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Geography Research Proposal

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Guidelines to Writing a Research Proposal

All Doctor of Philosophy (DPhil) students must write an acceptable research proposal.

This has a clear and explicit purpose:

• it makes certain that you have a worthwhile research project - you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound;
• it will show that you have the competence and work-plan to complete the research;
• it includes sufficient information for us to evaluate the proposed study; and
• we can be certain we have the right staff expertise to supervise you.

All research proposals must address the question of what you plan to accomplish and why you want to and how you are going to do it.

A research proposal is usually around 2,500 words long although there is no upper or lower limit to this.

In preparing a research proposal, the first thing that you have to do is to decide what it really is that you want to know more about. The questions that you want to research have to viable as a research project and lead to the creation of new knowledge and understanding.

Your research proposal should include a section on each of the following areas:

Ethical considerations

You will need to give consideration to issues of power and confidentiality. You should read any appropriate ethical guidelines and ask yourself how/whether you project follows these. [All research students at Oxford University are required (before they commence fieldwork) to complete the Central University Research Ethics Committee (CUREC) checklist and obtain permission to undertake any fieldwork].

Time scales

It is important that you map out a reasonable schedule of your work so that you can monitor your own progress and manage your project effectively. Start with your intended finishing date and do not underestimate the amount of time that it takes to finalise your drafts into a finished product.

Dissemination

A key indicator of the work of much research is whether it is of publishable quality. You might like to give some consideration at this stage as to what sorts of things might be publishable and where you would like them to appear. This is especially important if you wish to pursue a career as an academic in a UK university.

When you have completed all of this then get other people, your peers as well as those more experienced than you, to read it and comment. This will help you to revise the proposal before you submit it. You can also make contact with departmental staff whose research interests are in a similar area to those you intend to undertake. They would be happy to give you advice and to discuss possible supervision.

• School of Geography and Planning

Writing your research proposal

Find out how to write your research proposal, and what to include in it.

Do I need to write a research proposal?

All applications for PhD study places in the School of Geography and Planning must include a proposal that outlines your topic and proposed programme of research.

The only exception to this requirement is when you are applying only for an advertised project, for which the title and description of the project are already given.

Your proposal will help us to make sure that:

• the topic is viable
• the school can provide appropriate supervision and other resources
• you have thought through your interest in, and commitment to, a piece of research

We recommend identifying a potential supervisor  who can provide you with advice on your topic and proposal, before you apply.

You should begin these conversations as early as possible: while scholarship deadlines tend to be in December/January, a good proposal takes time to craft and develop.

It is in your best interest to begin developing your proposal in good time to allow for constructive feedback and revisions.

What makes a strong PhD?

A PhD is an independent piece of research and writing that makes an original contribution to existing knowledge. It is typically between 75,000 to 100,000 words long and is conducted over three to three-and-a-half years full-time (or six to seven years part-time) depending on funding. 

The defining feature of a PhD is that it is yours. The topic will usually come from you, unless you are working on a predefined project attached to funding. Even then, you will take ownership of that project and make it your own.

The PhD will likely be the most challenging type of academic work you have ever done: it should also be the most rewarding.

Think carefully about whether a PhD is for you - it is a major time commitment and you will need to be prepared to overcome challenges and difficulties along the way. 

What should my research proposal look like?

Your research proposal is the main way the school evaluates the potential quality of your proposed PhD. It should be approximately 1,500 words long, and contain the following elements:

A provisional title

This is the headline for your proposed research and so it should include any key concepts, empirical focus, or lines of inquiry that you aim to pursue.

While your title may change, it is important to devise a title that describes what you aspire to research, and demonstrate its originality and value.

For example: ‘The environmental and social impacts of mass housing in Latin American countries’, or ‘Using water efficiently: understanding the impact of expanding middle-class demand on city water systems’.

A key question, hypothesis or the broad topic for investigation

You need key questions or hypotheses to drive your research. These will need to be original, timely and of importance to the discipline.

This could involve investigating something that no-one has looked at before, or it might mean taking a fresh approach to an existing topic or issue.

An outline of the key aims of the research

What will the PhD do?

Your aims will be broader than the questions/hypotheses. They should give a prospective statement about the overall destination of the PhD and its potential impact: in other words, what is the wider value of the research, and why does it matter?

This needs to be set within a brief overview, giving enough background to your research context to demonstrate that this research aim is credible and worthwhile: you do not need to give a great deal of factual detail.

A brief outline of key literature in the area (what we already know)

Situate your topic with reference to the existing research literature.

At PhD level, a literature review is more than simply a descriptive mapping exercise, it should cite key theories or debates and suggest how your project would engage with them. 

Explain how these ideas motivate your work, and how your thesis might support, extend, or challenge existing work.

A description of the topic and an explanation of why further research in the area is important (the gap in the literature - what we need to know)

Highlight what the gap in current knowledge is and how your research will contribute original scholarship.

Will your research provide a new perspective, generate new evidence, challenge existing assumptions?

By whom might the PhD be valued: scholars looking at a particular issue, communities within specific institutions, certain groups of people?

Provide further clarity on the specific focus of your research through a short list of questions (three to six is normal) that your research will answer.

These questions must be achievable within the framework of a PhD (within the usual three-and-a-half years tuition fee-paying period - with typically a maximum of around 12 months of fieldwork/data collection time).

Details of how the research will be carried out (the tools that will enable us to fill the gap you have identified)

This includes any special facilities or resources required and any necessary skills which you either have already or would need to acquire.

A clear methodological statement shows how you will execute your research project: it is relatively easy to ask a new question; it is more challenging to set out how you might come up with a convincing answer.

Outline your approach to your research as well as the methods you will use.

Of course, the resources you will need will vary according to the nature of the research: access to a particular archive, specialist library, visits to field sites, the use of analytical software, access to databases, training, workshop attendance and so on.

It is important to list any of these resources and give a very brief account of how their role in your research.

What is important is that there are coherent links between your aims, questions and proposed methods – why is using this evidence going to provide the most robust answer to your questions?

A plan and timetable of the work you will carry out

Submission of the PhD is expected to take place by the end of the tuition fee-paying period, which for most PhD candidates will be at three and a half years from the date of commencing PhD study.

Show how you will carry out your research within that timeframe. Try to be as detailed as you can at this stage.

We welcome applications from a very broad range of methodological and philosophical backgrounds: quantitative and qualitative; text-based and mapping big data; interpretive, positivist, realist, and many more.

Don't forget

• Try to be concise. Do not write too much – be as specific as you can but not 'wordy'. It is a difficult balance to strike.
• Bear in mind that the proposal is only a starting point. If you are registered to read for a PhD, you will be able to develop the proposal with your supervisor in more detail in the early months, leading up to a more advanced research outline and presentation towards the end of your first year of study.
• Take a look at our  staff profiles  and  research areas and topics . Ensure there is a good ‘fit’ between your proposal and our research: the stronger this is, the better able we are to support your research.

Submitting your proposal

Upload your research proposal document (as a PDF or Word document) within the online application form as part of your  PhD study place application .

If you also intend to apply for a scholarship , we recommend that you consult your proposed supervisor on appropriate scholarship opportunities, and about adapting your proposal to meet the requirements of the scholarships section of the online application form.

Related information

How to apply for a PhD

Find a supervisor

Our PhD research

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Join an international community of geographers, planners, and environmental scientists to help tackle the biggest issues in our changing world.

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GIS support to develop a research proposal

• Introduction
• Developing a proposal
• What is GIS/spatial thinking
• Instrument design

Useful links

• Spatial data collection tools

In order to be able to analyze research findings spatially or geographically, data needs to be in the correct format. It is therefore important to conceptualize at the beginning of the research, how the data will be analyzed. In recent years there has been an explosion of interest in the applications of spatial concepts and techniques in the social sciences (Voss 2007). The development has been especially intense among those researchers who are used to working with data that are aggregated for a territorial unit (a county, city, or neighbourhood). It is a natural step to take advantage of the Geographic Information System (GIS) technologies that make it relatively easy to map those data. More important, visualizing information on a map tends to bring up other questions about how to understand the patterns. At this point, GIS gives way to a myriad of tools of spatial analysis that are well established in geography and in some applied fields such as biostatistics, but that many social scientists are not yet familiar with it.

The techniques that geographers use in their work are not developed in a vacuum. They are developed to address specific problems and, thus, reflect the focus of the discipline at times. These techniques reflect the conscious decisions of geographers about the kinds of information that are important to collect; the spatial scales at which information should be collected, compiled, analysed and displayed; data sampling strategies and experimental designs; data representation; and methods for data analysis.

The Table below shows the steps in the GIS proposal development process.

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146 Impressive Geography Research Topics Every Student Will Like

Are you a student seeking inspiration for your next geography research project? Look no further! In this article, we present you with a treasure trove of 146 original and top-quality geography research topics, completely free of charge. Whether you’re pursuing a degree in geography or simply passionate about exploring the world around you, these topics cover a wide range of fascinating subjects.

From human geography and cultural landscapes to physical geography and environmental sustainability, we’ve got you covered. Each topic is carefully crafted to ignite your curiosity and help you delve deeper into the field. Get ready to embark on an exciting journey of exploration and discovery as you uncover unique research ideas that will captivate both you and your readers.

