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Wicked Problems

What are wicked problems.

Wicked problems are problems with many interdependent factors making them seem impossible to solve. Because the factors are often incomplete, in flux, and difficult to define, solving wicked problems requires a deep understanding of the stakeholders involved, and an innovative approach provided by design thinking. Complex issues such as healthcare and education are examples of wicked problems.

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The term “wicked problem” was first coined by Horst Rittel, design theorist and professor of design methodology at the Ulm School of Design, Germany. In the paper “Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning,” he describes ten characteristics of wicked problems:

There is no definitive formula for a wicked problem.

Wicked problems have no stopping rule, as in there’s no way to know your solution is final.

Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false; they can only be good-or-bad.

There is no immediate test of a solution to a wicked problem.

Every solution to a wicked problem is a "one-shot operation"; because there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly.

Wicked problems do not have a set number of potential solutions.

Every wicked problem is essentially unique.

Every wicked problem can be considered a symptom of another problem.

There is always more than one explanation for a wicked problem because the explanations vary greatly depending on the individual perspective.

Planners/designers have no right to be wrong and must be fully responsible for their actions.

Design theorist and academic Richard Buchanan connected design thinking to wicked problems in his 1992 paper “Wicked Problems in Design Thinking.” Design thinking’s iterative process is extremely useful in tackling ill-defined or unknown problems—reframing the problem in human-centric ways, creating many ideas in brainstorming sessions, and adopting a hands-on approach in prototyping and testing.

Questions related to Wicked Problems

Yes, poverty is a wicked problem. 

As Don Norman elucidates in this video , wicked problems refer to challenges that are hard to define and address due to their complex nature, much like complex socio-technical systems. Like the example of world peace Norman mentions, poverty possesses multifaceted roots and impacts, making solutions elusive. Tackling such issues doesn't guarantee permanent resolution. However, it's crucial to understand that even if we can't wholly eradicate problems like poverty, continuously striving for improvements and bettering lives is the way forward. While wicked problems persist, consistent advancement in addressing them represents success.

Indeed, climate change exemplifies a wicked problem. As Don Norman elucidates in this video, the complexities of climate systems, human activity, ecology, and their interconnectedness pose challenges in understanding and addressing the issue.

The non-linear nature of these systems, intertwined with feedback loops and feed-forward loops, adds to the intricacy. Moreover, people's simplistic causality models hinder recognizing multifaceted causes and delayed consequences. While many often resist change, especially those benefiting from the status quo, the palpable effects of climate change—fires, floods, famine, and extreme weather events—are now evident worldwide. Although historically, we've been reactive, responding post-calamity, the tangible repercussions of climate change have catalyzed a global response, providing a glimmer of optimism for the future.

Yes, healthcare is a wicked problem. Addressing healthcare issues often involves navigating complex, interconnected systems that require multi-faceted approaches. In Don Norman's video, he speaks about incrementalism, where tackling significant challenges is done step by step. 

Incrementalism : Address healthcare challenges in small, adaptable steps, ensuring each move is in the right direction.

Minimum Viable Project (MVP) : Borrowed from Agile programming, it's about creating small, functional segments of the larger solution. This method ensures that each part, even if small, is working effectively.

Object-Oriented Approach : Here, the focus is on the inputs and outputs of a system, not the internal process. This modular design allows for flexibility and adaptation as healthcare needs and methods evolve.

According to HCI expert Alan Dix, understanding the difference between puzzles and real-world problems is crucial. Puzzles have a single correct solution with all the necessary information provided. However, wicked problems inherent to real-world scenarios are not as clearly defined as puzzles. They may not have a definite  answer and may even be insoluble in their initial form. The primary step is deeply understanding the problem, as solutions may become evident once fully grasped. Indeed, there's a saying, "If I had an hour to solve a problem, I'd spend 55 minutes thinking about the problem and 5 minutes thinking about solutions." Thus, investing time in understanding, redefining, and negotiating the problem can pave the way to practical solutions. In the realm of wicked problems, creative thinking and individualized approaches are paramount.

In design thinking, wicked problems refer to complex challenges that lack clear solutions or boundaries. Unlike puzzles, which have a definitive answer, wicked problems are unique, possess no classic formulation, and their potential solutions are non-enumerable. The complexity arises from the interconnectedness of factors and the inability to use a prior solution for a new problem. These problems often require creative, individualized approaches and deep understanding for effective resolution. As detailed in this article on the history of Design Thinking  on interaction-design.org, design thinking as a methodology emphasizes empathy, iteration, and collaboration, making it aptly suited to address wicked problems by redefining and understanding them from various perspectives.

Climate Change : Addressing the causes and impacts of global warming involves balancing the needs of various nations, industries, and populations. Solutions can have unintended consequences, and only some answers satisfy all stakeholders.

Healthcare : Ensuring affordable, high-quality healthcare for all is a complex issue with economics, politics, and individual health needs.

Poverty and Economic Inequality : Addressing the root causes and alleviating the effects of poverty require multifaceted solutions involving education, job creation, health services, and more.

Urban Planning and Housing : Balancing the needs for housing, transportation, green spaces, and commercial areas in rapidly growing urban areas is a constantly evolving challenge.

Global Terrorism : Addressing the root causes and responding to the effects of terrorism involves considerations of international relations, religion, socio-economic factors, and security concerns.

Water Scarcity : Ensuring adequate, clean water for all involves a mix of technological, environmental, political, and social solutions.

Food Security : Ensuring everyone has access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food involves considerations of agriculture, trade policies, climate change, and socio-economic disparities.

Immigration and Refugees : Managing migration and addressing the needs of refugees requires balancing national security, economic interests, humanitarian concerns, and social integration.

Education Reform : Ensuring quality education for all, adapting to technological changes, and preparing students for a rapidly changing world is a multifaceted challenge.

Biodiversity Loss : Protecting endangered species and habitats in the face of urban development, climate change, and other pressures is a complex, ongoing struggle.

These are just a few examples, and many other problems could qualify as "wicked" given the proper context and scale. The hallmark of wicked problems is that they can't be solved with linear, traditional problem-solving methods and require a more holistic, adaptive, and iterative approach.

Wicked problem in leadership refers to challenges that leaders face, which are complex, multifaceted, and often resist straightforward solutions. These problems often arise from various factors, including human behavior, organizational dynamics, external pressures, and evolving circumstances. Addressing such issues requires a leader to navigate ambiguity, adapt to changing contexts, and collaborate with diverse stakeholders. Here are some examples of wicked problems specific to leadership:

Organizational Culture Change : Changing the ingrained culture of an organization is a long-term process filled with resistance, unexpected challenges, and the need for continuous adaptation. A leader might have a vision for a more innovative or inclusive culture, but translating that vision into tangible changes in behavior, systems, and practices is a wicked problem.

Digital Transformation : In an era of rapid technological change, leaders face the wicked problem of ensuring their organizations adapt and innovate while maintaining core functions and managing potential disruptions.

Ethical Dilemmas : Leaders sometimes face decisions without clear, correct answers, and various ethical principles might conflict. These dilemmas involve privacy, data security, team member rights, or corporate social responsibility.

Stakeholder Management : Leaders in complex organizations must manage a web of stakeholders, each with distinct interests, priorities, and expectations. Balancing the needs of employees, shareholders, customers, regulators, and the broader community is a constant challenge.

Crisis Management : Responding to unforeseen crises, be they financial, reputational, or operational, requires leaders to make quick decisions with limited information, all while managing internal and external perceptions.

Wicked problems are complex challenges that defy straightforward solutions. While they are inherently complex and can be perceived as 'bad' due to their complexity and often represent negative scenarios, they also present opportunities for innovation and deep understanding. Addressing wicked problems often requires a blend of systems thinking and agile approaches. This article on Interaction Design Foundation delves into a 5-step method to tackle wicked problems, combining systems thinking with agile methodology. Therefore, while wicked problems are challenging, they can lead to significant growth and insights when approached effectively.

Want to explore wicked problems further? Dive into our 21st Century Design course to uncover modern design challenges and solutions. For a deep dive into design's impact on global issues, explore Design for a Better World . Both courses empower you with tools to navigate wicked problems in design.

Answer a Short Quiz to Earn a Gift

What defines a wicked problem?

• A complex problem with a clear and permanent solution.
• A problem with complex, interdependent factors that make it seem impossible to solve.
• A simple and straightforward problem with multiple intricate solutions.

Why is each wicked problem unique?

• Because they are easy to solve with traditional methods.
• Because they are identical to other problems.
• Because they present unique circumstances and challenges.

What kind of solutions do wicked problems typically have?

• Solutions that are binary.
• Solutions that are good or bad.
• Solutions that are simple or complex.

What is expected of designers when dealing with wicked problems?

• They can rely on trial and error without consequences.
• They have the right to be wrong.
• They must be fully responsible for their actions.

Why are wicked problems potentially symptoms of other problems?

• Because they are often symptoms of deeper, interconnected issues.
• Because they exist in isolation.
• Because they have straightforward causes and effects.

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Literature on Wicked Problems

Here’s the entire UX literature on Wicked Problems by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Wicked Problems

Take a deep dive into Wicked Problems with our course Design Thinking: The Ultimate Guide .

Some of the world’s leading brands, such as Apple, Google, Samsung, and General Electric, have rapidly adopted the design thinking approach, and design thinking is being taught at leading universities around the world, including Stanford d.school, Harvard, and MIT. What is design thinking, and why is it so popular and effective?

Design Thinking is not exclusive to designers —all great innovators in literature, art, music, science, engineering and business have practiced it. So, why call it Design Thinking? Well, that’s because design work processes help us systematically extract, teach, learn and apply human-centered techniques to solve problems in a creative and innovative way—in our designs, businesses, countries and lives. And that’s what makes it so special.

The overall goal of this design thinking course is to help you design better products, services, processes, strategies, spaces, architecture, and experiences. Design thinking helps you and your team develop practical and innovative solutions for your problems. It is a human-focused , prototype-driven , innovative design process . Through this course, you will develop a solid understanding of the fundamental phases and methods in design thinking, and you will learn how to implement your newfound knowledge in your professional work life. We will give you lots of examples; we will go into case studies, videos, and other useful material, all of which will help you dive further into design thinking. In fact, this course also includes exclusive video content that we've produced in partnership with design leaders like Alan Dix, William Hudson and Frank Spillers!

This course contains a series of practical exercises that build on one another to create a complete design thinking project. The exercises are optional, but you’ll get invaluable hands-on experience with the methods you encounter in this course if you complete them, because they will teach you to take your first steps as a design thinking practitioner. What’s equally important is you can use your work as a case study for your portfolio to showcase your abilities to future employers! A portfolio is essential if you want to step into or move ahead in a career in the world of human-centered design.

Design thinking methods and strategies belong at every level of the design process . However, design thinking is not an exclusive property of designers—all great innovators in literature, art, music, science, engineering, and business have practiced it. What’s special about design thinking is that designers and designers’ work processes can help us systematically extract, teach, learn, and apply these human-centered techniques in solving problems in a creative and innovative way—in our designs, in our businesses, in our countries, and in our lives.

That means that design thinking is not only for designers but also for creative employees , freelancers , and business leaders . It’s for anyone who seeks to infuse an approach to innovation that is powerful, effective and broadly accessible, one that can be integrated into every level of an organization, product, or service so as to drive new alternatives for businesses and society.

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All open-source articles on Wicked Problems

The history of design thinking.

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What Are Wicked Problems and How Might We Solve Them?

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UNRAVELING COMPLEXITY

The ten key properties that define wicked problems

• July 13, 2024
• 5 Minutes Read

wicked problems

"A great many barriers keep us from perfecting such a planning/governing system. Theory is inadequate for decent forecasting, our intelligence is insufficient to our tasks, plurality of objectives held by pluralities of politics makes it impossible to pursue unitary aims, and so on. The difficulties attached to rationality are tenacious, and we have so far been unable to get untangled from their web. This is partly because the classical paradigm of science and engineering - the paradigm that has underlain modern professionalism - is not applicable to the problems of open societal systems." Rittel & Webber, 1973

• There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem
• Wicked problems have no stopping rule
• Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad
• There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.
• Every solution to a wicked problem is a “one-shot operation”; because there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly
• Wicked problems lack a finite set of potential solutions and do not have a clearly defined set of allowable actions for planning.
• Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
• Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.
• The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem’s

The term “wicked problem” was introduced in 1973 by social planners Horst W.J. Rittel and Melvin M. Webber in their seminal paper titled “Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning,” published in Policy Sciences. The concept arose from their observation that traditional approaches to problem-solving and planning were inadequate for addressing the complexity and interconnectedness of certain social issues.

In a world increasingly dominated by complex societal challenges, the concept of “wicked problems” emerges as a critical concern for planners, policymakers, and social professionals. These problems evade simple solutions due to numerous barriers, such as inadequate theories for prediction, insufficient intelligence for implementation, and the impossibility of achieving singular objectives within diverse political landscapes.

Rational approaches often fall short when addressing wicked problems because traditional science and engineering paradigms do not apply to open societal systems. Social professions have mistakenly adopted these paradigms, leading to dissatisfaction among lay customers who feel their issues remain unresolved despite professional intervention. This misconception arises from the erroneous belief that societal issues can be approached in the same manner as scientific or engineering problems.

Wicked problems are inherently different. They are ill-defined, rely on elusive political judgment rather than definitive solutions, and encompass issues such as public policy decisions on freeway locations, tax rate adjustments, school curriculum modifications, and crime confrontations. Unlike “tame” problems, which have clear missions and solutions, wicked problems are complicated by their moral implications and inherent complexity.

Addressing these wicked problems requires a nuanced understanding and approach that transcends traditional scientific and engineering frameworks. Recognizing their unique properties is the first step toward developing more effective strategies to navigate their intricate challenges.

1. There is no definitive formulation of a wicked problem

Wicked problems are so complex and intertwined with various factors that you cannot fully understand or define them in a fixed, complete manner. Unlike simpler, “tame” problems that can be clearly outlined and solved with a straightforward process, wicked problems evolve and change as you work on them.

To fully grasp a wicked problem, one must anticipate a comprehensive array of potential solutions. For instance, addressing poverty involves considering various factors such as low income, economic deficiencies, lack of skills, education, health issues, and cultural aspects. Defining the problem necessitates identifying its root causes, which simultaneously suggests potential solutions.

Formulating a wicked problem is essentially equivalent to finding a solution. The specification of the problem directs the approach to its treatment, and recognizing aspects of the problem inherently implies corresponding solutions. Traditional problem-solving phases—understanding, gathering information, analyzing, synthesizing, and solving—do not apply to wicked problems. Instead, these issues require a holistic understanding of both the context and potential solution concepts.

Problems and solutions for wicked issues gradually emerge through critical argument and judgment among participants. Optimization models, which typically require defining the solution space, constraints, and performance measures, underscore the wicked nature of the problem. Defining these elements is often more crucial than finding an optimal solution within the established constraints.

2. Wicked problems have no stopping rule

Wicked problems are distinct because they have no stopping rule. Unlike solving a chess problem or a mathematical equation, where clear criteria signal when a solution has been found, wicked problems lack such definitive markers. When dealing with planning problems, the act of solving them is intertwined with understanding their nature. Since there are no set criteria for sufficient understanding and no definitive end to the causal chains connecting various open systems, planners can always strive for a better solution. The decision to stop working on a wicked problem is not dictated by the problem itself but by external factors such as time, money, or patience. Ultimately, the planner might conclude with statements like ‘That’s good enough,’ ‘This is the best I can do within the limits,’ or ‘I am satisfied with this solution,’ indicating that the resolution is more about reaching a practical endpoint than achieving an absolute one.

