consumer culture essay 400 words

Essay on Consumer Culture

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100 Words Essay on Consumer Culture

What is consumer culture.

Consumer culture refers to a societal belief where buying and using goods and services is considered highly important. In this culture, people believe happiness and success come from the continuous purchase of new products, often regardless of their actual need.

Roots of Consumer Culture

Consumer culture started during the industrial revolution when mass production became possible. As companies produced more goods, they needed people to buy them. So, they started promoting the idea of ‘buying for pleasure’, giving rise to consumer culture.

Impact on Society

Consumer culture impacts society in many ways. It encourages people to buy more, leading to over-consumption. This can result in waste and environmental damage. It also creates social inequality, as not everyone can afford to continuously buy new products.

Advertising and Consumer Culture

Advertising plays a big role in consumer culture. Ads promote new products and create a desire in people to buy them. They often create an image that owning a particular product will make life better, pushing people to buy more.

Consumer Culture and Identity

In conclusion, consumer culture is a complex issue with both positive and negative aspects. While it drives economic growth, it also leads to over-consumption, environmental damage, and social inequality. It’s important to be aware of these issues and make mindful buying decisions.

250 Words Essay on Consumer Culture

Understanding consumer culture.

Consumer Culture is a social pattern where buying and using goods and services is very important. It’s a way of life where people get a lot of joy from buying new things. It is also about how we show who we are through the things we buy.

The Birth of Consumer Culture

Consumer Culture started during the Industrial Revolution. This was a time when many new products were made. People started to buy more than they needed. They started to buy things to show off their wealth or status. This was the start of Consumer Culture.

The Impact of Consumer Culture

Consumer Culture has a big impact on our lives. It affects how we think and feel about ourselves. It can make us want to buy things even when we don’t need them. This can lead to problems like debt and waste. It also affects the planet because making and throwing away products can harm the environment.

Consumer Culture and Advertising

Advertising plays a big role in Consumer Culture. It makes us want to buy more. It does this by making products look good and by making us feel like we need them. This can make us spend more than we should.

500 Words Essay on Consumer Culture

Consumer Culture is a type of culture where buying and using goods and services is a big part of people’s lives. It is a way of life where people find joy, satisfaction, and identity in what they buy. In this culture, shopping is not just about meeting needs, but it is also about showing who we are and what we like.

How Consumer Culture Came to Be

Consumer Culture did not always exist. It started during the Industrial Revolution, a time when machines were invented to make things faster and cheaper. Before this, people made most things by hand, and it took a long time. But with machines, companies could make lots of things quickly and sell them at lower prices. This made it easier for people to buy more stuff. Advertising also played a big role in shaping this culture. Ads showed people all the things they could buy and made them want to buy more.

In Consumer Culture, what we buy often says a lot about who we are. For example, someone who buys a lot of books might be seen as a person who loves to learn. Someone who buys expensive clothes might be seen as someone who cares about fashion. In this way, the things we buy can become a part of our identity.

Consumer Culture and the Environment

Consumer Culture can also impact the environment. When we buy and throw away a lot of things, it can create a lot of waste. This waste can harm the environment. For example, plastic waste can end up in the ocean and harm sea animals. Also, making things uses up natural resources like water and trees, which can harm the environment too.

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AP U.S. History Notes

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Consumer Culture

Postwar Industrial Expansion

In the final decades of the nineteenth century, the United States experienced an industrial transformation. Over the course of approximately 30 years, America became an industrial and agricultural giant and the world’s greatest economic power. By 1894, the U.S. ranked first among the manufacturing nations of the world. Several factors contributed to this second American Industrial Revolution and the birth of modern America.

An abundance of natural resources were discovered and exploited, creating new industries as well as opportunities for established industries to grow. The Mesabi Range deposits in Minnesota’s Lake Superior region yielded huge tracts of iron ore for the steel industry. A continuous flow of new immigrants provided the cheap labor needed by the expanding industries and contributed to the growth of the U.S. economy.

The well-developed agricultural sector contributed to the changes in America. The growth of an extensive network of canals and intercontinental railroads enabled farmers to move their produce long distances. Their markets were no longer just local and regional in scope, but had expanded to national and international levels, allowing farmers to produce and sell more. Focus on a single commercial crop again became more common due to new farming methods and the widespread availability of new machinery. In turn, agricultural expansion stimulated growth in other sectors of the economy.

In the manufacturing sector, companies were perfecting Eli Whitney’s mass production techniques. Large, intricately organized factories that specialized in a limited number of products became the norm. Production by machine rather than by hand was also common, enabling companies to produce higher quality goods at a faster rate.

Some of the industrial expansion was fueled indirectly by the Civil War. Destruction from the war created a need for new construction, which produced new jobs and new building techniques. Inflation during the War led to increased capital accumulation for those who owned property and were making profits on war goods. The newly created capital was invested in the expansion of various industries. In fact, although the word “millionaire” was coined in the 1840s, this class did not become widespread until the end of the nineteenth century.

Republican policies may also have contributed to American economic expansion. The Homestead Act, which helped populate the “Great American Desert,” provided cheap land for agricultural growth. High protective tariffs helped to hamper foreign competition. Land grants made to railroad companies helped expand the transportation network that became the backbone of American growth. Between 1862 and 1871, the government awarded various railroad companies approximately 70 land grants, which led to the creation of new cities, more commerce in the west, and great wealth for the railroad owners.

The network of rails across the United States bonded the country together by connecting newfound raw materials in the west with factories and markets in the east, stimulating both mining and agriculture. The railroads themselves became a market for iron, steel, lumber, and coal. Railroads were such big business that in 1883 the major rail companies divided America into four “time zones” so they could schedule trains and trade. Commuter railroads mobilized America’s work force as well, leading to large-scale migration as Americans sought greener pastures all over the country.

American innovation played a large role in the second American Industrial Revolution. In the 1790s, the Patent Office recorded just over 200 patents, but between 1860 and 1890 it issued over 400,000 patents. The time was ripe for technological innovation that emphasized inventions and applied science. The list of innovations springing up at the time is endless: barbed wire was invented by Joseph Glidden in 1873; air brakes for trains were created by George Westinghouse in 1868; McGaffey’s vacuum cleaner was invented in 1869; and George B. Eastman devised roll film and the Kodak camera in 1888. The typewriter, stock ticker, and cash register all enhanced business operations and brought many women into the workforce. The commercial canning and packaging of food also expanded rapidly, enabling women to do less “housekeeping.”

