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10 Influential Memory Theories and Studies in Psychology

Discover the experiments and theories that shaped our understanding of how we develop and recall memories..

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How do our memories store information? Why is it that we can recall a memory at will from decades ago, and what purpose does forgetting information serve?

The human memory has been the subject of investigation among many 20th Century psychologists and remains an active area of study for today’s cognitive scientists. Below we take a look at some of the most influential studies, experiments and theories that continue to guide our understanding of the function of memory.

1 Multi-Store Model

(atkinson & shiffrin, 1968).

An influential theory of memory known as the multi-store model was proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968. This model suggested that information exists in one of 3 states of memory: the sensory, short-term and long-term stores . Information passes from one stage to the next the more we rehearse it in our minds, but can fade away if we do not pay enough attention to it. Read More

Information enters the memory from the senses - for instance, the eyes observe a picture, olfactory receptors in the nose might smell coffee or we might hear a piece of music. This stream of information is held in the sensory memory store , and because it consists of a huge amount of data describing our surroundings, we only need to remember a small portion of it. As a result, most sensory information ‘ decays ’ and is forgotten after a short period of time. A sight or sound that we might find interesting captures our attention, and our contemplation of this information - known as rehearsal - leads to the data being promoted to the short-term memory store , where it will be held for a few hours or even days in case we need access to it.

The short-term memory gives us access to information that is salient to our current situation, but is limited in its capacity.

Therefore, we need to further rehearse information in the short-term memory to remember it for longer. This may involve merely recalling and thinking about a past event, or remembering a fact by rote - by thinking or writing about it repeatedly. Rehearsal then further promotes this significant information to the long-term memory store, where Atkinson and Shiffrin believed that it could survive for years, decades or even a lifetime.

Key information regarding people that we have met, important life events and other important facts makes it through the sensory and short-term memory stores to reach the long-term memory .

Learn more about Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-Store Model

2 Levels of Processing

(craik & lockhart, 1972).

Fergus Craik and Robert Lockhart were critical of explanation for memory provided by the multi-store model, so in 1972 they proposed an alternative explanation known as the levels of processing effect . According to this model, memories do not reside in 3 stores; instead, the strength of a memory trace depends upon the quality of processing , or rehearsal , of a stimulus . In other words, the more we think about something, the more long-lasting the memory we have of it ( Craik & Lockhart , 1972). Read More

Craik and Lockhart distinguished between two types of processing that take place when we make an observation : shallow and deep processing. Shallow processing - considering the overall appearance or sound of something - generally leads to a stimuli being forgotten. This explains why we may walk past many people in the street on a morning commute, but not remember a single face by lunch time.

Deep (or semantic) processing , on the other hand, involves elaborative rehearsal - focusing on a stimulus in a more considered way, such as thinking about the meaning of a word or the consequences of an event. For example, merely reading a news story involves shallow processing, but thinking about the repercussions of the story - how it will affect people - requires deep processing, which increases the likelihood of details of the story being memorized.

In 1975, Craik and another psychologist, Endel Tulving , published the findings of an experiment which sought to test the levels of processing effect.

Participants were shown a list of 60 words, which they then answered a question about which required either shallow processing or more elaborative rehearsal. When the original words were placed amongst a longer list of words, participants who had conducted deeper processing of words and their meanings were able to pick them out more efficiently than those who had processed the mere appearance or sound of words ( Craik & Tulving , 1975).

Learn more about Levels of Processing here

3 Working Memory Model

(baddeley & hitch, 1974).

Whilst the Multi-Store Model (see above) provided a compelling insight into how sensory information is filtered and made available for recall according to its importance to us, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch viewed the short-term memory (STM) store as being over-simplistic and proposed a working memory model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974), which replace the STM.

The working memory model proposed 2 components - a visuo-spatial sketchpad (the ‘inner eye’) and an articulatory-phonological loop (the ‘inner ear’), which focus on a different types of sensory information. Both work independently of one another, but are regulated by a central executive , which collects and processes information from the other components similarly to how a computer processor handles data held separately on a hard disk. Read More

According to Baddeley and Hitch, the visuo-spatial sketchpad handles visual data - our observations of our surroundings - and spatial information - our understanding of objects’ size and location in our environment and their position in relation to ourselves. This enables us to interact with objects: to pick up a drink or avoid walking into a door, for example.

The visuo-spatial sketchpad also enables a person to recall and consider visual information stored in the long-term memory. When you try to recall a friend’s face, your ability to visualize their appearance involves the visuo-spatial sketchpad.

The articulatory-phonological loop handles the sounds and voices that we hear. Auditory memory traces are normally forgotten but may be rehearsed using the ‘inner voice’; a process which can strengthen our memory of a particular sound.

Learn more about Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory model here

4 Miller’s Magic Number

(miller, 1956).

Prior to the working memory model, U.S. cognitive psychologist George A. Miller questioned the limits of the short-term memory’s capacity. In a renowned 1956 paper published in the journal Psychological Review , Miller cited the results of previous memory experiments, concluding that people tend only to be able to hold, on average, 7 chunks of information (plus or minus two) in the short-term memory before needing to further process them for longer storage. For instance, most people would be able to remember a 7-digit phone number but would struggle to remember a 10-digit number. This led to Miller describing the number 7 +/- 2 as a “magical” number in our understanding of memory. Read More

But why are we able to remember the whole sentence that a friend has just uttered, when it consists of dozens of individual chunks in the form of letters? With a background in linguistics, having studied speech at the University of Alabama, Miller understood that the brain was able to ‘chunk’ items of information together and that these chunks counted towards the 7-chunk limit of the STM. A long word, for example, consists of many letters, which in turn form numerous phonemes. Instead of only being able to remember a 7-letter word, the mind “recodes” it, chunking the individual items of data together. This process allows us to boost the limits of recollection to a list of 7 separate words.

Miller’s understanding of the limits of human memory applies to both the short-term store in the multi-store model and Baddeley and Hitch’s working memory. Only through sustained effort of rehearsing information are we able to memorize data for longer than a short period of time.

Read more about Miller’s Magic Number here

5 Memory Decay

(peterson and peterson, 1959).

Following Miller’s ‘magic number’ paper regarding the capacity of the short-term memory, Peterson and Peterson set out to measure memories’ longevity - how long will a memory last without being rehearsed before it is forgotten completely?

In an experiment employing a Brown-Peterson task, participants were given a list of trigrams - meaningless lists of 3 letters (e.g. GRT, PXM, RBZ) - to remember. After the trigrams had been shown, participants were asked to count down from a number, and to recall the trigrams at various periods after remembering them. Read More

The use of such trigrams makes it impracticable for participants to assign meaning to the data to help encode them more easily, while the interference task prevented rehearsal, enabling the researchers to measure the duration of short-term memories more accurately.

Whilst almost all participants were initially able to recall the trigrams, after 18 seconds recall accuracy fell to around just 10%. Peterson and Peterson’s study demonstrated the surprising brevity of memories in the short-term store, before decay affects our ability to recall them.

Learn more about memory decay here

6 Flashbulb Memories

(brown & kulik, 1977).

There are particular moments in living history that vast numbers of people seem to hold vivid recollections of. You will likely be able to recall such an event that you hold unusually detailed memories of yourself. When many people learned that JFK, Elvis Presley or Princess Diana died, or they heard of the terrorist attacks taking place in New York City in 2001, a detailed memory seems to have formed of what they were doing at the particular moment that they heard such news.

Psychologists Roger Brown and James Kulik recognized this memory phenomenon as early as 1977, when they published a paper describing flashbulb memories - vivid and highly detailed snapshots created often (but not necessarily) at times of shock or trauma. Read More

We are able to recall minute details of our personal circumstances whilst engaging in otherwise mundane activities when we learnt of such events. Moreover, we do not need to be personally connected to an event for it to affect us, and for it lead to the creation of a flashbulb memory.

Learn more about Flashbulb Memories here

7 Memory and Smell

The link between memory and sense of smell helps many species - not just humans - to survive. The ability to remember and later recognize smells enables animals to detect the nearby presence of members of the same group, potential prey and predators. But how has this evolutionary advantage survived in modern-day humans?

Researchers at the University of North Carolina tested the olfactory effects on memory encoding and retrieval in a 1989 experiment. Male college students were shown a series of slides of pictures of females, whose attractiveness they were asked to rate on a scale. Whilst viewing the slides, the participants were exposed to pleasant odor of aftershave or an unpleasant smell. Their recollection of the faces in the slides was later tested in an environment containing either the same or a different scent. Read More

The results showed that participants were better able to recall memories when the scent at the time of encoding matched that at the time of recall (Cann and Ross, 1989). These findings suggest that a link between our sense of smell and memories remains, even if it provides less of a survival advantage than it did for our more primitive ancestors.

8 Interference

Interference theory postulates that we forget memories due to other memories interfering with our recall. Interference can be either retroactive or proactive: new information can interfere with older memories (retroactive interference), whilst information we already know can affect our ability to memorize new information (proactive interference).

Both types of interference are more likely to occur when two memories are semantically related, as demonstrated in a 1960 experiment in which two groups of participants were given a list of word pairs to remember, so that they could recall the second ‘response’ word when given the first as a stimulus. A second group was also given a list to learn, but afterwards was asked to memorize a second list of word pairs. When both groups were asked to recall the words from the first list, those who had just learnt that list were able to recall more words than the group that had learnt a second list (Underwood & Postman, 1960). This supported the concept of retroactive interference: the second list impacted upon memories of words from the first list. Read More

Interference also works in the opposite direction: existing memories sometimes inhibit our ability to memorize new information. This might occur when you receive a work schedule, for instance. When you are given a new schedule a few months later, you may find yourself adhering to the original times. The schedule that you already knew interferes with your memory of the new schedule.

9 False Memories

Can false memories be implanted in our minds? The idea may sound like the basis of a dystopian science fiction story, but evidence suggests that memories that we already hold can be manipulated long after their encoding. Moreover, we can even be coerced into believing invented accounts of events to be true, creating false memories that we then accept as our own.

Cognitive psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has spent much of her life researching the reliability of our memories; particularly in circumstances when their accuracy has wider consequences, such as the testimonials of eyewitness in criminal trials. Loftus found that the phrasing of questions used to extract accounts of events can lead witnesses to attest to events inaccurately. Read More

In one experiment, Loftus showed a group of participants a video of a car collision, where the vehicle was travelling at a one of a variety of speeds. She then asked them the car’s speed using a sentence whose depiction of the crash was adjusted from mild to severe using different verbs. Loftus found when the question suggested that the crash had been severe, participants disregarded their video observation and vouched that the car had been travelling faster than if the crash had been more of a gentle bump (Loftus and Palmer, 1974). The use of framed questions, as demonstrated by Loftus, can retroactively interfere with existing memories of events.

James Coan (1997) demonstrated that false memories can even be produced of entire events. He produced booklets detailing various childhood events and gave them to family members to read. The booklet given to his brother contained a false account of him being lost in a shopping mall, being found by an older man and then finding his family. When asked to recall the events, Coan’s brother believed the lost in a mall story to have actually occurred, and even embellished the account with his own details (Coan, 1997).

Read more about false memories here

10 The Weapon Effect on Eyewitness Testimonies

(johnson & scott, 1976).

A person’s ability to memorize an event inevitably depends not just on rehearsal but also on the attention paid to it at the time it occurred. In a situation such as an bank robbery, you may have other things on your mind besides memorizing the appearance of the perpetrator. But witness’s ability to produce a testimony can sometimes be affected by whether or not a gun was involved in a crime. This phenomenon is known as the weapon effect - when a witness is involved in a situation in which a weapon is present, they have been found to remember details less accurately than a similar situation without a weapon. Read More

The weapon effect on eyewitness testimonies was the subject of a 1976 experiment in which participants situated in a waiting room watched as a man left a room carrying a pen in one hand. Another group of participants heard an aggressive argument, and then saw a man leave a room carrying a blood-stained knife.