Areas Of Geography

Geography is a field of study that explores the Earth’s physical features, human activities and their interactions. It examines the spatial patterns, processes, and relationships between the environment and society. Geographers investigate the Earth’s surface, analyzing its landscapes, climate, ecosystems and resources, as well as the distribution of populations, cultures, economies, and political systems. There are several types of geography, each focusing on specific aspects of the Earth’s physical and human dimensions:

Physical geography examines natural phenomena like landforms, weather and ecosystems. Human geography studies human activities, such as population distribution, urbanization and cultural landscapes. Economic geography explores the spatial patterns of economic activities, trade and resource distribution. Political geography analyzes the political systems, boundaries and geopolitical relationships between regions. Environmental geography investigates the interactions between humans and the environment, including environmental issues and sustainability. Geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing employ technology to analyze spatial data and maps.

These subfields together provide a comprehensive understanding of the Earth’s complexities and its relationship with human society.

Easy Geography Research Paper Topics

Want to write your paper in just a couple of hours? Explore a curated list of accessible and easy geography research paper topics that will make your geography research paper writing a breeze:

• The impact of climate change on coastal regions
• Exploring the relationship between geography and tourism
• Analyzing urbanization trends in developing countries
• Investigating the effects of deforestation on biodiversity
• Examining the role of geography in natural disaster management
• Studying the cultural landscape of a specific region
• Analyzing the geography of food production and distribution
• Exploring the impact of transportation on urban development
• Investigating the geography of renewable energy sources
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of population growth
• Studying the impact of globalization on local economies
• Examining the geography of water resources and management

Human Geography Research Topics

Improve your chances of getting a top grade! Delve into the complex interplay between humans and their environment with this comprehensive list of human geography research topics:

• Exploring the social implications of gentrification in urban areas
• Analyzing the influence of gender on migration patterns
• Investigating the impact of globalization on cultural identity
• Examining the geography of poverty and social inequality
• Studying the relationship between health and geographical location
• Analyzing the spatial distribution of ethnic communities in cities
• Investigating the geography of political power and governance
• Exploring the role of geography in shaping human behavior
• Analyzing the impacts of urban sprawl on communities
• Studying the geography of education access and quality
• Examining the spatial patterns of crime and its socio-economic factors
• Investigating the geography of healthcare provision and disparities

Cultural Geography Research Topics

Interested in cultural geography? Immerse yourself in the rich tapestry of cultures and their geographical influences with this captivating list of cultural geography research topics:

• Analyzing the cultural landscapes of indigenous communities
• Exploring the impact of globalization on cultural diversity
• Investigating the geography of language and its preservation
• Examining the influence of religion on cultural landscapes
• Studying the role of cultural heritage in tourism development
• Analyzing the geography of cultural festivals and events
• Investigating the spatial patterns of cultural diffusion
• Exploring the impact of migration on cultural identities
• Analyzing the geography of music and its regional variations
• Investigating the role of food culture in shaping identities
• Examining the spatial distribution of cultural institutions
• Studying the geography of art and its impact on communities

Physical Geography Research Topics

Do you want to write about physical geography? Investigate the natural processes and phenomena shaping our planet through this collection of compelling physical geography research topics:

• Analyzing the processes of coastal erosion and their impacts
• Investigating the formation and characteristics of river systems
• Examining the effects of climate change on glacial landscapes
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of soil erosion and conservation
• Investigating the biogeography of specific ecosystems
• Exploring the impacts of climate on vegetation patterns
• Analyzing the geography of water resources and hydrology
• Investigating the formation and classification of landforms
• Examining the spatial distribution of biodiversity hotspots
• Studying the interactions between humans and the natural environment
• Exploring the impacts of urbanization on natural landscapes

Geography Thesis Topics

Are you busy planning your thesis? Engage in an in-depth exploration of geographic concepts and theories with this thought-provoking list of geography thesis topics:

• Investigating the geographical aspects of sustainable development
• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on vulnerable communities
• Exploring the role of geography in disaster risk reduction
• Studying the geography of migration and refugee movements
• Examining the relationship between urban planning and social equity
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of energy consumption and renewable solutions
• Exploring the geographical dimensions of political conflicts and peacebuilding
• Investigating the role of geography in land use planning and conservation
• Examining the impacts of globalization on local economies

Urban Geography Thesis Topics

Are you interested in writing about urban geography? Analyze the complexities of urban landscapes and urbanization processes with this curated selection of urban geography thesis topics:

• Analyzing the effects of gentrification on urban neighborhoods
• Investigating the role of urban design in creating sustainable cities
• Examining the spatial patterns of urban sprawl and its consequences
• Studying the geography of social segregation in urban areas
• Analyzing the impacts of transportation systems on urban mobility
• Investigating the relationship between urbanization and public health
• Exploring the geography of informal settlements and slums
• Analyzing the impacts of urban green spaces on quality of life
• Investigating the geography of urban food systems and food security
• Examining the role of technology in shaping smart cities
• Studying the spatial distribution of cultural and recreational amenities in cities

PhD Research Topics In Geography

Expand the boundaries of geographical knowledge and contribute to the field with this diverse and stimulating list of PhD research topics in geography:

• Analyzing the geography of environmental justice in urban areas
• Investigating the impacts of climate change on indigenous communities
• Examining the role of geography in disaster risk governance
• Studying the spatial patterns of land use change in rapidly urbanizing regions
• Analyzing the impacts of transportation infrastructure on accessibility and equity
• Investigating the geographical dimensions of health inequalities
• Exploring the relationship between globalization and urbanization processes
• Analyzing the geography of political conflicts and territorial disputes
• Investigating the impacts of natural resource extraction on local communities
• Studying the spatial dynamics of international migration and its consequences
• Exploring the geography of innovation and knowledge economies in cities

Captivating Research Topics In Geography

Looking for some captivating research topics in geography? Ignite curiosity and scholarly interest with this awesome collection of research topics that delve into various aspects of geography:

• Investigating the geography of mega-cities and their challenges
• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on vulnerable coastal regions
• Exploring the spatial patterns of cultural landscapes and heritage sites
• Studying the geography of borderlands and transnational interactions
• Examining the impacts of tourism on local communities and environments
• The role of geography in understanding human-environment interactions
• Analyzing the spatial distribution of environmental pollution and its impacts
• Exploring the geography of global food systems and agricultural practices
• Investigating the impacts of natural disasters on urban resilience
• Examining the role of geography in understanding urban inequalities
• Studying the geography of geopolitical conflicts and their implications
• Exploring the impacts of technological advancements on landscapes

Interesting Geography Research Topics

Discover a wide range of interesting geography research topics that will pique your professor’s curiosity and offer new insights into the world of geography:

• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on glacier retreat and water resources
• Investigating the geography of renewable energy transition and its challenges
• Examining the spatial patterns of urban heat islands and their mitigation strategies
• Studying the impacts of land use change on biodiversity conservation
• Investigating the role of geography in understanding cultural diversity
• Exploring the geography of disease outbreaks and their spatial spread
• Investigating the impacts of natural hazards on human vulnerability and resilience
• Examining the spatial distribution of ecological corridors
• Studying the geography of regional economic disparities and development strategies
• Exploring the impacts of transportation infrastructure on urban accessibility
• The role of geography in understanding weather patterns

Good Geography Research Topics For 2023

Looking for some current topics to write about? Choose from a list of good geography research topics for 2023 that showcase the relevance and significance of geography in today’s world:

• Impacts of population growth on urban infrastructure and services in geography
• Geography of water scarcity and its implications for communities
• Spatial patterns of environmental conservation and protected areas in geography
• Impacts of land degradation on agricultural productivity and food security
• Geography of natural resource management and sustainable practices
• Relationship between climate change and human migration patterns in geography
• Spatial distribution of environmental justice and marginalized communities
• Impacts of urbanization on water pollution and ecosystem degradation
• Geography of renewable energy sources and their integration into the grid
• Role of geography in understanding regional conflicts over natural resources
• Impacts of deforestation on biodiversity loss and ecosystem services

Geography Topics For Research For College

Need some great geography topics for research for college? Explore a comprehensive list of geography research topics tailored for college-level studies, offering opportunities for critical analysis and exploration:

• Impacts of transportation infrastructure on urban air quality in geography
• Geography of urban gentrification and displacement
• Spatial patterns of urban food waste and its environmental consequences
• Impacts of tourism development on fragile ecosystems in geography
• Geography of environmental migration and its social implications
• Role of geography in understanding climate adaptation strategies
• Spatial distribution of environmental inequalities and environmental racism
• Impacts of land use change on water quality in agricultural regions
• Geography of geopolitical conflicts and territorial disputes
• Impacts of industrial pollution on urban health and well-being
• Role of geography in understanding disaster preparedness

Interesting Geography Topics For High School

Get the most interesting geography topics for high school. Foster geographical curiosity and critical thinking skills with this intriguing list of essay topics designed specifically by our best dissertation service writers for high school students:

• Analyzing the impacts of climate change on the polar regions
• Investigating the geography of natural hazards
• Examining the spatial distribution of endangered species
• Studying the impacts of urbanization on wildlife habitat fragmentation
• Exploring the geography of cultural diversity and multiculturalism in cities
• Investigating the role of geography in understanding climate variability
• Analyzing the spatial patterns of population distribution and density
• Investigating the geography of international migration and refugee flows
• Examining the impacts of tourism on local communities and cultures
• Studying the geography of natural resources
• Exploring the role of geography in understanding global inequality

Engaging Geographical Research Topics

Embark on a captivating journey of geographical exploration with this diverse collection of engaging geographical research topics, connecting people, places and the environment through insightful investigations:

• Urban sprawl impacts on land use and ecosystem services in geography
• Geography of renewable energy transition and its challenges
• Spatial patterns of urban heat islands and impacts on residents
• Impacts of climate change on coastal erosion and shoreline management
• Geography of water scarcity and implications for human populations
• Role of geography in understanding geopolitical conflicts and peacebuilding
• Spatial distribution of environmental pollutants and health effects
• Impacts of globalization on local economies and cultural landscapes
• Geography of gender inequalities and spatial dimensions
• Impacts of natural disasters on vulnerable communities and recovery
• Role of geography in understanding migration dynamics and urbanization
• Geography of political borders and their social and economic implications

Affordable Thesis Help You Can Rely On

When it comes to working on a geography research paper or a thesis for Master’s degree , our company is your trusted source for comprehensive writing help. Our team of expert writers consists of experienced professionals who specialize in geography, ensuring that you receive top marks for your school or class. We pride ourselves on delivering high quality and impressive custom written theses tailored to your specific requirements.