One of the more significant inventions of the time was Alexander Graham Bell’s telephone, which he patented in 1876. Upon recognizing the importance of the telephone, Western Union commissioned Thomas A. Edison to develop an improved version of the machine to compete with Bell. Western Union eventually sold the rights to Bell to avoid a patent dispute, and Edison’s version became the prototype for today’s telephone. In 1885, the Bell interests formed the American Telephone and Telegraph Company, which held over 49 subsidiaries and provided long-distance lines. The invention of the telephone spurred many young, middle-class women to join the workplace as switchboard operators.

Thomas Edison is credited with many other inventions, including the phonograph, the motion picture, the storage battery, the Dictaphone, the mimeograph, and most importantly, the electric light bulb in 1879. The “Wizard of Menlo Park” experimented with several thousand filaments before he discovered that a carbonized filament would glow brightly in a vacuum tube for over 100 hours without crumbling. With the backing of J.P. Morgan in 1882, the Edison Electric Illuminating Company supplied current for lighting to 85 customers in New York City. The electric power industry expanded rapidly, leading to the creation of machines far more efficient than steam-driven models and becoming a cornerstone of American industrialization.

Entrepreneurs

The small businesses that supported the pre-Civil War economy could not satisfy the rapidly growing national markets. Entrepreneurs quickly developed systems of mass production and distribution to meet growing national needs. The resulting expansion in industry went hand-in-hand with industrial combination and concentration, enabling a few business leaders to dominate the largest markets of the time.

One of the greatest of these “Captains of Commerce” stands out for his achievements and his contributions—Andrew Carnegie. In 1848, as a young boy, Carnegie migrated with his family from Scotland to Allegheny, Pennsylvania. Carnegie eventually worked his way to the top through a number of jobs in various industries. During a trip to Europe in 1872 he met Sir Henry Bessemer, who in 1856 had invented a new process of turning iron into steel. To this point, steel was a scarce commodity in America, but with the Bessemer process steel could be inexpensively and easily produced for locomotives, rails, and the girders used in building construction. This inspired Carnegie to focus his business efforts on steel, and in 1875 he launched J. Edgar Thompson Steel Works, which was named after the president of his biggest customer, Pennsylvania Railroad.

America was one of the few places where all of the components needed to make steel were available in fairly close proximity. Recognizing this, Carnegie employed a tactic known as “vertical integration,” where he integrated every phase of the steel-making business. He acquired coal properties, iron ore from Lake Superior, a fleet of steamships to transport materials across the Great Lakes, and railroads that delivered the materials to the furnaces in Pittsburgh. His goals were to improve efficiency, increase quality, and decrease costs by controlling all of the variables in the production process.

Carnegie was a skilled businessman and salesman, and he had a talent for hiring men with the greatest expertise. Contrary to most, he used times of recession to expand his business, slowly buying out all of his competitors. However, he disliked monopolistic trusts, and so built his organization into a partnership that included about 40 Pittsburgh millionaires. By 1900, Carnegie’s company was producing one quarter of the nation’s Bessemer steel.

By 1900, Carnegie was ready to sell his steel holdings. J.P. Morgan, an investment banker, bought Carnegie out for over $400 million. Though often criticized for paying low wages to his workers, Carnegie believed that he and other industrial giants had a social responsibility and should consider themselves public benefactors. At the age of 65, Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to philanthropic endeavors that promoted social welfare and world peace. In all, he gave approximately $350 million to public libraries, universities, hospitals, parks, meeting and concert halls, swimming pools, church buildings, and other charitable causes.

Once he bought out Carnegie, J. Pierpont Morgan moved rapidly to expand his holdings, adding other steel and finished product companies, and “watering” the stock, or selling stock to buyers at a price greater than its current value. This enabled him to launch The United States Steel Corporation in 1901, which was America’s first billion-dollar corporation.

Morgan was born into a rich family and worked to increase his wealth throughout his life. He was an investment banker and owned a Wall Street banking house that financed the reorganization of railroads, insurance companies, and banks. Once Morgan got into the steel business, he began to eliminate all competition to create his steel monopoly.

During the depression of the 1890s, Morgan bought out his competition and placed officers from his own banking house on their boards of directors. This duplicated board was called an interlocking directorate, and it ensured future harmony among the rival enterprises. This concentration of financial power could be abused if the intent of the directors was to build two companies, transfer all the benefits to one company, and bankrupt the other at the expense of the stock and bondholders. However, an effective board could increase efficiency, enhance economic growth, pave the way for large-scale mass production, and stimulate new markets. Morgan, along with most big business leaders, did not believe the consolidation of money was anything but advantageous to the nation, and the rapid rise of the U.S. economy made Morgan’s position hard to refute. Social critics and Progressive-Era politicians would soon propose limits to “unbridled” capitalism.

Another important business leader of the time was John D. Rockefeller. He was born to a modest family in New York State, and as a youth moved to Cleveland, which was strategically located near the oil fields of Pennsylvania. Rockefeller, already a successful businessman as a teenager, recognized the potential profits in refining oil. In 1859, the first oil well was struck in Titusville, Pennsylvania, called “Drake’s Folly.” In 1870, Rockefeller formed the Standard Oil Company of Ohio, worth $1 million.

Although Rockefeller was the largest oil refiner, he felt his competition was flooding the market by producing too much oil, which led to reduced profits, so he weeded them out. Rockefeller was ruthless in his business tactics, and he perfected what came to be known as the “trust.” He forced his competition to join with him and assign their stock to the board of directors of his Standard Oil Company, who would then consolidate the two operations. If his competitors did not agree to this, he would temporarily lower the price of his oil and drive them out of business. By 1877, Rockefeller controlled 95 percent of the oil refineries in United States and monopolized virtually the entire world petroleum market.

John D. Rockefeller justified his wealth with statements like, “The good Lord gave me my money.” Yet, in spite of his often ruthless business practices, Rockefeller donated more than $500 million to philanthropic endeavors throughout his lifetime.

Following Rockefeller’s lead, trusts rapidly developed in other industries, such as lead, rubber, sugar, tobacco, and leather. In the 1860s, Cornelius Vanderbilt consolidated 13 separate railroads creating the New York Central Railroad System, and Gustavus F. Swift and Philip Armour consolidated the meat packing industry. Aggressive businessmen rapidly consolidated much of the transportation and communication industries. In retailing, huge urban department stores grew up in the big cities, and Montgomery Ward and Sears, Roebuck and Company dominated the mail-order industry, making it difficult for smaller businesses to compete. Over time, public opposition toward trusts increased and they swiftly became a hotly debated political issue. However, for most businesses at the end of the century, monopoly was not the goal of a trust, but rather increased efficiency through centralization of the management of increasingly complex business operations.

The Government Steps In

The rapid expansion of industry and the concentration of ownership by fewer and fewer people changed the way many Americans felt about the role of government in economic affairs. With the growing number of trusts in America, reformers in the late nineteenth century began to voice their concerns about the expanding gulf between the rich and the poor. Although the new class of millionaires brought economic and material progress, they also created deepening class divisions. Reformers feared that businessmen held an increasing amount of power that would eventually succeed in destroying republican institutions and placing captains of industry in direct control of the government.

