global financial and electronics manufacturing centers. Generally, the region has a moderate level of income inequality. It includes the communist countries of China, Vietnam, and Laos.

Because several countries are in various stages of industrialization, the associated environmental issues are particularly acute. Like the region of South Asia, the region of East and South East has incurred further environmental damage due to outsourcing. Overseas companies locate their production facilities in places like Vietnam, which results in air, water, and soil contamination.

Completing this unit should take you approximately 7 hours.

Unit 10: Oceania

The region of Oceania includes Australia, New Zealand, the islands of the South Pacific, Antarctica, and the world's oceans. This vast area has few human settlements compared to the other regions, but its physical geography is affected by human activities all over the world.

Oceania shares several themes with the other regions, including colonialism, urbanization, globalization, and human-environmental interaction. Since the region is dominated by water, it includes issues of territorial claims over the world's oceans. Antarctica is also the subject of international claims. Australia and New Zealand have flora and fauna found nowhere else on Earth.

There has been little industrial development in the South Pacific. Most of the islands in the South Pacific were claimed or colonized by the imperial powers of Europe, Japan, and the United States. They are considered peripheral to the overall global economy. Tourism is the major activity in the South Pacific, and research is the major activity in Antarctica. Both areas have opportunities for greater economic development in the future.

Oceania is uniquely affected by climate change. Rising temperatures melt the polar caps, which in turn contribute to rising sea levels. Changes in precipitation patterns seriously affect the biodiversity of tropical islands in the Pacific, and changes in temperature affect agricultural activity and tourism.

We explore the physical geography of this region by introducing its sub-regions before you read about them in the text: Australia and New Zealand, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Antarctica.

This is a particularly difficult region to characterize due to its vast extent and the diversity of its physical geography. We begin with Australia and New Zealand because they dominate the region in terms of population. We move to the Pacific Islands and consider them as a group even though they are separated by great ocean distances. In spite of this separation, they have many characteristics in common and share many of the same challenges. Finally, we explore Antarctica separately because it is a continent like no other. As the coldest continent on Earth, with no permanent human habitation, Antarctica is one of the world's remaining frontiers.

Study Guide

This study guide will help you get ready for the final exam. It discusses the key topics in each unit, walks through the learning outcomes, and lists important vocabulary. It is not meant to replace the course materials!

Course Feedback Survey

Please take a few minutes to give us feedback about this course. We appreciate your feedback, whether you completed the whole course or even just a few resources. Your feedback will help us make our courses better, and we use your feedback each time we make updates to our courses.

If you come across any urgent problems, email [email protected].

Certificate Final Exam

Take this exam if you want to earn a free Course Completion Certificate.

To receive a free Course Completion Certificate, you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on this final exam. Your grade for the exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again as many times as you want, with a 7-day waiting period between each attempt.

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a free Course Completion Certificate .

Saylor Direct Credit

Take this exam if you want to earn college credit for this course . This course is eligible for college credit through Saylor Academy's Saylor Direct Credit Program .

The Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam requires a proctoring fee of $5 . To pass this course and earn a Credly Badge and official transcript , you will need to earn a grade of 70% or higher on the Saylor Direct Credit Final Exam. Your grade for this exam will be calculated as soon as you complete it. If you do not pass the exam on your first try, you can take it again a maximum of 3 times , with a 14-day waiting period between each attempt.

We are partnering with SmarterProctoring to help make the proctoring fee more affordable. We will be recording you, your screen, and the audio in your room during the exam. This is an automated proctoring service, but no decisions are automated; recordings are only viewed by our staff with the purpose of making sure it is you taking the exam and verifying any questions about exam integrity. We understand that there are challenges with learning at home - we won't invalidate your exam just because your child ran into the room!

Requirements:

• Desktop Computer
• Chrome (v74+)
• Webcam + Microphone
• 1mbps+ Internet Connection

Once you pass this final exam, you will be awarded a Credly Badge and can request an official transcript .

Saylor Direct Credit Exam

This exam is part of the Saylor Direct College Credit program. Before attempting this exam, review the Saylor Direct Credit page for complete requirements.

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Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments.