With our secure and fast online service, you can access thesis help that is not only affordable but available 24/7. Rest assured that your work will be handled by native English-speaking experts (ENL writers), guaranteeing exceptional quality and adherence to academic standards. Trust us for all your thesis needs and achieve academic success with ease.

Make sure to check our posts with other topics before you leave:

• 122 Best Ecology Topics To Sparkle Your Writing
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Why is choosing a great topic important when writing a geography essay?

Choosing a great topic ensures that your essay is engaging, relevant, and allows you to demonstrate your understanding of key geographical concepts while capturing the reader’s interest.

How can I choose a great topic for my geography essay?

To choose a great topic, consider current geographical issues, areas of personal interest and the availability of reliable sources. Additionally, ensure that the topic aligns with your essay’s objectives and requirements.

What are some strategies for narrowing down a geography essay topic?

To narrow down your topic, focus on specific geographical regions, phenomena, or concepts. Consider exploring the intersections between different aspects of geography, such as human and physical geography, to create a unique and well-rounded essay topic.

Can I get assistance in choosing a great topic for my geography essay?

Yes, you can seek guidance from your instructor, consult reputable academic resources or utilize online platforms that provide topic suggestions. Engaging in discussions with peers or experts in the field can also help generate ideas and refine your topic choice.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
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• Acknowledgments

The goal of a research proposal is twofold: to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting research are governed by standards of the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, therefore, the guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and benefits derived from the study's completion.

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to determine that the research problem has not been adequately addressed or has been answered ineffectively and, in so doing, become better at locating pertinent scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals;
• Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of conducting scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study and your analysis of those findings. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your proposal is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

• What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to investigate.
• Why do you want to do the research? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of in-depth study. A successful research proposal must answer the "So What?" question.
• How are you going to conduct the research? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having difficulty formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here for strategies in developing a problem to study.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise . A research proposal must be focused and not be "all over the map" or diverge into unrelated tangents without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review . Proposals should be grounded in foundational research that lays a foundation for understanding the development and scope of the the topic and its relevance.
• Failure to delimit the contextual scope of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.]. As with any research paper, your proposed study must inform the reader how and in what ways the study will frame the problem.
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research . This is critical. In many workplace settings, the research proposal is a formal document intended to argue for why a study should be funded.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar . Although a research proposal does not represent a completed research study, there is still an expectation that it is well-written and follows the style and rules of good academic writing.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues . Your proposal should focus on only a few key research questions in order to support the argument that the research needs to be conducted. Minor issues, even if valid, can be mentioned but they should not dominate the overall narrative.

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal.  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal. Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing most college-level academic papers, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. The text of proposals generally vary in length between ten and thirty-five pages, followed by the list of references. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study?
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like, "Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

Most proposals should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea based on a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and to be excited about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract [summary] before the introduction.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in two to four paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions :

• What is the central research problem?
• What is the topic of study related to that research problem?
• What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
• Answer the "So What?" question by explaining why this is important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

II.  Background and Significance

This is where you explain the scope and context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. It can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic; instead, you must choose what is most relevant in explaining the aims of your research.

To that end, while there are no prescribed rules for establishing the significance of your proposed study, you should attempt to address some or all of the following:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted .
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing; be sure to answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care?].
• Describe the major issues or problems examined by your research. This can be in the form of questions to be addressed. Be sure to note how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem.
• Explain the methods you plan to use for conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Describe the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where appropriate, state not only what you plan to study, but what aspects of the research problem will be excluded from the study.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts, theories, or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation . The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while at the same time, demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methodological approaches they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, when stated, their recommendations. Also pay attention to any suggestions for further research.

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your proposed study in relation to the arguments put forth by other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically or chronologically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you review more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or recommendations that are being made.

NOTE: Do not shy away from challenging the conclusions made in prior research as a basis for supporting the need for your proposal. Assess what you believe is missing and state how previous research has failed to adequately examine the issue that your study addresses. Highlighting the problematic conclusions strengthens your proposal. For more information on writing literature reviews, GO HERE .

To help frame your proposal's review of prior research, consider the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

• Cite , so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
• Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
• Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: describe what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate among scholars?
• Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, and methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.].
• Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that you have a plan worth pursuing . The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and proposed methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used, but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following:

• Specify the research process you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results obtained in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election outcomes in Europe ].
• Keep in mind that the methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is a deliberate argument as to why techniques for gathering information add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you clearly explain this.
• Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method applied to research in the social and behavioral sciences is perfect, so you need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your professor!

V.  Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, doesn't mean you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications . The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policy making. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.   When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:

• What might the results mean in regards to challenging the theoretical framework and underlying assumptions that support the study?
• What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study?
• What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace, organization, or community?
• Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
• How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of problems?
• Will the results influence policy decisions?
• In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
• How will the results of the study be implemented and what innovations or transformative insights could emerge from the process of implementation?

NOTE:   This section should not delve into idle speculation, opinion, or be formulated on the basis of unclear evidence . The purpose is to reflect upon gaps or understudied areas of the current literature and describe how your proposed research contributes to a new understanding of the research problem should the study be implemented as designed.

ANOTHER NOTE : This section is also where you describe any potential limitations to your proposed study. While it is impossible to highlight all potential limitations because the study has yet to be conducted, you still must tell the reader where and in what form impediments may arise and how you plan to address them.

VI.  Conclusion

The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study . This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it should advance existing knowledge.

Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

• Why the study should be done;
• The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer;
• The decision for why the research design and methods used where chosen over other options;
• The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem; and
• A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

VII.  Citations

As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used . In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred.

• References -- a list of only the sources you actually used in creating your proposal.
• Bibliography -- a list of everything you used in creating your proposal, along with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.

In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to ensure the project will complement and not just duplicate the efforts of other researchers. It demonstrates to the reader that you have a thorough understanding of prior research on the topic.

Most proposal formats have you start a new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course [e.g., education=APA; history=Chicago] or that is preferred by your professor. This section normally does not count towards the total page length of your research proposal.

Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal. Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning . Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Juni, Muhamad Hanafiah. “Writing a Research Proposal.” International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences 1 (September/October 2014): 229-240; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills . Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences , Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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• How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

How to Write a Research Proposal | Examples & Templates

Published on October 12, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will conduct your research.

The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals will contain at least these elements:

Introduction

Literature review.

• Research design

Reference list

While the sections may vary, the overall objective is always the same. A research proposal serves as a blueprint and guide for your research plan, helping you get organized and feel confident in the path forward you choose to take.

Table of contents

Research proposal purpose, research proposal examples, research design and methods, contribution to knowledge, research schedule, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research proposals.

Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student, you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application , or prior to starting your thesis or dissertation .

In addition to helping you figure out what your research can look like, a proposal can also serve to demonstrate why your project is worth pursuing to a funder, educational institution, or supervisor.

Research proposal length

The length of a research proposal can vary quite a bit. A bachelor’s or master’s thesis proposal can be just a few pages, while proposals for PhD dissertations or research funding are usually much longer and more detailed. Your supervisor can help you determine the best length for your work.

One trick to get started is to think of your proposal’s structure as a shorter version of your thesis or dissertation , only without the results , conclusion and discussion sections.

Download our research proposal template

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Writing a research proposal can be quite challenging, but a good starting point could be to look at some examples. We’ve included a few for you below.

• Example research proposal #1: “A Conceptual Framework for Scheduling Constraint Management”
• Example research proposal #2: “Medical Students as Mediators of Change in Tobacco Use”

Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:

• The proposed title of your project
• Your supervisor’s name
• Your institution and department

The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project. Make sure it succinctly explains what you want to do and why.

Your introduction should:

• Introduce your topic
• Give necessary background and context
• Outline your  problem statement  and research questions

To guide your introduction , include information about:

• Who could have an interest in the topic (e.g., scientists, policymakers)
• How much is already known about the topic
• What is missing from this current knowledge
• What new insights your research will contribute
• Why you believe this research is worth doing

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As you get started, it’s important to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A strong literature review  shows your reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have already done or said, but rather using existing research as a jumping-off point for your own.