Later, when asked to identify the man in a line-up, participants who saw the man carrying a weapon were less able to identify him than those who had seen the man carrying a pen (Johnson & Scott, 1976). Witnesses’ focus of attention had been distracted by a weapon, impeding their ability to remember other details of the event.

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PERSPECTIVE article

A common short-term memory retrieval rate may describe many cognitive procedures.

• Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, USA

We examine the relationship between response speed and the number of items in short-term memory (STM) in four different paradigms and find evidence for a similar high-speed processing rate of about 25–30 items per second (∼35–40 ms/item). We propose that the similarity of the processing rates across paradigms reflects the operation of a very basic covert memory process, high-speed retrieval, that is involved in both the search for information in STM and the reactivation or refreshing of information that keeps it in STM. We link this process to a specific pattern of rhythmic, repetitive neural activity in the brain (gamma oscillations). This proposal generates ideas for research and calls for an integrative approach that combines neuroscientific measures with behavioral cognitive techniques.

An important feature of human information processing is short-term memory (STM), the ability to retain a small amount of information in a highly accessible state for a short time. The capacity of STM is limited to a certain number of items, and a key issue in cognitive psychology is the reason why STM is limited. Here we suggest that, over the last 40–50 years, at least four different paradigms have been developed that provide insights into the temporal properties of STM. Despite the wide variety of paradigms, we observed an intriguing similarity in a high-speed processing rate of about 25–30 items per second, which can be inferred from the relationship between response speed and memory load. We propose that the similarity of the processing rates across paradigms may reflect a basic covert memory process (i.e., a memory process that is inferred from the pattern of recall performance across certain conditions, rather than being directly observable), high-speed retrieval, which can be used for either recognition of a probe item or reactivation (refreshing) of an item for the sake of maintenance. We also link this process to recent developments in the neuroscientific literature and discuss implications for future research.

The Relationship Between Response Speed and Memory Load in Four Paradigms

After the seminal article of Miller (1956) on STM capacity limitations, human STM research mainly investigated the determinants of failure of STM by focusing on accuracy and error patterns in simple memory tasks. In the late 1960s, however, a complementary approach became increasingly popular. This approach consisted of studying how much time participants need in order to succeed in simple memory tasks. Specifically, Saul Sternberg studied how much time participants needed in order to indicate whether a probe item was present in a small set of memorized elements ( Sternberg, 1966 , 1969a ). The rationale was that, if the information in memory is needed to select the appropriate response, then the time taken to give that response will reveal something about the process by which one is searching in memory for that information. In order to explore the timing of memory search, Sternberg proposed what we term the Sternberg Item-Recognition paradigm (Figure 1A ). Although it is still the standard paradigm to investigate memory search rates, at least three other paradigms can be identified as providing insights into the temporal properties of STM (Figures 1B–D ); all show a positive relation between the number of items to be retained in STM (memory load) and the time it takes to respond to a probe item (response latency). Figure 2A provides an overview of what, based on our review, seem to be necessary boundary conditions that must be met to observe a clear positive relation between memory load and response latency. In what follows, only studies that met these conditions are reported and, when interpreting the observed common processing rate, we will explicitly address the role of these boundary conditions.

Figure 1. Schematic presentation of four paradigms providing insights in the relation between response speed and memory load. In the example, participants are presented with three letters to be maintained: K, B and N. The hand symbol together with the hourglass refers to a response given by pressing a button for which the speed is the variable of interest here. In (A) the Sternberg Item-Recognition paradigm, we examined speed of response to probe as a function of the number of memory items; in (B) through (D) we examined speed of response to processing items as a function of the concurrent number of items in memory; ( B) Brown-Peterson Pre-Load paradigm; (C) Complex Span paradigm; (D) Psychological Refractory Period paradigm.

Figure 2. (A) Schematic presentation of cognitive interpretation of the observed processing rate together with the boundary conditions (in black) that must be met to observe a clear relationship between memory load and response latency. Two different levels in STM are presented: a central level and a peripheral level. For verbal stimuli, the peripheral level offers an alternative maintenance mechanism (articulatory rehearsal), the use of which should be minimized when examining STM load for continuously presented items. (B) Estimates of STM retrieval slope for three kinds of verbal materials based on (1) the Sternberg Item-Recognition paradigm (gray bars), (2) the Brown-Peterson Pre-Load paradigm (red bar, second from the bottom), (3) the Complex Span paradigm (blue bar, last in the Words cluster), and (4) the Psychological Refractory Period (yellow bar, bottom). For the Sternberg Item-Recognition paradigm, the figure only includes studies that provided the information necessary to calculate 95% confidence intervals (represented by error bars). For the other paradigms, the unweighted average across studies mentioned in the text is presented.

For the sake of comparison, in the following review, we only included data of experiments that used simple verbal stimuli to be memorized (digits, letters and words), using healthy young adults as participants. We only included studies that provide the information necessary to examine a particular key index of the rate of retrieving information from STM, the slope of the function that relates response latency to STM load. Consequently, we only considered studies that included at least two different levels of memory load and that either reported the slope of the relation of interest or reported response latency for each memory load condition so that we could estimate the slope (averaged across positive and negative responses). Despite the fact that the four paradigms differ quite substantially in their methodology (see Figure 1 ), we identified a similar processing rate across them.

The Sternberg Item-Recognition Paradigm

The variable of interest is the speed with which participants decide whether the probe is a member of set of items held in STM by pressing, as quickly as possible without making errors (Figure 1A ). It is assumed that this decision requires people to scan through the content of STM to compare the probe with each item in memory. Delay of the response is interpreted as the operation of this time-consuming covert memory search. The classical finding is that response times increase linearly with the size of the memory set with a slope of about 35–40 ms per additional item in memory ( Sternberg, 1966 , 1969a ). The slope of this function is assumed to reflect the time it takes to retrieve a single item from STM. These classic findings of Sternberg launched a very productive line of investigation on memory search in cognitive science, with an overwhelming number of studies testing the original paradigm and variants of it. Because of the limited space here, the included studies using this paradigm were limited to the visual modality for presentation of both memory items and test items. On average, response latency increased at a rate of 37 ms per additional item held in memory. 1

The Brown-Peterson Pre-Load Paradigm

In the paradigm developed by Brown (1958) and Peterson and Peterson (1959) , a few stimuli to be remembered are followed by a processing task that is different enough to avoid material-specific interference, but challenging enough to prevent attention to the memoranda or rehearsal of them (Figure 1B ). The main finding was that memory is lost rapidly across about 30 s. The variable of interest here, though, is processing speed on the concurrent processing task that precedes recall. Slowing down has been shown in several studies comparing response speed under concurrent memory load with response speed without a concurrent load (e.g., Shulman and Greenberg, 1971 ; Baddeley and Hitch, 1974 ; Logan, 1978 ). It is assumed that, during the retention interval filled with processing, people engage in storage-related activities. When processing and storage both rely on attentional resources, storage-related activities are expected to postpone concurrent processing activities. Methodological details can be found in Footnote 2. 2 Vergauwe et al. (2014) found that response latency increased linearly at a rate of 43 ms per additional item held in memory.

The Complex Span Paradigm

In this paradigm, the presentation of items to be remembered is interleaved with items to be processed (Figure 1C ). The purpose was originally to assess the capability of working memory under the assumption that storage and processing share a common cognitive resource so that both of them must be engaged in order for capability to be assessed (e.g., Daneman and Carpenter, 1980 ). The variable of interest for the present purposes is processing speed on the concurrent processing task. Several studies have shown longer response latencies in later processing phases (high memory load), compared to the first processing phase (low memory load; e.g., Friedman and Miyake, 2004 ; Chen and Cowan, 2009 ). As for the Brown-Peterson pre-load paradigm, the underlying assumption is that slower processing reflects resource-sharing between attention-demanding processing and storage activities. Methodological details can be found in Footnote 2. Jarrold et al. (2011) found linear trends across the successive processing phases showing that response latency increases at an average rate of 37 ms per additional item held in memory (41 ms in Experiment 1 and 33 ms in Experiment 2).

Another potential variable of interest, but one that requires further work, is the time it takes to retrieve the next item to be recalled. Cowan (1992) measured the timing of spoken recall for simple digit span in children and proposed that each inter-word pause reflects a process of search through working memory to find the next digit to be recalled. Subsequent work ( Cowan et al., 1998 ) showed that the inter-word pauses for correctly-recalled lists did increase in approximately a linear fashion with increasing list length, in children in first grade (84 ms/item), third grade (58 ms/item), and fifth grade (25 ms/item). In adults, further work is needed to establish the scanning rate. One might worry that verbal rehearsal processes would play a role, though a relation between the spoken recall rate and search rates based on the scanning paradigm was demonstrated by Cowan et al. (1998) and by Hulme et al. (1999) . In complex span, presumably rehearsal processes have been interrupted by the processing task. Recall in these tasks, however, might involve more than a simple search, for example an attempt to use the processing task as a context to retrieve the list items. Thus, Cowan et al. (2003) noted that inter-word pauses in the responses lasted 4–10 times longer than in simple span.

Psychological Refractory Period Paradigm

This paradigm ( Welford, 1952 ; Pashler, 1994 ) usually combines two processing tasks requiring two responses in succession on a single trial. The original point was to explore processing demands by studying how the processing for the first response delayed the second response. In the task variants of interest here, memory demands are combined with processing demands. After the memory set is presented, at various stimulus-onset asynchronies (SOAs), a single stimulus pertaining to the processing task is presented, to which a speeded response is required (Figure 1D ). Some of these studies also manipulated the size of the memory set, which makes them of particular interest here. The finding of interest here is that the single speeded response took longer as more items were held in memory concurrently (e.g., Jolicoeur and Dell’Acqua, 1998 ; Stevanovski and Jolicoeur, 2007 ). Again, the underlying assumption is that processing and storage interfere with each other because they rely on a common attentional resource, resulting in slower processing. Methodological details can be found in Footnote 3. 3 Processing took about 46 ms longer per additional item in memory (32 and 60 ms in Stevanovski and Jolicoeur, 2007 , in Experiments 2 and 3, respectively).

Empirical Summary

We have identified a pattern that holds across four different paradigms: response speed slows down at a rate of about 30–40 ms per additional simple verbal item in memory (see Figure 2B ). The similarity across the paradigms suggests strongly the existence of a high-speed processing rate in STM of about 25–30 items per second (the equivalent of 40–33 ms/item).

Previous studies have pointed out the similarity between the processing rates observed in the complex span paradigm and the Sternberg item-recognition paradigm ( Jarrold et al., 2011 ), and between the rates observed in the Brown-Peterson pre-load paradigm and the Sternberg item-recognition paradigm ( Vergauwe et al., 2014 ). The present contribution is to note the similarity of processing rate across a wider range of procedures, and to propose a cognitive interpretation of this high-speed processing rate, in the next section.

Cognitive Interpretation of High-Speed Processing Rate in Human Short-Term Memory (STM)

We interpret the identified processing rate as reflecting the operation of a very basic covert memory process, retrieval from STM. In this view, although information retrieval and maintenance are typically referred to as different stages in STM, they are proposed to rely on the same process. When responding to a probe in the Sternberg task, high-speed retrieval is used in the service of memory search. It brings items in the focus of attention so that one can check whether it matches the probe. The slope observed in this task reflects directly the use of high-speed retrieval. In the three remaining paradigms, high-speed retrieval is used in the service of memory maintenance; it brings items in the focus of attention so that the information gets reactivated or refreshed. When high-speed retrieval and concurrent processing share a common resource (attention), the use of high-speed retrieval influences concurrent processing speed so that response latency increases for each additional item that is maintained. Under the assumption that maintenance is accomplished through sequential reactivation of information in a cumulative fashion, starting from the first list item and proceeding in forward order until the end, the observed rate reflects the rate at which items are reactivated in STM. In the Sternberg task, it is assumed that the presentation of the probe initiates a complete cycle through STM. In the other paradigms described here, storage is combined with a self-paced processing task and the idea is that a complete cycle of refreshing is interpolated before attention-demanding processing takes place. Thus, provided that participants aim at performing well on the memory task, attention is first used for a complete cycle through STM before it is shifted to the next processing stimulus. It is possible, though, that the same assumption might not hold in tasks in which the processing task is to be performed at a predefined pace (i.e., computer-paced). In these tasks, every processing item is typically followed by a variable period of free time during which refreshing can take place in a continuous matter. If the process of refreshing is exhaustive in nature, one might expect that, upon the presentation of the next processing item, on average only half of the items in STM would still need to be reactivated. Slopes relating response times to memory load would then reflect the amount of time it takes to scan half of the number of items in STM.