3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but good-or-bad

When solving equations or determining the structural formula of a chemical compound, there are well-established criteria to objectively decide if the solution is correct or incorrect. These criteria can be independently verified by other experts familiar with them, resulting in clear and unambiguous answers.

However, when it comes to wicked problems, there are no straightforward true or false answers. Typically, multiple stakeholders are involved, each with their own perspective, interests, and values. None of these parties has the authority to set definitive rules for determining the correctness of a solution. Consequently, their evaluations of proposed solutions vary widely, influenced by their group affiliations, personal interests, and ideological beliefs. These judgments are often expressed in subjective terms such as “good,” “bad,” “better,” “worse,” “satisfying,” or “good enough.”

4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.

When solving tame problems, it’s relatively straightforward to assess how effective a solution is. Typically, the evaluation is controlled by a small group of people who are directly involved and interested in the problem.

However, tackling wicked problems is a different story. Once a solution is implemented, it can lead to a series of consequences that unfold over an extended, and often unpredictable, period. The ripple effects may bring about unforeseen issues that overshadow the initial benefits. In extreme cases, the situation could end up worse than it was before the solution was applied.

The challenge with wicked problems is that we can’t fully understand the impact of our actions until all the repercussions have played out. Predicting every possible outcome through all affected lives in advance or within a short timeframe is simply impossible.

Understanding these complexities is crucial for anyone looking to address significant societal, environmental, or organizational issues. It reminds us that while some problems have clear-cut solutions, others require careful consideration of long-term consequences and continuous adaptation.

5. Every solution to a wicked problem is a “one-shot operation”; because there is no opportunity to learn by trial-and-error, every attempt counts significantly

The Challenges of Tackling Wicked Planning Problems in fields such as science, mathematics, chess, puzzle-solving, or mechanical engineering design, problem solvers have the luxury of experimenting without dire consequences. They can test various approaches without worrying about significant repercussions. For instance, losing a chess game doesn’t typically affect other games or impact non-players.

However, dealing with wicked problems is a different story. Every solution implemented in these scenarios has lasting effects that can’t simply be undone. Unlike a chess game, you can’t just build a freeway, assess its performance, and then easily make corrections if it doesn’t meet expectations. Large public works projects are practically irreversible, and their outcomes often have long-lasting impacts. Many people’s lives may be irreversibly affected, and substantial amounts of money will have been spent—another irreversible commitment.

This principle applies to most large-scale public works and virtually all public service programs. For example, the effects of an experimental curriculum will influence students well into their adult lives.

Whenever actions are essentially irreversible and the consequences have long-lasting effects, every decision matters. Any attempt to reverse a decision or correct undesirable outcomes introduces another set of wicked problems, which come with their own set of dilemmas.

In summary, the complexity and irreversibility of wicked planning problems require careful consideration of each solution, as the impact of these decisions extends far beyond the immediate future.

6. Wicked problems lack a finite set of potential solutions and do not have a clearly defined set of allowable actions for planning.

Wicked problems are messy and complex, making it hard to identify or even prove that all possible solutions have been considered. Sometimes, no solution is found due to conflicting aspects of the problem. For instance, a problem might require two opposite outcomes at the same time. Or, the issue might simply be that the problem-solver hasn’t come up with a viable solution—though someone else might.

When dealing with wicked problems, especially in social policy, numerous potential solutions might arise, while many others remain unthought-of. It takes sound judgment to decide whether to explore more solutions and which ones to implement.

In games like chess and fields like mathematics and chemistry, the rules and operations are clear and finite, covering all possible scenarios. However, this clarity doesn’t exist in social policy. Take crime reduction strategies, for example. There are no fixed rules on what approaches are acceptable. New ideas can always become serious candidates for solving problems like street crime.

Some proposed methods might include disarming the police, as done in England, to make criminals less likely to use firearms. Others suggest changing laws that define crime, such as legalizing marijuana or decriminalizing car theft, effectively reducing crime by altering definitions. Moral rearmament, focusing on ethical self-control instead of enforcement by police and courts, is another idea. Extreme solutions, like executing all criminals or giving free loot to potential thieves to remove their incentive, also come up.

In areas with poorly defined problems and solutions, feasible plans depend on practical judgment, the ability to evaluate unconventional ideas, and the trust between planners and their audience that leads to an agreement on trying new approaches.

7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.

Wicked problems are complex and unique issues that can’t be solved with a one-size-fits-all approach. Unlike tame problems in mathematics, which can be classified and solved using a set of standard techniques, wicked problems lack such clear-cut solutions.

Each wicked problem has its own peculiarities that make it distinct. Even if two problems share many similarities, there’s always a chance that a significant difference exists, which makes finding a solution more challenging. For instance, while building a subway system in one city might seem similar to another, differences in commuter habits and residential patterns can drastically alter the approach needed.

In the realm of social policy planning, this complexity is even more pronounced. Each situation is unique, and applying solutions from physical science and engineering directly to social issues can be counterproductive, or even harmful. Understanding the unique characteristics of each problem is crucial for effective planning and problem-solving.

Therefore, when tackling wicked problems, it’s essential to remain flexible and open-minded, avoiding premature conclusions about which solutions to apply. Recognizing the uniqueness of each situation ensures that solutions are tailored, context-specific, and ultimately more effective.

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8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another problem.

Wicked problems are tricky issues that often point to other underlying problems. They can be seen as gaps between “what is” and “what should be.” Solving a wicked problem starts with figuring out what’s causing the gap. But fixing that cause tends to reveal another problem, making the original issue just a symptom of something bigger.

For instance, “crime in the streets” might be seen as a result of moral decay, permissiveness, lack of opportunity, wealth, poverty, or whatever explanation you prefer. The level at which we address a problem often depends more on the analyst’s confidence than on any logical basis. There’s no “natural” level for tackling a wicked problem. The higher the level, the broader and more general the problem becomes, making it harder to solve. However, addressing only the symptoms isn’t effective, so it’s best to aim for the highest level possible to find a solution.

Incrementalism, or taking small steps to improve things, also has its pitfalls. Tackling a problem at too low a level might make the higher-level issues even harder to address. For example, focusing on reducing healthcare wait times by adding more chairs in the waiting room or streamlining the check-in process might provide short-term relief. However, these measures could make it more challenging to implement necessary structural changes, as they don’t address underlying issues like staff shortages or outdated technology. As a result, those improvements may lock in existing inefficiencies and increase the cost of comprehensive reform. Additionally, stakeholders who benefit from the incremental changes might resist future efforts to overhaul the system.

In organizations, it’s common for members to see problems at a level just below their own. For example, if you ask a hospital administrator about the challenges their hospital faces, they might highlight the need for better medical equipment rather than tackling broader issues such as inadequate staffing levels or inefficient healthcare policies.

9. The existence of a discrepancy representing a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem’s resolution

The process of defining and explaining a wicked problem is crucial because it shapes how we attempt to resolve it. Different perspectives lead to different approaches, each with its own set of potential outcomes and challenges. Crime in the streets can be attributed to various factors such as:

• Insufficient police presence
• High number of criminals
• Inadequate laws
• Excessive policing
• Cultural deprivation
• Lack of opportunities
• Abundance of guns
• Biological factors

Each factor suggests a different approach to tackling crime. But which one is correct? Unfortunately, there’s no clear way to determine the right answer. Wicked problems, like crime, have more ways to refute a hypothesis than in traditional sciences.

In science, the process is straightforward. In dealing with wicked problems, arguments are richer and more varied than in scientific discourse. Due to the unique nature of each problem and lack of rigorous experimentation, it’s hard to definitively test any hypothesis.

Ultimately, the choice of explanation is subjective and influenced by personal beliefs. People choose explanations that seem most plausible to them and align with their intentions and available actions. The analyst’s “world view” is the strongest determining factor in explaining a discrepancy and, therefore, in resolving a wicked problem

10. The planner has no right to be wrong.

In scientific research, the principle of proposing solutions as hypotheses to be refuted is fundamental. This approach, as Karl Popper describes in “The Logic of Scientific Discovery,” means that scientists are not blamed for suggesting hypotheses that are later disproven. They are simply contributing to the ongoing quest for knowledge.

However, this principle does not apply to the world of planning, especially when dealing with complex, “wicked” problems. Unlike scientific hypotheses, planners’ decisions have immediate and significant impacts on people’s lives. Thus, the stakes are much higher.

Wicked problems are inherently difficult to define and solve because they are entangled in complex causal webs and varying public opinions. For example, urban planners may struggle to address issues like traffic congestion or affordable housing, as these problems involve numerous variables and stakeholders with conflicting interests.

Ultimately, planners must navigate these ambiguities and conflicting values without the luxury of being wrong. Their responsibility is to make decisions that improve the world we live in, even when those decisions are fraught with uncertainty.

Understanding the ten properties of wicked problems is crucial for anyone involved in tackling complex societal challenges. These properties highlight that there are no one-size-fits-all solutions and that every wicked problem requires a unique approach. By acknowledging the inherent complexity and interconnected nature of these issues, we can better prepare to navigate the uncertainties and contradictions they present. As we continue to grapple with the multifaceted problems of our time, embracing the principles outlined by Rittel and Webber can guide us toward better strategies, ultimately leading to more effective and sustainable outcomes.

References :

• Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155-169.
• Complexity , decision making , planner , proposed solutions , Wicked Problem

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Wicked Problems: Problems Worth Solving

The following is an excerpt from the book.

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By Jon Kolko Mar. 6, 2012

171 pages, Austin Center for Design, 2012

Buy the book »

A wicked problem is a social or cultural problem that is difficult or impossible to solve for as many as four reasons: incomplete or contradictory knowledge, the number of people and opinions involved, the large economic burden, and the interconnected nature of these problems with other problems. Poverty is linked with education, nutrition with poverty, the economy with nutrition, and so on. These problems are typically offloaded to policy makers, or are written off as being too cumbersome to handle en masse. Yet these are the problems—poverty, sustainability, equality, and health and wellness—that plague our cities and our world and that touch each and every one of us. These problems can be mitigated through the process of design, which is an intellectual approach that emphasizes empathy, abductive reasoning, and rapid prototyping.

Horst Rittel, one of the first to formalize a theory of wicked problems, cites ten characteristics of these complicated social issues:

• Wicked problems have no definitive formulation. The problem of poverty in Texas is grossly similar but discretely different from poverty in Nairobi, so no practical characteristics describe “poverty.”
• It’s hard, maybe impossible, to measure or claim success with wicked problems because they bleed into one another, unlike the boundaries of traditional design problems that can be articulated or defined.
• Solutions to wicked problems can be only good or bad, not true or false. There is no idealized end state to arrive at, and so approaches to wicked problems should be tractable ways to improve a situation rather than solve it.
• There is no template to follow when tackling a wicked problem, although history may provide a guide. Teams that approach wicked problems must literally make things up as they go along.
• There is always more than one explanation for a wicked problem, with the appropriateness of the explanation depending greatly on the individual perspective of the designer.
• Every wicked problem is a symptom of another problem. The interconnected quality of socio-economic political systems illustrates how, for example, a change in education will cause new behavior in nutrition.
• No mitigation strategy for a wicked problem has a definitive scientific test because humans invented wicked problems and science exists to understand natural phenomena.
• Offering a “solution” to a wicked problem frequently is a “one shot” design effort because a significant intervention changes the design space enough to minimize the ability for trial and error.
• Every wicked problem is unique.
• Designers attempting to address a wicked problem must be fully responsible for their actions. 1

Based on these characteristics, not all hard-to-solve problems are wicked, only those with an indeterminate scope and scale. So most social problems—such as inequality, political instability, death, disease, or famine— are wicked. They can’t be “fixed.” But because of the role of design in developing infrastructure, designers can play a central role in mitigating the negative consequences of wicked problems and positioning the broad trajectory of culture in new and more desirable directions. This mitigation is not an easy, quick, or solitary exercise. While traditional circles of entrepreneurship focus on speed and agility, designing for impact is about staying the course through methodical, rigorous iteration. Due to the system qualities of these large problems, knowledge of science, economics, statistics, technology, medicine, politics, and more are necessary for effective change. This demands interdisciplinary collaboration, and most importantly, perseverance.

A Large-Scale Distraction

Why don’t we already focus our efforts on wicked problems? It seems that our powerful companies and consultancies have become distracted by a different type of problem: differentiation . Innovation describes some form of differentiation or newness. But in product design and product development, tiered releases and differentiation often replace innovation, although they often are claimed as such. Consider the automotive industry, where vehicles in an existing brand are introduced each year with only subtle aesthetic or feature changes. For example, except for slight interior changes and a few new safety features, the 2012 Ford F-150 is the same as the vehicle offered the year before. 2 This phenomenon also is true of other industries, such as toys, appliances, consumer electronics, fashion, even foods, beverages, and services.

This idea of constant but meaningless change drives a machine of consumption, where advertisers pressure those with extra purchasing power into unnecessary upgrades through a fear of being left behind. Consultants and product managers craft product roadmaps that describe the progressive qualities of incremental changes. In fact, it’s considered a best practice and a standard operating procedure to launch subsequent releases of the same product—with minor cosmetic changes—in subsequent months after the original product’s launch. For example, between its 1990 launch and the end of 2004, Canon released 11 versions of its Rebel camera (in 1990, 1992, 1993, 1996, 1999, February and September of 2002, March and September of 2003, April and September of 2004). 3 And Apple has released a new version of the iPod every year since its 2001 launch. 4

This constant push is characterized as a “release cycle”—the amount of time between versions of a product reaching the market. For most of industrialized history, a release cycle for a product was a year or more; complicated offerings like vehicles typically took three or more years from product conception to launch. But technology has afforded advances not only in our products but in the way we make them, so the release cycle has shrunk—a lot. Advances in tooling and manufacturing, the influx of cheap and generic pre-made components, and the ability for software-based firmware upgrades have accelerated product release cycles to three to six months.

Tooling ensures only incremental design change. It describes the process of creating individual, giant machines that will cut, grind, injection-mold, and robotically create a particular product. The tools used to produce an Apple computer are unique to (and probably owned by) Apple, and their production is one of the most expensive parts of the product development process. For example, a simple, small die-cast tool to produce 50,000 low-quality aluminum objects may cost $25,000. It’s in the company’s best interest to use the tool as many times as possible before it begins to fall apart, so the tool begins to act as a design constraint for future product releases. Put another way, if our tool was designed to produce 50,000 objects, and we’ve only made and sold 25,000, it makes financial sense for the next version of our product to use the same tool.

Original Equipment Manufacturing (OEM) contributes to the increased speed of product cycles and is another deterrent to quality and innovation. These are generic parts that manufacturers can use rather than producing their own, decreasing the time to market by skipping the tooling process. For example, a camera company can select OEM camera bezels and internal components. After adding the logo to the sourced materials, this hypothetical company can begin shipping cameras. The company can then differentiate its OEM parts by investing time in software, adding digital features and functions to physical products to distinguish these products.

The primary driver behind incremental, mostly cosmetic innovation and a constant push of releases that leverage OEM parts is simple: quarterly profits . Every three months, Fortune 500 companies report their earnings to investors. If a company reports losses—or even less-than-expected gains—the price of a stock drops, investors lose money, and those with the most shares lose the most money. So stockholders want the company to make as much money as possible in three-month increments . And these short increments constrain any activities and initiatives that take longer than three months. Revolutionary products usually take much, much longer than three months to conceive, design, and build. Unlike a Version 3 product that can leverage an existing manufacturing plant, process, and supply and distribution chains, a new product’s infrastructure must be built from scratch.