In this section, share exactly how your project will contribute to ongoing conversations in the field by:

• Comparing and contrasting the main theories, methods, and debates
• Examining the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches
• Explaining how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize prior scholarship

Following the literature review, restate your main  objectives . This brings the focus back to your own project. Next, your research design or methodology section will describe your overall approach, and the practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.

To finish your proposal on a strong note, explore the potential implications of your research for your field. Emphasize again what you aim to contribute and why it matters.

For example, your results might have implications for:

• Improving best practices
• Informing policymaking decisions
• Strengthening a theory or model
• Challenging popular or scientific beliefs
• Creating a basis for future research

Last but not least, your research proposal must include correct citations for every source you have used, compiled in a reference list . To create citations quickly and easily, you can use our free APA citation generator .

Some institutions or funders require a detailed timeline of the project, asking you to forecast what you will do at each stage and how long it may take. While not always required, be sure to check the requirements of your project.

Here’s an example schedule to help you get started. You can also download a template at the button below.

Download our research schedule template

If you are applying for research funding, chances are you will have to include a detailed budget. This shows your estimates of how much each part of your project will cost.

Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover. For each item, include:

• Cost : exactly how much money do you need?
• Justification : why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
• Source : how did you calculate the amount?

To determine your budget, think about:

• Travel costs : do you need to go somewhere to collect your data? How will you get there, and how much time will you need? What will you do there (e.g., interviews, archival research)?
• Materials : do you need access to any tools or technologies?
• Help : do you need to hire any research assistants for the project? What will they do, and how much will you pay them?

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

A PhD, which is short for philosophiae doctor (doctor of philosophy in Latin), is the highest university degree that can be obtained. In a PhD, students spend 3–5 years writing a dissertation , which aims to make a significant, original contribution to current knowledge.

A PhD is intended to prepare students for a career as a researcher, whether that be in academia, the public sector, or the private sector.

A master’s is a 1- or 2-year graduate degree that can prepare you for a variety of careers.

All master’s involve graduate-level coursework. Some are research-intensive and intend to prepare students for further study in a PhD; these usually require their students to write a master’s thesis . Others focus on professional training for a specific career.

Critical thinking refers to the ability to evaluate information and to be aware of biases or assumptions, including your own.

Like information literacy , it involves evaluating arguments, identifying and solving problems in an objective and systematic way, and clearly communicating your ideas.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

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Examples of research proposals

How to write your research proposal, with examples of good proposals.

Research proposals

Your research proposal is a key part of your application. It tells us about the question you want to answer through your research. It is a chance for you to show your knowledge of the subject area and tell us about the methods you want to use.

We use your research proposal to match you with a supervisor or team of supervisors.

In your proposal, please tell us if you have an interest in the work of a specific academic at York St John. You can get in touch with this academic to discuss your proposal. You can also speak to one of our Research Leads. There is a list of our Research Leads on the Apply page.

When you write your proposal you need to:

• Highlight how it is original or significant
• Explain how it will develop or challenge current knowledge of your subject
• Identify the importance of your research
• Show why you are the right person to do this research
• Research Proposal Example 1 (DOC, 49kB)
• Research Proposal Example 2 (DOC, 0.9MB)
• Research Proposal Example 3 (DOC, 55.5kB)
• Research Proposal Example 4 (DOC, 49.5kB)

Subject specific guidance

• Writing a Humanities PhD Proposal (PDF, 0.1MB)
• Writing a Creative Writing PhD Proposal (PDF, 0.1MB)
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How To Write A Research Proposal

A Straightforward How-To Guide (With Examples)

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | August 2019 (Updated April 2023)

Writing up a strong research proposal for a dissertation or thesis is much like a marriage proposal. It’s a task that calls on you to win somebody over and persuade them that what you’re planning is a great idea. An idea they’re happy to say ‘yes’ to. This means that your dissertation proposal needs to be   persuasive ,   attractive   and well-planned. In this post, I’ll show you how to write a winning dissertation proposal, from scratch.

Before you start:

– Understand exactly what a research proposal is – Ask yourself these 4 questions

The 5 essential ingredients:

• The title/topic
• The introduction chapter
• The scope/delimitations
• Preliminary literature review
• Design/ methodology
• Practical considerations and risks 

What Is A Research Proposal?

The research proposal is literally that: a written document that communicates what you propose to research, in a concise format. It’s where you put all that stuff that’s spinning around in your head down on to paper, in a logical, convincing fashion.

Convincing   is the keyword here, as your research proposal needs to convince the assessor that your research is   clearly articulated   (i.e., a clear research question) ,   worth doing   (i.e., is unique and valuable enough to justify the effort), and   doable   within the restrictions you’ll face (time limits, budget, skill limits, etc.). If your proposal does not address these three criteria, your research won’t be approved, no matter how “exciting” the research idea might be.

PS – if you’re completely new to proposal writing, we’ve got a detailed walkthrough video covering two successful research proposals here . 

How do I know I’m ready?

Before starting the writing process, you need to   ask yourself 4 important questions .  If you can’t answer them succinctly and confidently, you’re not ready – you need to go back and think more deeply about your dissertation topic .

You should be able to answer the following 4 questions before starting your dissertation or thesis research proposal:

• WHAT is my main research question? (the topic)
• WHO cares and why is this important? (the justification)
• WHAT data would I need to answer this question, and how will I analyse it? (the research design)
• HOW will I manage the completion of this research, within the given timelines? (project and risk management)

If you can’t answer these questions clearly and concisely,   you’re not yet ready   to write your research proposal – revisit our   post on choosing a topic .

If you can, that’s great – it’s time to start writing up your dissertation proposal. Next, I’ll discuss what needs to go into your research proposal, and how to structure it all into an intuitive, convincing document with a linear narrative.

The 5 Essential Ingredients

Research proposals can vary in style between institutions and disciplines, but here I’ll share with you a   handy 5-section structure   you can use. These 5 sections directly address the core questions we spoke about earlier, ensuring that you present a convincing proposal. If your institution already provides a proposal template, there will likely be substantial overlap with this, so you’ll still get value from reading on.

For each section discussed below, make sure you use headers and sub-headers (ideally, numbered headers) to help the reader navigate through your document, and to support them when they need to revisit a previous section. Don’t just present an endless wall of text, paragraph after paragraph after paragraph…

Top Tip:   Use MS Word Styles to format headings. This will allow you to be clear about whether a sub-heading is level 2, 3, or 4. Additionally, you can view your document in ‘outline view’ which will show you only your headings. This makes it much easier to check your structure, shift things around and make decisions about where a section needs to sit. You can also generate a 100% accurate table of contents using Word’s automatic functionality.

Ingredient #1 – Topic/Title Header

Your research proposal’s title should be your main research question in its simplest form, possibly with a sub-heading providing basic details on the specifics of the study. For example:

“Compliance with equality legislation in the charity sector: a study of the ‘reasonable adjustments’ made in three London care homes”

As you can see, this title provides a clear indication of what the research is about, in broad terms. It paints a high-level picture for the first-time reader, which gives them a taste of what to expect.   Always aim for a clear, concise title . Don’t feel the need to capture every detail of your research in your title – your proposal will fill in the gaps.

Need a helping hand?

Ingredient #2 – Introduction

In this section of your research proposal, you’ll expand on what you’ve communicated in the title, by providing a few paragraphs which offer more detail about your research topic. Importantly, the focus here is the   topic   – what will you research and why is that worth researching? This is not the place to discuss methodology, practicalities, etc. – you’ll do that later.

You should cover the following:

• An overview of the   broad area   you’ll be researching – introduce the reader to key concepts and language
• An explanation of the   specific (narrower) area   you’ll be focusing, and why you’ll be focusing there
• Your research   aims   and   objectives
• Your   research question (s) and sub-questions (if applicable)

Importantly, you should aim to use short sentences and plain language – don’t babble on with extensive jargon, acronyms and complex language. Assume that the reader is an intelligent layman – not a subject area specialist (even if they are). Remember that the   best writing is writing that can be easily understood   and digested. Keep it simple.

Note that some universities may want some extra bits and pieces in your introduction section. For example, personal development objectives, a structural outline, etc. Check your brief to see if there are any other details they expect in your proposal, and make sure you find a place for these.

Ingredient #3 – Scope

Next, you’ll need to specify what the scope of your research will be – this is also known as the delimitations . In other words, you need to make it clear what you will be covering and, more importantly, what you won’t be covering in your research. Simply put, this is about ring fencing your research topic so that you have a laser-sharp focus.

All too often, students feel the need to go broad and try to address as many issues as possible, in the interest of producing comprehensive research. Whilst this is admirable, it’s a mistake. By tightly refining your scope, you’ll enable yourself to   go deep   with your research, which is what you need to earn good marks. If your scope is too broad, you’re likely going to land up with superficial research (which won’t earn marks), so don’t be afraid to narrow things down.

Ingredient #4 – Literature Review

In this section of your research proposal, you need to provide a (relatively) brief discussion of the existing literature. Naturally, this will not be as comprehensive as the literature review in your actual dissertation, but it will lay the foundation for that. In fact, if you put in the effort at this stage, you’ll make your life a lot easier when it’s time to write your actual literature review chapter.