Along with the reformers, the “old blood” American aristocracy was highly resentful of the "nouveau riche." Long-established merchants and professionals did not like the change in the order of society and felt that this arrogant class of "new rich" should be held in check. Small business owners and farmers resented both classes, and a new “civil war” was brewing.

In contrast, some theorists and wealthy business leaders used Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859) to champion the extreme success of such a small percentage of Americans. Although Darwin’s argument that existing species had all evolved through a long process of “natural selection,” described as a basic process of biology, many theorists drew broader economic inferences from his writings. William Graham Sumner applied Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory to the social world, touting in What Social Classes Owe to Each Other that “the millionaires are a product of natural selection.”

Herbert Spencer, one of the first major prophets of Social Darwinism, used Darwin’s theory as a foundation for promoting the virtues of free-market capitalism. He felt that Social Darwinism was the logical explanation for small businesses being crowded out by trusts and monopolies, and that the government should not interfere in this natural process. Spencer warned that “fostering the good-for-nothing at the expense of the good is an extreme cruelty.”

Andrew Carnegie did not advocate Social Darwinism, but instead felt the wealthy had to prove that they were morally responsible. Carnegie’s The Gospel of Wealth, published in 1889, stated that the concentration of wealth was necessary for society to progress. Carnegie felt that that the contrast between a millionaire and a laborer was an indication of how far humanity had come and that in the long run extreme disparities of wealth were good for the "race."

Political action against big business came first at the state level with legislation aimed at regulating railroads. This approach failed, in part due to the Wabash case, which confirmed the federal role in regulating interstate commerce. Congress stepped in and passed the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887 as a response to the plight of farmers as well as to the widespread practice among the railroads of giving kickbacks and preferential treatment to certain customers. The act was aimed at stopping discrimination against small business customers by requiring that all charges made by railroads must be reasonable. The railroads were also required to publish their rates and were not allowed to charge a different rate without giving public notice.

The Interstate Commerce Act spawned the first federal regulatory board, the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC). The ICC supervised the affairs of the railroads, investigated any complaints, and issued orders when they determined the railroads had acted illegally. The most important outcome of the Interstate Commerce Act was that it established a precedent for Congress to regulate businesses engaged in interstate trade.

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A Brief History of Consumer Culture

The notion of human beings as consumers first took shape before World War I, but became commonplace in America in the 1920s. Consumption is now frequently seen as our principal role in the world.

People, of course, have always “consumed” the necessities of life — food, shelter, clothing — and have always had to work to get them or have others work for them, but there was little economic motive for increased consumption among the mass of people before the 20th century.

Quite the reverse: Frugality and thrift were more appropriate to situations where survival rations were not guaranteed. Attempts to promote new fashions, harness the “propulsive power of envy,” and boost sales multiplied in Britain in the late 18th century. Here began the “slow unleashing of the acquisitive instincts,” write historians Neil McKendrick, John Brewer, and J.H. Plumb in their influential book on the commercialization of 18th-century England, when the pursuit of opulence and display first extended beyond the very rich.

But, while poorer people might have acquired a very few useful household items — a skillet, perhaps, or an iron pot — the sumptuous clothing, furniture, and pottery of the era were still confined to a very small population. In late 19th-century Britain a variety of foods became accessible to the average person, who would previously have lived on bread and potatoes — consumption beyond mere subsistence. This improvement in food variety did not extend durable items to the mass of people, however. The proliferating shops and department stores of that period served only a restricted population of urban middle-class people in Europe, but the display of tempting products in shops in daily public view was greatly extended — and display was a key element in the fostering of fashion and envy.

Although the period after World War II is often identified as the beginning of the immense eruption of consumption across the industrialized world, the historian William Leach locates its roots in the United States around the turn of the century.

In the United States, existing shops were rapidly extended through the 1890s, mail-order shopping surged, and the new century saw massive multistory department stores covering millions of acres of selling space. Retailing was already passing decisively from small shopkeepers to corporate giants who had access to investment bankers and drew on assembly-line production of commodities, powered by fossil fuels; the traditional objective of making products for their self-evident usefulness was displaced by the goal of profit and the need for a machinery of enticement.

“The cardinal features of this culture were acquisition and consumption as the means of achieving happiness; the cult of the new; the democratization of desire; and money value as the predominant measure of all value in society,” Leach writes in his 1993 book “ Land of Desire: Merchants, Power, and the Rise of a New American Culture .” Significantly, it was individual desire that was democratized, rather than wealth or political and economic power.

The 1920s: “The New Economic Gospel of Consumption”

Release from the perils of famine and premature starvation was in place for most people in the industrialized world soon after the Great War ended. U.S. production was more than 12 times greater in 1920 than in 1860, while the population over the same period had increased by only a factor of three, suggesting just how much additional wealth was theoretically available. The labor struggles of the 19th century had, without jeopardizing the burgeoning productivity, gradually eroded the seven-day week of 14- and 16-hour days that was worked at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in England. In the United States in particular, economic growth had succeeded in providing basic security to the great majority of an entire population.

It would be feasible to reduce hours of work and release workers for the pleasurable activities of free time with families and communities, but business did not support such a trajectory.

In these circumstances, there was a social choice to be made. A steady-state economy capable of meeting the basic needs of all, foreshadowed by philosopher and political economist John Stuart Mill as the stationary state , seemed well within reach and, in Mill’s words, likely to be an improvement on “the trampling, crushing, elbowing and treading on each other’s heels … the disagreeable symptoms of one of the phases of industrial progress.” It would be feasible to reduce hours of work further and release workers for the spiritual and pleasurable activities of free time with families and communities, and creative or educational pursuits. But business did not support such a trajectory, and it was not until the Great Depression that hours were reduced, in response to overwhelming levels of unemployment.

In 1930 the U.S. cereal manufacturer Kellogg adopted a six-hour shift to help accommodate unemployed workers, and other forms of work-sharing became more widespread. Although the shorter workweek appealed to Kellogg’s workers, the company, after reverting to longer hours during World War II, was reluctant to renew the six-hour shift in 1945. Workers voted for it by three-to-one in both 1945 and 1946, suggesting that, at the time, they still found life in their communities more attractive than consumer goods. This was particularly true of women. Kellogg, however, gradually overcame the resistance of its workers and whittled away at the short shifts until the last of them were abolished in 1985.