People who work at big companies try to create these revolutionary products. But each time profits are reported, the inevitable reorganization occurs—management’s attempt to show investors increased productivity, refined or repositioned strategy, and controlled spending. This reorganization can literally move people to another area of a company or to another company altogether, and in this movement, product development initiatives are lost. Witness the early death of Microsoft Kin or HP’s TouchPad—products that internal reorganizations removed from the marketplace before they could prove their efficacy. The Kin barely lasted forty-eight days on the market 5 , while TouchPad was canceled after seven weeks 6 ; discussions of their death typically focus on internal fighting, misalignment with a given market strategy, cost minimization, or confusion about the products’ position within the brand—rather than on the products themselves.

Ultimately, then, companies and individuals engaged in mass production are incented to drive prices down, produce the same thing over and over, innovate slowly, create differentiation in product lines only through cosmetic changes and minor feature augmentations, and to relentlessly keep making stuff . If we look to major brands and corporations to manage the negative consequences resulting from their work or even to drive social change and innovation, we’ll be discouraged. Social change requires companies to escape the constant drive towards quarterly profits. Even those who find profitability in the social sector—and there are countless examples—require a longer iteration period than three months, so social change is destined to be ignored by the large, publically traded corporations that possess most of the wealth and capability.

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How to Solve Wicked Problems, with Dr. Paul Hanstedt

Dr. Paul Hanstedt , Director of the Houston H. Harte Center for Teaching and Learning at Washington and Lee University and author of Creating Wicked Students: Designing Courses For a Complex World talks about the need to create wicked students ready to solve the future’s most wicked problems.

We need to encourage our students to become wicked thinkers in order to tackle the world’s most wicked problems. This means embracing lateral thinking, persistence, and creative, long-term problem solving.

Wicked problems are defined as more than just 'difficult': they are almost never solved after just one attempt.

To solve a wicked problem requires creativity, innovation, new ways of thinking, and, often, teamwork over a long period of time.

Are our students wicked enough?

Defining Wicked Problems

According to Dr. Hanstedt, “A wicked problem is a problem where the parameters of the challenge are in flux.” For example: the ever-changing challenges of daily life during COVID-19. 

At its core, a wicked problem may not even be solvable, but getting closer to an answer that mitigates the challenge is a goal for the greater solution.

Solving a wicked problem takes both the courage to make the attempt despite probable defeat and the humility to identify what went wrong and try again. 

Wicked problems may change over time, impacted by factors like:

• Interdisciplinary knowledge

“Oftentimes there are conflicting answers and ways of interpreting what's going on with a wicked problem," Dr. Hanstedt observes, "which just adds to that volatility, that difficulty of solving it.” 

It’s clear that we urgently need to instill the competencies of a wicked problem solver in our students — but how?

Wicked Problem Solvers

To become wicked problem solvers, students must be persistent. Persistence means not only accepting failure, but also growing from experience over time. 

When students face a situation that they’ve never seen before, one that perhaps cannot be solved completely or perfectly, they'll need to explore how to translate and apply ideas from different fields. They need to keep trying to make progress toward a solution.

Dr. Hanstedt describes this quality as “an experimental spirit.”

Wicked Problems in the Classroom

A wicked classroom, designed specifically with the goal of training problem solvers, treats content as a tool to solve problems.

For example, the discipline of chemistry is a way to solve problems about elements. Similarly, the field of philosophy is a way to solve problems about ideas, and history is a set of techniques and methodologies to understand, reconcile, or solve the complexities of the past.

A course designed around wicked problems asks this question:

What are you going to do with the content?

Room for Stumbling

Wicked classrooms give students the space they need to stumble and fall.

If we want students to build resilience and persistence, we need to design a classroom in which stumbling is encouraged and rewarded, rather than treated as detrimental.

Room for Riddling

One of the best techniques to encourage long-term lateral thinking that Dr. Hanstedt mentions is to play with riddles. For example, posing a riddle like this one:

A person walks into a bar and asks for a glass of water. The bartender looks at the person, pulls out a gun, and points it at them. The person thanks the bartender and leaves. What’s going on? You can only ask yes or no questions to find out.

This type of problem allows students to grow comfortable with challenges that can’t be solved immediately. By learning how to linger in uncertainty, students overcome their fear of complexity.

Starting Monday with a riddle for the week, or closing a novel at a suspenseful moment and asking students to forecast upcoming events are fun, easy ways to accustom students to accepting a lack of an immediate answer.

P.S. Find the answer to the riddle at the end of this blog.

Action Steps for Parents

1 - ask questions without answers.

Encourage exploration and curiosity by asking open-ended questions without providing an answer. Instead, ask your children for their ideas and discuss possibilities with them. 

When your children ask, “Why is such and such?”, you can send the question back by asking, “Huh, what do you think?”

2 - Play with Riddles

Use lateral thinking games, brain teasers, minute mysteries, or detective riddles for family fun, as well as to model how to approach situations that may not make sense right away.

3 - Face Discomfort Willingly

Evaluate your willingness to face situations that make you uncomfortable.

“This is really a key component with a wicked problem,” Dr. Hanstedt says. “We need to be comfortable with discomfort and recognize that discomfort is oftentimes the thing that creates a catalyzing creative space that keeps us moving forward.”

Support this skill in your children through extracurriculars like theater, music, and other cooperative group activities, whether they participate in schools or independently. As Dr. Hanstedt points out, notable ideas are often collaborative.

Guest Resources

• Dr. Paul Hanstedt's website
• Washington and Lee University
• Creating Wicked Students: Designing Courses For a Complex World by Paul Hanstedt
• Two-Minute Mysteries by Donald J. Sobol
• Raising Problem Solvers Guidebook by Art of Problem Solving

The Answer to the Riddle?

The person has hiccups.

This episode was brought to you by Art of Problem Solving , where students train to become the great problem solvers of tomorrow. 

To get weekly episode summaries right to your inbox, follow the podcast at the bottom of this page or anywhere you get podcasts. Ideas for the show? Reach us at [email protected] .

Episode Transcript

Dr. paul hanstedt q&a [1:51].

Eric Olsen : On today's episode, Dr. Paul Hanstedt, director of the Houston H. Hart Center for Teaching and Learning at Washington and Lee University, and author of Creating Wicked Students: Designing Courses for a Complex World, talks about the need to raise wicked students, ready to solve the future's most wicked problems. Paul, what are wicked problems?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : A wicked problem is a problem where the parameters of the challenge are in flux. So what they look like on Tuesday, what they look like a month from Tuesday, what they look like six months from Tuesday are going to be completely different. Think about something like, for instance, COVID. When it first came out, we weren't sure if we were supposed to wear masks or not. We were all wiping our groceries down. So sort of figuring out the problem along the way, and our understanding keeps evolving. That's one criteria for what makes a wicked problem.

Another criteria would be that they're probably not completely solvable, that there's not the perfect answer. Just sitting out there and all we need to do is find that, and then we're fine. More, it's moving toward an answer, getting closer to an answer. And again, COVID is a good example of that. It's probably never going to go away, but what can we do to sort of mitigate the challenge of it?

Other factors come into play. Oftentimes it requires a drawing knowledge from multiple fields. Again, COVID, if it were just a science problem, we'd be done, but clearly politics comes into play. Clearly religion, sociology, economics, race, all of these things can be a factor, geography. And then I would also say kind of related to that is oftentimes as conflicting answers in ways of interpreting what's going on with a wicked problem, which just adds to that volatility, that difficulty of solving it.

Eric Olsen : Hmm. Then describe the competencies of a wicked problem solver. How should we be training our students? How do we raise them to be ready for whatever complexity that their future careers might have in store?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : Right. Well, one of the main criteria is they need to be used to not having it work when they try to fix it, right? Which is another way, sometimes I use the word failure, but what I really mean is they're going to stumble, they're going to fall,. They're going to have to get back up, and they're going to have to try again, because when we're facing something we haven't seen before and something that maybe can't be solved perfectly, things are going to go wrong. And so that ability to look at the situation carefully, be deliberate in responding, not just kind of go from have a gut reaction or a knee jerk response, think about it carefully, draw from different fields, take ideas that maybe don't seem applicable because they're from over here in the sciences, but this is a humanities problem, or they're from over here in the social sciences, but this is a natural science problem, and sort of translate ideas from one area to another. That's important.

So I think an experimental spirit and a willingness to when that experiment doesn't work, to step back, to reconsider, to look at it again and to move forward, which is a strange combination, right? Of courage to try in the face of probable defeat, and also the humility to go, "Well, it didn't work this time, but I'm going to keep going."

Difference Between A Traditional Classroom And A Wicked Classroom [5:18]

Eric Olsen : And so, in your opinion, what's the biggest difference between a traditional classroom and a classroom designed specifically with this goal of training wicked problem solvers?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : I love this. Okay, so this past weekend I was at my son's college and I gave a talk. And afterwards, a guy who taught chemistry came up to me. And he was in the seventies. He'd been teaching for years, highly respected. And he said, "Listen, I want to rename my courses. I always tell my students, listen, this is not a chemistry course. This is a problem solving course. Chemistry is what we use in this setting to solve the problem." And so I think what that gets to is a traditional course says, "I've got content. You need to know that content and then you'll be fine." A wicked course of a problem solving course says, "There are problems. I've got some tools that I'm going to provide you to use to solve that problem."

So history is trying to solve, it's using particular techniques and methodologies to try to solve the mystery of the past, the complexities the past, to reconcile things that don't make sense. Philosophy classrooms are taking the logical problems that have challenged us for years and years and years. Our use example of chemistry, physics is trying to resolve issues where we can't even see the things that we're talking about, but we're still trying to answer it. So I think that's a major difference. A traditional course says, "There's content. Once you know that content, you're fine." Wicked classes, "Content is important. You have to know the content, but what are you going to do with the content? And then again, that issue of what does it take to be a problem solver? How are you not going to get it right?"

So there's implications for that too. If our students are going to stumble and fall, a traditional classroom oftentimes doesn't have many, much space for that. You get graded at everything you do. Well, if you're going to stumble and fall, we know you're going to stumble and fall, how do we make space? So that stumbling and falling doesn't get punished in such a way that nobody wants to do it anymore?

Eric Olsen : Paul, so let's say we're convinced of the premise. We want our kids to be these wicked problem solvers, able to help solve COVID-39 faster than our generation solved COVID-19. How then shall we teach? How then shall we parent?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : Hmm, well parenting, that's an interesting question. So one of the things actually I often do when I'm presenting on wicked problems is I'll toss out some riddles. A man walks into a bar, asks for glass of water. The bartender looks at him, pulls out a gun, points it at the man. The man says, "Thank you," and turns around and walks out. What's going on here? You can ask me yes or no questions. Louise is going home. Suddenly sees somebody in front of her, turns around and goes back where she came from. What's going on? You can ask me yes or no questions. There's a plot of land in Charlottesville, Virginia, right next to the railroad tracks, in an underprivileged neighborhood. People want to develop that land in the best way possible to make the most money for the city. But the people in the neighborhood want to have a park there. What do you do?

And so part of where I'm going with this, and part of the reason that I open presentations like this, is I want to involve people in puzzles, in problem solving. And I want to get him used to the idea that sometimes puzzles make perfect sense, but other times they don't. A man asking for a glass of water. Why would a guy point a gun at him? That makes no sense. And then why would the guy thank him? That makes no sense either. But then if I say something like, and I'm going to give away one of my best riddles here, but if I say something like, somebody asks, "Does a man have hiccups?" Everybody in the room goes, "Oh." And if they get that on the first one as a group, then the second one and the third one fall like dominoes. And oftentimes, if they don't get that on the first one, then the second one and the third one stay standing.

So how do we raise our kids? Traveling, traveling through Asia with my kids 10 years ago, we would ask these riddles with the yes or no questions to keep them busy at the dinner table when the food was taking too long. Play with riddles, ask questions. Don't feel like you always have to have the answer. We get a lot of that as a parent. "Why, why, why, why?" Well, it's fair to turn around and say, "Well, why do you think? What are your ideas on this?" And when they say, "I don't know," say, "Well, are you sure? Do you have any ideas at all?"

So ask the questions. Ask the questions about the things that are uncertain and unsolvable. Encourage exploration and curiosity. And it's fair as well to kind of also say, "Well, here are three possibilities. Which one do you think is the best one?", because a wicked problem doesn't mean anything goes. A wicked problem just means that we need to be more careful and more thoughtful about what we're thinking about.

Helping Students Become So Used to Wicked Problems They’re No Longer Scared of Them [10:40]

Eric Olsen : Really love that, Paul. It's a deeply shared philosophy that we talk about a lot at APS that we want to continually present students with very, very difficult challenges from such a very early age that they're used to it. They're so used to living in the complex, they're no longer terrified of it anymore.

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : Yeah. Yeah. Yeah. I think about a teacher that I had years ago, who, when he wanted to get us to read, he stopped, he read a book out loud, and then he stopped right at the scene where the hero fell down and didn't move. And then he closed the book and said, "If you want to know how it ends." And boy, a bunch of fifth graders lining up to read that book. Right? And there's nothing that says, if we have Monday morning riddles in our classes, there's nothing that says we have to solve it. Isn't it intriguing to get to the end of 20 minutes and say, "Well, keep working on it all week long. I will take any ideas that you have. We'll come back to the next riddle, next week, Monday." That's part of the joy. We always talk about lifelong learners, but then we answer the question as though there's nothing left to learn.

How Parents And Teachers Should Think About Raising Wicked Problem Solvers? [11:43]

Eric Olsen : So Paul, maybe leave us there. You have this repository and knowledge of teasers and challenges in your head that you use to help your own children when you were going across Asia. Any next steps advice for parents looking to raise wicked problem solvers? Where's this book of riddles we can use for our own students? How else should we think about that challenge?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : Yeah, I think honestly, if you look at my phone, there's all these screen captures from years ago of I think they're called two minute riles or something like that. But the bigger question I think is also kind of thinking about what can we do at home? How can we approach things at home? What are the conversations we have at the dinner table? How do we approach things that don't make sense? What is our willingness to face things that make us uncomfortable? This is really a key component with a wicked problem, I think, is we need to be comfortable with discomfort and recognize that discomfort is oftentimes the thing that creates creative space, a catalyzing creative space that keeps us moving forward.

I think as well, thinking about it on the local school level and on the regional and on the state level what's being rewarded? In Virginia, we have the standards of learning, and they have a lot of multiple choice on there. And I remember my fifth grader saying, "Multiple choice are the best because they're so easy."

"You don't even have to know," he says. "You can figure it out half the time." So what can we do to nudge the systems around us?

And I would also kind of point out that there are things, extracurriculars, that can we make sure that they're occurring in our neighborhood schools? Theater, because theater is a wicked problem. Right? How do we produce this? How do we make it engaging? How do we make it entertaining? How do you occupy this character? How do we like this? How do we create the set? Chess, music, all of these things. And that idea and all of these worth noting are collaborative. They're people working together, which is kind of how the world works as opposed to individualized performance. Right?

Yeah, I know. Right? But then we had two years living at home and we missed communities, so…

Download AoPS’ Raising Problem Solvers Guidebook [14:15]

Eric Olsen : That concept of nudging the systems around us is so important. And speaking of nudging, have you downloaded our Raising Problem Solvers guidebook yet? It's full of helpful strategies to support and challenge advanced learners, curriculum recommendations straight from our Art of Problem Solving families, our STEM gift guide, free resource recommendations, and much, much more. It's the perfect next step to help you navigate and build an educational plan that's right for your family. Download our Raising Problem Solvers Guidebook for free today.