Earth Science, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography

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Geography is the study of places and the relationships between people and their environments. Geographers explore both the physical properties of Earth’s surface and the human societies spread across it. They also examine how human culture interacts with the natural environment, and the way that locations and places can have an impact on people. Geography seeks to understand where things are found, why they are there, and how they develop and change over time.

Ancient Geographers

The term "geography" was coined by the Greek scholar Eratosthenes in the third century B.C.E. In Greek, geo- means “earth” and -graphy means “to write.” Using geography, Eratosthenes and other Greeks developed an understanding of where their homeland was located in relation to other places, what their own and other places were like, and how people and environments were distributed. These concerns have been central to geography ever since.

Of course, the Greeks were not the only people interested in geography, nor were they the first. Throughout human history, most societies have sought to understand something about their place in the world, and the people and environments around them. Mesopotamian societies inscribed maps on clay tablets, some of which survive to this day. The earliest known attempt at mapping the world is a Babylonian clay tablet known as the Imago Mundi. This map, created in the sixth century B.C.E., is more of a metaphorical and spiritual representation of Babylonian society rather than an accurate depiction of geography. Other Mesopotamian maps were more practical, marking irrigation networks and landholdings.

Indigenous peoples around the world developed geographic ideas and practices long before Eratosthenes. For example, Polynesian navigators embarked on long-range sea voyages across the Pacific Islands as early as 3000 years ago. The people of the Marshall Islands used navigation charts made of natural materials (“stick charts”) to visualize and memorize currents, wind patterns, and island locations.

Indeed, mapmaking probably came even before writing in many places, but ancient Greek geographers were particularly influential. They developed very detailed maps of Greek city-states, including parts of Europe, Africa, and Asia. More importantly, they also raised questions about how and why different human and natural patterns came into being on Earth’s surface, and why variations existed from place to place. The effort to answer these questions about patterns and distribution led them to figure out that the world was round, to calculate Earth’s circumference, and to develop explanations of everything from the seasonal flooding of the Nile to differences in population densities from place to place.

During the Middle Ages, geography ceased to be a major academic pursuit in Europe. Advances in geography were chiefly made by scientists of the Muslim world, based around the Middle East and North Africa. Geographers of this Islamic Golden Age created an early example of a rectangular map based on a grid, a map system that is still familiar today. Islamic scholars also applied their study of people and places to agriculture, determining which crops and livestock were most suited to specific habitats or environments.

In addition to the advances in the Middle East, the Chinese empire in Asia also contributed immensely to geography. Around 1000, Chinese navigators achieved one of the most important developments in the history of geography: They were the first to use the compass for navigational purposes. In the early 1400s, the explorer Zheng He embarked on seven voyages to the lands bordering the China Sea and the Indian Ocean, establishing China’s influence throughout Southeast Asia.

Age of Discovery

Through the 13th-century travels of the Italian explorer Marco Polo, European interest in spices from Asia grew. Acquiring spices from East Asian and Arab merchants was expensive, and a major land route for the European spice trade was lost with the conquering of Constantinople by the Ottoman Empire. These and other economic factors, in addition to competition between Christian and Islamic societies, motivated European nations to send explorers in search of a sea route to China. This period of time between the 15th and 17th centuries is known in the West as the Age of Exploration or the Age of Discovery.

With the dawn of the Age of Discovery, the study of geography regained popularity in Europe. The invention of the printing press in the mid-1400s helped spread geographic knowledge by making maps and charts widely available. Improvements in shipbuilding and navigation facilitated more exploring, greatly improving the accuracy of maps and geographic information.

Greater geographic understanding allowed European powers to extend their global influence. During the Age of Discovery, European nations established colonies around the world. Improved transportation, communication, and navigational technology allowed countries such as the United Kingdom to establish colonies as far away as the Americas, Asia, Australia, and Africa. This was lucrative for European powers, but the Age of Discovery brought about nightmarish change for the people already living in the territories they colonized. When Columbus landed in the Americas in 1492, millions of Indigenous peoples already lived there. By the 1600s, 90 percent of the Indigenous population of the Americas had been wiped out by violence and diseases brought over by European explorers.

Geography was not just a subject that enabled colonialism, however. It also helped people understand the planet on which they lived. Not surprisingly, geography became an important focus of study in schools and universities.