A schematic presentation of our cognitive interpretation of the observed processing rate is shown in Figure 2A . Two different levels in STM are presented: (1) a central level that is domain-general in nature, closely related to attention, and (2) a peripheral level that is domain-specific in nature and independent from the central level. High-speed retrieval is used at the central level to bring information into the focus of attention.

Together with the observation of Cowan et al. (1998) that retrieval rate as measured in a search task correlates with memory span, the identification of a rapid retrieval rate across several paradigms is directly relevant to the long-standing debate regarding the nature of the severe capacity limit of STM. Theoretically, the capacity limit of STM might reflect the number of items that can be active simultaneously within a given time-window. If one assumes that there is a limited time-window within which the items need to be reactivated so that all of them can be retained, then the capacity limit of STM would depend on the retrieval rate with faster rates resulting in more items reactivated within the fixed time-window. A similar idea was proposed by Cavanagh (1972) who showed an inverse relation between STM span and memory search rate for different materials. The speed of retrieval in STM also indicates that STM functions in a way that is much more rapid and dynamic than most people would think. Importantly, we consider this rapid retrieval rate to be independent of the slower verbal rehearsal rate that relies on covert speech, even though both might serve the same goal of maintaining information in STM (see Cowan et al., 1998 ; Hulme et al., 1999 ; Camos et al., 2011 ).

Note that although the idea of a limited time-window implies the existence of time-based forgetting in STM, it is not incompatible with interference-based forgetting. When items are not reactivated in time, forgetting might occur either because memory traces have decayed or because newer representations have overwritten previous ones or have become confusable with the previous ones. The degree of confusability might then depend on the number of features that are shared between the representations in STM. Moreover, Ricker and Cowan (2014) have recently shown that the process of consolidation influences the observed rate of forgetting over time with more consolidation leading to slower rates of time-based forgetting. This finding indicates that the relationship between STM capacity, retrieval rate and decay rate might depend on the robustness of the trace. Also, the length of the critical time-window might differ between individuals and this possibility needs to be taken into consideration when focusing on the relation between high-speed retrieval and STM capacity across individuals.

Boundary Conditions

There are studies in which the slope of the relationship between response speed and memory load was substantially smaller than the proposed constant of about 37 ms per item in normal adults. For example, in a Sternberg task, Banks and Atkinson (1974) forced participants to respond so quickly that they made a lot of errors. A flatter slope may occur when speed is stressed at the expense of accuracy because participants base their response on a feeling of familiarity, which can occur for all items in parallel, rather than on a more time-consuming but accurate item-by-item memory search. Burrows and Okada (1975) showed that the Sternberg slope changes at the limits of STM with a shallow slope of 13 ms when considering memory loads ranging between 8 and 20 words, for which the only viable mechanism might be familiarity. In the processing times within complex span, but using viewing or reading times rather than simple reaction times (RT) slopes across memory loads vary considerably (e.g., Engle et al., 1992 ; Friedman and Miyake, 2004 ). Viewing or reading might be covertly interrupted for refreshing, evading measurement. There are also studies in which the slope of the relationship between response speed and memory load was larger than the proposed constant of about 37 ms per item. RT slopes across memory loads are considerably steeper (up to about 100 ms per item) in studies that use Sternberg-like tasks in which participants need to have access to serial order information in order to judge the probe correctly, as opposed to the typical Sternberg task in which access to item information is sufficient (e.g., Sternberg, 1969b ; Ravizza et al., 2011 ; Majerus et al., 2012 ). Furthermore, studies in which a delay of several seconds was inserted between the presentation of the memory set and the presentation of the probe also reported somewhat steeper slopes (about 50–55 ms per item; e.g., Cairo et al., 2004 ; Chen and Desmond, 2005 ). Maintenance-related processes such as verbal rehearsal might take place during this delay and as such, influence the observed retrieval rate at the end of the trial. We suggest boundary conditions to observe a clear, positive relation between memory load and response latency, as presented in Figure 2A .

Relating High-Speed Retrieval in Short-Term Memory (STM) to Oscillations in the Brain

Recent neuroscientific developments lead to a view of retrieval rate as governed by oscillations (rhythmic, repetitive neural activity; e.g., Lisman and Jensen, 2013 ). In the dual oscillation model of STM ( Lisman and Idiart, 1995 ) it is proposed that the features of one item are active at the same time and are represented by a group of neurons that fire in the same gamma cycle (30–80 Hz). Next, the features of a second item are active at the same time and represented by the second gamma cycle within the same theta cycle (4–8 Hz). Lisman and Idiart (1995) linked the Sternberg slope to the duration of a gamma cycle. One item would be searched each time its gamma cycle of neural activity occurred. They also suggested that STM capacity limits could be determined by the number of gamma cycles that fit into one theta cycle. Given current uncertainties in these figures, this neural theory is reasonably compatible with a cognitive proposal by which STM capacity depends on the number of items that can be reactivated within a given time-window so that several items can be retained in a refreshed state simultaneously. Each gamma cycle would allow the refreshment of one item in STM. Our empirical retrieval rate of 37 ms/item would correspond to a gamma cycle of 27 Hz and would allow 3–6 items per theta cycle.

Thus, we propose to extend the view of Lisman and Idiart so that it encompasses our expanded function of high-speed retrieval. In this view, refreshing consists in the rapid reactivation of a limited number of items at a rate that reflects the length of one gamma cycle per item. In support of a link between STM maintenance and gamma oscillations, changes of oscillatory activity in the human gamma frequency band related to STM retention have been observed (e.g., Tallon-Baudry et al., 1998 ; Jokisch and Jensen, 2007 ; Meltzer et al., 2008 ) and Howard et al. (2003) showed that, in a Sternberg-type task, gamma power during retention was higher for larger memory sets. Furthermore, Roux et al. (2012) showed a relation between gamma-band activity and memory load in a left prefrontal area of the brain that has been associated with refreshing (e.g., Johnson et al., 2005 ). In this study, a number of red disks were displayed in different locations. After a short delay, a single red disk was shown and participants decided whether its location matched one of the study locations. An increase in gamma-band power between load 3 and load 6 was observed during the delay and this increase correlated with memory performance. Finally, Kamiński et al. (2011) found a negative correlation between individual’s STM performance and gamma cycle length. This is exactly the kind of relationship one would expect if STM capacity depends on the number of items that can be reactivated within a given time-window with each gamma cycle allowing the reactivation of one item in STM.

Conclusion and Outlook

The current proposal is novel in at least two ways. First, it proposes that the identified high-speed processing rate of about 27 items per second across four different procedures might reflect the operation of a very basic process of high-speed retrieval that serves both memory search and attention-based refreshing in STM. Thus, the attentional component of memory search and refreshing is proposed to be the same. This does not preclude the theoretical possibility that refreshing is equivalent to retrieval plus some additional operations; it only restricts these additional operations to a set of operations that do not require attention. Second, it proposes that this general process might be associated with gamma brain oscillations. We believe that our proposal has the potential of providing novel insights into the significant questions of how information is maintained in STM and why it’s capacity-limited. The proposal is based on a limited number of studies at this point and further research is needed, but the present proposal suggests several clear directions for further research.

Behavioral research should aim at testing the unique predictions that follow from our proposal. First, memory search and maintenance are proposed to rely on the same STM retrieval process. One direction is to look for interference patterns between both processes. The results of ongoing research of ours suggest that the memory search slope varies as a function of the time available to refresh memoranda. Another test of our proposal would be to compare the processing rates across the four paradigms in a within-participants design. This might also help us understand whether variations in the processing rate between procedures and materials are meaningful. Second, refreshing of a series of items is proposed to be enacted by consecutive gamma oscillations. Does the order of spontaneous refreshing follow the order of presentation? Can the distance between individual items in STM be described in terms of the number of gamma cycles that separate them? When a set of multiple items is successfully chunked into a few chunks, can we observe a decrease in the number of gamma cycles one needs to run through in order to refresh the entire set? In addition, future research should aim at testing the universality of the identified retrieval process by searching whether a similar processing rate can be observed in other paradigms and by examining response time distribution data. Another remaining question is whether transferring new external information into STM would occur at the same rate. The results of some studies suggest a slower rate of consolidation of about 200–250 ms per item in the Brown-Peterson pre-load paradigm (e.g., Jarrold et al., 2011 ; Vergauwe et al., 2014 ). This rate matches the length of theta cycles which have been linked to encoding new information (e.g., Klimesch, 1999 ). Finally, neurophysiological and cognitive approaches should be integrated to examine whether the length of gamma cycles and retrieval rate are influenced by the same factors (experimental, individual, developmental, clinical), and whether externally induced changes in gamma frequency (e.g., through magnetic stimulation of the brain) affect STM speed and capacity.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by Swiss National Science Foundation Grant PA00P1_139604 to Evie Vergauwe and NIH Grant R01-HD21338 to Nelson Cowan.

• ^ The average of 37 ms/item refers to an unweighted average across 8 slopes for digits ( M = 36 ms/item), 5 slopes for words ( M = 36 ms/item) and 13 slopes for letters ( M = 38 ms/item). When only taking into account the studies that provide information to calculate 95% confidence intervals (i.e., the studies included in the lower panel of Figure 2 ), the unweighted average is 36 ms/item.
• ^ In the Brown-Peterson pre-load paradigm and the complex span paradigm, a difference is typically made between the RT for the individual’s first response in the processing phase, referred to as first processing times and the mean of all subsequent RTs in that processing phase, referred to as subsequent processing times. While longer first processing times have been attributed to the consolidation of memory traces, longer subsequent processing times are typically attributed to the maintenance of memory traces (e.g., Engle et al., 1992 ; Jarrold et al., 2011 ). Because our focus is on the maintenance process rather than on consolidation, the current manuscript only reports analyses that concern subsequent processing times. The slopes reported for the complex span paradigm concern an average across different list lengths (from 4 to 7 words).
• ^ We included only conditions in which participants are required to recall all of the information after this speeded response because, only in those conditions, participants are required to make the processing response while keeping the information active in memory. Furthermore, we only included studies in which the effect of memory load on response time did not depend on SOA because only in those studies, the effect can be interpreted as a cost related to maintaining information in STM rather than consolidating information into STM.

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Keywords: short-term memory, working memory, attention, retrieval, refreshing, memory search

Citation: Vergauwe E and Cowan N (2014) A common short-term memory retrieval rate may describe many cognitive procedures. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 8 :126. doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2014.00126

Received: 10 December 2013; Accepted: 19 February 2014; Published online: 07 March 2014

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Copyright © 2014 Vergauwe and Cowan. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Nelson Cowan, Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Missouri, 210 McAlester Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, USA e-mail: [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 59, 2008, review article, the mind and brain of short-term memory.

• John Jonides 1 , Richard L. Lewis 1 , Derek Evan Nee 1 , Cindy A. Lustig 1 , Marc G. Berman 1 , and Katherine Sledge Moore 1
• View Affiliations Hide Affiliations Affiliations: Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109; email: [email protected]
• Vol. 59:193-224 (Volume publication date January 2008) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093615
• © Annual Reviews

The past 10 years have brought near-revolutionary changes in psychological theories about short-term memory, with similarly great advances in the neurosciences. Here, we critically examine the major psychological theories (the “mind”) of short-term memory and how they relate to evidence about underlying brain mechanisms. We focus on three features that must be addressed by any satisfactory theory of short-term memory. First, we examine the evidence for the architecture of short-term memory, with special attention to questions of capacity and how—or whether—short-term memory can be separated from long-term memory. Second, we ask how the components of that architecture enact processes of encoding, maintenance, and retrieval. Third, we describe the debate over the reason about forgetting from short-term memory, whether interference or decay is the cause. We close with a conceptual model tracing the representation of a single item through a short-term memory task, describing the biological mechanisms that might support psychological processes on a moment-by-moment basis as an item is encoded, maintained over a delay with some forgetting, and ultimately retrieved.