There are a few things you need to achieve in this section:

• Demonstrate that you’ve done your reading and are   familiar with the current state of the research   in your topic area.
• Show that   there’s a clear gap   for your specific research – i.e., show that your topic is sufficiently unique and will add value to the existing research.
• Show how the existing research has shaped your thinking regarding   research design . For example, you might use scales or questionnaires from previous studies.

When you write up your literature review, keep these three objectives front of mind, especially number two (revealing the gap in the literature), so that your literature review has a   clear purpose and direction . Everything you write should be contributing towards one (or more) of these objectives in some way. If it doesn’t, you need to ask yourself whether it’s truly needed.

Top Tip:  Don’t fall into the trap of just describing the main pieces of literature, for example, “A says this, B says that, C also says that…” and so on. Merely describing the literature provides no value. Instead, you need to   synthesise   it, and use it to address the three objectives above.

Ingredient #5 – Research Methodology

Now that you’ve clearly explained both your intended research topic (in the introduction) and the existing research it will draw on (in the literature review section), it’s time to get practical and explain exactly how you’ll be carrying out your own research. In other words, your research methodology.

In this section, you’ll need to   answer two critical questions :

• How   will you design your research? I.e., what research methodology will you adopt, what will your sample be, how will you collect data, etc.
• Why   have you chosen this design? I.e., why does this approach suit your specific research aims, objectives and questions?

In other words, this is not just about explaining WHAT you’ll be doing, it’s also about explaining WHY. In fact, the   justification is the most important part , because that justification is how you demonstrate a good understanding of research design (which is what assessors want to see).

Some essential design choices you need to cover in your research proposal include:

• Your intended research philosophy (e.g., positivism, interpretivism or pragmatism )
• What methodological approach you’ll be taking (e.g., qualitative , quantitative or mixed )
• The details of your sample (e.g., sample size, who they are, who they represent, etc.)
• What data you plan to collect (i.e. data about what, in what form?)
• How you plan to collect it (e.g., surveys , interviews , focus groups, etc.)
• How you plan to analyse it (e.g., regression analysis, thematic analysis , etc.)
• Ethical adherence (i.e., does this research satisfy all ethical requirements of your institution, or does it need further approval?)

This list is not exhaustive – these are just some core attributes of research design. Check with your institution what level of detail they expect. The “ research onion ” by Saunders et al (2009) provides a good summary of the various design choices you ultimately need to make – you can   read more about that here .

Don’t forget the practicalities…

In addition to the technical aspects, you will need to address the   practical   side of the project. In other words, you need to explain   what resources you’ll need   (e.g., time, money, access to equipment or software, etc.) and how you intend to secure these resources. You need to show that your project is feasible, so any “make or break” type resources need to already be secured. The success or failure of your project cannot depend on some resource which you’re not yet sure you have access to.

Another part of the practicalities discussion is   project and risk management . In other words, you need to show that you have a clear project plan to tackle your research with. Some key questions to address:

• What are the timelines for each phase of your project?
• Are the time allocations reasonable?
• What happens if something takes longer than anticipated (risk management)?
• What happens if you don’t get the response rate you expect?

A good way to demonstrate that you’ve thought this through is to include a Gantt chart and a risk register (in the appendix if word count is a problem). With these two tools, you can show that you’ve got a clear, feasible plan, and you’ve thought about and accounted for the potential risks.

Tip – Be honest about the potential difficulties – but show that you are anticipating solutions and workarounds. This is much more impressive to an assessor than an unrealistically optimistic proposal which does not anticipate any challenges whatsoever.

Final Touches: Read And Simplify

The final step is to edit and proofread your proposal – very carefully. It sounds obvious, but all too often poor editing and proofreading ruin a good proposal. Nothing is more off-putting for an assessor than a poorly edited, typo-strewn document. It sends the message that you either do not pay attention to detail, or just don’t care. Neither of these are good messages. Put the effort into editing and proofreading your proposal (or pay someone to do it for you) – it will pay dividends.

When you’re editing, watch out for ‘academese’. Many students can speak simply, passionately and clearly about their dissertation topic – but become incomprehensible the moment they turn the laptop on. You are not required to write in any kind of special, formal, complex language when you write academic work. Sure, there may be technical terms, jargon specific to your discipline, shorthand terms and so on. But, apart from those,   keep your written language very close to natural spoken language   – just as you would speak in the classroom. Imagine that you are explaining your project plans to your classmates or a family member. Remember, write for the intelligent layman, not the subject matter experts. Plain-language, concise writing is what wins hearts and minds – and marks!

Let’s Recap: Research Proposal 101

And there you have it – how to write your dissertation or thesis research proposal, from the title page to the final proof. Here’s a quick recap of the key takeaways:

• The purpose of the research proposal is to   convince   – therefore, you need to make a clear, concise argument of why your research is both worth doing and doable.
• Make sure you can ask the critical what, who, and how questions of your research   before   you put pen to paper.
• Title – provides the first taste of your research, in broad terms
• Introduction – explains what you’ll be researching in more detail
• Scope – explains the boundaries of your research
• Literature review – explains how your research fits into the existing research and why it’s unique and valuable
• Research methodology – explains and justifies how you will carry out your own research

Hopefully, this post has helped you better understand how to write up a winning research proposal. If you enjoyed it, be sure to check out the rest of the Grad Coach Blog . If your university doesn’t provide any template for your proposal, you might want to try out our free research proposal template .

Psst… there’s more!

This post is an extract from our bestselling short course, Research Proposal Bootcamp . If you want to work smart, you don't want to miss this .

30 Comments

Thank you so much for the valuable insight that you have given, especially on the research proposal. That is what I have managed to cover. I still need to go back to the other parts as I got disturbed while still listening to Derek’s audio on you-tube. I am inspired. I will definitely continue with Grad-coach guidance on You-tube.

Thanks for the kind words :). All the best with your proposal.

First of all, thanks a lot for making such a wonderful presentation. The video was really useful and gave me a very clear insight of how a research proposal has to be written. I shall try implementing these ideas in my RP.

Once again, I thank you for this content.

I found reading your outline on writing research proposal very beneficial. I wish there was a way of submitting my draft proposal to you guys for critiquing before I submit to the institution.

Hi Bonginkosi

Thank you for the kind words. Yes, we do provide a review service. The best starting point is to have a chat with one of our coaches here: https://gradcoach.com/book/new/ .

Hello team GRADCOACH, may God bless you so much. I was totally green in research. Am so happy for your free superb tutorials and resources. Once again thank you so much Derek and his team.

You’re welcome, Erick. Good luck with your research proposal 🙂

thank you for the information. its precise and on point.

Really a remarkable piece of writing and great source of guidance for the researchers. GOD BLESS YOU for your guidance. Regards

Thanks so much for your guidance. It is easy and comprehensive the way you explain the steps for a winning research proposal.

Thank you guys so much for the rich post. I enjoyed and learn from every word in it. My problem now is how to get into your platform wherein I can always seek help on things related to my research work ? Secondly, I wish to find out if there is a way I can send my tentative proposal to you guys for examination before I take to my supervisor Once again thanks very much for the insights

Thanks for your kind words, Desire.

If you are based in a country where Grad Coach’s paid services are available, you can book a consultation by clicking the “Book” button in the top right.

Best of luck with your studies.

May God bless you team for the wonderful work you are doing,

If I have a topic, Can I submit it to you so that you can draft a proposal for me?? As I am expecting to go for masters degree in the near future.

Thanks for your comment. We definitely cannot draft a proposal for you, as that would constitute academic misconduct. The proposal needs to be your own work. We can coach you through the process, but it needs to be your own work and your own writing.

Best of luck with your research!

I found a lot of many essential concepts from your material. it is real a road map to write a research proposal. so thanks a lot. If there is any update material on your hand on MBA please forward to me.

GradCoach is a professional website that presents support and helps for MBA student like me through the useful online information on the page and with my 1-on-1 online coaching with the amazing and professional PhD Kerryen.

Thank you Kerryen so much for the support and help 🙂

I really recommend dealing with such a reliable services provider like Gradcoah and a coach like Kerryen.

Hi, Am happy for your service and effort to help students and researchers, Please, i have been given an assignment on research for strategic development, the task one is to formulate a research proposal to support the strategic development of a business area, my issue here is how to go about it, especially the topic or title and introduction. Please, i would like to know if you could help me and how much is the charge.

This content is practical, valuable, and just great!

Thank you very much!

Hi Derek, Thank you for the valuable presentation. It is very helpful especially for beginners like me. I am just starting my PhD.

This is quite instructive and research proposal made simple. Can I have a research proposal template?

Great! Thanks for rescuing me, because I had no former knowledge in this topic. But with this piece of information, I am now secured. Thank you once more.

I enjoyed listening to your video on how to write a proposal. I think I will be able to write a winning proposal with your advice. I wish you were to be my supervisor.

Dear Derek Jansen,

Thank you for your great content. I couldn’t learn these topics in MBA, but now I learned from GradCoach. Really appreciate your efforts….

From Afghanistan!

I have got very essential inputs for startup of my dissertation proposal. Well organized properly communicated with video presentation. Thank you for the presentation.