Geography also became an important part of other academic disciplines, such as chemistry, economics, and philosophy. In fact, every academic subject has some geographic connection. Chemists study where certain chemical elements, such as gold or silver, can be found. Economists examine which nations trade with other nations, and what resources are exchanged. Philosophers analyze the responsibility people have to take care of Earth.

Emergence of Modern Geography

Some people have trouble understanding the complete scope of the discipline of geography because geography is interdisciplinary, meaning that it is not defined by one particular topic. Instead, geography is concerned with many different topics—people, culture, politics, settlements, plants, landforms, and much more. Geography asks spatial questions—how and why things are distributed or arranged in particular ways on Earth’s surface. It looks at these different distributions and arrangements at many different scales. It also asks questions about how the interaction of different human and natural activities on Earth’s surface shape the characteristics of the world in which we live.

Geography seeks to understand where things are found and why they are present in those places; how things that are located in the same or distant places influence one another over time; and why places and the people who live in them develop and change in particular ways. Raising these questions is at the heart of the “ geographic perspective .”

Exploration has long been an important part of geography, and it’s an important part of developing a geographic perspective. Exploration isn’t limited to visiting unfamiliar places; it also means documenting and connecting relationships between spatial, sociological, and ecological elements.

The age-old practice of mapping still plays an important role in this type of exploration, but exploration can also be done by using images from satellites or gathering information from interviews. Discoveries can come by using computers to map and analyze the relationship among things in geographic space, or from piecing together the multiple forces, near and far, that shape the way individual places develop.

Applying a geographic perspective demonstrates geography’s concern not just with where things are, but with “the why of where”—a short but useful definition of geography’s central focus.

The insights that have come from geographic research show the importance of asking “the why of where” questions. Geographic studies comparing physical characteristics of continents on either side of the Atlantic Ocean, for instance, gave rise to the idea that Earth’s surface is comprised of large, slowly moving plates—plate tectonics.

Studies of the geographic distribution of human settlements have shown how economic forces and modes of transport influence the location of towns and cities. For example, geographic analysis has pointed to the role of the United States Interstate Highway System and the rapid growth of car ownership in creating a boom in U.S. suburban growth after World War II. The geographic perspective helped show where Americans were moving, why they were moving there, and how their new living places affected their lives, their relationships with others, and their interactions with the environment.

Geographic analyses of the spread of diseases have pointed to the conditions that allow particular diseases to develop and spread. Dr. John Snow’s cholera map stands out as a classic example. When cholera broke out in London, England, in 1854, Snow represented the deaths per household on a street map. Using the map, he was able to trace the source of the outbreak to a water pump on the corner of Broad Street and Cambridge Street. The geographic perspective helped identify the source of the problem (the water from a specific pump) and allowed people to avoid the disease (avoiding water from that pump).

Investigations of the geographic impact of human activities have advanced understanding of the role of humans in transforming the surface of Earth, exposing the spatial extent of threats such as water pollution by artificial waste. For example, geographic study has shown that a large mass of tiny pieces of plastic currently floating in the Pacific Ocean is approximately the size of Texas. Satellite images and other geographic technology identified the so-called “Great Pacific Garbage Patch.”

These examples of different uses of the geographic perspective help explain why geographic study and research is important as we confront many 21st century challenges, including environmental pollution, poverty, hunger, and ethnic or political conflict.

Because the study of geography is so broad, the discipline is typically divided into specialties. At the broadest level, geography is divided into physical geography, human geography, geographic techniques, and regional geography.

Physical Geography

The natural environment is the primary concern of physical geographers, although many physical geographers also look at how humans have altered natural systems. Physical geographers study Earth’s seasons, climate, atmosphere, soil, streams, landforms, and oceans. Some disciplines within physical geography include geomorphology, glaciology, pedology, hydrology, climatology, biogeography, and oceanography.

Geomorphology is the study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists investigate the nature and impact of wind, ice, rivers, erosion, earthquakes, volcanoes, living things, and other forces that shape and change the surface of Earth.

Glaciologists focus on Earth’s ice fields and their impact on the planet’s climate. Glaciologists document the properties and distribution of glaciers and icebergs. Data collected by glaciologists has demonstrated the retreat of Arctic and Antarctic ice in the past century.