Dr. Paul Hanstedt Rapid Fire [14:56]

Eric Olsen : It's now time for our rapid fire segment called Problem Solved where we ask the guest to solve incredibly complex and difficult education issues in single soundbites. Paul, what's one thing about K-12 education you wish you could snap your fingers and problem solved, it's fixed?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : Get rid of grades. Is that quick enough?

Eric Olsen : That's perfect. If you could go back and give your kid-self advice on their educational journey, what would it be?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : Keep drawing pictures.

Eric Olsen : Hmm, what part of education do you think or hope looks the most different 10 years from now?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : In all education, again, I would say our approach to grades. Are there ways we can give more effective feedback rather than a numeric or letter grade that says very little and becomes the prize rather than the meaningful learning.

Eric Olsen: And what's your best advice for parents looking to raise future problem solvers?

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : Ask questions back. when they say, "Why is such and such?", you say, "Huh, what do you think?", or, "Maybe it's this, or maybe it's this, or maybe it's this. Which one?"

Eric Olsen: And listeners, we'd love to hear your answers as well. So email us at [email protected] with your best advice for raising future problem solvers. And we'll read our favorites on future episodes.

Paul, thanks so much for joining us today.

Dr. Paul Hanstedt : My pleasure. Thank you so much for having me.

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The concept of wicked problems, thinking about wickedness, wickedness or merely complexity, toward a research program, summary and conclusions, disclosure statement, notes on contributor.

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What is so wicked about wicked problems? A conceptual analysis and a research program

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B Guy Peters, What is so wicked about wicked problems? A conceptual analysis and a research program, Policy and Society , Volume 36, Issue 3, September 2017, Pages 385–396, https://doi.org/10.1080/14494035.2017.1361633

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The concept of wicked problems has become a fad in contemporary policy analysis, with any number of problems being labeled as “wicked”. However, if many of these problems are analyzed using a strict definition of the concept they do not meet the criteria. Building on this analysis, I have developed a research program to investigate the extent to which even those problems usually thought to be wicked are actually that difficult.

Much of our discussion of policy problems, and the policy-making designed to ameliorate those problems, is based on functional or instrumental conceptions of the policy. We talk about social welfare issues or defense issues, or alternatively we talk about regulatory policy issues or issues of grants and subsidies. We Peters and Hoornbeek ( 2005 ); (see also Hoornbeek, this issue) have argued in the past that policy analysis can make more progress by examining the underlying analytic dimensions of policies, rather than the familiar functional categories. In the earlier paper we examined a number of those underlying dimensions such as scale, divisibility and monetization, and in this paper I will extend the analysis to examine the concept of ‘wicked problems’.

The concept of wicked problems was developed in the planning literature (Rittel & Webber, 1973 ) to describe emerging policy problems that did not correspond neatly to the conventional models of policy analysis used at the time. The argument in this paper was that the relatively easy policy issues had been addressed, and the future would be more demanding. These emerging problems were defined as complex, involving multiple possible causes and internal dynamics that could not assumed to be linear, and have very negative consequences for society if not addressed properly. The difficulty, rather obviously was, how could the policy analyst and his or her government know ex ante what an adequate solution to these problems might be?

The recognition of the existence of wicked problems was to some extent a precursor to the development of complexity theories in the social sciences (see Klijn & Snellen, 2009 ; Peters, Galaz, & Pierre, in press ; Room, 2011 ). Complexity theories tend to focus on systems and the interactions within them. Those systems may be natural (climate) or they may be primarily human (poverty) Like wicked problems, complexity assumes that the relationships among variables are not linear and small shifts (especially in the initial conditions) may produce large differences in the outcomes of the systemic dynamics. These systems are also conceptualized as being open, allowing influences from the outside, including the importation of energy. And finally complex systems tend to involve multiple actors whether as causes or actors or both –, and therefore can be politically complex as well as being technically complex.

It is difficult to deny that policy-makers now face an array of difficult and complex policy problems, even more than those emerging as Rittel and Webber were first discussing wicked problems. It appears, however, that describing these policy problems as wicked problems has become a fad in the academic literature. Almost any problem that is difficult to solve and which has a variety of alternative causes, or alternative policy frames, has been described as a wicked problem. In this paper I will be making three arguments about this high level of use, or abuse, of the concept of wicked problems.

The first contention is that relatively few problems facing governments in 2015 and thereafter actually are actually wicked problems in the full conceptual meaning of the term. These problems may be difficult, and perhaps are even intractable (see Schön & Rein, 1994 ; see also Ney, 2009 ), but they do not meet the formal definition of wicked. Thus, the ‘conceptual stretching’ (Sartori, 1970 ) that has characterized a good deal of recent discussions of wicked problems may be useful as a means of highlighting the importance and difficulty of the problem (and in getting articles published), but it may undermine the analytic capacity of this concept.

The second contention is that many rather ordinary policy problems also have some of the attributes utilized to characterize wicked problems. For example, many (some might say most) of the problems that governments encounter have no clear solutions and interventions may have unintended consequences (Cortrell & Peterson, 2001 ; Sieber, 1980 ). Likewise, many problems confronting government can be characterized as ‘messes’ with complex interactions, and which cannot be ignored by actors in the public sector (Roe, 2013 ). That lack of a clearly defined solution does not alone make these issues wicked, but may require more experimental modes of interventions and management, rather than more definitive, planned policy ‘solutions’ (see Sabel & Zeitlin, 2011 ; For another view on the possibilities of designing interventions see Howlett, 2014 ). Further, relatively few of the policy problems so often described as being wicked problems have all the characteristics utilized to define wicked problems, although many problems can be characterized as having one or more of those characteristics. So how useful is the concept as a concept?

The third argument in this paper is that the concept of wicked problems has taken on a normative element that was not necessarily intended by the formulators of the concept. This normative element is that these wicked problems must be solved, and indeed can be solved through developing the appropriate policies. Further, the assumption appears to be that centralized and forceful action will be required to solve the problems. While this may well be true, defining the concept through the mechanisms for solution tends to undervalue the nature of the problems themselves, and begs numerous questions about policy design.

Certainly solving the problems is important, but governments may have to admit that many of the issues which they must address may not be solvable in any final and definitive manner (Carter, 2012 ; Hogwood & Peters, 1984 ). Certainly decades of attempts to solve poverty, economic underdevelopment, inequality, crime and host of other familiar problems have ameliorated the problems but have not solved them by any meaningful standard, and some such as inequality have actually worsened over the past several decades. And now faced with seemingly less tractable problems governments and their allies in governance must think seriously about the goals being pursued in making policies.

In some ways then the utilization of the concept of wicked problems has led government to create a rod for its own back. That is, having identified these problems as wicked, and also arguing for the importance of finding solutions they may have created unattainable performance targets for themselves. Very few policy problems are actually ever solved in any definitive manner. Rather policy-making tends to be a more continuous process of amelioration and adjustment (Hogwood & Peters, 1984 ), and promising to solve problems, wicked or otherwise, may ultimately weaken already diminished faith in government.

The purpose of this paper is not to be pedantic about the concept of wicked problems, although it may certainly appear so. Rather, the purpose is to consider the nature of policy problems utilizing the concept of wicked problems and attempt to understand to what extent that basic concept, and the dimensions contained within it, do assist us in understanding problems. While truly wicked problems may be relatively less common than they appear in contemporary writing in policy studies, the dimensions contained in the concept may be individually useful in analyzing policies.

As already noted, the concept of wicked problems was developed in the planning literature, rather than in the policy analysis literature per se. While those two fields of endeavor, both in practice as well as in academia, are closely linked, they also have important differences. In the planning approach there is a strong design element when considering policy-making (but see Peters, 2015 ). The notion of wicked problems was identified as a general barrier to effective design and implementation of policies as much as it was conceptualized as a special class of problems. Likewise, the planners appeared to be very negative concerning the role of politics in reducing the capacity of solving these problems, while many, if not most, people coming from the policy analytic camp of scholarship and practice tend to accept politics as central to any consideration of policy-making. 1

The basic assumption that began the discussion of wicked problems is that making public policies is difficult. Further, the assumption of difficulty is so extreme that policy design, which has been central to planning, appears virtually impossible. 2 That original discussion of wicked problems may well have underestimated the ease with which policies were made in some golden era. There are any number of failed policies based on faulty designs from the 1960s and 1970s, just as there were important successes (McConnell, 2010 ). Those failures, or at least disappointments, were in part a function of beginning to address difficult issues such as poverty, but earlier examples such as urban renewal also demonstrated the problems of design.

Whatever the particular concerns of the planning or policy analytic literature, the concept of wicked problems is defined through the following ten characteristics:

Wicked problems are difficult to define. There is no definite formulation.

Wicked problems have no stopping rule.

Solutions to wicked problems are not true or false, but good or bad.

There is no immediate or ultimate test for solutions

All attempts to solutions have effects that may not be reversible or forgettable.

These problems have no clear solution, and perhaps not even a set of possible solutions.

Every wicked problem is essentially unique.

Every wicked problem may be a symptom of another problem.

There are multiple explanations for the wicked problem.

The planner (policy-maker) has no right to be wrong.

To the characteristics presented explicitly by Rittel and Webber we can add the general sense from the discussion that wicked problems involve multiple actors and are socially and politically complex. The formulators of the concept did not list this as a separate dimension but much of the discussion about difficulties in reaching decisions in the emerging policy world revolved around the political difficulties of making decisions in a more participatory and political complex environment. E.g. Roberts ( 2000 ) argued that wicked problems political conflicts over the definition of problems and the possible solutions. Those political characteristics interact with the linked to the more substantive characteristics such as multiple explanations for problems and the absence of a definitive formulation of the problem.

While the concept of wicked problems itself contains a number of characteristics that produce significant challenges for decision-making, the intellectual ante has been raised more recently with the concept of ‘super wicked problems’ (Levin, Cashore, & Auld, 2012 ; see also Lazarus, 2009 ). This concept is meant to capture the nature of significant policy problems facing contemporary governments. Like the concept of wicked problems, this concept also has a number of defining characteristics, in addition to those used to define wicked problems. These characteristics are:

Time is running out;

There is no central authority, or only a weak central authority, to manage the problem

The same actors causing the problem seem to solve it; and

The future is discounted radically so that contemporary solutions become less valuable.

In addition to the institutional characteristics involved in this definition, the element of time becomes more important than in the original conception of wicked problems. This time element is most apparent with climate change for which there are a number of clear and compelling predictions of irreversible harm if there are not significant policy interventions. Many other problems cited as wicked problems do not, however, have such clear time constraints. For example, while people living in poverty one day longer than necessary is a policy failure, this policy area does not have the clear tipping point and possibility of irreversibility that appears to be very evidence for climate change.

In addition to the argument that time may be running out for some ‘super wicked problems’, the level of discounting of the future also plays a role in understanding these problems, and in addressing them through public sector action. The argument being made here is that these issues are inherently long-term, and also perhaps large scale, and therefore need to be addressed with comprehensive action short-term amelioration is considered inadequate for dealing with these types of policy problems. But most public sector decision-making is not good at dealing with long-term challenges, especially in democratic regimes (Jacobs, 2011 ) where changes in partisan control of government may mean changes in policy.

The concepts of wicked and super wicked problems can also be related to Herbert Simon’s ( 1973 ) discussion, at about the same time as Rittel and Webber, of ‘ill-structured problems’. 3 As with some of the characteristics developed by Rittel and Webber, Simon’s concerns were with the clarity of the definition of the problem, the extent to which it was independent of other problems, and the adequacy of the knowledge base for coping with the problem. Ill-structured policy problems, like wicked problems, are difficult for policy-makers to manage effectively and perhaps in particular defy the development of simple designs for policy.

The first contention made in the introduction to the paper is that although there are a number of difficult problems facing the public sector, these may not be truly wicked. Indeed, Coyne ( 2005 ) argues that the ill-defined and awkward problems that are in essence wicked problems is the norm for policy-making, and well-defined and rational policy-making is the exception. If we adopt the ‘classical categorization’ approach to measurement advocated by Sartori, then for a problem to be wicked it should have all of the above characteristics. Having been guilty of stretching the concept of wicked problems myself, in dealing with food policy (Peters, 2014 ), it is very easy to see how one can assume that if a problem is difficult then it must be wicked.

Let me use the example of food policy to illustrate that point. The first characteristic – that there is no clear definition of the problem – does not in many ways appear to apply. The problem in food policy is how do we grow enough nutritious and safe food to feed a growing population. Different people may emphasize different aspects of the problem or have different perspectives GMOs are unsafe or merely necessary in a world with a rapidly growing population, or regulation of food safety is a crucial component of the policy area but the underlying question is actually clear. Following from that, it also appears that there is indeed a ‘true’ solution to the problem when people have enough to eat. Actually for this problem there may be more disputes over whether the solution is good or bad than there is about the adequacy of the solution.

This discussion of the adequacy of food policy raises a more fundamental problem concerning the use of wicked problems as a more or less scientific concept. This issue is the absence of clear coding rules for those ten dimensions. I have said above that we could have a ‘true’ solution to the food problem, but others might argue that the conflicts between quantity and quality the use of GMOs and the need to locally produce food may make any solution less than fully true. The same ambiguity appears to characterize a number of the other characteristics listed, and if this concept is indeed to be useful much more attention must be given to developing objective measures of the underlying characteristics.

The relatively paucity of problems that meet full definition of a wicked problem does not, however, completely obviate the utility of that analysis of policy problems. First, we may want to think about varying degrees and types of wickedness. For example, some difficult policy problems may be difficult to define and may have multiple frames, but may have clear measures of success. And some problems, or interventions, may indeed be reversible and even forgettable once other attempts at a solution have been offered. 4 Some progress may come, therefore, in adding adjectives to wicked problems (see Alford and Head, this issue), adding intension to the concept while reducing the extension (see Collier & Mahon, 1993 ). And could we think of these characteristics of wickedness as a set of necessary and sufficient conditions for certain types of policy dynamics? 5

An alternative to the strict categorization approach for wicked problems would be to consider radial categorization or family resemblance as means of selecting and categorizing cases (Collier & Mahon, 1993 ; Gerring, 1993 ). These approaches would assume that having a sufficient resemblance to the underlying idea of a wicked problem, or perhaps having one central attribute, would be sufficient to consider the problem wicked and to use this characterization for both practical analysis and for theory-building. For example, we could argue that the absence of a clear solution to the problem could be a sine qua non for labeling a problem as ‘wicked’.

In addition, as already noted, each of these characteristics of wicked problems might be considered to be a free-standing attribute of a public policy, and therefore useful in understanding policy problems by itself. Although these characteristics are very different from the attributes used by Peters and Hoornbeek ( 2005 ), they provide useful another checklist of attributes of policy problems. For example, the first of the ten characteristics mentioned above can be considered to represent a general problem in framing policies, and the alternative frames that exist for many policies. The drug policy in many countries can be understood, for example, through a variety of different lenses or frames, each providing some insight and each also associated with a particular course of action (Payan, 2006 ). 6

This first characteristic of wicked problems can also be linked to the ninth. Most interesting policy problems have multiple possible explanations that can be related to the absence of a single accepted frame of the problem. Poverty is perhaps a classic example of multiple causal explanations then being linked to multiple and perhaps conflicting alternative policy designs. The absence of a single definitive explanation appears to some extent in contrast to the perceived need to ‘solve’ the underlying problem that is inherent in the political process.