Wow, this is absolutely amazing guys. Thank you so much for the fruitful presentation, you’ve made my research much easier.

this helps me a lot. thank you all so much for impacting in us. may god richly bless you all

How I wish I’d learn about Grad Coach earlier. I’ve been stumbling around writing and rewriting! Now I have concise clear directions on how to put this thing together. Thank you!

Fantastic!! Thank You for this very concise yet comprehensive guidance.

Even if I am poor in English I would like to thank you very much.

Thank you very much, this is very insightful.

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Guidelines for writing the MS/PhD Research Proposal

The Proposal is a written document that justifies the need for, defines the scope of, and describes the potential implications of the research that you will be undertaking to earn an M.S. or Ph.D. degree. The Proposal Review Committee will review the document and conduct the proposal defense to ensure that:

• The research you plan on conducting is sufficiently relevant, significant, and novel to merit a degree;
• The scope of the work can be reasonably accomplished in an appropriate length of time;
• You have the background knowledge, skills, and resources needed to successfully execute the work.

The Proposal is normally 3,000-5,000 (M.S.) or 5,000-10,000 (Ph.D.) words of text (excluding figures, tables, appendices, and references), and should be well written, concise, and precise. The text should be 1.5-spaced or double-spaced with 1" margins, and pages should be numbered (line numbering is suggested). The figures and tables may be embedded into the body of the text or follow the references. Tables are to be properly labeled and accompanied by appropriate footnotes/headings/captions as necessary to interpret the information presented. Figures are to be accompanied by captions that briefly describe and define key elements. Material in figures or tables taken from other sources should be properly attributed. References are to be cited fully, following the reference format typically used in leading journal(s) in the student's field. After the proposal has been approved by the advisor, it should be submitted electronically (docx or pdf) to all members of the Proposal Review Committee, normally two weeks before the oral proposal defense; the student may expect feedback from members of the committee before the oral presentation.

You may choose to follow the outline below in writing your proposal.

• Cover page: List the title, author, submission date, and the Proposal Review Committee members and advisor.
• Research Question/Objective:
• Clearly state the question or objective that the proposed research aims to address.
• Ensure that the question/objective is specific, focused, and aligned with the project’s scope.
• Briefly state why the outcome(s) of your research will be of interest to the wider science community.
• Background and Significance:
• Provide a concise review of existing knowledge and research relevant to the proposed project.
• Highlight the gaps or limitations in the current understanding of the topic (i.e. establish the "state of art").
• Emphasize the significance and potential impact of your research in advancing knowledge or solving a problem.
• Methodology and Experimental Design:
• Describe the experimental design, methodologies, or approaches that will be used.
• Explain the data collection methods, tools, and techniques to be employed.
• Outline any statistical analyses or models that will be applied to analyze the data.
• Justify why the methods/data are appropriate for addressing the problem you’ve identified.
• Expected Results and Outcomes:
• Clearly articulate the expected results and outcomes of the research and how they will be validated.
• Highlight the potential implications, contributions, or applications of the anticipated findings.
• Discuss any potential challenges or limitations and how they will be addressed.
• For each anticipated publication, identify what data, methodological advancements, or analyses will be used, and will be the main scientific contribution expected.
• Timeline and Resources:
• Provide a realistic timeline outlining the key milestones and activities of the research project.
• Detail the resources (e.g. equipment, materials, specialized facilities) required to conduct the research.

If you have questions about what material needs to be included in the Proposal, please consult with your advisor and other members of the Proposal Review Committee. Matters related to interpretation of Graduate School policy or any disputes that arise should be referred to the Director of Graduate Studies for resolution.

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Proposal Tips and Examples

Nggdpp preservation projects, preserving valuable and irreplaceable geoscience collections, sample preservation and inventory.

Geologic Map Conversion to GeMS

Activities Not Funded by NGGDPP

Annually, the NGGDPP solicits proposals from state geological surveys for the preservation and rescue of geoscience materials and data. Funding opportunities may be available to U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) bureaus annually as funding allows. A review panel evaluates and ranks the proposals according to four criteria: technical merit; societal project benefits; knowledge, performance, and experience of project personnel; and reasonableness of budget for proposed project.  

Note: This section, Tips and Examples, focuses primarily on guidance for state geological surveys, but the suggestions also apply to DOI opportunities. Cost-share requirements and package submission to grants.gov do not apply to the DOI.

Proposal applicants are encouraged to consider the following guidance for drafting impactful proposals:

• Clear justification for preserving the selected data and materials should be provided, including how the results of the project meet the organization priorities and benefit stakeholders and society.
• The Program places high value on increasing access to preserved materials. Ideally, digital data should be made readily available through digital means.
• The project and workflow process should be described.
• Federal share of the cost of the proposed activities must be  no more than 50 percent of the total cost . The state portion can be larger than the federal portion; however, if the federal contribution is more than the state portion - regardless of the amount - the grant proposal shall be disqualified and will not be evaluated by the grant review panel. 
• Descriptions of project personnel and their experience and skills relevant to complete the proposed tasks must be provided.
• Equipment funding requests including scanners, computers, storage media, and relevant software licenses are acceptable as long as the equipment is necessary for the successful completion of the work funded by the NGGDPP. A full justification and a dealer or manufacturer quote are required for any proposed equipment purchase. 
• Submission of proposal package to grants.gov should be initiated well in advance of due date. 

2025 State Grant Notice of Funding Opportunity Webinar

2024 state grant notice of funding opportunity webinar.

The presentation and recording are available from the September 7, 2023 webinar on the 2024 NGGDPP Notice of Funding Opportunity (NOFO) Webinar.

Presentation  ( Click here for Powerpoint slides )

Recording   September 7, 2023 ( Click here for mp4 file 497MB )

Recording September 7, 2023  ( Click here for Word Document )

Recording - October 18, 2023   ( Click here for mp4 file 449MB )

Recording - October 18, 2023   ( Click here for Word Document )

2023 State Proposal Examples

These state geological survey proposal examples from 2023 are available for reference to support proposal writing.

Arizona Geological Survey 2023 Proposal  ( Click here for pdf file )

Michigan Geological Survey 2020 Proposal  ( Click here for pdf file )

Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey 2023 Proposal  ( Click here for pdf file )

2023 State Grant Program Announcement Webinar

The presentation is available from the July 19, 2022 and August 10, 2022 webinars on the NGGDPP Webinar on FY2023 Program Announcement.

The recording and transcript are available from the August 10, 2022 webinar.

Recording  ( Click here for mp4 file 523MB )

Recording  ( Click here for Word Document )

2022 State Grant Program Announcement Webinar and Office Hours

The presentation is available from the October 2021 webinar on the NGGDPP Webinar on FY2022 Program Announcement.

The presentation is available from the December 8th and 16th, 2021 Office Hours sessions on the modifications to the FY 2022 Program Announcement in response to the Bipartisan Infrastructure Law (PL 117-58).

2021 State Grant Program Announcement Webinar

The presentation and recording are available from the October 2020 webinar, NGGDPP Webinar on FY2021 Program Announcement and Proposal Writing Best Practices.

Recording  ( Click here for mp4 file 656MB )

Grant Templates

These NGGDPP templates are available for use by state geological surveys throughout the grant lifecycle from proposal writing, data compilation, through final submittal.

Attachment D – Mineral Deposits/Districts Templates ( Click here for zip file )

Attachment E – Borehole Template ( Click here for Excel file )

NGGDPP Data Management Plan Template ( Click here for Word document )

Final Technical Report Template ( Click here for Word document )

Abstract Template ( Click here for Word document )

Data Management Plan Examples

These examples of data management plans (DMP) are available for reference to support proposal writing.

DMP - Core and Core Photos  ( Click here for Word document )

DMP - Geologic maps, Well logs, Geochemistry, Critical Minerals, Field Notebooks  ( Click here for Word document )

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An research proposal examples on geography is a prosaic composition of a small volume and free composition, expressing individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue and obviously not claiming a definitive or exhaustive interpretation of the subject.

Some signs of geography research proposal:

• the presence of a specific topic or question. A work devoted to the analysis of a wide range of problems in biology, by definition, cannot be performed in the genre of geography research proposal topic.
• The research proposal expresses individual impressions and thoughts on a specific occasion or issue, in this case, on geography and does not knowingly pretend to a definitive or exhaustive interpretation of the subject.
• As a rule, an essay suggests a new, subjectively colored word about something, such a work may have a philosophical, historical, biographical, journalistic, literary, critical, popular scientific or purely fiction character.
• in the content of an research proposal samples on geography , first of all, the author’s personality is assessed - his worldview, thoughts and feelings.

The goal of an research proposal in geography is to develop such skills as independent creative thinking and writing out your own thoughts.

Writing an research proposal is extremely useful, because it allows the author to learn to clearly and correctly formulate thoughts, structure information, use basic concepts, highlight causal relationships, illustrate experience with relevant examples, and substantiate his conclusions.

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Geography Research Paper

Sample Geography Research Paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our custom research paper writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

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Although most definitions and university departments of geography embrace both physical and human worlds, studies of the two are now substantially separate components of the discipline. This research paper focuses on human geography, that part normally affiliated to the social and behavioral sciences.