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Inside the Science of Memory

When  Rick Huganir, Ph.D. , was a teenager, he set out to better understand the physical and emotional changes of adolescence. “I was wondering what was happening to me, and I realized it was my brain changing,” says Huganir, director of the Johns Hopkins Department of Neuroscience.

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Those synapses get stronger or weaker depending on how often we’re exposed to an event. The more we’re exposed to an activity (like a golfer practicing a swing thousands of times) the stronger the connections. The less exposure, however, the weaker the connection, which is why it’s so hard to remember things like people’s names after the first introduction.

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New Discoveries in Memory

Many of the research questions surrounding memory may have answers in complex interactions between certain brain chemicals—particularly glutamate—and neuronal receptors, which play a crucial role in the signaling between brain cells. Huganir and his team discovered that when mice are exposed to traumatic events, the level of neuronal receptors for glutamate increases at synapses in the amygdala, the fear center of the brain, and encodes the fear associated with the memory. Removing those receptors, however, reduces the strength of these connections, essentially erasing the fear component of the trauma but leaving the memory.

Now Huganir and his lab are developing drugs that target those receptors. The hope is that inactivating the receptors could help people with post-traumatic stress syndrome by reducing the fear associated with a traumatic memory, while strengthening them could improve learning, particularly in people with cognitive dysfunction or  Alzheimer’s disease .

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• Simply Psychology - Short Term Memory
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short-term memory , in psychology , the concept involving the extremely limited number of items that humans are capable of keeping in mind at one time. Of undeniable importance, the long-standing concept of “short-term memory” is one of the most researched topics in cognitive science . Nearly every act of cognition —reasoning, planning, problem solving—relies on one’s ability to store and manipulate information.

The study of short-term memory was revolutionized by the experiments of British psychologist Alan D. Baddeley and his colleagues in the 1970s and ’80s. According to their model, short-term or “working memory” consists of at least two storage buffers: one for visuospatial information and another for verbal information. A unique aspect of their model was its inclusion of a “central executive” (also called “executive attention”) that coordinates the activities of the storage buffers and manipulates information. This newer concept of working memory can be likened to a mental workspace rather than a simple storage device or a conduit into “long-term memory.” The switch in terminology between short-term memory and working memory reflects this belief in the importance of using this mechanism for performing mental work.

Much recent short-term memory research has focused on three issues: (1) Are there truly separable stores for different types of information? (2) What is the nature of the central executive? (3) Do individual differences in short-term memory abilities account for different levels of ability to read, plan, and solve problems?

Research suggests that there are at least two distinct storage buffers: one for the verbal information and another for visuospatial information. Much of the evidence for this distinction comes from the logic of double dissociation . According to this logic, two cognitive mechanisms (e.g., verbal and spatial short-term memory) are separate if the task performance is differentially impacted by two different variables. For example, performance on verbal working memory tasks (e.g., remember a set of letters), but not spatial working memory tasks (e.g., remembering a set of locations on a computer screen), is impaired by having to say a syllable or word repeatedly (e.g., “the, the, the”) during a memory delay. This is presumably because having to repeat the word or syllable prevents people from silently rehearsing the to-be-remembered letters, a common tactic known as subvocal rehearsal. Conversely , being required to tap a set of computer keys in a spatial pattern interferes with memory for a set of locations in space, but not with memory for a set of letters. Taken together, this set of findings implies that verbal and spatial short-term memory rely on different pools of cognitive resources.

Psychologists Patricia A. Reuter-Lorenz and Andrea C. Miller used the logic of double dissociation to determine whether verbal and spatial short-term memory rely on different neural mechanisms by testing a patient who had undergone a callosotomy ( split-brain ) procedure. They found that when the verbal variant of the task was presented to the left hemisphere, performance was markedly superior to when the verbal task was presented to the right hemisphere. The opposite was true when the spatial task was presented to the right hemisphere. These findings were bolstered by data from neuroimaging and patient studies of the division between verbal and spatial information, which found that verbal tasks are mediated largely by left hemisphere neural regions, whereas the spatial task are relatively largely right lateralized.

In the original working memory model of Baddeley and Graham Hitch, the central executive was the least developed component, prompting a great deal of interest in trying to characterize this mechanism. Some researchers have proposed that it coordinates and controls various subparts of the system. Such a conceptualization is consistent with a number of different computational models, in that many major architectures contain a mechanism that determines whether goals and subgoals are being met and strategically schedules the initiation of various processes. Others have conceptualized executive function as a collection of processes that serve to manipulate the contents of working memory, including inhibition , attention , and temporal ordering.

One thing that appears to distinguish earlier ideas of short-term memory from working memory is that performance on tasks involving just the short-term storage of information does not predict how well people will perform on higher-order reasoning skills, whereas performance on tasks involving both the simultaneous storage and manipulation of information in memory predicts a host of cognitive skills. For instance, it has been shown that working memory capacity, as defined by the ability to simultaneously store and process information, predicts reading comprehension skill. Working memory capacity also predicts how well people will perform on problem-solving tasks, such as conditional reasoning problems. Thus, it appears that working memory capacity can account for many of the skills that constitute intelligence.

From a developmental perspective, working memory is critical because it may play a role in learning language , particularly in vocabulary acquisition. Furthermore, just as working memory capacity can predict performance on higher-order cognitive tasks, working memory ability has been hypothesized to play a role in diverse childhood and adult maladies such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, mathematical disabilities, and reading disabilities. Furthermore, children of school age in cultures in which the articulation time to numbers or letters is shorter (e.g., Chinese, as compared with German) show a greater memory capacity earlier in development. This is because verbal memory is language-based and limited not just by the number of items but also by how long it takes to utter them.

Just as important cognitive skills appear to develop with the help of working memory in childhood, working memory declines in older adults appear to be a factor in age-related changes in a range of cognitive tasks. Adults reach their peak working memory capacity in their twenties, conveniently coinciding with the college years for many, then decline steadily over the life span into old age .

Short-Term Memory In Psychology: Types, Duration & Capacity

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Short-term memory is a component of memory that holds a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a brief period, typically a few seconds to a minute. The duration of STM seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, and STM’s capacity is limited, often thought to be about 7±2 items.

It’s often likened to the brain’s “working space,” enabling tasks like reasoning and language comprehension. Information not rehearsed or processed can quickly be forgotten.

Short-term memory (STM) is the second stage of the multi-store memory model proposed by Atkinson-Shiffrin. 

Short-term memory has three key aspects:

• Limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time)
• Limited duration (storage is very fragile, and information can be lost with distraction or the passage of time)
• Encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds).

Capacity: Magic Number 7

The capacity of short-term memory is limited. A classic theory proposed by George Miller (1956) suggests that the average number of objects an individual can hold in their short-term memory is about seven (plus or minus 2 items).

Miller thought that short-term memory could hold 7 (plus or minus 2 items) because it only had a certain number of “slots” to store items.

However, Miller didn’t specify how much information can be held in each slot. Indeed, if we can “chunk” information together, we can store much more information in our short-term memory.

Miller’s theory is supported by evidence from various studies, such as Jacobs (1887). He used the digit span test with every letter in the alphabet and numbers apart from “w” and “7” because they had two syllables.

He found out that people find it easier to recall numbers rather than letters. The average span for letters was 7.3, and for numbers, it was 9.3.

However, the nature of the items (e.g., simple versus complex) and individual differences can influence this capacity.

It’s also worth noting that techniques like chunking can help increase the effective capacity by grouping individual pieces of information into larger units.

Short-term memory typically holds information for about 15 to 30 seconds. However, the duration can be extended through rehearsal (repeating the information).

The duration of short-term memory seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, according to Atkinson and Shiffrin (1971). Items can be kept in short-term memory by repeating them verbally (acoustic encoding), a process known as rehearsal.

Using a technique called the Brown-Peterson technique, which prevents the possibility of retrieval by having participants count backward in 3s.

Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed that the longer the delay, the less information is recalled. The rapid loss of information from memory when rehearsal is prevented indicates short-term memory having a limited duration.

If not rehearsed or encoded into long-term memory, the information in short-term memory is susceptible to interference and decay, causing it to be forgotten.

It’s important to note that short-term memory duration can vary among individuals and can be influenced by factors like attention, distraction, and the nature of the information.

Encoding in short-term memory primarily involves a transient representation of information, usually based on the sensory attributes of the input . Here’s a breakdown of how encoding works for short-term memory:

• Acoustic Encoding: This is the most common form of encoding in short-term memory. Information, especially verbal information, is often stored based on its sound. This is why, when trying to remember a phone number, you might repeat it aloud or “hear” it in your mind.
• Visual Encoding: Visual encoding is the process of storing visual images. For example, if you glance at a picture briefly and then try to recall details about it a few moments later, you’re relying on visual encoding.
• Semantic Encoding: This involves processing the meaning of information. Although it plays a more dominant role in long-term memory encoding, there are short-term tasks where meaning can influence memory (e.g., remembering words that form a coherent sentence vs. a random list).
• Tactile Encoding: Information can also be encoded based on touch, though this is less common than acoustic or visual encoding for short-term memory tasks.

Various factors, including attention, repetition, and the nature of the information, can influence the effectiveness of encoding in short-term memory.

However, without further processing, the data held in short-term memory can decay or be displaced, emphasizing the transient nature of this memory store.

More durable and elaborate encoding methods, such as deep processing or the formation of associations, are needed to move information from short-term to long-term memory.

Working memory

Baddeley and Hitch (1974) have developed an alternative model of short-term memory, which they call working memory .

Short-term memory and working memory are not the same, although they are closely related concepts. Short-term memory refers to the temporary storage of information, holding it for a brief period of time.

Working memory, on the other hand, involves not just storing, but also manipulating and processing this information. It’s like the brain’s “workspace” for cognitive tasks, such as problem-solving, reasoning, and comprehension.

Working memory is a more dynamic and complex system than mere short-term storage.

Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1971). The control processes of short-term memory . Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences, Stanford University.

Baddeley, A.D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G.H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York: Academic Press.

Miller, G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. The psychological review , 63, 81-97.

Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual verbal items. Journal of experimental psychology , 58(3), 193-198.

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201 Memory Research Topics & Essay Examples

Memory is a fascinating brain function. Together with abstract thinking and empathy, memory is the thing that makes us human.

❓ Memory Research Questions

🏆 best memory topic ideas & essay examples, 💭 exciting memory research topics, 💫 interesting memory topics for essays, 👍 research topics about memory in psychology, 🕑 learning & memory research topics, 💡 easy memory essay ideas.

In your essay about memory, you might want to compare its short-term and long-term types. Another idea is to discuss the phenomenon of false memories. The connection between memory and the quality of sleep is also exciting to explore.

If you’re looking for memory topics to research & write about, you’re in the right place. In this article, you’ll find 174 memory essay topics, ideas, questions, and sample papers related to the concept of memory.