Pedologists study soil and how it is created, changed, and classified. Soil studies are used by a variety of professions, from farmers analyzing field fertility to engineers investigating the suitability of different areas for building heavy structures.

Hydrology is the study of Earth’s water: its properties, distribution, and effects. Hydrologists are especially concerned with the movement of water as it cycles from the ocean to the atmosphere, then back to Earth’s surface. Hydrologists study the water cycle through rainfall into streams, lakes, the soil, and underground aquifers. Hydrologists provide insights that are critical to building or removing dams, designing irrigation systems, monitoring water quality, tracking drought conditions, and predicting flood risk.

Climatologists study Earth’s climate system and its impact on Earth’s surface. For example, climatologists make predictions about El Niño, a cyclical weather phenomenon of warm surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean. They analyze the dramatic worldwide climate changes caused by El Niño, such as flooding in Peru, drought in Australia, and, in the United States, the oddities of heavy Texas rains or an unseasonably warm Minnesota winter.

Biogeographers study the impact of the environment on the distribution of plants and animals. For example, a biogeographer might document all the places in the world inhabited by a certain spider species, and what those places have in common.

Oceanography, a related discipline of physical geography, focuses on the creatures and environments of the world’s oceans. Observation of ocean tides and currents constituted some of the first oceanographic investigations. For example, 18th-century mariners figured out the geography of the Gulf Stream, a massive current flowing like a river through the Atlantic Ocean. The discovery and tracking of the Gulf Stream helped communications and travel between Europe and the Americas.

Today, oceanographers conduct research on the impacts of water pollution, track tsunamis, design offshore oil rigs, investigate underwater eruptions of lava, and study all types of marine organisms from toxic algae to friendly dolphins.

Human Geography

Human geography is concerned with the distribution and networks of people and cultures on Earth’s surface. A human geographer might investigate the local, regional, and global impact of rising economic powers China and India, which represent 37 percent of the world’s people. They also might look at how consumers in China and India adjust to new technology and markets, and how markets respond to such a huge consumer base.

Human geographers also study how people use and alter their environments. When, for example, people allow their animals to overgraze a region, the soil erodes and grassland is transformed into desert. The impact of overgrazing on the landscape as well as agricultural production is an area of study for human geographers.

Finally, human geographers study how political, social, and economic systems are organized across geographical space. These include governments, religious organizations, and trade partnerships. The boundaries of these groups constantly change.

The main divisions within human geography reflect a concern with different types of human activities or ways of living. Some examples of human geography include urban geography, economic geography, cultural geography, political geography, social geography, and population geography. Human geographers who study geographic patterns and processes in past times are part of the subdiscipline of historical geography. Those who study how people understand maps and geographic space belong to a subdiscipline known as behavioral geography.

Many human geographers interested in the relationship between humans and the environment work in the subdisciplines of cultural geography and political geography.

Cultural geographers study how the natural environment influences the development of human culture, such as how the climate affects the agricultural practices of a region. Political geographers study the impact of political circumstances on interactions between people and their environment, as well as environmental conflicts, such as disputes over water rights.

Some human geographers focus on the connection between human health and geography. For example, health geographers create maps that track the location and spread of specific diseases. They analyze the geographic disparities of health-care access. They are very interested in the impact of the environment on human health, especially the effects of environmental hazards such as radiation, lead poisoning, or water pollution.

Geographic Techniques

Specialists in geographic techniques study the ways in which geographic processes can be analyzed and represented using different methods and technologies. Mapmaking, or cartography, is perhaps the most basic of these. Cartography has been instrumental to geography throughout the ages.

Today, almost the entire surface of Earth has been mapped with remarkable accuracy, and much of this information is available instantly on the internet. One of the most remarkable of these websites is Google Earth, which “lets you fly anywhere on Earth to view satellite imagery, maps, terrain, 3D buildings, from galaxies in outer space to the canyons of the ocean.” In essence, anyone can be a virtual explorer from the comfort of home.

Technological developments during the past 100 years have given rise to a number of other specialties for scientists studying geographic techniques. The airplane made it possible to photograph land from above. Now, there are many satellites and other above-Earth vehicles that help geographers figure out what the surface of the planet looks like and how it is changing.