Even if a shorter working day became an acceptable strategy during the Great Depression, the economic system’s orientation toward profit and its bias toward growth made such a trajectory unpalatable to most captains of industry and the economists who theorized their successes. If profit and growth were lagging, the system needed new impetus. The short depression of 1921–1922 led businessmen and economists in the United States to fear that the immense productive powers created over the previous century had grown sufficiently to meet the basic needs of the entire population and had probably triggered a permanent crisis of overproduction; prospects for further economic expansion were thought to look bleak.

The historian Benjamin Hunnicutt, who examined the mainstream press of the 1920s, along with the publications of corporations, business organizations, and government inquiries, found extensive evidence that such fears were widespread in business circles during the 1920s. Victor Cutter, president of the United Fruit Company, exemplified the concern when he wrote in 1927 that the greatest economic problem of the day was the lack of “consuming power” in relation to the prodigious powers of production.

“Unless [the consumer] could be persuaded to buy and buy lavishly, the whole stream of six-cylinder cars, super heterodynes, cigarettes, rouge compacts and electric ice boxes would be dammed up at its outlets.”

Notwithstanding the panic and pessimism, a consumer solution was simultaneously emerging. As the popular historian of the time Frederick Allen wrote , “Business had learned as never before the importance of the ultimate consumer. Unless he could be persuaded to buy and buy lavishly, the whole stream of six-cylinder cars, super heterodynes, cigarettes, rouge compacts and electric ice boxes would be dammed up at its outlets.” In his classic 1928 book “ Propaganda ,” Edward Bernays, one of the pioneers of the public relations industry, put it this way:

Mass production is profitable only if its rhythm can be maintained—that is if it can continue to sell its product in steady or increasing quantity.… Today supply must actively seek to create its corresponding demand … [and] cannot afford to wait until the public asks for its product; it must maintain constant touch, through advertising and propaganda … to assure itself the continuous demand which alone will make its costly plant profitable.

Edward Cowdrick, an economist who advised corporations on their management and industrial relations policies, called it “the new economic gospel of consumption,” in which workers (people for whom durable possessions had rarely been a possibility) could be educated in the new “skills of consumption.”

It was an idea also put forward by the new “consumption economists” such as Hazel Kyrk and Theresa McMahon, and eagerly embraced by many business leaders. New needs would be created, with advertising brought into play to “augment and accelerate” the process. People would be encouraged to give up thrift and husbandry, to value goods over free time. Kyrk argued for ever-increasing aspirations: “a high standard of living must be dynamic, a progressive standard,” where envy of those just above oneself in the social order incited consumption and fueled economic growth.

President Herbert Hoover’s 1929 Committee on Recent Economic Changes welcomed the demonstration “on a grand scale [of] the expansibility of human wants and desires,” hailed an “almost insatiable appetite for goods and services,” and envisaged “a boundless field before us … new wants that make way endlessly for newer wants, as fast as they are satisfied.” In this paradigm, people are encouraged to board an escalator of desires (a stairway to heaven, perhaps) and progressively ascend to what were once the luxuries of the affluent.

Charles Kettering, general director of General Motors Research Laboratories, equated such perpetual change with progress. In a 1929 article called “Keep the Consumer Dissatisfied,” he stated that “there is no place anyone can sit and rest in an industrial situation. It is a question of change, change all the time — and it is always going to be that way because the world only goes along one road, the road of progress.” These views parallel political economist Joseph Schumpeter’s later characterization of capitalism as “creative destruction”:

Capitalism, then, is by nature a form or method of economic change and not only never is, but never can be stationary .… The fundamental impulse that sets and keeps the capitalist engine in motion comes from the new consumers, goods, the new methods of production or transportation, the new markets, the new forms of industrial organization that capitalist enterprise creates.

The prospect of ever-extendable consumer desire, characterized as “progress,” promised a new way forward for modern manufacture, a means to perpetuate economic growth. Progress was about the endless replacement of old needs with new, old products with new. Notions of meeting everyone’s needs with an adequate level of production did not feature.

The nonsettler European colonies were not regarded as viable venues for these new markets, since centuries of exploitation and impoverishment meant that few people there were able to pay. In the 1920s, the target consumer market to be nourished lay at home in the industrialized world. There, especially in the United States, consumption continued to expand through the 1920s, though truncated by the Great Depression of 1929.

Electrification was crucial for the consumption of the new types of durable items, and the fraction of U.S. households with electricity connected nearly doubled between 1921 and 1929, from 35 percent to 68 percent; a rapid proliferation of radios, vacuum cleaners, and refrigerators followed. Motor car registration rose from eight million in 1920 to more than 28 million by 1929. The introduction of time payment arrangements facilitated the extension of such buying further and further down the economic ladder. In Australia, too, the trend could be observed; there, however, the base was tiny, and even though car ownership multiplied nearly fivefold in the eight years to 1929, few working-class households possessed cars or large appliances before 1945.

The prospect of ever-extendable consumer desire, characterized as “progress,” promised a new way forward for modern manufacture, a means to perpetuate economic growth.

This first wave of consumerism was short-lived. Predicated on debt, it took place in an economy mired in speculation and risky borrowing. U.S. consumer credit rose to $7 billion in the 1920s, with banks engaged in reckless lending of all kinds. Indeed, though a lot less in gross terms than the burden of debt in the United States in late 2008, which Sydney economist Steve Keen has described as “the biggest load of unsuccessful gambling in history,” the debt of the 1920s was very large, over 200 percent of the GDP of the time. In both eras, borrowed money bought unprecedented quantities of material goods on time payment and (these days) credit cards. The 1920s bonanza collapsed suddenly and catastrophically. In 2008, a similar unraveling began; its implications still remain unknown. In the case of the Great Depression of the 1930s, a war economy followed, so it was almost 20 years before mass consumption resumed any role in economic life — or in the way the economy was conceived.

The Second Wave

Once World War II was over, consumer culture took off again throughout the developed world, partly fueled by the deprivation of the Great Depression and the rationing of the wartime years and incited with renewed zeal by corporate advertisers using debt facilities and the new medium of television. Stuart Ewen, in his history of the public relations industry, saw the birth of commercial radio in 1921 as a vital tool in the great wave of debt-financed consumption in the 1920s — “a privately owned utility, pumping information and entertainment into people’s homes.”

“Requiring no significant degree of literacy on the part of its audience,” Ewen writes, “radio gave interested corporations … unprecedented access to the inner sanctums of the public mind.” The advent of television greatly magnified the potential impact of advertisers’ messages, exploiting image and symbol far more adeptly than print and radio had been able to do. The stage was set for the democratization of luxury on a scale hitherto unimagined.