We can also see that the presumed characteristic of wicked problems that there is no ex ante test for the quality of the solutions offered also may be true of a wide range of policy problems. Some public programs are relatively well-understood ‘engineering’ solutions such as building a road. 7 Most policy problems, however, involve more complex social and economic dynamics and hence must be considered as much as experiments as definitive solutions. 8 Government actors may have routines and produce rather similar solutions to problems, no matter what they may be, but those actors may do so with greater faith in the instruments used that can be justified by the evidence. 9

Likewise, the last of the characteristics discussed as defining wicked problems, albeit not in the formal list of those characteristics, is their social complexity and the involvement of multiple actors involved in the formation, and potentially in the solution, of the problem. To some extent this characteristic may be one cause for the increased interest in wicked problems in policy analysis, and for the fad of identifying almost every issue confronting the public sector as a wicked problem. This alleged profusion of wicked problems may have less to do with the nature of the policy problems themselves than with the increasing use of network policy-making and ‘governance’ solutions for almost all policies in the industrialized democracies (see Torfing, Peters, Pierre, & Sørensen, 2011 ).

Does the increased use of participation in public policy-making mean, by definition, that there are more wicked problems? I would argue no, although it does mean that making policy choices for confronting those problems may be becoming increasingly difficult. Fritz Scharpf, for example, argued ( 1988 ) that the more actors there are involved in making policies, and the greater the rights each actor has within that process, the greater will be the difficulties in reaching decisions, and especially the greater will be the difficulties in reaching decisions that do more than only make incremental adjustments from the status quo.

The discussion of super-wicked problems also contains a significant institutional component. The descriptive element of this component is that there is no central authority to govern the policy area, with the normative implication being that such an institutional focus is necessary if the problem is to be solved. This choice also represents something of an assumption about addressing difficult policy problems (see Hoppe, 2010 ). Some scholars, for example, argue that networks and other decentered mechanisms for solution may be better at addressing wicked problems than is the imposition of centralized solutions (see Peters et al., in press ).

Elinor Ostrom’s work on polycentricity points to the capacity to solve difficult, or even wicked, problems, through less centralized means (McGinnis, 2000 ). The perceived need for centralized solutions appears to be a function of the weakness of global governance institutions for coping with environmental issues, but it would be unfortunate to generalize to all difficult policy problems on that basis, For example, some studies of poverty eradication in less-developed countries have stressed the need to act on a very localized and decentralized basis (see also Ferlie, Fitzgerald, McGivern, Dopson, & Bennett, 2011 ).

The emphasis on centralized institutional solutions may represent the domination of climate change issues in contemporary discussions of wicked problems. The need to integrate and coordinate the activities of all the countries in the world to be able to address climate change may dominate thinking about wicked, or super-wicked, problems. That assumption, in turn, violates one of the original assumptions about wicked problems, i.e. that no two wicked problems are the same, and hence other problems of this nature may well be better addressed through decentralized mechanisms.

These characteristics of wicked and super-wicked problems also point to the close linkage between these problems and complexity theory. For example, the absence of a stopping rule for decision-making, and the presumed interconnections of problems are close to some of the characteristics of complexity theory ir understanding public policy. Complexity theory, for example, emphasizes the interactions among variables and the difficulties in making effective interventions because of the unpredictable patterns of change.

The above discussion of the literature on wicked problems has, I believe, demonstrated that the notion of wicked problems has been stretched substantially, and at times is beyond almost all recognition. Beginning as a description of general problems in policy-making in the 1970s, the concept came to be used as an analytic term for a particular type of policy problem. And then the concept has been stretched even further, being applied to a range of rather ordinary policy problems. These problems are difficult to resolve, but arguably so too is addressing most of the problems that governments must confront.

The concept of the ‘super-wicked problem’, however, appears to be more clearly developed as a separate category of policy problems. Unlike the original discussion of wicked problems this categorization does attempt to differentiate a particular set of issues that distinguish these policy problems from others. Most important in that differentiation is the time element, both that time can be seen to be running out on the capacity to solve the issues, and that there is a radical discounting of the future in attempts to solve the issues.

If we examine the criteria advanced for both wicked and super-wicked problems, they appear analogous to a more general understanding of complexity in public policy (Duit & Galaz, 2008 ; Room, 2011 ). In particular the idea of the interconnectedness of problems fits rather well with the non-linear conception of complex policy problems. Likewise, the absence of clear solutions appears to be a component of both conceptions of policy. By utilizing complexity to characterize these problems the analyst may be able to invoke at least a way of thinking about the possible solutions, if not those solutions themselves.

Are there any real wicked problems, and if so what are they? Some of the candidates that are usually advanced as wicked, or even super-wicked, are climate change, poverty and inequality. These are all difficult and complex problems that have some of the characteristics of wickedness, but perhaps not all. Thus, it may be better to consider the notion of complexity as a more encompassing category and then to look at wicked problems, and perhaps especially super-wicked problems, as a particular subset of complex problems.

The above rather skeptical discussion of the concept of wicked problems should not be seen as a complete dismissal of this idea. There may well be truly wicked, and even super-wicked problems out there. And even if the analyst is not using the characteristics as a whole to describe the particular problems, they do provide useful insights into the complex and difficult problems confronting contemporary governments. But we can also think about attempting to classify problems based on the perceptions of individuals both in academia and in the public sector.

One preliminary attempt to understand the nature of wicked problems was to ask a sample of experts in politics and government to what extent they considered two types of problems wicked, or at least difficult to manage. 10 We asked about environmental problems, social policy problems, and then policy-making in general. The questions were phrased in a rather general manner, given the preliminary nature of the investigation, but this still provides some insights into how experts think about policy problems, and the possible wickedness of those problems.

First, none of these problems were considered particularly wicked by the sample of experts, ranking at around 4.5 on a scale of 1–7. Further, the environmental problems were not conceptualized as any more difficult or wicked than were the more familiar social policy issues. Much of the literature on wicked problems utilizes the environment, and particularly climate change, as the quintessential example of a wicked problem. But this group of decision-makers did not conceptualize this problem as being particularly difficult, or at least considered other problems equally difficult. 11 Indeed, there was some sense expressed that policy-making in general involved a number of wicked problems these experts appeared to consider any policy intervention a somewhat difficult task. 12

This extremely preliminary attempt to research how policy-makers may consider policy problems, and especially wicked problems, should be supplemented by attempts to understand more fully how decision-makers and academic policy experts conceptualize policy problems, wicked, and super-wicked problems. While simply seeing to what extent experts did consider a range of problems often discussed as wicked, e.g. the environment, poverty, etc., to in fact be wicked would be important in itself, this research can push the understanding of policy problems even further. That understanding can be enhanced by examining the extent to which respondents might consider other, presumably more mundane policy issues, e.g. higher education, also to be wicked problems.

There is, of course, a danger that the concept of wicked problems will not have penetrated the practitioner community, or even some parts of the academic community. Therefore, for half the sample, I would provide a brief description of the concept of wicked problems and for the other half not do so. This division of the sample can test the extent to which the respondents may simply think a wicked problem is a difficult problem rather than corresponding to the conceptual definition used in the literature. Or alternatively once the stringent nature of the concept of wicked problems is understood the relative dearth of such problems, strictu sensu , will become apparent.

As well as considering the question of wicked and super-wicked problems as entities, it will also be important to consider some of the individual characteristics and the extent to which respondents can recognize the existence of that characteristic in the presumed wicked problems, as well as in presumed non-wicked problems. As discussed above, the notion that there are multiple alternative explanations for a policy problem may be common for the problems that governments confront, and by no means confined to the issues usually described as wicked. And it may also be that policy-makers may not be as pessimistic about their capacities to solve problems as are academics.

The question of the capacity to solve policy problems leads to the final concern of this planned research, which is how do policy-makers think about solving wicked and super-wicked problems? Much of the literature on wicked problems states, or at least implies, that addressing these difficult policy problems requires forceful and centralized solutions. But, as noted above, there are also viable arguments that more decentralized and polycentric solutions can be as effective. That literature argues that centralized solutions may not involve actors adequately, and that the centralized solutions may not have adequate flexibility. 13

As well as the general question of centralized and decentralized solutions to demanding policy problems, we can also consider the choice of instruments. Do decision-makers believe that conventional policy instruments (Hood & Margetts, 2007 ) can be effective for coping with wicked problems, or with generally difficult policy problems? Or do these problems require a particular variety of instruments that may be considered excessive for more ordinary policy issues. If indeed wicked problems are conceptualized as being so difficult to address then conventional policy instruments may assume too much certainty. Given that, more open and procedural instruments (Howlett, 2000 ) may be more appropriate inclusions in the policy design than more definitive interventions.

Finally, given the link of wicked problems to complexity theory it would be useful to consider some of the premises of that approach in any research program. For example, although perhaps implied in the discussion of wicked problems the notions of non-linearity and multifinality that abide in complexity. These concepts may be more difficult to address with questionnaires, but some effort should be made to examine just how difficult the perceptions of addressing policy problems may be.

Although the use of the concept of wicked problems is to some extent an academic fad, like other fads of that sort there is some underlying logic. Especially for contemporary policy-making this concept can emphasize the difficulty in making and implementing effective solutions to policy problems. The original formulation from Rittel to Webber, as well as that from Simon to some extent, was in response to a perceived increase in the difficulties of making policy over forty years ago, and it would be difficult to argue that the challenges to government and its partners have become any easier.

The existence of difficult problems should not, however, become an excuse to stretch the concept of wicked problems to the point that for analytic reasons it becomes almost meaningless. Or at a minimum, one needs to be clear that the concept is indeed being stretched and to consider alternative formats for conceptualization. This statement is not intended to be pedantic although it may well be but rather is intended to stress the importance of being clear about our concepts in order to be clear in our analysis.

The importance of thinking about wicked problems, and other types of complex policy problems in the contemporary environment leads to thinking about how do policy-makers and other experts think about wicked problems, and policy problems more generally. The sketch of a possible research program contained in this paper attempts to point to how we can understand how those respondents conceptualize the problems, and to some extent how they link problems and solutions. The nature of wicked, and/or complex, problems is that there is will be no magic bullet to solve the problems, but a better understanding of the problems and how they may be processed, can only help to facilitate what may be only limited answers.

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

B. Guy Peters is Maurice Falk Professor of American Government at the University of Pittsburgh, and is currently working on a book on policy design.

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That is perhaps something of an overstatement, given the absence of political analysis in some economic and statistical modeling of policy.

With changes in the planning literature, and in conceptions of design, the search for a more product-like design when making policy is less clear. See.

It is interesting to consider if there was a particular Zeitgeist that produced these two rather skeptical analyses of policy-making at the same time. This was perhaps the end of an era in the United States in which there were attempts to solve large-scale social problems that had met with limited results.

One of the arguments made in the normative literature on incrementalism (see Hayes, 2006 ) is that policy interventions can be reversed. That may be more true substantively than it is politically.

One option might be to think of these characteristics as something like an old-fashioned Guttman scale, with varying degrees of occurrence, and with that different scale scores on a wickedness scale.

For a similar analysis of the multiple frames that can be applied to mental health policy see Maycraft Kall ( 2013 ). Again, all these frames had some validity but there was no single frame accepted by all actors in the process.

That said, building a road may not be the solution to traffic problems given that most evidence points out that traffic tends to expand to fill roads soon after they are completed. Hence, building roads may simply increase traffic, and does not solve the underlying problem being addressed.

Nelson ( 1977 ), for example, argued that interventions into the problems of the ghetto meaning poverty and social exclusion – had no clear theoretical or practical foundations, and hence any policies directed at these problems were in essence experiments. See also Sabel and Zeitlin ( 2008 ), ( 2011 ). See also Weber and Khademian ( 2008 ).

We Linder and Peters ( 1989 ) attempted to understand how decision-makers in the public sector selected their instruments. One of the largest groups in our study were ‘instrumentalists’, committed to a particular instrument almost regardless of the nature of the problem being addressed.

This study was the precursor to a larger study of wicked problems as the opinions of experts. See Peters and Tarpey ( 2016 ).

The questions were inserted into the expert survey administered by the Quality of Government Institute at the University of Gothenburg Sweden. My thanks to Professors Carl Dahlstrom et al. Source: Dahlström, Carl, Jan Teorell, Stefan Dahlberg, Felix Hartmann, and Annika Lindberg. 2015. The QoG Expert Survey Data - set II . University of Gothenburg: The Quality of Government Institute.

It was also interesting that there was no significant variance across regions of the world in terms of the perceptions of these problems. There was a slight tendency for respondents in North America and in Europe to consider both types of problems more wicked, but those differences were indeed very slight.

Hoppe’s analysis of ‘Puzzling, Powering and Participation’ ( 2010 ) identifies a range of possibilities for designing and implementing policies.

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Wicked Problems and How to Solve Them?

If you are faced with something unsolvable then you are likely to be dealing with something called a Wicked Problem. The term “wicked problem” was coined by two of the greatest design theorists Horst Rittel and Melvin Webber referring to problems that have many independent factors that are either incomplete or undefined and require a deep understanding of designers in order to be fixed. Problems like Fundamentalism, global warming, economic crisis, or aging societies are called Wicked Problems because we ourselves, our beliefs and values, and our habits are part of these problems and they cannot be solved in the traditional way, we need new approaches, novel ideas, and fresh minds to solve them. In this article, we will discuss what are Wicked Problems and how we can solve them.

What are Wicked Problems?

Wicked Problem is a term referring to a problem that is very difficult to solve because of it having many independent factors that come into play, it requires a deep understanding of the topic, or it can not be solved with the current problem-solving approaches. The term “Wicked Problem” was coined by two of the greatest design theorists Horst Rittel and Melvin Webber, Wicked problems are unconventional problems that require an innovative approach during the design thinking process in order to be solved.

Problems like Fundamentalism, global warming, economic crisis, or aging societies are called Wicked Problems because we ourselves, our beliefs and values and our habits are part of these problems and they cannot be solved in the traditional way, we need new approaches, novel ideas and fresh minds to solve them.

Characteristics of Wicked Problems

The wicked problems can be characterized by following 10 points:

• There is no definite formulation for wicked problems.
• Wicked problems do not have any stopping rule, hence there is no way to figure out if the solution you came up with is final.
• Wicked problems do not have a solution in Boolean format (true or false) the solutions are only either good or bad.
• It is not possible to test any solution to a Wicked problem immediately.
• Wicked problems have one shot operation solutions. It is not possible to use trial and error method in solving a wicked problem.
• Wicked problems do not have a defined number of potential solutions.
• Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
• For every wicked problem, there is a synonym wicked problem.
• Wicked problem has more that one explanation and these explanations vary from person to person
• Wicked problems have more than a single explanation due to the individual perspectives.

How to Solve Wicked Problems?

Wicked problems are wicked since there is no single approach to solve them. There is no step by step method to solve a wicked problem but there are few strategies that a designer can use to tackle these problems and solve them. Following are the three strategies to solve a wicked problem:

1. Curiosity to maneuver

• In order to solve a wicked problem, the biggest hurdle is to firstly understand it. Now to completely understand a wicked problem, the best practice would be to ask why. A wicked problem is quite complex to solve and approach may vary from individual to individual, one thing that remains constant is curiosity towards the problem statement.
• To stick around until you find a solution, one must be curious enough for solving the problem. This is because the process of solving a wicked problem is lengthy and you may never reach an end, you will surely get stuck at multiple points and feel frustrated, here your curiosity towards the problem statement will help you maneuver and move ahead.

2. Divide the Problem statement

• A very common mistake many designers do during working with Wicked Problems is that since most of the Wicked Problems are of global significance, such as global warming, currency, etc. many designers tend to “disrupt” these industries without focusing on dividing the problem statement to smaller chunks of solvable issues.
• Make sure to segment the bigger problem into a smaller batch of problems and work on those individually and design backwards to your capabilities. Always remember, you may keep the bigger problem in your mind but working on one smaller problem at a time is essential for solving these Wicked Problems.
• Empathy is a one stop solutions to many of designers problems but it is not easy to attain. It requires practice, the important thing around empathy is that when you listen with empathy, this may mean that the ideas you get a against your organization’s status quo.
• Most of the ideas that comes from listening with empathy in order to fix a Wicked Problem are quite uncomfortable and hard to implement and follow upon. This is one of the reasons why Wicked Problems are so Wicked. Make sure to listen with empathy with the target audience and act upon your findings in order to fix a Wicked Problem.