• How does sensory memory work?
• How is short-term memory different from long-term memory?
• What memory-training techniques are the most effective?
• What are the reasons for memory failures?
• Memory and aging: what is the connection?
• What are the key types of memory disorders?
• How to improve memory?
• Memory Chart Stages in Psychology For instance, the brain uses the procedural memory to encode procedural skills and tasks that an individual is involved in. The stages of memory are very complex and often pass unrecognized.
• Memory Model of Teaching and Its Effectiveness The main objective of the research study was to find out the difference in the effect of the memory model and the traditional method of teaching on students’ performance.
• Memory for Designs Test The examination of the functioning of the memory of an individual cannot be limited to only one memory test, and as a result, there are a variety of assessments that target the various features of […]
• Computer’s Memory Management Memory management is one of the primary responsibilities of the OS, a role that is achieved by the use of the memory management unit.
• Long and Short Term Memory The procedure of conveying information from STM to LTM entails the encoding and consolidation of information: it is not a task of time; the more the data resides in STM it increases the chances of […]
• Memory Test The two controversies determine the classification of memory depending on the form of information processing that occurs in the brain and the different types of memories in relation to the accessibility.
• “The Sorrow of War” by Bao Ninh: Memory as a Central Idea The image of soldier Kien in The Sorrow of War demonstrates the difficulties of the Vietnamese people before, through and after this war.
• Community Gatherings and Collective Memory The objective of this paper is to examine some of the gatherings that take place in the community and how these gatherings are related to time.
• Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test and Cognistat Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test and the Cognistat are the assessment tools employed by the occupational therapists in order to determine the levels of impairment in their mental function that directly impact the individuals’ executive abilities […]
• Review of Wordfast: Strengths and Weaknesses of This Translation Memory Tool Recognizing the variety of benefits of using Wordfast in the translation process, it should be noted that the use of this ACT program can have a number of unintended negative implications for the quality of […]
• Chauri Chaura Incident in History and Memory The book’s first half was a reconstruction, a narrative in historical view of the burning of the chowki or station and the account of the trial that focused on the testimony of the principal prosecution […]
• Free and Serial Memory Recalls in Experiments In the study, the experimenters changed the order in which the items were presented to the participants before each trial to test the ability of the subject to recognize these words it was observed that […]
• The Effect of Sleep Quality and IQ on Memory Therefore, the major aim of sleep is to balance the energies in the body. However, the nature of the activity that an individual is exposed to determines the rate of memory capture.
• Concreteness of Words and Free Recall Memory The study hypothesized that the free recall mean of concrete words is not statistically significantly higher than that of abstract words.
• Love and Memory From a Psychological Point of View The commonly known love types include affection, passionate love, friendship, infatuation, puppy love, sexual love, platonic love, romantic love and many other terms that could be coined out to basically describe love.
• Improving Memory and Study Power Study power and memory are important aspects of the learning process and improving them is necessary for success. Working the brain is important in improvement of memory and study power.
• How Memory and Intelligence Change as We Age The central argument of the paper is that intelligence and memory change considerably across the lifespan, but these alterations are different in the two concepts. The article by Ofen and Shing is a valuable contribution […]
• Memory Strategies Examples and How They Work A good strategy for memory is the one that improves information encoding, necessitates storage of data in a memorable state and enables the mind to easily retrieve information. Indeed, a malfunction in retrieval of stored […]
• The Relationship Between Memory and Oblivion The purpose of this essay is to discuss the relationship between memory and oblivion, private and public recollection of events, and the way these concepts are reflected in the works of Walid Raad, Christo, and […]
• Information Processing and Improving Learning and Memory Information processing theory is a method of studying cognitive development that arose from the American experimental psychology tradition.
• Fabricating the Memory: War Museums and Memorial Sites Due to the high international criticism, a very tiny portion of the East Wing is dedicated to explain the context, yet visitors easily overlook the section after the dense display of tragedies after a-bomb in […]
• “How Reliable Is Your Memory?” by Elizabeth Loftus Regardless of how disturbing and sorrowful it may be, and even when pointed out that this certain memory is false, a person may be unable to let it go.
• False Memory and Emotions Experiment The hypothesis was as follows: a list of associate words creates a false memory by remembering a critical lure when the list is presented to a subject and a recall test done shortly after that.
• Strategies of the Memory Matlin defines knowledge as the information stored in our memory, the cognitive functioning of our memory and the ability to utilize the acquired information.
• Amnesia and Long-Term Memory These factors interfere with the function of hippocampus, the section of the human brain that is responsible for the development of memory, storing and organizing information.
• Sleep Improves Memory It is possible to replace a traumatic memory with a pleasant one then take a brief moment of sleep to reinforce the pleasant memory.
• Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) The first mentioning of shape memory materials was with the discovery of martensite in 1890, which was the first step for phenomenal discovery of the shape memory effect.
• Semantic Memory and Language Production Relationship In the brain, information is arranged both in short-term and long-term memory and this is independent of whether the language in context is first language or a second one.
• Hippocampus: Learning and Memory The limbic cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus are considered the processing parts of the limbic system while the output part comprises the septal nuclei and the hypothalamus.
• Factors of Learners’ and Adults’ Working Memory An individual’s working memory refers to their ability to access and manipulate bits of data in their mind for a short period.
• Statistics: The Self-Reference Effect and Memory After the distraction part was over, the participants were asked to recall the twelve adjectives they rated from a list of 42 words. This brings the question of whether the results would be different if […]
• Memory Mechanisms: Cognitive Load Theory The teacher’s task is not only to give information but also to explain the principles of learning and to work with it.
• The Self-Reference Effect and Memory Accordingly, the analysis has the following hypotheses: the SRE should enhance recognition of words that participants can relate to themselves, and people should feel more confident about their memory under the SRE.
• Henry Molaison and Memory Lessons The case of Henry Molaison serves as a poignant reminder of the complexity of memory and the importance of understanding its various components.
• Memory and Attention as Aspects of Cognition It has specific definitions, such as “consideration with a view to action,” “a condition of readiness involving a selective narrowing or focusing of consciousness and receptivity,” and “the act or state of applying the mind […]
• Intergenerational Trauma and Traumatic Memory The exploration of interconnected issues of intergenerational trauma and traumatic memory in society with historical data of collective violence across the world sensitizes to the importance of acknowledging trauma.
• The Role of Memory Cells in Cellular Immunity Therefore, when a bacterium gets into the body for a second time, the response is swift because the body has fought it before. Thus, a healthy body can recognize and get rid of chronic microorganisms […]
• Psychological Conditions in Addition to Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory The authors, who have many papers and degrees in the field, have noted the features of the brain structure and the differences between HSAM.
• Cognitive Psychology: The Effects of Memory Conformity The experiment’s control conditions did not allow the witnesses to discuss the event seen in the videos, while in the other condition, the witnesses were encouraged to discuss the event.
• Survival and Memory in Music of the Ghosts by Ratner When it comes to individual memory of Teera’s childhood, the author explains the connection between her memories of her father and musical instruments: “Perhaps it’s because as a child she grew up listening to her […]
• Concept for Teaching Memory in Primary School Students Teaching is one of the most demanding and demanding jobs in the world because it is the job that holds the future generation together.
• ”The Mystery of Memory” Documentary by Gray & Schwarz The documentary examines the brain’s ability to form and retrieve a memory, highlights the importance of neurobiology, and focuses on the problems of PTSD treatment and neuroscience backwardness, concluding that human memory is still a […]
• Draw It or Lose It Memory and Storage Considerations Since the size of the biggest component of this data is known and the additional component can be reasonably estimated, memory for it can be assigned at load time.
• The Multi-Storage Memory Model by Atkinson and Schiffrin The function of the is to track the stimuli in the input register and to provide a place to store the information coming from the LTS.
• Emotions: The Influence on Memory At the same time, the influence of positive and negative feelings on the process of memorization and reproduction is different. In conclusion, it should be said that the process of the influence of emotions on […]
• Civility, Democracy, Memory in Sophocles’ Antigone In Sophocles’ Antigone, the narrative flow makes the audience empathize with the tragic fate of the characters, deepening the emotional involvement of the readers and viewers.
• The Psychological Nature of Memory Using the numerical representation of the participants’ results, the researchers calculated the dependence of the memory and theory of mind in the process of recalling the interlocutors.
• Functioning of Human Memory Schemas Consecutively, the study aimed to identify the relation between the facilitation of prior knowledge schemas and memories and the ability to form new schemas and inferences in older adults.
• Enhancing Individual and Collaborative Eyewitness Memory Considering the positive results of research utilizing category clustering recall and the reported benefits of group memory, a question arises whether the use of category clustering recall might diminish the negative effects of group inhibition.
• Memory: Its Functions, Types, and Stages of Storage First, information is processed in sensory memory, which perceives sensory events for a couple of seconds to determine whether the information is valuable and should be kept for a longer period. As information goes through […]
• The Relationship Between the Working Memory and Non-Conscious Experiences The structure of the proposal follows the logical layout, beginning from the background of the issue through the methodology to problem significance and research innovation.
• Consciousness: The Link Between Working Memory and Unconscious Experience The present study seeks to address the gap in the research regarding the executive function of VWM and consciousness. This study will follow a modified structure of Bergstrom and Eriksson experiment on non-conscious WM to […]
• The Role of Image Color in Association With the Memory Functions Memory is the cornerstone of human cognition that enables all of its profound mechanisms, and the instrument of knowledge acquisition and exchange.
• The Memory Formation Process: Key Issues Hippocampus plays an essential role in the memory formation process because it is the part of the brain where short-term memories become long-term memories.
• Memory Techniques in Learning English Vocabulary ‘Word’ is defined by Merriam Webster Dictionary as follows: “1a: something that is said b plural: the text of a vocal musical composition c: a brief remark or conversation 2a: a speech sound or series […]
• Covalent Modification of Deoxyribonucleic Acid Regulates Memory Formation The article by Miller and Sweatt examines the possible role of DNA methylation as an epigenetic mechanism in the regulation of memory in the adult central nervous system.
• Repressed Memory in Childhood Experiences The suffering often affects a child’s psychological coping capacity in any respect, and one of the only ways of dealing with it is to force the memory out of conscious perception.
• Adaptive Memory and Survival Subject Correlation The results of the study have revealed that the participants found it slightly easier to recall the words related to the notion of survival.
• Developmental Differences in Memory Over Lifespan While growth refers to the multiplication of the number of individual units or cells in the body, maturation on the other hand can be defined as the successive progress of the individual’s appendage land organs […]
• Memory, the Working-Memory Impairments, and Impacts on Memory The first important argument for a thorough discussion on how ADHD could affect brain functioning and working memory impairments is the existence of prominent factors that could create a link between the disorder and the […]
• Working Memory in 7 &13 Years Aged Children However, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show similar performance improvement in verbal working memory task performance from 7 to 13 years of age as indicated in the study with CVLT.
• Working Memory & Agenesis of the Corpus Callosum However, it was hypothesized that children with AgCC will show similar improvement in performance on verbal working memory task performance from 7 to 13 years of age as indicated in the study with CVLT.
• Lifespan Memory Decline, Memory Lapses and Forgetfulness The purpose of the research by Henson et al.was to deepen the understanding of differential aging of the brain on differential patterns of memory loss.
• Elaborative Process and Memory Performance The process is significant in the study and retention of data. In addition, the application of the concepts in the author’s learning process will be highlighted.
• The Essence of Context Dependent Memory The results ought to show that the context in which eyewitnesses observed an event is important in the recall memory of the participants.
• “Neural Processing Associated With True and False Memory Retrieval” by Yoko The researchers noted that both true and distorted memories activate activities in the left parental and left frontal areas of the brain. Parahippocampal gyrus- Is the area of the brain that is responsible for processing […]
• Dementia and Memory Retention Art therapy is an effective intervention in the management of dementia because it stimulates reminiscence and enhances memory retention among patients with dementia.
• Biological Psychology: Memory By and large, there is a general agreement that molecular events are involved in the storage of information in the nervous system. It is about to differentiate different kinds of memory, one which is short-term […]
• The Memory of Silence and Lucy: A Detailed Analysis From damaging relationships to her hope to come back to the native land, Lucy has all kinds of issues to address, but the bigger issue is that Lucy’s progress is cyclical, and she has to […]
• Two Tutorials on the Virtual Memory Subject: Studytonight and Tutorials Point The explanation of the demand paging term leads to the concept of a page fault. It is a phrase that characterizes an invalid memory reference that occurs as a result of a program addressing a […]
• Music and Memory: Discussion Future research should focus on addressing the limitations of the study and exploring the effect of other types of music. The findings of the study are consistent with the current body of knowledge about the […]
• Fuzzy-Trace Theory and False Memory The writers set out to show the common ground for all these varied scenarios and convincingly show that false memories are a result of an interaction between memory and the cognitive process of reasoning. The […]
• Individual Differences in Learning and Memory In the following paper, the variety of learning styles will be evaluated in relation to theories of human learning and memory retrieval on the basis of the findings currently made by academic researchers.
• The Difference Between Females and Males Memory The hippocampus is of importance when it comes to memory formation and preservation and is relatively larger in females than males, giving the females advantage in memory cognition.
• The Nature of False Memory Postevent information is one of the reasons that provoke the phenomenon of misinformation. The participants watched a video of a hockey collision and were asked to estimate the speed of the players.
• Organizational Memory and Intellectual Capital The main emphasis here concerns modalities of motivating the retrieval and use of information and experiences in the OM. The source of intellectual capital arises from the managers’ ability to welcome new information and experiences, […]
• Advertising and Memory: Interaction and Effect An advert sticks into one’s memory when it focuses on the characteristic of the material being advertised, other advertisements competing for the same market niche, and the kind of people it targets.
• The Internet and Autobiographical Memory Allie Young’s blog or journal is a perfect illustration of the impact that social sites and blogs have, since for her autobiographic memory; she uses a blog site to write about issues affecting her life.
• Creativity and Memory Effects in Advertising A study was conducted in China to establish the kind of effects agency creativity has on the total outcome of the advertising campaign.
• Memory, Thinking, and Human Intelligence As Kurt exposits, “The effects of both proactive and retroactive inferences while one is studying can be counteracted in order to maximize absorption of all the information into the long-term memory”.
• Psychological Issues: Self-Identity and Sexual Meaning Issues, and Memory Processing Most sex surveys are run by firms dealing in other products and the motives of the surveys are for marketing of their primary products.
• Human Memory as a Biopsychology Area This paper is going to consider the idea that electrical activity measures of the brain of a human being can be utilized as a great means for carrying out the study of the human memory.