Though the television sets that carried the advertising into people’s homes after World War II were new, and were far more powerful vehicles of persuasion than radio had been, the theory and methods were the same — perfected in the 1920s by PR experts like Bernays. Vance Packard echoes both Bernays and the consumption economists of the 1920s in his description of the role of the advertising men of the 1950s:

They want to put some sizzle into their messages by stirring up our status consciousness.… Many of the products they are trying to sell have, in the past, been confined to a “quality market.” The products have been the luxuries of the upper classes. The game is to make them the necessities of all classes . This is done by dangling the products before non-upper-class people as status symbols of a higher class. By striving to buy the product—say, wall-to-wall carpeting on instalment—the consumer is made to feel he is upgrading himself socially.

Though it is status that is being sold, it is endless material objects that are being consumed.

In a little-known 1958 essay reflecting on the conservation implications of the conspicuously wasteful U.S. consumer binge after World War II, John Kenneth Galbraith pointed to the possibility that this “gargantuan and growing appetite” might need to be curtailed. “What of the appetite itself?,” he asks. “Surely this is the ultimate source of the problem. If it continues its geometric course, will it not one day have to be restrained? Yet in the literature of the resource problem this is the forbidden question.”

“We need things consumed, burned up, replaced and discarded at an ever-accelerating rate,” retail analyst Victor Lebow remarked in 1955.

Galbraith quotes the President’s Materials Policy Commission setting out its premise that economic growth is sacrosanct. “First we share the belief of the American people in the principle of Growth,” the report maintains, specifically endorsing “ever more luxurious standards of consumption.” To Galbraith, who had just published “ The Affluent Society ,” the wastefulness he observed seemed foolhardy, but he was pessimistic about curtailment; he identified the beginnings of “a massive conservative reaction to the idea of enlarged social guidance and control of economic activity,” a backlash against the state taking responsibility for social direction. At the same time he was well aware of the role of advertising: “Goods are plentiful. Demand for them must be elaborately contrived,” he wrote. “Those who create wants rank amongst our most talented and highly paid citizens. Want creation — advertising — is a ten billion dollar industry.”

Or, as retail analyst Victor Lebow remarked in 1955:

Our enormously productive economy demands that we make consumption our way of life, that we convert the buying and use of goods into rituals, that we seek our spiritual satisfaction, our ego satisfaction, in consumption.… We need things consumed, burned up, replaced and discarded at an ever-accelerating rate.

Thus, just as immense effort was being devoted to persuading people to buy things they did not actually need, manufacturers also began the intentional design of inferior items, which came to be known as “planned obsolescence.” In his second major critique of the culture of consumption, “ The Waste Makers ,” Packard identified both functional obsolescence, in which the product wears out quickly and psychological obsolescence, in which products are “designed to become obsolete in the mind of the consumer, even sooner than the components used to make them will fail.”

Galbraith was alert to the way that rapidly expanding consumption patterns were multiplied by a rapidly expanding population. But postwar industrial enterprise stoked the expansion nonetheless. The rise of consumer debt, interrupted in 1929, also resumed. In Australia, the 1939 debt of AU$39 million doubled in the first two years after the war and, by 1960, had grown by a factor of 25, to more than AU$1 billion dollars. This new burst in debt-financed consumerism was, again, incited intentionally.

Tapping into the Unconscious: Image and Message

In researching his excellent history of the rise of PR, Ewen interviewed Bernays himself in 1990, not long before he turned 99. Ewen found Bernays, a key pioneer of the new PR profession, to be just as candid about his underlying motivations as he had been in 1928 when he wrote “Propaganda”:

Throughout our conversation, Bernays conveyed his hallucination of democracy: A highly educated class of opinion-molding tacticians is continuously at work … adjusting the mental scenery from which the public mind, with its limited intellect, derives its opinions.… Throughout the interview, he described PR as a response to a transhistoric concern: the requirement, for those people in power, to shape the attitudes of the general population.

Bernays’s views, like those of several other analysts of the “crowd” and the “herd instinct,” were a product of the panic created among the elite classes by the early 20th-century transition from the limited franchise of propertied men to universal suffrage. “On every side of American life, whether political, industrial, social, religious or scientific, the increasing pressure of public judgment has made itself felt,” Bernays wrote. “The great corporation which is in danger of having its profits taxed away or its sales fall off or its freedom impeded by legislative action must have recourse to the public to combat successfully these menaces.”

The opening page of “Propaganda” discloses his solution:

The conscious and intelligent manipulation of the organized habits and opinions of the masses is an important element in democratic society. Those who manipulate this unseen mechanism of society constitute an invisible government which is the true ruling power of our country.… It is they who pull the wires which control the public mind, who harness old social forces and contrive new ways to bind and guide the world.

The front-line thinkers of the emerging advertising and public relations industries turned to the key insights of Sigmund Freud, Bernays’s uncle. As Bernays noted:

Many of man’s thoughts and actions are compensatory substitutes for desires which [he] has been obliged to suppress. A thing may be desired, not for its intrinsic worth or usefulness, but because he has unconsciously come to see in it a symbol of something else, the desire for which he is ashamed to admit to himself … because it is a symbol of social position, an evidence of his success.

Bernays saw himself as a “propaganda specialist,” a “public relations counsel,” and PR as a more sophisticated craft than advertising as such; it was directed at hidden desires and subconscious urges of which its targets would be unaware. Bernays and his colleagues were anxious to offer their services to corporations and were instrumental in founding an entire industry that has since operated along these lines, selling not only corporate commodities but also opinions on a great range of social, political, economic, and environmental issues.

Though it has become fashionable in recent decades to brand scholars and academics as elites who pour scorn on ordinary people, Bernays and the sociologist Gustave Le Bon were long ago arguing, on behalf of business and political elites, respectively, that the mass of people are incapable of thought.

According to Le Bon, “A crowd thinks in images, and the image itself immediately calls up a series of other images, having no logical connection with the first”; crowds “can only comprehend rough-and-ready associations of ideas,” leading to “the utter powerlessness of reasoning when it has to fight against sentiment.” Bernays and his PR colleagues believed ordinary people to be incapable of logical thought, let alone mastery of “abstruse economic, political and ethical data,” and saw the need to “control and regiment the masses according to our will without their knowing about it”; PR could thus ensure the maintenance of order and corporate control in society.

Bernays and his PR colleagues believed ordinary people to be incapable of logical thought, let alone mastery of “abstruse economic, political and ethical data.”

The commodification of reality and the manufacture of demand have had serious implications for the construction of human beings in the late 20th century, where, to quote philosopher Herbert Marcuse, “people recognize themselves in their commodities.” Marcuse’s critique of needs, made more than 50 years ago, was not directed at the issues of scarce resources or ecological waste, although he was aware even at that time that Marx was insufficiently critical of the continuum of progress and that there needed to be “a restoration of nature after the horrors of capitalist industrialisation have been done away with.”