More Geography Research Paper Examples:

• Urban Geography Research Paper
• Transportation Geography Research Paper
• Geography Of Tourism Research Paper
• Geographic Information Systems Research Paper
• Social Geography Research Paper
• Postcolonial Geography Research Paper
• Political Geography Research Paper
• Regional Geography Research Paper
• Geographical Region Research Paper
• Military Geography Research Paper
• Medical Geography Research Paper
• Marxist Geography Research Paper
• Historical Geography Research Paper
• Resource Geography Research Paper
• Rural Geography Research Paper

1. Intellectual Origins of Geography

As a source of information about the earth, geography has been important to all societies. It was part of the curriculum at Cambridge and Oxford Universities by the late sixteenth century, for example, taught for its practical value with two main themes. The provision of locational information involved cartography, on which a wealth of early material in many cultures has been identified. Alongside was chorology, the description of physical environments and their inhabitants. Geographers portrayed the different parts of the world, meeting the needs of traders, diplomats, and the military and also whetting the curiosity of the ‘educated classes.’

Although geographical material was widely disseminated and used, there was no formal discipline with institutional status in universities. This was countered in the nineteenth century by societies founded to promote the dissemination of geographical knowledge (Livingstone 1992): many were closely linked to imperialist projects and actively promoted exploration of extra-European terrae incognitae. The first university chairs and departments were established by royal decree in Germany in the 1870s; they were to prepare school teachers, as part of the creation of an educated citizenry, and to sustain colonial and military enterprises. Similar successful campaigns elsewhere included the Netherlands, where the first established chair was in ‘colonial geography,’ and in England, where the Royal Geographical Society provided financial assistance to establish departments at Oxford and Cambridge, although the first honours degrees in geography were awarded at Liverpool, in 1917. The departments were small but provided the foundation for substantial expansion after World War II, when there was a geography department in nearly every British university and a graduate school in 27 United States’ universities.

2. The Creation Of A Discipline

The subject matter taught in these new departments focused on the inter-relations among peoples and environments, as conceived by several important German and French geographers (such as von Humboldt, Ritter, Ratzel, and de la Blache: Livingstone 1992). Geographers sought a unique intellectual rationale within the academic division of labor, increasingly so as universities adopted the German tradition of marrying teaching with research. Of the six trends that Freeman (1961) identified up to c.1950 (encyclopedic, educational, colonial, generalizing, political, and specialization), the generalizing trend became increasingly important, with individual specialization as a necessary consequence.

The emerging practice of geography was strongly influenced by its milieux (Livingstone 1992). Debates in the first half of the twentieth century crystallized around the concept of the region. Hartshorne (1939, p. 462) presented geography as:

… a science that interprets the realities of areal differentiation of the world as they are found, not only in terms of the differences in certain things from place to place, but also in terms of the total combination of phenomena in each place, different from those at every other place.

Regions possess unique characteristics based on their inter-related physical and human environments, and regional geography aimed (Wooldridge 1956, p. 53):

… to gather up the disparate strands of the systematic studies, the geographical aspects of other disciplines, into a coherent and focused unity, to see nature and nurture, physique and personality as closely related and interdependent elements in specific regions.

This identifies two long-recognized strands in geographical practice: the systematic, focusing on particular subject matter, and the regional, concentrating on specific areas.

There were common elements to geographical practice in those countries where it was established early: Hartshorne’s 1939 essay exemplified the strong German influence on American geography, for example, and much regional geography was based on classic French work. The links between the different language realms weakened after World War II, however (Johnston and Claval 1984): the remainder of this research paper focuses on the English-speaking world.

2.1 A ‘New’ Geography

Systematic specialization increasingly dominated the expanding discipline in the mid-twentieth century, with two significant intradisciplinary divides: a split between physical and human geography: and the creation of separate specialisms within each. Regional geography declined in importance as a research field, but remained important in the discipline’s teaching. The early systematic strengths were in historical geography, particularly strong in the UK (led by Darby and his major work on the Domesday Book: Darby 1977), and cultural geography in the USA, led by Sauer (1952) and with strong links to anthropology. Economic, political, and social geography were small enterprises until the second half of the twentieth century.

Two strongly linked developments in the 1950s 1960s—termed ‘quantitative and theoretical revolutions’—generated an explosion of interest in both physical and human geography. Quantitative methods were adopted to handle spatial data, but the ‘revolutionary’ component within human geography involved explicit consideration of theory, notably location theories whose key element was a geographical variable—space, usually represented as the cost involved in moving people, goods, and information. Classic works on the location of agricultural land uses industry and retail establishments (notably Christaller’s central place theory were appropriated and formed the basis for a ‘new geography,’ a spatial science whose goal was identifying and accounting for spatial order. This was largely North American in provenance, initially focused on a few departments (Johnston 1997), but the approach soon infiltrated other parts of the discipline, assisted by two seminal British anthologies (Chorley and Haggett 1965, 1967). Further spatial theories were added—on the diffusion of innovations and the widely-applied gravity model for studying flow patterns—and the entire corpus was synthesized in influential text books, notably Haggett (1965) and Abler et al. (1971).

The expansion was accompanied by increased specialization. Economic geography spawned subdivisions of industrial, agricultural, transport, and development geography, for example; urban geography grew a substantial subsector in urban social geography and was paralleled by interest in rural geography; social geography begat population and medical geography; and political geography was both revived and spawned electoral geography. The shared goal was the discovery of spatial order—in both individual behavior patterns and their outcomes in the built environment.

Although diverging systematic interests reduced links between physical and human geographers, they explored common ground in techniques of spatial analysis and approaches to knowledge. The switch from an ideographic focus on unique characteristics of places to a nomothetic search for spatial order largely occurred in a philosophical vacuum, but some geographers promoted the positivist approach to knowledge production (Bunge 1966, Harvey 1969).

These shifts occurred when the discipline was expanding rapidly within universities. Their promoters achieved major intradisciplinary changes by portraying spatial science as meeting contemporary needs among the burgeoning, increasingly quantitative and theoretical, social sciences. They presented the regional approach as outdated: the concepts of areal differentiation and region were retained—though employed in different ways.

2.2 ‘-Isms,’ Schisms, And ‘Turns’

Although some promoted this ‘new geography’ as surpassing its predecessor, there was no complete revolution to a new hegemonic paradigm in the Kuhnian sense. Not all geographers were won over, and some continued to teach and research in their established ways—sustaining the traditions of historical, cultural, and regional geography which were foundations for later responses to the ‘shock of the new.’ Those responses criticized spatial science on two main grounds. The first attacked location theories for narrow economism, for privileging profit-maximizing (translated geographically as transport-cost-minimizing) as a determinant of decision-making and so denigrating the wide range of cultural and other influences on behavior. Spatial science, it was claimed, removed free will by assuming that humans react to stimuli in predetermined ways while its elevation of space as the predominant influence on locational decisions led to a derogation of place. Some critics explored alternatives to positivism—such as phenomenology, idealism and existentialism—in work categorized as humanistic geography.

The second set of criticisms concerned spatial science’s approach to explanation. Location theories, it was argued, could not account for the major contours of the geography of development and underdevelopment at various spatial scales, of inequality and injustice, wealth, power, and discrimination. Explanation required understanding how economic systems, especially capitalism, work and involved more than adding the costs of transport and communications to neoclassical economic models: such explanation could be achieved through Karl Marx’s writings. Harvey’s (1973) collection of essays initiated a series incorporating space to Marxian thought (notably Harvey 1982) and stimulated others during a period of social tensions over civil rights and the Vietnam War. Their work became known as radical geography.

Although both critiques attracted adherents, many were as dissatisfied with each as they were with spatial science. As Gregory (1978) demonstrated, whereas some spatial scientists strayed very close to naive economic determinism, much humanistic geography approached another extreme of voluntarism, tearing the individual out of context, while some radical geography offered little more than an alternative economic determinism. Much effort was spent in the late twentieth century integrating aspects of humanistic and radical geography.

3. The Contemporary Geography

Sheppard (1995) divided human geographers into two main groups—spatial scientists and social theorists; strands of contemporary geographical scholarship that operate somewhat independently (Johnston 1997). Some recent textbooks in the ‘social theory mold’ dismiss spatial science as part of a discredited past (as in Peet 1998), whereas a volume promoting geography within the US scientific community concentrated on it (plus physical geography: NRC 1997). Attempts at comprehensive overviews include anthologies which lack integration (e.g. Gaile and Willmott 1989, 2001) while the editors of a volume on the ‘pervasive themes’ and ‘common elements within a discipline whose practitioners are in danger of for- getting their shared heritage and ideals’ concluded that not only had they failed to bridge the human–physical divide but they also feared a similar divide was opening within human geography (Abler et al. 1992).

3.1 Spatial Science

Spatial science remains a substantial component of contemporary human geography. It is strongly quantitative, but the formal (geometrical) location theories based on a single causal variable (space) have largely been abandoned: the search for spatial order neither anticipates the discovery of regular structures nor seeks universal laws of spatial behavior. Sayer (1984) drew an important distinction between extensive and intensive research: the former seeks empirical regularities whereas the latter explores the causal chains responsible for particular outcomes. Much spatial science is extensive research, a necessary precursor to many detailed investigations; by not eschewing empirical generalisations, it identifies significant features and trends in the mass of numerical data which characterize modern societies.