• Biopsychology: Learning and Memory Relationship Memorization involves an integral function of the brain which is the storage of information. Memorization is directly linked to learning through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.
• Apiculture: Memory in Honeybees They have a sharp memory to recall the previous locations of food, the scent, and the color where they can get the best nectar and pollen.
• Collective Memory as “Time Out”: Repairing the Time-Community Link The essay will first give an account of how time helps to shape a community, various events that have been formulated in order to keep the community together and the effectiveness of these events in […]
• “The Memory Palace of Matteo Ricci” by Jonathan D. Spence: Concept of Memory Palaces The information concerning Matteo Ricci’s concept of memory palaces presented in the book is generalized to the extent that it is necessary to search for an explanation and some clarifications in the additional sources; “His […]
• Psychology: Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence Information which serves as the stimuli moves from the sensory memory to the short term memory and finally to the long term memory for permanent storage.
• Working With Working Memory Even if we can only make a connection of something we see with a sound, it is easier to remember something we can speak, because the auditory memory helps the visual memory.
• Operant Conditioning, Memory Cue and Perception Operant conditioning through the use of punishment can be used to prevent or decrease a certain negative behavior, for example, when a child is told that he/she will lose some privileges in case he/she misbehaves, […]
• Human Memory: Serial Learning Experiment The background of the current research was stated in Ebbinghaus’ psychological study, and reveals the fact, that if e series of accidental symbols is offered for memorizing, the human memory will be able to memorize […]
• Hot and Cold Social Cognitions and Memory What is mentioned in biology text books and journals about the human brain is so small and almost insignificant compared to the myriad functions and parts of the brain that are yet to be explored.
• Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation After Sleep The memory consolidation of the visual skill tasks is related to the REM sleep and the short wave component of the NREM.
• Attention, Perception and Memory Disorders Analysis Teenage is the time for experimentation, with a desire to be independent and try new and forbidden things like drugs or indulge in indiscrete sexual activity.
• Autobiographical Memory and Cognitive Development During this stage important cognitive processes take place and are fundamental towards the development of autobiographical memory in the infants. This help the infants to have important memory cues that form part of the autobiographical […]
• Sensory and Motor Processes, Learning and Memory There are three processes involved in the sensory function of the eyes: the mechanical process, the chemical process, and the electrical process. The mechanical process starts as the stimuli passes through the cornea and […]
• Repressed Memory and Developing Teaching Strategies The author aims to emphasize the “importance, relevance, and potential to inform the lay public as well as our future attorneys, law enforcement officers, therapists, and current or future patients of therapists” with regards to […]
• The Implications of False Memory and Memory Distortion The former refers to the manner of impressing into our minds the memories which we have acquired while the former refers to the manner by which a person reclaims the memories which have been stored […]
• Memory Comprehension Issue Review To sum up, studying with the background of loud music is counterproductive, as it is also an information channel that interferes with the comprehension and memorization of more important information.
• The Interaction of Music and Memory Therefore, the research is of enormous significance for the understanding of individual differences in the connection between memory and music. Therefore, the research contributes to the understanding of the interaction of age with music and […]
• The Effect of Memory, Intelligence and Personality on Employee Performance and Behaviour The present paper will seek to explain the theoretical background on memory, intelligence and personality and evaluate the influence of these factors on work performance and employee behaviours.
• Elderly Dementia: Holistic Approaches to Memory Care The CMAI is a nursing-rated questionnaire that evaluates the recurrence of agitation in residents with dementia. Since the research focuses on agitation, the CMAI was utilized to evaluate the occurrence of agitation at baseline.
• The Conceptual Relationship Between Memory and Imagination In particular, the scholar draws parallels between these processes by addressing the recorded activity of specific brain structures when “remembering the past and imagining the future”.
• Chocolate Consumption and Working Memory in Men and Women In this study, the independent variable was chocolate intake, while the dependent variable was the effect of chocolate on the memory of different genders.
• Memory Acquisition and Information Processing The problem of disagreeing with memories can be explained by a closer look at the process of memory acquisition. Most part of the sensory information is not encoded due to selective attention.
• Varlam Shalamov on Memory and Psychological Resilience The soldiers sent to therapists such as Rivers and Yealland in Regeneration had one problem in common they were unable to forget the traumatic and frightening experiences that had affected them in the past.
• Learning Activity and Memory Improvement The easiest way to explain the difference between implicit and explicit types of learning is to think of the latter as active learning and of the former – as passive one.
• Surrealism and Dali’s “The Persistence of Memory” Of course, The Persistence of Memory is one of the best-known works, which is often regarded as one of the most conspicuous illustrations of the movement.
• Psychology: Short-Term and Working Memory The thing is that the term short-term memory is used to describe the capacity of the mind to hold a small piece of information within a very short period, approximately 20 seconds.
• Dealing With the Limitations of Flash Memory Implanted medical chip technology can help to reduce the amount of medical misdiagnosis that occur in hospitals and can also address the issue of the amount of money that Jones Corp.pays out to its clients […]
• Collective Memory and Patriotic Myth in American History However, to think that colonists and early Americans pursued a general policy of killing or driving out the native Indians is incorrect.
• When the Desire Is Not Enough: Flash Memory As a result, a number of rather uncomfortable proposals were made to the founders of Flash, but the company’s members had to accept certain offers for the financing to continue and the firm not to […]
• Effects of Marijuana on Memory of Long-Term Users The pivotal aim of the proposed study is to evaluate the impact of marijuana use on long-term memory of respondents. The adverse impact of marijuana after the abstinent syndrome refers to significant changes in prefrontal […]
• Amphetamines and Their Effects on Memory The scope of the problem of stimulant abuse is quite important in nowadays medicine since the application of amphetamine is not explored in an in-depth manner.
• Memory Retrieval, Related Processes and Secrets The resulting impression of having experienced what is portrayed in the picture leads to the creation of false memories. The authors of the study make it clear that placing one in specific visual and spatial […]
• Mnemonics for Memory Improvement in Students The selected participants will be split into two groups that will be asked to memorize a set of words from a story with the help of the suggested technique.
• Sociocultural Memory in European and Asian Americans The Asian perspective on the use of memory, however, suggests that a much greater emphasis should be placed on using memory as a learning resource so that it can be expanded with the help of […]
• The Public Memory of the Holocaust In addition to his pain, Levi concerns the increasing temporal distance and habitual indifference of hundreds of millions of people towards the Holocaust and the survivors1 It causes the feeling of anxiety that was fuelled […]
• Memory Formation and Maintenance The first similarity between working memory and long term memory is that in both cases, tasks retrieve information from secondary memory, although sometimes working memory tasks retrieve information from the primary memory. After completion of […]
• Working Memory Training and Its Controversies As a result, a range of myths about WM has been addressed and subverted successfully, including the one stating that WM related training cannot be used to improve one’s intellectual abilities and skills.
• Music and Human Memory Connection The effects of music on people vary considerably, and this project should help to understand the peculiar features of the connection between human memory and music.
• Police Shooting Behaviour, Memory, and Emotions The subject of the study was limited to analyzing the shooting behavior of police officers in danger-related situations. It is supposed that officers with low capacity of working memory are more likely to shoot the […]
• Music Role in Memory and Learning Processes As such, the study purposed to test the differences in visuospatial abilities between men and women bearing in mind that the former is perceived to demonstrate greater memory capabilities compared to the latter As such, […]
• Working Memory Training: Benefits and Biases The research results indicate that the effects of stereotyping on the development of WM and the relevant skills are direct and rather drastic.
• Biopsychology of Learning and Memory The hippocampus is a brain region in the form of a horseshoe that plays an essential role in the transformation of information from the short-term memory to the long-term memory.
• Memory, Thoughts, and Motivation in Learning Moreover, using the knowledge acquired from various sources of information, students can interpret the contents of their various environments and apply them to their advantage.
• Working Memory Concept The central executive, as the name implies, is the primary component of the working memory system; every other component is subservient to it.
• Building of Memory: Managing Creativity Through Action It could be important for the team to understand Kornfield’s vision of the project, the main and secondary tasks, the project timeline, and the general outline of it. The third technique is to ensure face-to-face […]
• Stroop Effect on Memory Function The aim of the study was to examine the Stroop effect on memory function of men and women. The aim of the study was to examine Stroop effect on men and women’s cognitive functions.
• Misinformation Effect and Memory Impairment It is important to determine the science behind the misinformation effect, because the implication of the study goes beyond the confines of psychology.
• Memory Distortions Develop Over Time Memory is the ability to recall what happened in the past or the process through which one’s brain stores events and reproduce them in the future. Simpson were put on a scoreboard to analyze the […]
• Working Memory Load and Problem Solving The present research focuses on the way working memory load affects problem solving ability and the impact working memory capacity has on problem solving ability of people.
• Sensory Memory Duration and Stimulus Perception Cognitive psychologists argue that perceived information takes one second in the sensory memory, one minute in the short-term memory and a life-time in the long-term memory.
• Memory Study: Mnemonics Techniques Having carried out two experiments, Oberauer comes to the conclusion that information in working memory is highly organized and has its own structure and understanding of this structure can help to improve the work of […]
• Memory Study: Different Perspectives Having carried out two experiments, Oberauer comes to the conclusion that information in working memory is highly organized and has its own structure and understanding of this structure can help to improve the work of […]
• Individual Recognition Decisions and Memory Strength Signal The individual recognition decision and the memory strength will be compared to determine their relation. A positive correlation between the individual recognition decisions and the aggregated memory strength will be shown.
• Working Memory Concept: Psychological Views To begin with, the findings support the use of the Working-Memory Model because it offers a clear distinction between the subordinate memory systems and the “central executive” memory.
• Memory Strategies and Their Effects on the Body Memory problems are a common concern in the society due to the increased rate of memory problems among the individuals. This is a strategy that uses chemicals to suppress the adverse effects of memory problems.
• George Santayana’s Philosophy Views on Historical Memory To Plato, democracy was the worst form of governance because it was the tyranny of the multitude. Furthermore, the effects of the war were hard to take because people lost everything they had.
• Cognitive Stimulation on Patients With Impaired Memory Cognitive stimulation therapy is effective in mitigating the effects of dementia. As a result, the researchers tested cognitive stimulation therapy in clinical trials.
• Memory and Emotions in Personal Experience I tried to convince Sherry that the kind of life she led will not do good to her. I thought that Sherry is a grown-up person who would understand the mistakes she had done and […]
• Face Recognition and Memory Retention It is imperative to mention that cognitive process is very significant in face recognition especially due to its role in storage and retrieval of information from long-term memory.
• False Memory Condition: Experimental Studies It is therefore important to conduct some experiments to see the differences between the correct memory and the false memory. The distracters and words to be identified were the variables that were independent.
• Memory Capacity and Age Correlation Since young adults have high levels of positive emotions and low levels of negative emotions, the positive emotions enable them to enhance their memory capacity for positive information.
• Conflict at Walt Disney Company: A Distant Memory? The conflict between Michael Eisner and the Weinstein brothers, the two board members, and Steve Jobs was related to a dysfunctional form of conflict.
• Eye-Path and Memory-Prediction Framework Online marketing and advertising actively develop nowadays, and modern advertisers need to focus on the customers’ attitudes and behaviours in the context of the effectiveness of the advertisement’s location on the web page.
• Long Term Memory and Retrieval The mode of presenting the items in sequence in the first presentation has great impact on the results and validity of the study.
• Denying the Holocaust: The Growing Assault on Truth and Memory by Deborah Lipstadt The book is divided into chapters that focus on the history and methods that are used to distort the truth and the memory of the Holocaust.
• Power, Memory and Spectacle on Saddam Hussein’s Death His rational was that the only way to unite the country was to eliminate the elements of division who in his opinion were the opposition.
• Theoretical Models in Understanding Working Memory The second model for understanding the processes involved in working memory is the Baddeley and Hitch multi-component model which states that working memory operates via a system of “slave systems” and a central controller which […]
• Semantic Memory and Language Production From the foregoing discussions, it can be deduced that the nature and function of semantic memory is closely related to the process of language comprehension. Moreover, lexical retrieval of the semantic memory and phonological facilitation […]
• Basic Functions of Memory and Language The area of semantic memory involves stored information regarding the features and characteristics, which determine the processes of retrieving, using, and producing information in various cognitive processes such as thought and language comprehension/production.
• The Concept of Autobiographical Memory The research findings show that memory phenomenology determined the relationship between attachment avoidance and depression, while the negative affective content of the autobiographical memory determined the link between attachment anxiety and depression. The concept of […]
• Neuroimaging Experiments and Memory Loss Studies This is because it enables the examination of the cognitive and affective processes. This is relative to the effects of alcohol consumption.
• Chinese Novellas: The Role of Memory and Perception This is one of the details that attract attention of the readers, and one can say that it is important for understanding the passage and the short story, in general.
• Memory Lane and Morality In the first experiment where participants were expected to remember their childhood experience, those memories aided the experimenter more than they let the participants take control.
• Autonoetic Consciousness in Autobiographical Memory One characteristic of AEM is the mental time travelling on the subjective time in order to connect the past with the current memory status.
• Memory by Analogy: Hiroshima Mon Amour It is quite painful to recall the events that took place in Japan during the Second World War in the aftermath of the atomic bombing of the cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima.
• “Memory by Analogy” Film Concepts However, upon critical analysis, the author notes that the major focus of the film is not to compare the traumatic events experienced by the two main protagonists; rather, it attempts to demonstrate the common devastating […]
• Film About Hirosima Memory by Analogy She uses her memory of the human tragedy she witnesses in Hiroshima as a means to forget the pain she has felt since the demise of her lover.
• Ecstasy and Memory Impairment Neurological Correlation The key weakness in this study is the fact that it is a correlational study in which the test subjects are subjected to a series of other confounding factors.
• Memory Theories in Developing Marketing Strategies of the iPad
• Definition of Storage Locations in Memory
• Establishing False Memory in Humans
• Constructive Nature of Memory
• Comparison and Contrast Assignment on “Paradoxical Effects of Presentation Modality on False Memory,” Article and “Individual Differences in Learning and Remembering Music.”
• How to Improve Your Memory
• Memory Systems of the Brain
• Brain and Memory
• Biology of Memory: Origins and Structures
• Cannabis and Its Effects on Long Term Memory
• Mental Chronometry: Response Time and Accuracy
• Working Memory in Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
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• Memory Process: Visual Receptivity and Retentiveness
• How Age and Diseases Affect Memory
• Memory, Thinking, and Intelligence
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• Language Rules for a Reliable Semantic Memory
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IvyPanda. (2024, March 2). 201 Memory Research Topics & Essay Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/memory-essay-topics/