Marcuse directed his critique at the way people, in the act of satisfying our aspirations, reproduce dependence on the very exploitive apparatus that perpetuates our servitude. Hours of work in the United States have been growing since 1950, along with a doubling of consumption per capita between 1950 and 1990. Marcuse suggested that this “voluntary servitude (voluntary inasmuch as it is introjected into the individual) … can be broken only through a political practice which reaches the roots of containment and contentment in the infrastructure of man [ sic ], a political practice of methodical disengagement from and refusal of the Establishment, aiming at a radical transvaluation of values.”

The difficult challenge posed by such a transvaluation is reflected in current attitudes. The Australian comedian Wendy Harmer in her 2008 ABC TV series called “Stuff” expressed irritation at suggestions that consumption is simply generated out of greed or lack of awareness:

I am very proud to have made a documentary about consumption that does not contain the usual footage of factory smokestacks, landfill tips and bulging supermarket trolleys. Instead, it features many happy human faces and all their wonderful stuff! It’s a study of a love affair as much as anything else.

In the same vein, during the Q&A after a talk given by the Australian economist Clive Hamilton at the 2006 Byron Bay Writers’ Festival, one woman spoke up about her partner’s priorities: Rather than entertain questions about any impact his possessions might be having on the environment, she said, he was determined to “go down with his gadgets.”

The capitalist system, dependent on a logic of never-ending growth from its earliest inception, confronted the plenty it created in its home states, especially the United States, as a threat to its very existence. It would not do if people were content because they felt they had enough. However over the course of the 20th century, capitalism preserved its momentum by molding the ordinary person into a consumer with an unquenchable thirst for its “wonderful stuff.”

Kerryn Higgs is an Australian writer and historian. She is the author of “ Collision Course: Endless Growth on a Finite Planet ,” from which this article is adapted.

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Introduction The theories explaining human nature can be categorized into two core groups: avocado and artichoke. Regarding the avocado philosophy, a person is perceived as self-enduring and stable, whereby their reasoning enables them to control their desires (Al & Alexa, 2021). An artichoke’s viewpoint is that an individual is perceived...

Reality of The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood

Introduction The Handmaid’s Tale, a dystopian novel, showcases how theocrats operate the Republic of Gilead. Even though the religious fundamentalists are responsible for the administrative duties of the country, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and pollution have rendered most ladies infertile. The fertile women are trained to be surrogates, including Offred...

Social Marketing
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The Crossrail Company’s Quality Management

Quality management of Crossrail can be called comprehensive for several reasons. First, the company manages quality on the organizational level, ensuring constant internal audits, tests, and incorporation of quality plans. Second, the company manages quality on a bigger scope, which implies “compliance with legislation, regulatory requirements, and relevant codes of...

Future Nursing Educator Role Analysis

I expect to be a nurse educator in the future, and I have recognized the nursing faculty shortage as a challenge that needs to be addressed now and in the future. The problem is expected to persist in the coming years due to more than 30 percent of current nurse...

The Internet’s Effect on Education and Students’ Literacy

Internet usage in education is a subject that sparks much debate. While some claim it gives students a broader learning option, others believe it cannot replace the possibility of writing on a physical paper and reading and researching from paper books. Many new literacy chances are now available due to...

Facial Profiling: Race, Physical Appearance, and Punishment

Key Concepts in the Study Social scientists frequently study the influence of an individual’s appearance on their life outcomes. For instance, Johnson and King (2017) examined the impact of defendants’ physical characteristics on punishment. The researchers utilized the following key concepts: facial appearance, race, and punishment. The concept of facial...

Issues and Possible Solutions in the Healthcare Sector

It is hard to disagree that healthcare is one of the most fundamental and intricate sectors playing a crucial role in people’s lives. Despite the importance of individuals receiving quality medical services, several factors negatively affect healthcare. For example, currently, health policymakers face the need to solve problems like the...

Test-Taking Improvement Skills

There are a few areas related to test-taking that need improvement. I could improve my time management skills, my ability to calm down before and during the test, and my focus while taking the test. I could utilize a few different strategies to improve my test-taking skills. I could start...

Healthcare Economics and Work of Hospitals

Introduction The healthcare system is a complex mechanism of professionals, systems, and services created for the purpose of supporting the population. However, there are a number of different frameworks that can be applied in order to understand and manage healthcare settings. One prevalent method is healthcare economics, which applies economic...

The Brain Asymmetry Laboratory

Introduction Researchers have discovered that the right half of the brain is responsible for spatial relations and creativity, while the left side is responsible for language and thought (Bisiacchi & Cainelli, 2022). The investigator’s motivation was to determine whether existing myths about hemispheres are relevant. The purpose of this experiment...

Profitability Strategies and Agreements in Airline Operations

A single yield indicator is not an objective measure of profitability because this concept determines how much a fair set fee is per kilometer or mile of flight. Accordingly, if there are always few passengers and prices are high, the yield will be high, and the profit will be low....

Petit Apartheid in the Criminal Justice System

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Lustration and Vetting in Eastern Europe

Introduction Eastern European countries have changed drastically in the last thirty-four years since the fall of communism. Even at present, the consequences of less democratic regimes can be seen in the area, which include a higher level of corruption and violations of human rights. Moreover, the countries choose different strategies...

Healthcare Inflation in Canada and the US

The healthcare systems of Canada and the United States have long been the subject of debate and comparison. While Canada spends less on healthcare as a percentage of GDP and has a lower healthcare inflation rate, the United States has a private healthcare market with high costs and administrative inefficiencies....

The Glass Menagerie by T. Williams: An Analysis

The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams, set in 1937, explores the ideas of escapism, unfulfilled dreams, and responsibility in a family struggling financially. The author’s intention behind writing the play was to demonstrate the difficulties of accepting reality through symbolic interactions between the characters and their internal struggles. The play’s...

Health Insurance and Medicare for All

Medicare for All, introduced by a wing of the Democratic party, accounts for one national health insurance program for all Americans with a fundamental right to healthcare. Past events, including the COVID-19 pandemic, justify that the country needs immediate intervention in its healthcare system. Medicare for All is an incentive...

Internet-Based Business Models as Positive Innovation

One way to look at the on-demand economy is as a networked platform for services from the real world, like Uber and Airbnb. By replacing them with a reasonably transparent network that abides by market laws, algorithms, and rating systems, these businesses employ technology to lessen the workload of enormous...

Discretion Benefits: Employees Management

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Overweight Management Clinical Intervention

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Presidential Impeachment Procedure in the US

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Teaching Experience Review

Introduction It is hard to disagree that being a teacher is both one of the noblest and hardest things in the whole world. Teaching is a challenging, exciting, and lives changing profession that does not only teach school subjects but also helps young people learn themselves, others, and life itself....