Wicked Problems refers to problems that have many independent factors that are either incomplete or undefined and requires a deep understanding of designers in order to be fixed. There is no fixed recipe or a roadmap for solving a Wicked Problem, but there are some practices or strategies that can be worked upon to fix these Wicked Problems. Wicked problems are unconventional problems that requires an innovative approach during the design thinking process in order to be solved. As much are these Wicked problems are unconventional problems that requires an innovative approach during the design thinking process in order to be solved. are tough to solve, solving them means disrupting an entire industry and changing the lives of many people for good. Make sure to follow the points we discussed in our article to solve your next Wicked problem.

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Wicked Problem and Design Thinking

• By NNSI Editorial Team
• In Wicked Problems

Every day, we are confronted with problems–small and large scale. Design thinking provides a systematic approach to solving these problems. Formally, design thinking refers to the diverse and interrelated approaches, techniques, and tricks to scientifically addressing the problems we face individually and collectively. 

This blog is dedicated to understanding the connection between design thinking and wicked problems. Wicked problems are problems without a singular cause or an immediate solution. They are complex and ongoing problems–such as the social determinants of health –that require a continual and curated effort to address. In this blog, we (1) outline the traditional design thinking model and (2) explore a reframed design thinking model that uses a wicked problems approach. Research for this blog is sourced from Richard Buchanan’s article, “ Wicked Problems in Design Thinking .”

1. The Linear Approach to Design Thinking

Design thinking is traditionally a direct, step-by-step approach to addressing a problem. This linear way of thinking about the design thinking process simplifies the design process into two phases: (1) problem definition and (2) problem solution.

Linear Design Model

This two-phase linear approach to design thinking is an initially attractive model because it is direct and precise without relying on any one individual designer or design perspective. Many find this model to be logical and easy to understand. Critics of this model have identified two primary concerns with this approach to design thinking. 

• First, design thinking in application is not linear . The sequence of steps to solving a problem rarely follows a distinct or uniform pattern. 
• Second, most problems addressed by design thinkers are wicked problems . They have no cause or solution; they are multifaceted, changing, and challenging. A simple model like the linear design model underestimates the complexity of real-world problems.

2. A Wicked Problems Approach to Design Thinking

The application of design thinking to wicked problems was created by mathematician and designer Horst Rittel, who challenged the linear design process normalized prior. As discussed, the linear model suggests that problems have a clear set of identifiable conditions, but this is rarely (if ever) the case. 

Rittel argues that most design problems are indeterminate in the way that wicked problems are indeterminate. Indeterminate problems are not undetermined but boundless. They don’t have set limits or determined conditions. The designer can take creative liberty to see the problem and the necessary solution to this problem in whatever way they see fit. Design thinking in this context can be fluid and adaptable. The designer can change their approach, alter their approach, or even implement several simultaneous approaches to work with a changing problem rather than linearly fight against it. 

The beauty of the wicked problems approaches to design thinking is that it recognizes the indeterminate nature of the problem and provides a flexible solution to this indeterminacy. We might face daunting and ongoing wicked problems, but design thinking can provide the tools and framing to match these problems where they are and begin work towards solving them.

3. A Wicked Problems Approach in Practice 

To see a wicked problems approach to design thinking, consider RE-AMP , a network committed to short and long-term campaigns for environmental advocacy. RE-AMP has an ambitious goal: reduce regional global warming emissions by 80% by 2050. RE-AMP is unique from many other networks because they intentionally solve issues using a holistic problem-solving approach (or what this blog calls a wicked problems approach).

In practice, RE-AMP mapped out all of the significant issues and related players to get a visual understanding of their daunting but essential task. The resulting map (pictured below) demonstrates the complexity of this wicked problem.

The network was able to break the larger problem into smaller goals and approach those goals simultaneously by using this map as a working guide. RE-AMP identified four primary sub-goals to achieve their larger goal of environmental efficiency: (1) stop the building of all-new pulverized coal-fired power plants, (2) retire most of the region’s existing coal plants, (3) replace coal-generated electricity with renewable power, and (4) reduce overall electric consumption through increased efficiency. With these goals in mind, RE-AMP generated teams of organizations to address each goal, and each team developed its own five-year plan. 

These goals have changed and adapted over time, developing with the state of the issue. Critically, however, each RE-AMP team made a concerted effort to maintain a network among and between other teams: organizing work across groups, coordinating activities, and communicating regularly. This way, even though this wicked problem is changing and adapting, all teams can coordinate and adapt.

The wicked problems approach to design thinking is a primary contributing factor to the significant success RE-AMP has seen since its inception. See this comprehensive case study to read about RE-AMP and its practices.

To conclude, the problems addressed by networks are, more often than not, wicked and non-linear. As such, we must tackle them from this changing lens to see optimal success in overcoming (or minimizing) such problems.

• Home: About Transition Design
• Course Overview & Structure
• Requirements & Grading
• Course Calendar
• Course Introduction
• Wicked Problems
• Social Relations
• Historical Evolution of Wicked Problems
• Designing for Transitions
• Designing Systems Interventions
• Assignments
• The Framework
• Visions for Transition
• Theories of Change
• Mindset & Posture
• New Ways of Designing
• Bibliography
• Useful Links
• Workshops & Short Courses
• The Transition Design Institute

Mapping the Evolution of a Wicked Problem

Types of systems transitions, historical context, working session: assignment #3, lecture & discussion – 2.21.2024, mapping the historical evolution of a wicked problem + assignment #3.

Transition Design argues that wicked problems must be framed within radically large spatio-temporal contexts that include the present (how the problem manifests and who it affects), the past (how the problem emerged and evolved over dozens of years or decades), and the future (what we want to transition toward). This class discusses how to map the historical evolution of a wicked problem in order to reveal insights from the past that can inform both long-term future visions and present-day systems interventions. 

Transition Design draws/builds upon Transition Management theory and the work of the Sustainability Transitions Research Network (STRN) which focus on how socio-technical systems change and transition over long periods of time. This body of research can help us ascertain when and how issues related to a wicked problem arose and, over long periods of time, began to constellate and evolve to form a wicked problem. It uses the Multi-level Perspective framework (MLP) to map the systems transition at three key levels: 

The Landscape Level : at this macro systems level the societal landscape is determined by changes in the macro economy, political culture, demography, natural environment, and worldviews and paradigms, which are usually slow moving and resistant to change. These seismic undercurrents can play an important role in speeding up or slowing down a transition, but their geology is for the most part unyielding.

The Regime : this meso systems level comprises the social norms, interests, rules, belief systems, technologies, infrastructures and built environments through which the status quo operates and reproduces itself. The regime is managed through networks of companies, organizations, and institutions as well as through politics and governance (policies and laws) at multiple levels of scale (local, national, international). Within the regime, system dynamics are determined by dominant practices, rules, and shared assumptions that are most geared towards optimizing rather than transforming systems.

The Niche : this micro systems level consists of individual actors, technologies, and local practices. Variations to and deviations from the status quo can occur as a result of new ideas and new initiatives, such as new techniques, alternative technologies, and innovative social practices. “Incubation” is a term often used to describe how innovative, risk-taking experiments are protected from regime norms and have the opportunity to take root and sometimes destabilize the Regime.

Interactions among the three levels (landscape, regime and niche) are social, technical, institutional, infrastructural and normative and involve both material and non-material factors. The networks of relationship within the regime and landscape become progressively more entrenched, inertial and resistant to change as their scale and complexity increases. Eventually large systems become “locked in” to particular trajectories or transition pathways. In other words, although socio-technical systems (and wicked problems) are constantly ‘in transition’, they get set in their ways, just like people do.

The Principles and Dynamics of Complex, Open Systems

Transition Design argues that in mapping the historical evolution of a wicked problem, we must identify the events, beliefs, attitudes, innovations and norms within the landscape, regime and niche levels, but we must also learn to understand the complex systems dynamics at work within the whole. Principles that govern dynamic, complex adaptive systems ( chaos and complexity theories) include: 

Non-linearity : systems do not display linear cause and effects characteristics: because they are connected to each other via multiple feedback loops , it is impossible to predict with certainty the medium and long-term consequences of designed/external interventions. This is why so many problem-solving approaches based upon predicted outcomes fail.

Coevolution : systems change and transition together via their habitual, prolonged interactions over time. This principle also applies to problems that arise, become interconnected and interdependent and, eventually—wicked. This ‘coupling’ is part of what makes wicked problems and socio-technical systems become entrenched and ‘path dependent.’

Holarchic structure : complex systems have holarchic (nested) structures at multiple levels of scale. At the higher levels, components aggregate to form complex relationships that are inertial and more resistant to change. If properly understood, these complex dynamics help explain the problem’s origins and evolution, but can also reveal strategies for its resolution.

Emergence : within complex systems, new structures and behaviors arise out of, but cannot be reduced to, the self organizing, dynamic parts of the systems. This underscores the unpredictable nature of complex systems and systems problems (non-linearity and co-evolution) and is why deep research into the historical evolution of the problem always reveals insights that seem counter-intuitive.

Sensitivity to initial conditions/chaos theory within complex systems (and systems problems), small interventions have the potential to ramify throughout the systems and can have disproportionately and unpredictably large consequences. This principle both explains how problems can quickly get worse and how socio-technical systems can undergo unpredictable, sweeping change. Revealing how this dynamic has been at work in the historical evolution of a wicked problem can also provide clues for how to harness it to drive positive, systems-level change (wicked problem resolution and shifting systems’ transition trajectories).

Using the Multi-Level Perspective Framework (MLP)

Framing a wicked problem within an MLP context is useful for several reasons: 1) it aids in understanding the historical evolution of the problem, which is essential in identifying and addressing root causes (which always exist at multiple levels of scale); 2) it is useful in identifying both intractable, entrenched areas within the system and opportunities for disruption (often incubated at the niche level, but large events at the landscape level can open up opportunities at lower levels); and 3) it provides a large enough context to reveal connections and interdependencies among other wicked problems that can inform strategies for more powerful interventions aimed at exponential change (i.e., killing two birds with one stone). “Reading” the social-technical terrain with the MLP can reveal what systems theorist Donella Meadows called “places to intervene in a system.” 

Although the MLP has drawbacks (such as its lack of emphasis on social dynamics and granular practices that contribute to systems inertia) it is nevertheless a useful way of understanding the connections and dynamics among multiple wicked problems within a large spatio-temporal context, which is a crucial precursor for designing interventions at multiple levels of scale.

Discussion Prompts

• What is the relevance of socio-technical regime theory for design and designers?
• Speculate on how understanding historical socio-technical transitions could serve as the basis for strategic ‘systems interventions’ (design solutions, projects, initiatives).
• Can you identify shifts and changes occurring at the landscape level that open up opportunities for projects and initiatives at the niche level? Can a seemingly negative/problematic or even catastrophic event at the landscape level open up opportunities at the niche or regime level? Does this work in reverse? Is one level of the MLP better suited than others for design interventions?
• What experiments at the niche-level are currently in process? Which ones have the potential to positively disrupt the regime? What might the future trajectory look like? How could opportunities at the landscape level be leveraged to amplify the transition?
• How could the MLP complement/supplement traditional problem finding/framing/solving?
• Think of examples in which the systems principles above are playing out in current problems or events taking place.
• How has COVID-19 impacted events/beliefs/technologies etc. at the Landscape, Regime and Niches level, apropos of your wicked problem ?

Read Prior to Class

• Grin, John et al. 2015. From Persistent Problems to System Innovations and Transitio n s . pp. 1–28*

Supplemental Readings

• Geels, F.W. 2005. The Dynamics of Transitions in Socio-Technical Systems: A Multi-Level Analysis of the Transition Pathway from Horse-Drawn Carriages to Automobiles (1860-1930). From Technology Analysis and Strategic Management, 17 (4): 445-476*
• Shove, Elizabeth and Gordon Walker. 2010. Governing transitions in the sustainability of everyday life . In Elsevier Research Policy 39. pp 471–476
• Hargreaves, Tom et al. 2012. Understanding Sustainability Innovations: Points of Intersection Between the Multi-Level Perspective and Social Practice Theory . Norwich: UEA Science, Society and Sustainability (3S) Research Group. pp 3–20
• Tonkinwise, Cameron. 2015. Transitions in Socio-technical Conditions that Afford Usership . Unpublished article on Academia.

Assignment #3: Mapping the Historical Evolution of a Wicked Problem

Assignment #3: In this assignment, teams will map the historical evolution of their wicked problem using the template in their Miro team board. Instructions for Assignment #3 can be found in the assignment section of this website. This assignment is due by end of day on March 16th as: 1) both a high-resolution PDF (exported from Miro) uploaded to their team folder in Box;  2) as a Medium post in which the assignment is analyzed and insights drawn out (with high-resolution images illustrating the article).

NOTE: the templates below are included as an analog resource for outside educators using this site. Students in this seminar should use the Miro templates.

http://transitiondesignseminarcmu.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/2.MLP_.pdf

Lecture & Discussion – 2.26.2024

Types of socio-technical systems transitions.

In recent decades researchers have been studying and documenting the ways in which historic socio-technical systems change and transition over long periods of time in order to catalyze sustainability transitions. Transition Design draws/builds upon this approach as strategies for wicked problem resolution and societal transitions towards more sustainable futures. This class will look more closely at the nature of how transitions happen within socio-technical systems and discuss the ‘typologies’ of socio-technical transitions in order to understand the contributing factors and events at different levels of scale (the landscape, the regime and the niche). Several types of change and the transition ‘pathways’ they give rise to will be discussed.

Types of Change within Socio-Technical Systems

Sustainability transition researchers Geels and Schot , in their paper Typology of Sociotechnical Transition Pathways describe the ways in which different types of change within socio-technical systems can trigger different types of transition pathways (responses). They describe five types of change that can lead to transition (excerpted from the paper) : 

Regular change corresponds to environments that regularly experience a low-intensity, gradual change. 

Hyper turbulence corresponds to environments that feature a high frequency of high-speed change in one dimension (such as hyper-competition).

Specific shock corresponds to environmental changes that are rapid and high intensity, come rarely and are relatively narrow in scope (this can disappear, returning the system to baseline or may lead to a structural stepwise change).

Disruptive change corresponds to changes that occur infrequently, develop gradually, but have a high-intensity effect in one dimension.

Avalanche change occurs very infrequently, but is of high intensity, of high speed, and simultaneously affects multiple dimensions and leads to permanent change to the environment (such as COVID-19).

The Types of Transitions Triggered by these Changes

The changes described above, under different circumstances, have the potential to trigger the following different types of transition pathways:

Reproduction pathway is when there is no landscape pressure, so the regime (status quo) remains dynamically stable and continues to reproduce itself.

Transformation pathway is the result of moderate landscape pressure (from disruptive change) at a moment when niche-innovations have not yet been sufficiently developed. In such a case, regime actors respond by modifying the direction of development paths and innovation activities.

Dealignment and realignment pathways result if landscape change is divergent, large and sudden (avalanche change). In combination with increasing regime-level problems, actors at this level may lose faith, leading to  dealignment and erosion of the existing regime. If niche-innovations are not sufficiently developed, then there is no clear substitute, which creates space for multiple niche-level innovations that coexist and vie for attention and resources. Eventually, one niche-innovation becomes dominant, forming the core for realignment of a new regime.