"201 Memory Research Topics & Essay Examples." IvyPanda , 2 Mar. 2024, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/memory-essay-topics/.

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Affiliations.

• 1 Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA.
• 2 Alzheimer's Association, Chicago, IL, USA.
• 3 University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
• 4 Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm/Solna, Sweden.
• 5 Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
• 6 Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, NC, USA.
• 7 Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA.
• 8 Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
• 9 Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA.
• 10 Rush University, Chicago, IL, USA.
• 11 Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, USA.
• 12 Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston Salem, NC, USA.
• 13 Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, USA.
• 14 Alzheimer's Therapeutic Research Institute, University of Southern California, San Diego, CA, USA.
• 15 Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society (NVS), Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
• 16 Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland.
• 17 Karolinska Institutet Center for Alzheimer Research, Stockholm, Sweden.
• 18 Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.
• 19 University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.
• 20 FINGERS Brain Health Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.
• 21 Alzheimer's Association, Western Carolina Chapter, Charlotte, NC, USA.
• 22 University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
• 23 Alzheimer's Association, San Jose, CA, USA.
• 24 Advocate Health Care, Downers Grove, IL, USA.
• 25 Alzheimer's Association, Illinois Chapter, Chicago, IL, USA.
• 26 Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
• 27 Kelsey Research Foundation, Houston, TX, USA.
• 28 Alzheimer's Association, Houston, TX, USA.
• 29 Butler Hospital and Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI, USA.
• 30 Miriam Hospital, Providence, RI, USA.
• 31 Alzheimer's Association, Watertown, MA, USA.
• PMID: 39121463
• DOI: 10.1002/alz.082779

Background: U.S. POINTER is a Phase 3, multicenter, randomized 2-year clinical trial of two multidomain lifestyle interventions in 2111 older adults who are at increased risk of cognitive decline and dementia due sedentary lifestyle, poor diet, and other factors such as family history of memory impairment and suboptimum cardiovascular health.

Method: Enrollment took place at five geographically diverse sites, beginning in 2019 and completing in early 2023. Participants are randomly assigned to one of two lifestyle intervention groups that differ in format, intensity, and accountability. Those randomized to the Self-Guided Lifestyle Intervention receive annual medical monitoring and health education information, tools, and support to encourage increased physical and cognitive activity and a healthier diet through 2-3 annual group meetings. Those randomized to the Structured Lifestyle Intervention receive frequent medical monitoring of cardiovascular health and a structured program of exercise (primarily aerobic), nutritional counseling, cognitive training and social engagement initially through weekly and then monthly group meetings. U.S. POINTER includes partnerships with local chapters of the Alzheimer's Association and lifestyle specialists to assist with intervention delivery. The primary outcome is 2-year change in cognitive function measured with a global cognition composite score that permits harmonization with FINGER and other trials. Secondary and tertiary outcomes include measures of executive function and episodic memory, physical activity, diet, cognitive and physical activity, cardiometabolic disease risks, mood, quality of life, health care costs, and health care utilization.

Result: U.S. POINTER is generating a richly phenotyped cohort that will provide a rigorous comparison of two lifestyle interventions designed to preserve cognitive function. It has nurtured 4 ancillary studies to assess intervention effects on outcomes related to sleep quality, brain structure and pathology, peripheral and neurovascular function, and the microbiome. It also partners with clinical trials within the World-Wide FINGERS international network. The study is generating an archive of biospecimens and de-identified public use data. Plans for a post-intervention observational study of the U.S. POINTER cohort are underway.

Conclusion: U.S. POINTER provides an important national resource to advance the field in understanding the role of nonpharmacological interventions in reducing risk for cognitive decline and Alzheimer's disease and related dementia.

© 2023 the Alzheimer's Association.

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• A multidomain lifestyle intervention to maintain optimal cognitive functioning in Dutch older adults-study design and baseline characteristics of the FINGER-NL randomized controlled trial. Deckers K, Zwan MD, Soons LM, Waterink L, Beers S, van Houdt S, Stiensma B, Kwant JZ, Wimmers SCPM, Heutz RAM, Claassen JAHR, Oosterman JM, de Heus RAA, van de Rest O, Vermeiren Y, Voshaar RCO, Smidt N, Broersen LM, Sikkes SAM, Aarts E; MOCIA consortium; FINGER-NL consortium; Köhler S, van der Flier WM. Deckers K, et al. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2024 Jun 13;16(1):126. doi: 10.1186/s13195-024-01495-8. Alzheimers Res Ther. 2024. PMID: 38872204 Free PMC article. Clinical Trial.
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Trump keeps losing his train of thought. Cognitive experts have theories about why

By Olivia Goldhill Aug. 7, 2024

I n a speech earlier this year, former President Trump was mocking President Biden’s ability to walk through sand when he suddenly switched to talking about the old Hollywood icon Cary Grant.

“Somebody said he [Biden] looks great in a bathing suit, right? When he was in the sand and he was having a hard time lifting his feet through the sand, because you know, sand is heavy. They figure three solid ounces per foot. But sand is a little heavy. And he’s sitting in a bathing suit. Look, at 81, do you remember Cary Grant? How good was Cary Grant, right? I don’t think Cary Grant — he was good. I don’t know what happened to movie stars today,” he said at a March rally in Georgia. Trump went on to talk about contemporary actors, Michael Jackson, and border policies before returning to the theme of how Biden looks on the beach.

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This shifting from topic to topic, with few connections — a pattern of speech called tangentiality — is one of several disjointed and occasionally incoherent verbal habits that seem to have increased in Trump’s speech in recent years, according to interviews with experts in memory, psychology, and linguistics.

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Olivia goldhill.

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How do states fill vacancies in the U.S. Senate? It depends on the state

This year, as in every even-numbered year, about a third of U.S. Senate seats are up for election. Given the 51-49 split in the Senate between Democrats and Republicans (including the four independents who caucus with Democrats), each of those races has the potential to tip the chamber’s balance of power. But elections aren’t the only way that can happen.

We compiled information on state procedures for filling U.S. Senate vacancies from each state’s online code of state law. Data on senators’ ages, party affiliation and length of service comes from the  Biographical Directory of the United States Congress .

All ages are calculated as of July 31, 2024. In the comparison of senators’ and governors’ party affiliations, the four independent senators are counted as Democrats, since they all caucus with the Senate Democrats.

Should a sitting senator resign, die or otherwise leave office during their term, governors in 45 states have the power to appoint a temporary replacement. In most of those states, governors have free rein to appoint whomever they wish, with the appointee serving until a successor is elected to fill out the rest of the term.

This has already happened twice during the current Congress. In January 2023, Republican Sen. Ben Sasse of Nebraska resigned to become president of the University of Florida. Nebraska’s GOP governor, Jim Pillen, appointed the state’s former governor , Pete Ricketts, to replace Sasse. (Ricketts is running in a special election this year to complete the rest of Sasse’s term, which ends in January 2027.)

And in September 2023, longtime Sen. Dianne Feinstein, a California Democrat, died at age 90. Democratic Gov. Gavin Newsom appointed Laphonza Butler to fill the vacancy. (Butler is not running for the remainder of Feinstein’s term or for the new term that begins in January 2025.)

A third senatorial appointment likely will come soon. Sen. Bob Menendez of New Jersey, who has been convicted of multiple federal corruption charges , has said he will resign his seat effective Aug. 20. Gov. Phil Murphy, a fellow Democrat, is expected to quickly appoint a successor to Menendez.

There may be another appointment, too. Should the Republican presidential ticket of Donald Trump and JD Vance win in November, GOP Ohio Gov. Mike DeWine would appoint someone to fill Vance’s Senate seat.