The Role of the Courts Under the U.S. Constitution

The judicial branch of the US system of government sees its core role in protecting the supremacy of law and civil liberties. It also includes the court’s interference in the work and development of health services organizations across the country. In this way, there are numerous roles that courts at...

Social Responsibility

“The Lazarus Effect” Horror Film

“The Lazarus Effect” is a film dedicated to combating HIV and AIDS in Africa. It tells a story about Zambian people infected by these illnesses and their lives. Undoubtedly, HIV changes the life of every person who has it. Still, I think that Constance Mudenda, a supervisor of several clinics,...

Human Rights Violation in Ethiopia

The twenty-first century is believed to be the age of human rights, freedom, justice, and equality. However, it is impossible to consider the battle won and finished while there are still those who suffer from the violation of human rights. Not everyone knows about one of the largest ethnic groups...

Rock Structure in New England Attracting Tourists

Rock Structure New England is located on the North East side of the US, and it is composed of six states. Over the years, the area has witnessed increased population and drastic growth. However, its environment is unique and outstanding as a result of several geographical formations that occurred several...

Technology and Dating: Social Media and Committed Relationships

The twenty-first century is the age of technologies, online communication, web-life, and social networks. There are thousands of websites that make people’s lives comfortable and let them chat without going outside and spending time on the road to meet. Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, and a significant number of online dating...

Translating Research Outcomes into Clinical Practice

Introduction The process of translating research outcomes into practice is an essential prerequisite for the effective functioning of any clinical setting. Indeed, implementation of findings “and revised methods of treatment can potentially save lives and improve the quality of life of patients” (Kristensen et al., 2016, p. 1). However, this...

Fake News, the First Amendment, and Fighting Propaganda

Today, “fake news” is becoming more prevalent, especially in online sources. Many readers are willing to believe the information posted online is true without conducting any research themselves. Facebook has a significant number of posts containing “fake news” published every day without the information in them being fact-checked. This case...

“The Tell-Tale Heart and the Yellow Wallpaper” by Perkins

Insanity in Gothic Literature Gothic authors submerge their readers into the dark and depressing atmosphere as they slowly lead the characters through the traps of their minds. In many cases, the heroes are experiencing some forms of insanity, imagining or seeing the scary phenomena while others do not. Description of...

Comparison of Athletes’ Personality Characteristics

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Breaking the Law: Psychological Reasons

The law is an integral element of every society that regulates the life of people inside it. Nevertheless, although the rules were created for the safety of the humans themselves, individuals who violate them have always been found. The purpose of this essay is to study the factors that force...

Nnedi Okorafor’s “Akata Witch”: Magical Education

Sunny’s magical journey is closely related to the Harry Potter books’ plot and its character regarding the heroes and the action. However, the author excellently opens up about African ideas of magic, creating an engaging plot story, and educating on a rich cultural heritage; the following essay will discuss the...

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“The Role of Entrepreneurial Leadership” by Newman

Organizations currently operate in a highly competitive environment, making creativity a critical tool to enable employees to generate innovative ideas, engage in critical thinking, and develop new business opportunities. In the article “The effects of employees’ creative self-efficacy on innovative behavior: The role of entrepreneurial leadership,” Newman et al. (2018)...

Subway Trip: Retreat From the Chaos of Modern City Life

For many people, the subway is not only a rapid and reliable transit system that brings citizens to the desired destinations. It is also something more than just a simple habit, somewhat tedious and irritating trip. Despite the restricted nature of metro space detached from the ground by massive concrete...

“Encoding-Decoding” by Stuart Hall

In his influential essay “Encoding/Decoding”, Stuart Hall discusses the process of conveying and receiving ideas through media. He claims that the main reason why messages are interpreted not in a preferred way is the gap between perceptions of people responsible for creating the – “the encoders” – and people who...

Aspects of Muslim Food Culture

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The Webinar Organized by the U.S. Ethnic Writers

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The Problem of Obesity in the Latin Community

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Obesity Negative Influence on Public Health

There is a growing body of evidence suggesting that the number of people suffering from obesity has been steadily increasing in recent decades. Many health organizations around the globe expressed their concerns regarding this issue, appealing for some measures to be taken in order to curb this trend. The growing...

Diagnostic Assessment. Postpartum Psychosis

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Rhetorical Appeals Analysis

“We can’t stop mass murder” is a persuasive piece on the topic of gun control published in The Week on October 6, 2017, which remains relevant today. The author, Shikha Dalmia, writes for many well-known journals and is a senior analyst with the Reason Foundation. She has degrees in chemistry,...

Nerve Cell and Its Functions in Human Body

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Social Change

Stay-At-Home or Employed Mothers – The Choice Is Theirs

The question of the rightful way of raising children has always been of major importance, as one might say, the next generation holds the destiny of humankind in their hands. However, society’s perception of stay-at-home-mothering (SAHM) can fluctuate, inspiring a lot of confusion among the mothers themselves. Typically, they are...

Risky Financial Decisions

A risky financial decision under consideration was made by a close relative, who decided to purchase an already operational liquor store that had been closed for a month due to serious documentation issues. However, the relative believed that it would be easy to operate an already established entity as compared...

Parenting Techniques Analysis

The text divides parenting into four styles according to the level of parental responsiveness and demandingness. Parents who display low levels of both these dimensions are indifferent since they pay insufficient attention to their children’s lives and stay focused mainly on themselves. Indulgent parents only show high levels of responsiveness...

Greenpeace International Company Analysis

Greenpeace International is one of the most renowned environmental organizations in the world. Their campaigns aim to change governmental policies about pollution and biodiversity (Luxon & Wong, 2017). Although Greenpeace lacked structure until 1975, its increased global popularity and financial support helped it become a successful non-governmental organization (Zelko, 2019)....

Java and JavaScript Vulnerabilities

Java and JavaScript have as many security vulnerabilities as other programming languages. These exposures can redirect sessions, manipulate data, and modify and steal information. The security issues can affect server-side environments even though Java and JavaScript are usually viewed as client-side applications. Since the effects of Java and JavaScript vulnerabilities...

Drug War in Border Cities: Causes and Consequences

The war on drugs is taking place worldwide, accompanied by severe violence and problems for citizens. In some areas where convenient corridors for traffic and drug cartels are located, for instance, on some parts of the US-Mexico border, these problems are especially acute. This paper examines three topics: the situation...

High-Level Decision Making Process in Society

In high-level decision-making, coming up with practice-oriented options requires thorough analysis and knowledge transfer skills. Based on what I have learned, to be viable, a potential solution should be able to produce tangible financial, resource-related, or reputational benefits without disproportionately high risks. Next, when it comes to knowledge transfer, studying...