Geographers looking at what above-Earth cameras and sensors reveal are specialists in remote sensing. Pictures taken from space can be used to make maps, monitor ice melt, assess flood damage, track oil spills, predict weather, or perform endless other functions. For example, by comparing satellite photos taken from 1955 to 2007, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) discovered that the rate of coastal erosion along Alaska’s Beaufort Sea had doubled. Every year from 2002 to 2007, about 13.7 meters (45 feet) per year of coast, mostly icy permafrost, vanished into the sea.

Computerized systems that allow for precise calculations of how things are distributed and relate to one another have made the study of geographic information systems (GIS) an increasingly important specialty within geography. Geographic information systems are powerful databases that collect all types of information (maps, reports, statistics, satellite images, surveys, demographic data, and more) and link each piece of data to a geographic reference point, such as geographic coordinates. This data, called geospatial information, can be stored, analyzed, modeled, and manipulated in ways not possible before GIS computer technology existed.

The popularity and importance of GIS has given rise to a new science known as geographic information science (GISci). Geographic information scientists study patterns in nature as well as human development. They might study natural hazards, such as a fire that struck Los Angeles, California, United States, in 2008. A map posted on the internet showed the real-time spread of the fire, along with information to help people make decisions about how to evacuate quickly. GIS can also illustrate human struggles from a geographic perspective, such as the interactive online map published by the New York Times in May 2009 that showed building foreclosure rates in various regions around the New York City area.

The enormous possibilities for producing computerized maps and diagrams that can help us understand environmental and social problems have made geographic visualization an increasingly important specialty within geography. This geospatial information is in high demand by just about every institution, from government agencies monitoring water quality to entrepreneurs deciding where to locate new businesses.

Regional Geography

Regional geographers take a somewhat different approach to specialization, directing their attention to the general geographic characteristics of a region. A regional geographer might specialize in African studies, observing and documenting the people, nations, rivers, mountains, deserts, weather, trade, and other attributes of the continent. There are different ways you can define a region. You can look at climate zones, cultural regions, or political regions. Often regional geographers have a physical or human geography specialty as well as a regional specialty.

Regional geographers may also study smaller regions, such as urban areas. A regional geographer may be interested in the way a city like Shanghai, China, is growing. They would study transportation, migration, housing, and language use, as well as the human impact on elements of the natural environment, such as the Huangpu River.

Whether geography is thought of as a discipline or as a basic feature of our world, developing an understanding of the subject is important. Some grasp of geography is essential as people seek to make sense of the world and understand their place in it. Thinking geographically helps people to be aware of the connections among and between places and to see how important events are shaped by where they take place. Finally, knowing something about geography enriches people’s lives—promoting curiosity about other people and places and an appreciation of the patterns, environments, and peoples that make up the endlessly fascinating, varied planet on which we live.

Gazetteer A gazetteer is a geographic dictionary. Gazetteers, which have existed for thousands of years, usually contain some sort of map and a set of information. Some gazetteers may contain a list of capital cities or areas where a specific resource is found. Other gazetteers may contain information about the local population, such as languages spoken, money used, or religious beliefs.

Old Maps People have been making maps for thousands of years. One of the oldest known maps was found near the city of Kirkuk, Iraq. Most geographers say it dates from 2500 B.C.E. It is a palm-sized block of clay depicting an area with two hills and a stream. (Some geographers think the stream is a canal made by people for irrigation.) Geographers have identified one of the towns on the map. However, they are not sure exactly what the hand-held map represents. Ancient maps could also be quite large. A nine-foot wall painting in Catal Hyuk, Turkey, was made about 6000 B.C.E. It is a map of a busy city, complete with crowded housing and even an erupting volcano. However, some scientists believe this "map" is decorative and not an accurate representation of what was there.

Wrong-Way Corrigan The American aviator Douglas Corrigan is often nicknamed "Wrong-Way Corrigan" because of a navigational error he made on a flight in 1938. Corrigan had just piloted a very impressive flight from the U.S. cities of Long Beach, California, to New York, New York. He was scheduled to fly back to Long Beach. Instead, with the sky covered in clouds, Wrong Way Corrigan flew to Dublin, Ireland.

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May 9, 2024

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