The possibility of appointed senators tipping the partisan balance – or at least giving an electoral advantage to one party or the other – is brought into sharper relief when one considers that this is the oldest Senate of any in U.S. history . The  mean  age of current U.S. senators, as of July 31, is 65.2. Almost a third of senators (31) are in their 70s, five are in their 80s, and one (Iowa Republican Chuck Grassley) will turn 91 in September.

One senator in the 80-plus club, Maryland Democrat Ben Cardin (age 80), is retiring at the end of his term this year. Two octogenarian independents – Bernie Sanders of Vermont (82) and Angus King of Maine (80) – are running for reelection. Iowa’s Grassley won his eighth term in 2022. The terms of the other two oldest senators – Kentucky’s Mitch McConnell (82) and Idaho’s Jim Risch (81) – don’t expire until 2027.

Senate replacement procedures vary by state

The current system for filling vacant Senate seats dates to the ratification of the 17th Amendment in 1913. Along with letting people elect their senators directly – state legislatures had chosen them up to that point – the amendment gave states the option of letting their governors appoint temporary replacements.

The only states  not  to do so are Kentucky, North Dakota, Oregon, Rhode Island and Wisconsin. In those states, vacancies can only be filled by special election. Kentucky is the latest to join this group, after its majority-Republican legislature took the appointment power away from Democratic Gov. Andy Beshear earlier this year.

Among the 45 states that do give their governors authority to name replacement senators, 11 limit their field of choice in some way. Six states – Hawaii, Maryland, Montana, North Carolina, West Virginia and Wyoming – make the governor choose from a list of three nominees submitted by the previous senator’s party. Utah requires the same kind of list, but from the state legislature. Arizona, Nevada and Oklahoma simply require the governor to choose someone from the previous senator’s party.

Connecticut has the most restrictive rules: The governor can fill a Senate vacancy only if there’s a year or less remaining in the term, and their choice must be approved by a two-thirds vote in each house of the state legislature.

One reason for such limitations is to prevent a governor from appointing someone of their own party to a Senate seat formerly held by the other party. In 2013, for instance, New Jersey’s then-Gov. Chris Christie, a Republican, appointed state Attorney General and fellow Republican Jeffrey Chiesa to the seat that had been held by the late Frank Lautenberg, a Democrat. Chiesa served for just under five months, until Democrat Cory Booker won the special election for the rest of Lautenberg’s term.

Currently, 13 of 50 governors belong to a different party than at least one of their state’s senators. But only seven of those 13 would be able to do what Christie did in New Jersey. The others either can’t appoint temporary senators at all or are required to choose someone of the same party as the former senator.

The 17th Amendment also gives states considerable leeway in deciding how long temporary senators can serve until a special election. In 31 states, special Senate elections are held concurrently with regular general elections. In some cases, those special elections coincide with the next scheduled general election, but in other cases – especially if the vacancy occurs late in the election cycle – they coincide with the general election  after  the next one.

Six states have specific timetables for holding special Senate elections, usually a certain number of days following the start of the vacancy. Nine states either set a separate date for the special election or hold it concurrently with the next general election, depending on when the vacancy occurs. And four states have few or no rules on when a special election must be held, effectively leaving the decision up to the governor.

Note: This is an update of a post first published May 3, 2022.

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Drew DeSilver is a senior writer at Pew Research Center .

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• v.15(4); 2013 Dec

Memory: from the laboratory to everyday life

Daniel l. schacter.

Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA

One of the key goals of memory research is to develop a basic understanding of the nature and characteristics of memory processes and systems. Another important goal is to develop useful applications of basic research to everyday life. This editorial considers two lines of work that illustrate some of the prospects for applying memory research to everyday life: interpolated quizzing to enhance learning in educational settings, and specificity training to enhance memory and associated functions in individuals who have difficulties remembering details of their past experiences.

The study of memory lias progressed rapidly over the past few decades, and as illustrated by the papers in the current issue, it remains a thriving endeavor with many exciting new discoveries and ideas. But memory is not only a target for laboratory study; it is also fundamentally important in many domains of everyday life. This point is nicely illustrated by several articles in this volume addressing memory changes in neurological and psychiatric conditions that can have a profound impact on an individual's ability to function in daily life. Memory research has also been applied extensively in legal settings, where such issues as how to construct effective lineups and how to deal with the inaccuracy of eyewitness testimony are of paramount importance. 1 , 2 In this editorial, I discuss briefly some recent applications of memory research in educational and clinical settings that show promise for providing meaningful benefits in everyday life.

Enhancing attention and memory in educational settings

During the past several years, a rapidly expanding number of studies have attempted to apply principles and methods of cognitive psychology to educational settings. For example, one basic question concerns whether memory research can be used to increase the effectiveness with which students study for exams. In a recent comprehensive review, Dunlosky and colleagues 3 evaluated the effectiveness of ten different study methods, and characterized each one as being of either high, moderate, or low utility based on available research. Some of the popular methods commonly embraced by students—including rereading, summarizing, and highlighting—received low utility assessments. Only two techniques, both supported by data from numerous laboratory studies, received high utility assessments: distributed study, which involves spreading out study activities so that more time intervenes between repetitions of the to-be-learned information (as opposed to mass study or “cramming”), and practice testing, where students are intermittently given brief quizzes about what they have learned prior to taking a formal test.

The beneficial effects of practice testing for students are based mainly on studies demonstrating that the act of retrieving information can be a highly effective means of strengthening memory for the retrieved information. 4 Recent work in my laboratory has used a variant of the practice testing technique in an attempt to enhance attention and memory during video recorded lectures. 5 Students frequently experience lapses of attention both during classroom 6 and video 7 lectures. For example, when probed during either a classroom or online lecture regarding whether they are attending to the lecture or mind wandering to other topics, students indicated on approximately 40% of probes that they were mind wandering; not surprisingly, the extent of mind wandering was negatively correlated with retention of lecture content. 6 - 8

Our study 5 focused on video recorded lectures because they are a key element in online education, which has exploded during recent years, partly as a result of the development of massive open online courses (MOOCs). Consequently, understanding how to enhance learning from video lectures could have important implications for online education. Participants watched a 21-minute video recorded statistics lecture divided into four equal segments. After each lecture segment, all participants did math problems for a minute, after which the tested group received brief quizzes on each lecture segment that took about 2 minutes each; the nontested group continued to work on math problems for an additional 2 minutes and only received a test for the final segment; and the restudy group was shown, but not tested on, the same material as the tested group for each of the segments preceding the final segment. After the final lecture segment, all three groups received a quiz for that segment, and a few minutes later they also received a final test for the entire lecture. At random times during the lecture, participants in all groups were probed about whether they were paying attention to the lecture or mind wandering off to other topics.

Participants in the nontested and re-study groups indicated that they were mind wandering in response to about 40% of the probes, but the incidence of mind wandering was cut in half, to about 20%, in the tested group. Moreover, participants in the tested group retained significantly more information from the final segment of the lecture than did participants in the other two groups, and they also retained significantly more information on the final test of the entire lecture than did the other groups. While it is encouraging that interpolated quizzing can dramatically reduce the incidence of mind wandering and increase retention, the results reported must be treated with some caution, both because they were obtained only with a single lecture on a single topic, and also because it is unclear whether the benefits of interpolated quizzing persist across multiple lectures or in actual online (or live) classes. There is reason for optimism, however, because other kinds of practice testing have produced increased learning in classroom settings. 9

Increasing the specificity of memory

Consider next some recent research concerning a phenomenon that has been associated with a variety of troublesome symptoms in depressed individuals: reduced specificity of autobiographical memories. Several studies have shown that when asked to recall memories of everyday life experiences, depressed individuals tend to provide less specific detail about what happened during those experiences than do nondepressed controls. 10 This reduced specificity has been linked with problems such as excessive rumination and difficulties handling everyday interpersonal situations. 10 - 12 In light of these findings, a natural question concerns whether it is possible to increase memory specificity in depressed individuals, and whether such increases are associated with improvements in any of the problematic symptoms that had been linked with reduced memory specificity in previous research.

Recent studies 13 , 14 have addressed this question by demonstrating that several sessions of training that attempts to boost the specificity of memory retrieval in depressed patients (ie, practice with feedback in generating detailed, specific memories) increases the posttraining specificity of patients' autobiographical memories, even when controlling for associated improvements in depression. Neshat-Doost et al 13 reported that the gains from specificity training were maintained at a 2-month follow-up, and no improvements were evident in a control group. Raes et al 14 showed that increases in memory specificity after training were associated with improvements in everyday social problem solving and rumination. Although further research needs to be carried out to pinpoint exactly what features of memory specificity training are responsible for the observed improvements, the results to date are encouraging, and highlight how basic knowledge of the memory characteristics of a clinical population can be used to formulate an effective intervention.

Targeting autobiographical memory specificity seems especially useful because a growing number of studies have emphasized that autobiographical or episodic memory is used not just as a basis for remembering past experiences, but also for imagining possible future experiences 15 and related functions such as personal and social problem solving. 16 - 19 Consistent with these findings, recent research in our lab provides evidence that an induction aimed at increasing memory specificity in young and old adults had beneficial effects on both groups' performance of subsequent tasks that required either remembering past experiences or imagining possible future experiences. 20 Importantly, the effects of the induction were selective in two ways. First, the specificity induction (compared with a control induction) produced increases in the number of episodic details (eg, who, what, where, when) that participants remembered or imagined, but had no effect on the number of remembered or imagined semantic details (eg, general facts, commentary, impressions). Second, the influence of the specificity induction was restricted to memory and imagination tasks; it had no effect on a task that required participants to describe a picture of an everyday scene. These findings suggest that the induction targeted episodic memory in particular, and more generally, that specificity inductions can be used as experimental tools to distinguish among cognitive processes and representations that contribute to memory and related functions.

Concluding comments

The research reviewed in the preceding sections highlights ways in which memory research can be applied to educational and clinical settings. An important next step for this kind of research will be to investigate the neural mechanisms that mediate the observed effects on cognitive processes. How can we characterize the neural changes associated with improved attention and memory as a result of interpolated quizzing during lectures? What kinds of changes in brain activity are associated with the improvements produced by memory specificity training and how can they help to pinpoint the specific processes that are affected? Recent work in the domain of cognitive control has revealed that extensive training on a video game that requires multitasking skills led not only to improved cognitive performance in individuals ranging in age from their 20s to their 70s, but also to associated changes in brain activity that were predictive of cognitive improvements 6 months later. 21 Moreover, the study also yielded evidence that training served to remediate age-related deficits in neural markers of cognitive control. Applying such a cognitive neuroscience approach to the phenomena considered here should enhance our understanding of both theoretical and applied aspects of memory function.

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Research on prediction of excavation parameters for deep buried tunnel boring machine based on convolutional neural network-long short-term memory model, 1. introduction, 2. cnn-lstm parameter prediction model, 2.1. cnn optimization algorithm, 2.2. principles of lstm networks, 2.3. cnn-lstm excavation parameter prediction model, 2.4. model evaluation indicators, 3. prediction of tbm excavation parameters, 3.1. engineering background, 3.2. prediction results of excavation parameters, 3.3. analysis of model prediction results, 4. discussion, 4.1. traditional machine learning models, 4.2. model prediction results and error analysis, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Jia, Y.; Pei, C.; Dai, M.; Che, X.; Zhang, P. Research on Prediction of Excavation Parameters for Deep Buried Tunnel Boring Machine Based on Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory Model. Buildings 2024 , 14 , 2454. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082454

Jia Y, Pei C, Dai M, Che X, Zhang P. Research on Prediction of Excavation Parameters for Deep Buried Tunnel Boring Machine Based on Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory Model. Buildings . 2024; 14(8):2454. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082454

Jia, Yunfu, Chengyuan Pei, Mingjian Dai, Xuan Che, and Peng Zhang. 2024. "Research on Prediction of Excavation Parameters for Deep Buried Tunnel Boring Machine Based on Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory Model" Buildings 14, no. 8: 2454. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14082454

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