In the 1950s–1970s geographers assumed that standard statistical procedures could be applied unproblematically to analyses of point, line, flow, and area patterns. This was challenged by work on spatial autocorrelation, which identified a range of problems and proposed new methods of spatial data analysis (e.g. Haining 1990). Other issues identified included the modifiable areal unit problem. Some geographical analyses study the characteristics of populations aggregated by areas (such as census administrative units), but there is an extremely large number of ways in which such places can be defined, involving both scale (how large are the areas?) and aggregation (how many different ways can areas of the same size be created?) effects. Openshaw (1985) showed that different aggregations can produce divergent statistical results, creating problems in deciding which to employ. There are also related geographical examples of ecological fallacies—assumptions that results for a particular dataset can be generalized to others at different scales and/or aggregations (including individuals). Various procedures for attacking these problems and providing robust solutions are exemplified by essays in Longley and Batty (1996), many significantly assisted by developments in computing power (including applications of artificial intelligence) and stimulating the conception of geocomputation to describe such work in both physical and human geography (Longley et al. 1998).

The most significant technological developments have been in geographical information systems (GIS: Longley et al. 1999), combined hardware and software for the organization, integration, analysis, and display of spatially-referenced data, with the powerful display media underpinning the growth of visualization strategies. These systems have revolutionized spatial analysis and led to the identification of a geographical information science: traditional studies can be undertaken much more readily and quickly; exploratory studies are increasingly feasible, and large-scale modeling strategies integrating datasets collected on different spatial templates made possible.

Much contemporary spatial science, including GIS, is applied in a wide range of public and private sector contexts—as in spatially-targeted niche marketing strategies based on small-area classifications (geodemographics). This has partly been in response to changes in the economic context for universities: the pressure to increase nonstate income has stimulated ‘applied research’ and has seen the development of such skills as a major selling point in the attraction of students to read for geography degrees (see NRC 1997).

3.2 Social Theory

Although spatial science remains a substantial component of the discipline, to many human geographers approaches involving social theory form the disciplinary mainstream (as in Massey et al. 1999). Humanistic and radical geography have metamorphosed into new forms, although some maintain allegiance to the latter—notably Harvey (1989) and his continued reworking of Marxian approaches for understanding the contemporary world.

Work within this umbrella category focuses on understanding difference. Place now takes precedence over space among the main geographical concepts (on the tension between the two, see Taylor 1999): places provide contexts within which differences are produced and reproduced. But places are not fixed containers; like spaces, they are produced and continually reproduced by human action so that whereas in spatial science space is an exogenous independent variable (though modifiable, as in transport network developments), in social theory it is both independent and dependent variable (as stressed in Martin’s 1999 critique of the ‘new geographical economics’ which relates more to the spatial science of the 1970s than to either strand of contemporary human geography). The interactions between people and places spaces continually transform both, introducing a geographical component to the structure-agency dialectic for which Giddens (1977) sought a resolution in his structuration theory, very influential in human geography in the 1980s. People make their own histories, but within constraining enabling spatial contexts— locales, or settings for interaction. (Giddens 1984 was one of the few social theorists who not only used spatial metaphors in his writings but was also influenced by geographical work, notably time geography—e.g. Hagerstrand 1982—which draws attention to the geographical constraints on how individuals pursue personal and collective projects.)

A very important stimulus to recognition of the role of context locale in the production and reproduction of difference came from feminist geography. Initially launched to highlight the discrimination against women within a male-dominated discipline and the consequential many silences in what geographers studied, this expanded into a much wider critique of ‘single-factor’ approaches (such as Marxist’s concentration on class and the economic infrastructure) that ignored important other societal cleavages (Women and Geography Study Group 1984, Rose 1993). People viewing society from different positions create separate identities of self and other, which are potential foundations for identity politics. The class struggle is not the only one within capitalist society, and others (based on sexual orientation, race and religion, for example, as well as gender) cannot be folded within it.

Other stimuli came from postmodernism, which also emphasized difference and rejected the search for grand theories. Dear (1988) and introduced it to geographers as a way of addressing the contemporary condition, exemplified in the argued transition from a Fordist regime of accumulation, characterized by mass production of uniform commodities for mass consumption, to post-Fordism, characterized by small niche markets and consumption for status as well as use (sometimes called flexible accumulation). Harvey (1989) countered by arguing that this shift, involving the production of new spaces and places, is but the latest response to a crisis of capitalism.

More important has been the impact of the various strands of poststructuralist thought derived from the humanities and social sciences. Poststructuralists argue that human subjectivity is not given but rather produced in contexts. So much of that production process is spatially and temporally contingent that truth and knowledge are contingent too, varying through time and over space in a range of situated and local knowledges that form the resource foundations for structuration dialectics and identity politics. Representation of these contingencies is crucial to social conduct, and poststructuralists stress the importance of language not only as the communication medium involved in creating human subjectivity but also as a social construction itself, with variations that are fundamental to the creation and understanding of difference (i.e. in the relationship between the signified and the signifier and in its interpersonal transmission— the hermeneutic process). Language is just one means of communicating understandings, however, and as well as interpreting written texts geographers have focused on other images (works of art, films, landscapes) implicated in the creation of situated knowledges—as in Harley’s (1989) seminal work on deconstructing maps.

Said’s (1978) book on the Western creation of a ‘mythical East’ was an important stimulus to geographers’ studies of the roles of images of places and spaces in the creation and transmission of meanings and identities. They have embraced the postcolonial movement which challenges not only the political and economic components of colonialism and imperialism but also their roles in creating imaginative geographies at variance from those of the peoples who experienced that external power and are creating alternative geographies, knowledges, and identities through their own writings.

Many of these arguments were introduced through cultural geography but not confined to it and have been instrumental in reducing some of geography’s fragmentation. Several parts of the discipline have experienced a ‘cultural turn’: the perceived interdependence of cultural and economic processes, for example, has stimulated broader studies of production, exchange, and consumption (Lee and Wills 1998); critical geopolitics emphasizes the ways images of the world are created, transmitted, and underpin geographies of power and conflict (O’Tuathail 1996); and writing on nonrepresentational theory focuses on the transitory, the ‘billions of happy or unhappy encounters’ (performances) which characterize the daily interactions among people, places, environments, and ‘things’ but are never recorded represented in the traditional source materials for geographical scholarship (Thrift 1996). At an extreme of spatial scale heretofore ignored, geographers are also exploring the body as a site of identity-formation, as the most intimate of ‘personal spaces’ or ‘the geography closest in’ (Pile 1996).

Research within this area is both catholic and eclectic in its substantive interests. Space and place are being theorized in a wide range of contexts and scales. There are increasing links with other social science and humanities disciplines experiencing a ‘spatial turn,’ both in their use of spatial metaphors and in their appreciation of the roles of space and place in the structuration of people and societies.

Such work is very far from most spatial science and there is little methodological or philosophical common ground: one area of interaction, however, has emerged from critiques of the representations of the world created within GIS (Pickles 1995) and, more broadly, in cyberspace (Kitchin 1998). Social theory also lacks an ‘applied’ element as generally appreciated by those promoting geography as a ‘relevant’ or ‘saleable’ discipline (hence the absence of much on social theory in NRC 1997). Critical human geography is increasingly used to categorize work committed to emancipation, however, clarifying ways in which space and place are manipulated in the creation and maintenance of power relationships. This has a strong moral ethical component, concerned not only with how geographical research and teaching are conducted but also with evaluating what is right and wrong, good and bad (Smith 1994, Sack 1997).

One area of traditional geographical interest revived by social theorists is the study of people–environment interactions, on which there has been a continuing stream of studies on various aspects of environmentalism, human impacts on the environment (Turner et al. 1990), environmental policy, and political economy approaches to environmental problems and issues. Poststructuralists argue that nature is a social construction—work on nature–culture interrelationships must take account of the cultural constructions of nature even the binary nature: culture categorization sets up an unreal opposition since each is part of the other. Writing on society–nature interrelationships has thus been substantially broadened, expanding from the technical issues involved in the production of ‘environmental problems’ and the political ones in their ‘solution resolution’ to raise fundamental questions regarding the role of humans in nature. Some argue that studies of the environment can integrate physical and human geography (Simmons 1997) and present a major opportunity for geographers to undertake relevant research.

4. Conclusions

Human geography is a large, expanding, and vibrant discipline, characterized like most others by fragments and tensions: its extent and the nature of the expansion can be appreciated by comparing the four editions of The Dictionary of Human Geography (Johnston et al. 2000). It has an established niche without the academic division of labor; its core concerns remain those crystallized over a century ago; and its basic concepts remain place, space, and environment. Within those general characterizations, however, the discipline has changed markedly in recent decades, not only in what it studies but also in how and why. Buttimer (1993) has suggested that throughout their discipline’s history geographers have regularly shifted among four foundational metaphors (mosaic, machine, organism, and arena)—without the academic revolutions that are central to Kuhn’s (1970) paradigm model of scientific progress. Contemporary spatial science employs the mosaic metaphor with its emphasis on spatial order (without the earlier determinist overtones when the machine metaphor was employed to ‘explain’ those mosaics), whereas social theory concentrates on organism and, especially, arena—the spatial contexts, or places, which are involved in the production of human-ness while being produced and reproduced by humans.

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