Food Deserts and Their Impact on Local Communities

Access to healthy food by all the members of society is one of the main conditions to reach sustainable development. However, in this regard, the current situation in the U.S. is far from ideal. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (2021), 53.6 million people (17.4 percent of the total...

Researching of Ethical Dilemma in the Company Policies

Summary After completing a sales training course, Sophie must fill in an expense voucher for the last week. She realized the significant issue that she could not include tips every person makes every day to service people in her expense voucher. She needs to decide whether to comply with accountants’...

The Jim Crow Laws and New Practices Compared

Based on the legal principle of “separate but equal,” the Jim Crow laws disseminated institutional discrimination across all socio-economic aspects of black people’s lives. The US legal system institutionalized racial segregation against African-Americans in transportation, education, housing, public facilities, and more. Although currently, such laws do not exist, black communities...

International Relations
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Medical Research in Developing Countries

Clinical research is essential for discovering new treatments and vaccines for a wide variety of conditions and diseases. As medical research often involves human subjects, it is imperative to acquire their informed consent and ensure their safety and well-being during the study. This critique will consider three articles on the...

Growth Factors of the Textile Industry in Pakistan

Introduction The textile industry in Pakistan is the most developed sector of the state’s economy. The share of the total economy it accounts is estimated to be nearly 46%; about 39% of total employees in manufacture are involved in the textile production (Latif & Javid, 2016, p. 192). Pakistan is...

Discussion: Who Controls Nursing?

Nursing developed, changed, and adapted to scientific progress and political, social, and economic changes throughout history. Providing care to the sick and injured became an indispensable general practice that saved thousands of people’s lives and became synonymous with alleviation, safety, and the common good. Nursing has always been inseparable from...

Should Animals Be Used in Research?

Any research cannot do without an experimental part, but sometimes, their application is complicated, for example, in human biology. In this case, there are alternatives, such as animal models. Nevertheless, the use of this method is also associated with questions of morality since it concerns living things. However, weighing all...

The Future of Health Care: Observing New Trends

World changes with each generation due to economic factors, population fluctuations, and the rapid development of information and communications technology (ICT). That affects the healthcare market with visible trends entailing the change. Vogenberg and Santilli (2018) allocate eight themes that attribute key trends in the healthcare delivery system: A decline...

Prussia and Austria Absolutism Examples

Factors Influenced the Development of Absolutism The War of the Austrian Succession showed the need for reforms in Austria, which was in a state of the financial crisis and was a poorly managed fragmented state. One of the directions of transformation was the implementation of a policy of unification in...

L’Oréal Company’s Strategy Statements

The beauty industry setting is highly competitive. Although L’Oréal’s statements lack specificity, they are very straightforward, helping to get a proper understanding of the company. Due to high coopetition rates, even beauty companies with a strong market presence and a developed competitive advantage need to reinforce their PR and marketing...

The Limits on Absolutism in England

Historically, societies around the world have utilized numerous forms of government with varying degrees of centralization of power; one of them was absolutism. As in many other monarchies of Europe, England had absolutism, but it was also one of the countries that began to limit monarchs’ absolute power. Thus, the...

Abortion: Comparison and Contrast of Arguments

Abortion has been a controversial issue for many decades, with both sides of the argument often feeling very strongly about it. Nevertheless, regardless of the stance one takes on it, most people agree on prioritizing safety of the procedure if it must happen. It can be difficult to ensure safety...

Transplantation Rejection: Classification, Causes, and Prevention

Recent groundbreaking medical advances in post-transplant management have significantly boosted the success rates of transplantation procedures. The British Society for Immunology defines transplantation as the process by which viable cells, tissues, or organs are moved from one site to another to replace or repair organs and tissues that are diseased...

American Revolution
Forensic Psychology
Mental Health
Ernest Hemingway

“The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin and How It Is Relevant

The question of what exactly a woman’s place in the marriage has long been a ground for heated discussions. Our society has come a long way from perceiving women as merely the property of men to today’s development of the feminist movement. However, even though nowadays, emancipation is a must...

Relationships in the “For Colored Girls” Film

One of the abusive and violent relationships seen in the film For Colored Girls is between Yasmine and a man she had recently met and started dating, named Bill. Upon going out on a date at a restaurant, Yasmine invites Bill into her home. At this point, with no warning,...

Fall and Rise of Progressives in the 1900s

In “A Fierce Discontent: The Rise and Fall of the Progressive Movement in America,” Michael McGerr discusses the rise and fall of the American progressivism movement in the early 20th century. The author discusses the reasons behind the movement, its goals, and faults that inevitably made it succeed in some...

Business Simulations Improve Business Decision-Making

In his article “Business simulations improve business decision making”, Robert Brodo (2015) intends to articulate the advantages that participating in business simulation workshops can bring to company owners and their employees. The author argues that business simulations may be the best method to improve the decision-making process compared to other...

Cultural Appropriation and Prejudice Against Its Representatives

Cultural appropriation is often present because it lets people express love for the culture and prejudice against its representatives. For example, in the modern world, sushi continues to gain popularity in various countries around the world; however, many people still express a negative attitude toward Asians. Such harm as spreading...

The Story of Telemachus in “The Odyssey” by Homer

Numerous books exist in the world, presenting to readers various aspects of life. One of the most renowned literary works is the epic The Odyssey that represents the fascinating stories of Odysseus and his son Telemachus (Homer, 1996). While both characters go on complex journeys, Telemachus’s quest reflects the search...

The Dutch Republic of the 17th Century

The 17th century for Europe is the era of large kingdoms such as Poland, France, and England. Against this background, the Dutch Republic stood out both territorially, having much less land, and in terms of its structure. Unlike other countries, it did not have any absolute ruler. Instead, the political...

“Araby” by James Joyce: Short Story Analysis

James Joyce’s story “Araby” is about an Irish adolescent lad transitioning from adolescent fancies to the harsh realities of everyday life in his birthplace. In a minimalist manner, the author employs a single narrator, a dismal backdrop, and symbolism to remind the reader of the hardships and disappointments we all...

Dulce et Decorum Est Poem by Wilfred Owen

Poetry may require an immense effort from the reader if they want to grasp the meanings implied by the poet. However, on certain occasions, a poet may strive to convey a direct, explicit message. This case is applicable to Dulce et Decorum est poem by Wilfred Owen. Written from the...

Batman vs. Joker in “The Dark Knight” Film by Nolan

The confrontation between the Joker and Batman is one of the favorite topics for comics and cinema. Both images are fascinating and well-developed since Batman is not an absolute hero, and the Joker can hardly be called an uncharismatic villain. Nevertheless, the confrontation of these two characters can be analyzed...

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The Concept Of Consumer Culture

Category: Law , Education
Topic: Consumer Protection , Research

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