Technological substitution pathway results from substantial landscape pressure (specific shock, avalanche or disruptive change) at a moment when niche-innovations have developed sufficiently, the latter will break through and replace the existing regime.

Reconfiguration pathway results from symbiotic innovations which develop in niches and are initially adopted at the regime levels to solve local problems. These symbiotic relationships subsequently trigger further adjustments in the basic architecture of the regime.

Multiple, sequential pathways result of landscape pressure takes the form of ‘disruptive change.’ This begins with transformation, then leads to reconfiguration and is potentially followed by substitution or dealignment and realignment.

Other Factors that Influence Transitions

The type of transition pathway that these different types of changes trigger also depends upon these additional factors: 1) the frequency of the change; 2) the magnitude of the change; 3) the speed or rate of the change/disturbance; 4) the scope of the change (the number of conditions affected simultaneously). But it also depends upon the timing of interactions within the overall system (such as the timing of landscape pressure on regimes, relative to niche-developments) and the nature of the interactions (for instance, do niche innovations and landscape developments have reinforcing relationships with the regime or disruptive relationships due to pressure or competition?)

These complex tensions, relationships and interactions are described in more detail in the paper above, but developing a deep understanding of these complex systems dynamics is crucial in understanding how wicked problems manifest, how they evolved over long periods of time and how to resolve them with ‘ecologies’ of systems interventions.

• Can you think of examples of change in each of the five categories proposed by Geels and Schot?
• As you map the historical evolution of your team’s wicked problem, can you identify the different types of path dependencies that arose during the transitions?
• What are landscape level events taking place now that are stimulating niche-level innovation? Speculate on what type of transition it might trigger on the basis of whether the niche-level development is mature or still developing.
• Geels, Frank W. and Schott, Johan. 2007. Typology of Sociotechnical Transition Pathways . Research Policy 36. pp 54-79.
• Scott, Kakee. 2013. Designing for an Emergent Post-Car Cu l ture. Paper for SCORAI Conference, Clark University. pp 1-15*
• Seyfang, Gill. 2012. Understanding Sustainability Innovations . In Science, Society and Sustainability. 
• Twomey, Paul and Idil Gaziulusoy. 2014. Review of System Innovation and Transitions Theories . VP2040 Foreground paper.

Discussion – 2.28.2024

Transition Design argues that we must understand the historical roots of wicked problems in order to address them more appropriately in the present, and ensure we don’t repeat the past as we transition toward more sustainable, equitable and desirable long-term futures. In this class we will discuss the time horizons critical to Transition Design and in particular, the need for historical context.

Writing in the journal History Today , lecturer Robert Crowcroft recounts an argument from the historian R.G. Collingwood about the particular type of insights trained historians can offer. He likened the difference between a historian and layperson to “‘the trained woodsman’ and ‘the ignorant travel’ in a forest. While the latter marches along unaware of their surroundings, thinking ‘nothing here but trees and grass’, the woodsman sees what lurks ahead. ‘Look’, he will say ‘there is a tiger in that grass.’” Both Crowcroft and Collingwood argue that historians have a unique perspective on human behavior, and an understanding of the complexities of socio-political-economic-ecological processes over long periods of time, that have relevance to present day situations.

Surprised! By Henri Rousseau, 1891

Historical context can refer to the social, religious, cultural, economic, political,technological and ecological conditions that exist in a certain time and place and the ways in which these elements interact and mutually influence each other. Most importantly history enables us to identify long-forgotten connections and origins of problems and events which can deepen our understanding of our situation in the present. This can help address one of the characteristics of 20th and 21st century societies:the ever increasing pace in which we live our lives and the corresponding decreasing timeframe within which we think. The result is we often fail to grasp the historically deep roots of many contemporary problems.

Temporality and the Pace of Change

In his book The Clock of the Long Now , Stewart Brand proposed the idea of extending our concept of the present in both directions. “to make the present longer. Civilizations with ‘long nows’ look after things better….In those places you feel a very strong but flexible structure which is built to absorb shocks and in fact incorporate them.” And, in a 1978 paper, sociologist Elise Boulding argued that society was suffering from a type of “temporal exhaustion in which…one is mentally out of breath all the time from dealing with the present, there is no energy left for imaging the future.” And, little time left to reflect upon and understand the past. Boulding’s proposal was to expand our idea of the present to two hundred years; a hundred years into the future, and a hundred years into the past. Transition Design argues that wicked problems must be considered within this expanded concept of the present.

Brand has also proposed a framework that encompasses what he describes as ‘six levels of a healthy civilization, each of these ‘pace layers’ —Fashion/art; commerce; infrastructure; governance; culture and nature— operates on a different  time scale and each is an essential element in  structure of an adaptable and robust civilization Brand argues that “In a healthy society, each level is allowed to operate at its own pace, safely sustained by the slower levels below and kept invigorated by the livelier levels above…each layer must respect the different pace of the others…” Each layer makes a distinct contribution to the whole society, and there are inherent checks and balances among the layers that bring stability to the whole society. The top layer of fashion/art moves quickly and innovates, while the bottom layer of nature is powerful, vast, inexorable and slow; but once disturbed or disrupted is equally slow to rebound.

Transition Design argues that to address wicked problems we need to be cognizant of the different pace layers and times scales that are that are implicated in their development, and in order to intentionally transition our societies toward sustainable long-term futures, we must recover the ability to think in long horizons of time and situate our problems in the present within the long context of history.

Professor and historian Heather Cox Richardson , who contributed some of the most important, insightful national commentary during the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S. and connection to and implications for American politics has said, “ Historians are not denigrating the nation when they uncover sordid parts of our past. Historians study how and why societies change. As we dig into the past we see patterns that never entirely foreshadow the present, but that give us ideas about how people have dealt with circumstances in the past that look similar to circumstances today. With luck, seeing those patterns will help us make better decisions about our own lives, our communities, and our nation in the present. As they say, history doesn’t repeat itself, but it often rhymes.”

• Can you think of examples in which historical narratives about the distant past have shifted significantly because of changes in the present (for instance new historical interpretations of colonialism and systems of oppression)? What are strategies for challenging current historical narratives that may be connected to systems of oppression and coloniality?
• How might non-Euro-centric histories provide insight on the historical evolution of wicked problems? How might they suggest strategies for resolution?
• Can you think of historical origins/roots of a wicked problem affecting you currently?
• In researching the historic roots of a wicked problem, how can we ensure that the insights and narratives are not biased and are informed by a diversity of perspectives?
• How can insights about the historical roots of wicked problems contribute to long-term future visions in which the problem has been resolved?
• Discuss Elise Boulding’s concept of a 200 year present. How might a 200 year view be a transition strategy? How can we ‘act’ within a 200 year time horizon that includes 100 years into the past and 100 into the future?

Read Prior to Class (choose at least one)

• Brand, Stuart. 1999. Kairos & Chronos, The Long Now, The Order of Civilization, The Order of Civilization, Uses of the Past, The Long View & The Infinite Gam e . In the Clock of the Long Now. Basic Books. New York, NY. Extracts.
• Guldi, Jo & Armitage, David. 2014. Going Forward by Looking Back: The Rise of the Long Duree. In The History Manifesto. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 14-36
• Gaddis, John Lewis. 2004. Chaos & Complexity & Causation, Contigency & Counterfactuals . In The Landscape of History: How Historians Map the Past. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 71-100
• Crowcroft, Robert. 2018. The Case for Applied History: Can the Study of the Past Really Help us to Understand the Present? History Today. Vol 68: 9. London. Accessed March 2021.

Working Session – 3.11.2024

Work session: assignment #3.

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Wicked Problems in Design and Ethics

• First Online: 24 January 2019

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• Ben Sweeting 19  

Part of the book series: Translational Systems Sciences ((TSS,volume 8))

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While the relationship between ethics and design is usually thought of in terms of the application of the former to the latter, it is not as if ethics is a settled body of theory that can authoritatively guide design practice. Depending on which theories or ideas we refer to, we receive different guidance as to what to do. Indeed, design may have as much to contribute to ethical theory as vice versa. This essay builds connections between design and ethics, looking to the similarities of structure between wicked problems in design and those dilemmas that are of central concern in normative ethical theory. Understanding design and ethics in mutual terms, ethical questions in design need not be understood in terms of external limitations or trade-offs between competing priorities. Moreover, the way designers cope with the ethical challenges presented by wicked problems may inform how we approach complex ethical challenges in other contexts, including some of those that arise within ethical discourse itself.

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Ethics and Values in Design: A Structured Review and Theoretical Critique

Design Research as a Meta-discipline

Making Use of Design Principles

While in Rittel’s ( 1972 ) On the Planning Crisis the equivalent list has 11 entries, Rittel and Webber’s ( 1973 ) Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning merges the first two of the list.

Note that the basic criterion of viability will often still be tough to meet. Wicked problems may have no right answers, but they still have plenty of wrong ones.

This phrase recalls that of Paul Feyerabend ( 1970 , 1993 ) in his critique of scientific method. Rittel and Feyerabend were colleagues at UC Berkeley. On the parallels between their arguments, see Sweeting ( 2016a ).

On the relation between cybernetics and design, see also, e.g. Dubberly and Pangaro ( 2007 , 2015a , 2015b ), Fischer ( 2015 ), Fischer and Richards ( 2017 ), Furtado Cardoso Lopes ( 2008 , 2009 ), Gage ( 2006 , 2007 ), Glanville ( 2007a ), Glanville and Sweeting ( 2011 ), Herr ( 2015 ), Jonas ( 2007 , 2015 ), Krippendorff ( 2007 ), Krueger ( 2007 ), Pask ( 1969 ), Pratschke ( 2007 ), Ramsgard Thomsen ( 2007 ), and Sweeting ( 2015a , 2016a ).

While we can try to reach agreement, we will often abandon the attempt either through frustration or, alternatively, through the agreement to disagree (Pask, 1988 , p. 85).

“Delight” has been one of the key characteristics that architects try to achieve in their designs, as noted in the earliest surviving text on architecture, Vitruvius’ Ten Books on Architecture (I.iii.2, trans. 1624). Glanville often associates this with novelty (e.g. Glanville, 2007b , p. 1178). In this he follows Pask’s ( 1969 , 1971 ) approach to aesthetics, which stresses the importance of novelty or surprise value.

A notable exception to this is the work of Cedric Price. His prominent but unrealized Fun Palace project, to which Pask was a significant contributor, can be thought of as a proposal for an ongoing enquiry into its own purpose. Price regarded architecture as “too slow to be a problem solver” and sought to embed the design process in buildings themselves (Price, 2003 , p. 136).

Note, though, that the wickedness of wicked problems is not meant to imply any ethical wickedness but, rather, complexity (Rittel & Webber, 1973 , pp. 160–161).

Whitbeck ( 2011 ) has put forward a similar analogy in terms of the ill definition of design questions and practical ethical reasoning. My account here supports this view but takes a different path, looking to underlying parallels in terms of structure and addressing normative as well as applied ethics.

Consequentialism and deontology are not the only approaches to normative ethics. Alternatives such as virtue ethics, pragmatic ethics, or care ethics are more compatible with wicked problems. However, there still remains the issue that different approaches imply different responses and there is no way to resolve between them.

This aspect of von Foerster’s thinking, where domains of research are applied to themselves, has recently been re-emphasized under the heading of “second-order science” (Müller & Riegler, 2014 ; Riegler & Müller, 2014 , 2016 ).

While the conventions of architectural drawing can be rightly criticized in this context for their abstraction (e.g. Till, 2009 ), this is something addressable through the redesign of these conventions, the media in which they are presented and the way they are used.

Although Glanville ( 2004b ) does not place responsibility under conversation, his discussion of it in terms of other cybernetic processes is compatible with conversation.

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Acknowledgements

This essay has been developed from my doctoral research at The Bartlett, UCL, funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council and supervised by Neil Spiller and Ranulph Glanville (Sweeting, 2014 ). It has been refined through working papers presented during the Relating Systems Thinking and Design conferences in Banff and Toronto (Sweeting, 2015c , 2016b ), and I am grateful for all comments received in those sessions and for the sketchnotes made by Pupul Bisht and Linda Blaasvær. I would especially like to thank Wolfgang Jonas and Peter Jones for their helpful comments.

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Sweeting, B. (2018). Wicked Problems in Design and Ethics. In: Jones, P., Kijima, K. (eds) Systemic Design. Translational Systems Sciences, vol 8. Springer, Tokyo. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-55639-8_5

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Wicked Problems in Health Science

An undergraduate course offered by the School of Medicine and Psychology .

• Code HLTH3004
• Unit Value 6 units
• Offered by School of Medicine and Psychology
• ANU College ANU Joint Colleges of Science
• Course subject Health Science
• Areas of interest Health Medicine and the Body, Public Health, Health
• Academic career UGRD
• Christine Phillips
• Mode of delivery In Person
• Offered in Second Semester 2025 See Future Offerings
• STEM Course
• Critical Thinking
• Transdisciplinary

• Introduction

Learning Outcomes

Indicative assessment, inherent requirements, requisite and incompatibility, prescribed texts, preliminary reading, other information.

• Offerings and Dates

Wicked problems are complex, but not insoluble, problems that address important social and cultural issues. They require intensive cross-boundary collaboration to develop solutions to this problem, in this context, for this population. This course is designed to develop the ability of students to work together in a transdisciplinary fashion to understand the debates and challenges underpinning a selected wicked problem. Examples of wicked problems addressed in this course include antimicrobial resistance, anti-vaccination movements, effects of climate change on health, gender-based violence, and racial health disparities.

Students will learn to identify a wicked problem, and to articulate together different ways of understanding the wicked problem and possible approaches to solving. Skills developed will include dialogic methods to appreciate different disciplinary perspectives; problem-setting as a problem-solving approach; recognising emergent new wicked and tame problems. While learning about wicked problems, they will also be able to learn from a series of introductory lectures by experts describing exemplar wicked problems. Finally students will work in transdisciplinary groups to develop a contextualised approach to problem-solving for an assigned wicked problem.

Upon successful completion, students will have the knowledge and skills to:

• Critically and reflectively analyse a body of cognate literature as relevant to the assigned wicked problem and prioritise, synthesise and order such a body of work;
• Identify and communicate core ideas in key literature or other material on the assigned wicked problem to their peers;
• Plan and implement a research project;
• Communicate creatively and collaboratively to a relevant audience;
• Synthesise a problem and analyse relevant challenges to propose a solution.

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Oxford University Press's Academic Insights for the Thinking World

A duty of care? Archaeologists, wicked problems, and the future

Wicked Problems for Archaeologists: Heritage as Transformative Practice

This book demonstrates how archaeology can contribute to helping resolve some of the world's greatest challenges. It shows how archaeology can help address the ‘wicked’ problems of health and wellbeing and social injustice. It provides a novel framework for assessing the contemporary relevance of archaeology and cultural heritage practice.

• By John Schofield
• August 17 th 2024

Archaeology needs to stay relevant. To do so, it will need to change, but that won’t be simple given how much needs to change, and how many of the things that need changing are systemic, firmly embedded both within disciplinary traditions and practice and within society. In many parts of the world, archaeology remains deeply colonial for example. Many consider it to be exclusive and privileged, while others find it meaningless.

Let me focus on the last of these statements: that it is ‘meaningless’. My work confronts this opinion head on, aligning the study of archaeology with contemporary global challenges to not only demonstrate the subject’s relevance, but to proclaim its central position in discussions of planetary health and global security. Archaeologists have a long tradition of collaborating across disciplinary boundaries. However, to take that central position successfully and with credibility, we need to be even more concerted as well as creative in the professional relationships we form, and in the types of work that we do.

Many people still associate archaeology with the study of ancient human societies, investigated usually through excavation. This work remains vital in promoting new knowledge and insight, while giving time-depth to those contemporary debates around, for example, human adaptation to a changing climate. However, archaeology has outgrown this traditional definition. Archaeology also views the world as it exists now and as it will exist in the future, making it a contemporary and future-oriented discipline that is both vibrant, relevant, and necessary.

Archaeologists now view the contemporary world through those same lenses that archaeologists used to study the ancient past, providing both perspective and focus. In terms of perspective, these lenses allow archaeologists to look critically at the evidence they uncover and create interpretations of human behaviours through the traces people have left behind. For the contemporary world, archaeology has the ability to use this evidence to render the supposedly familiar unfamiliar, or to call into question those things that we take for granted. These lenses also allow us to focus on specific topics, themes or places, with the agility to close in on detail at a micro-scale, or to pan out to encompass the bigger picture. Archaeologists (ideally working with scholars from other disciplines) can then relate these different scales of investigation to one another in ways that improve our understanding of global challenges such as climate change.

In my research I refer to ‘wicked problems’, a term created in the 1960s to describe those tough (and possibly, ultimately irresolvable) global challenges that threaten planetary health, human health, and security. CAs well as climate change, environmental pollution, health and wellbeing, social injustice and conflict are examples of such problems which are generally ill-formulated, where the information is confusing, involving decision makers with conflicting values, and where the ramifications in the whole system are incredibly complex. The adjective ‘wicked’ describes the evil quality of these problems, where proposed solutions often turn out to be worse than the symptoms.

Yet, I am optimistic due to the novel ways that archaeology can contribute to tackling some of these world’s most wicked problems through adopting what psychologists have referred to as a small-wins framework. Studying the past in ways that are creative, bold, and interdisciplinary, can create significant ‘small wins’.

As teachers, archaeologists can ensure that students are prepared for a career in which duty of care is both encouraged and embraced.

I referred earlier to the need for archaeology to change. While there are many examples of successful small wins that address wicked problems, such as York Archaeology’s current Archaeology on Prescription project or Rachael Kiddey’s Heritage and Homelessness work , many archaeologists do not see how their work aligns with wicked problems. Some may even question whether it should. I believe that all archaeological work has the potential to align with wicked problems through this small wins framework and, furthermore, that archaeologists have an obligation, a duty of care, to create opportunities for small wins. This isn’t necessarily the same as demonstrating ‘impact’, a term all archaeologists who apply for research funding will be familiar with. Duty of care is a responsibility, and arguably one that all citizens should take, acknowledging that small wins matter while being realistic about what they can achieve.

As teachers, archaeologists can ensure that students are prepared for a career in which duty of care is both encouraged and embraced. One example of this might be a familiarity amongst archaeologists with the language of policymakers, an understanding of how practice informs policy, and where and how archaeology can contribute to policy-making. As archaeologists we can also learn to work more effectively with communities to co-produce projects and facilitate community-led programmes, while finding new ways to promote the valuable collaborative work that we do, and its social relevance, to new audiences.

Of course, archaeologists cannot change the world on their own. But with this unique set of lenses at our disposal, and using the small wins framework, we can make a difference.

Featured image by Fateme Alaie via Unsplash .

Professor John Schofield researches cultural heritage management and contemporary archaeology in the Archaeology Department, University of York (UK). Prior to this he worked for Historic England’s Characterisation Team, where he developed a particular interest in understanding people’s attachment to everyday places. John holds adjunct status at the universities of Turku (Finland), Flinders (Australia) and Griffith (Australia). He is Corresponding Fellow of the Australian Academy of the Humanities, a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London and a member of the Chartered Institute of Archaeologists. His most recent book, Wicked Problems for Archaeologists: Heritage as Transformative Practice , was published by Oxford University Press in May 2024.

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Plymouth man accused of murdering dad has mental health issues, mom told police

A Plymouth man arrested Thursday and charged with murder in the stabbing death of his father has been ordered held without bail.

Matthew Paluzzi, 26, was arraigned Friday in Plymouth Superior Court .

Police received a 911 call just before 6:30 a.m. Thursday from a woman who said she found her husband, 73-year-old Anthony Paluzzi, unresponsive and suffering from a laceration to his neck at their 15 Cedar St. home, according to Plymouth County District Attorney Tim Cruz.

Matthew Paluzzi was taken into custody in Hanover on Thursday, Aug. 15, a few hours after Plymouth police issued a public alert to be on the lookout for him and the black Nissan Murano he was driving. A driver in Kingston recognized Paluzzi's car from the alert, called police and followed him on Route 3, prosecutors said.

"The (911) caller reported a large kitchen knife on the floor nearby," Cruz said. "Preliminarily, it appears that Mr. Paluzzi died from a stab wound to the neck and/or other injuries."

An autopsy on Anthony Paluzzi was expected to take place Friday morning, Cruz said.

The 911 caller, Matthew Paluzzi's mother, Wendy, told police her son has a history of mental health issues that seemed to have deteriorated over the past month.

Prosecutors said a neighbor recalled an incident from a year ago when Matthew and Anthony Paluzzi were arguing loudly in front of the house, during which the neighbor said she heard Matthew Paluzzi threaten his father's life. Matthew Paluzzi's half-brother said he had told him at a family party that he couldn't wait until Anthony Paluzzi died.

Paluzzi was on probation at the time of his arrest for a 2020 incident in which officials in court said he threated a woman at an ATM, showing his gun and asking her if she wanted to die.

Police familiar with suspect: Matthew Paluzzi accused of threatening bank customer with gun

The court approved a motion from Paluzzi's lawyer for funds to hire a forensic psychologist. Paluzzi will be back in court Oct. 2 for a probable cause hearing.

David R. Smith covers breaking, trending and restaurant news for The Patriot Ledger. He can be reached at [email protected].

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‘3 body problem’ creators played a fake script prank on eiza gonzález using chatgpt.

David Benioff and Dan Weiss reveal a prank involving ChatGPT, a swimming pool and Pi that they played on the actress during the filming of season one.

By James Hibberd

James Hibberd

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Showrunners David Benioff and Dan Weiss have a history of playing pranks on actors that they particularly like and get along with.

During season one of Game of Thrones , they famously gave their handsome star Kit Harington a fake script where his character, Jon Snow, had his face burned off — and then told him he would spend the rest of the show looking like a ghoul.

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On their latest series, Netflix ‘s 3 Body Problem , the duo struck again.

During a forthcoming The Hollywood Reporter chat about their Emmy-nominated series, Benioff and Weiss — along with fellow showrunner Alexander Woo — reveal a prank that was played on Eiza González, who portrayed nanotech trailblazer Auggie on the show.

“We gave Eiza a monologue — a three-page monologue mostly written by ChatGPT, that she was supposed to learn the next day,” Weiss reveals.

Benioff says, “We had ChatGPT do it, then we had to go through it and make it seem like it could potentially be a screenplay.”

The monologue was about a swimming pool. Since one page roughly equals one minute of screen time, a three-page monologue basically means a three-minute speech — which can feel like an eternity for an actor on camera giving a solo soliloquy. But the speech wasn’t merely long and largely nonsensical, there was also this:

“It did involve her learning like 50 or 60 digits of Pi,” Weiss adds.

“Or, I think it did?” Benioff asks. “I don’t know Pi well enough to know.”

The prank didn’t go too far, however. Shortly after sending González the script, executive producer and fellow Thrones veteran Bernadette Caulfield stepped in and assured the actress that it was just a joke. Production on the show’s first season was long and arduous, and Caulfield apparently wasn’t having it.

So, fortunately for González, the scene was never filmed, and Benioff and Weiss say they never would have let it go that far anyway (as it would have meant putting an extra burden on the crew).

What’s particularly amusing about the prank is that Benioff and Weiss were also sort of parodying 3 Body Problem . A three-minute speech about a swimming pool written by AI that includes a famous (and endless) irrational number is bonkers, yes. But given that they were making a wildly audacious sci-fi series full of physics concepts , such a scene feels like the it-could-almost-happen Saturday Night Live version of their show.

Season one of 3 Body Problem is currently streaming on Netflix, and the full Benioff, Weiss and Woo interview will be published on THR.com later this week.

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Presented with rise in border crossings, Kamala Harris chose a long-term approach to the problem

FILE - Vice President Kamala Harris stands in front of mountains during a news conference, June 25, 2021, at the airport after her tour of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection Central Processing Center in El Paso, Texas. (AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin, File)

FILE - Vice President Kamala Harris, right, smiles as women speak to her about their businesses during a meeting with Guatemalan women entrepreneurs and innovators at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, June 7, 2021, in Guatemala City. (AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin, File)

FILE - Vice President Kamala Harris walks to board Air Force Two to return to Washington, Jan. 27, 2022, in Palmerola, Honduras. (Erin Schaff/The New York Times via AP, Pool, File)

FILE - Vice President Kamala Harris speaks to the media, June 8, 2021, at the Sofitel Mexico City Reforma in Mexico City. (AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin, File)

FILE - Vice President Kamala Harris and Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador wave from the balcony of the Eisenhower Executive Office Building on the White House complex in Washington, Nov. 18, 2021. (AP Photo/Susan Walsh, File)

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WASHINGTON (AP) — President Joe Biden , watching tens of thousands of migrants from Central America reach the U.S.-Mexico border just a few months into his administration, tapped his second-in-command to help address the influx — a decision that has exposed Vice President Kamala Harris to one of her biggest political liabilities.

In grappling with migration , Harris proceeded cautiously. She focused her time and prestige on boosting private investment in El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, the so-called Northern Triangle; her goal was to help create jobs to bolster economies and dissuade migrants from making the perilous journey to the United States.

It was a decidedly long-term — and limited — approach to a humanitarian crisis, and it has allowed Republicans to tie her to the broader fight over the border. While migration from the Northern Triangle ebbed, it surged from other nations, sparking an emergency at the U.S.-Mexico border, one that Republicans have aggressively sought to exploit at Harris’ expense.

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A review of Harris’ work on immigration reveals a record that is more nuanced than the one presented by her critics or allies. It also provides insights into how Harris — who took over as the Democratic standard-bearer when Biden dropped out of the presidential race last month — might tackle one of the nation’s most vexing concerns.

Harris was never the “border czar,” or put in charge of border security or halting illegal border crossings, as former President Donald Trump, Republicans and even the occasional media outlet have claimed. Instead, she was tasked in March 2021 with tackling the “root causes” of migration from the Northern Triangle and pushing its leaders — along with Mexico’s — to enforce immigration laws, administration officials said.

Harris’ backers say she demonstrated leadership by leveraging her stature to win investments that might curb migration years down the road.

Vice President Kamala Harris, right, smiles as women speak to her about their businesses during a meeting with Guatemalan women entrepreneurs and innovators at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, June 7, 2021, in Guatemala City. (AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin, File)

“She felt — and I think she was right — that what she could do the most was help basically lead the effort to draw in investment, using the confidence that a relationship with the White House would give to investors,” said Ricardo Zúniga, a former State Department official who specialized in the Northern Triangle and who traveled with Harris to the region.

Critics contend that she could have done far more but chose a less risky path, ensuring the problem only worsened.

“She was like, ‘nope, I’m just root causes,’’” said Mark Krikorian, executive director of the Center for Immigration Studies, which advocates for less immigration. “Even if it worked, it’s the sort of thing that takes generations, not one term.”

He also said there was no evidence that Harris pushed Mexico and the Northern Triangle nations to enforce immigration laws.

Harris has defended her work, and her campaign began running a television ad Friday that said Harris as president would “hire thousands more border agents and crack down on fentanyl and human trafficking.” Democrats have also blasted Trump for helping tank a bipartisan immigration bill earlier this year that would have increased funding for border security, including the hiring of new Customs and Border Protection personnel.

Trump “has been talking a big game on securing the border, but he does not walk the walk,” the vice president said last month in Atlanta . Later, she added, “Donald Trump does not care about border security. He only cares about himself.”

Immigration becomes a big political issue

Immigration has long been an issue that motivates Trump and his base of supporters, and polls show it is among the most important issues on the minds of voters. As a presidential candidate in 2016, Trump said he would build a wall along the border between the United States and Mexico and get Mexico to pay for it. Trump was not able to complete the project, and Mexico did not fund the part of the barrier that was constructed. The former president also used explosive language to describe immigrants, launching his campaign by suggesting Mexico was sending its “rapists” and criminals to the United States.

While in office, Trump sought to tightly restrict asylum, which was challenged in the courts. This time around, Trump has promised to oversee a “mass deportation” of migrants who have committed crimes in the United States.

Vice President Kamala Harris walks to board Air Force Two to return to Washington, Jan. 27, 2022, in Palmerola, Honduras. (Erin Schaff/The New York Times via AP, Pool, File)

Migration numbers have spiked and dropped during both presidencies. Border Patrol arrests on the southern border fell in Trump’s first year in office, then shot back up his next two, rising to more than 850,000 in 2019. The numbers plunged in 2020 during the coronavirus pandemic before rising even higher during Biden’s presidency, reaching a peak of more than 250,000 encounters in December 2023, before falling below 84,000 in June of 2024, federal statistics show.

When Biden took office, he reversed dozens of Trump’s moves on immigration even as apprehension numbers began to rise.

Harris was put in a ‘difficult spot’

Harris received the migration assignment when border crossings were rising, garnering considerable attention and leading to bipartisan calls for action.

Chris Newman, an immigration rights advocate in Los Angeles, said Harris was put in a difficult spot.

“She was tasked with developing a long-term policy framework rather than creating a short-term political performance project,” said Newman, the legal director of the National Day Laborer Organizing Network.

Biden and Harris had taken office only two months before, and Harris was under pressure to build her policy portfolio. When he was vice president, Biden had taken on a similar role on immigration. In 2021, though, Harris was dealing with an especially challenging situation given the lack of governing partners in the region. El Salvador’s new president, Nayib Bukele, had a fraught relationship with the administration due to human rights questions raised by his crackdown on crime in his nation. The man who was then president of Honduras has since been convicted of drug trafficking.

The headaches for Harris began almost immediately, validating the concerns of some on her team that it was a no-win assignment.

Harris traveled to Mexico and Guatemala in June 2021, where she defended the fact she had not been to the U.S.-Mexico border during an interview with NBC’s Lester Holt by saying she hadn’t “been to Europe. And I mean, I don’t … understand the point that you’re making.”

She also drew criticism on that trip for warning migrants bluntly: “Don’t come” to the U.S.

Harris decided to focus on bringing private investment to the region, tapping into a network of business and nonprofit executives and using the prestige of the White House to signal the Biden administration was backing this effort.

The work linked multinational companies — like Visa, Nestle and Meta — with smaller nonprofits and Latin American businesses, all of which pledged to increase their investments or bolster their work with at-risk communities.

Vice President Kamala Harris and Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador wave from the balcony of the Eisenhower Executive Office Building on the White House complex in Washington, Nov. 18, 2021. (AP Photo/Susan Walsh, File)

Focused on private investment

The Associated Press contacted all the nearly two dozen companies the White House touted as participants in the outreach effort. Some, like AgroAmerica, a sustainable food corporation, that pledged to invest more than $100 million in six new projects, reported their work had begun and they were on track to meet their investment goals. Others, including Columbia Sportswear Company, said they would likely surpass their pledges.

Most companies, however, either declined to comment or did not respond when asked about their efforts.

The vice president’s office has said Harris’ efforts have generated more than $5.2 billion in investment promises. In an illustration of how long it takes the promises to translate into concrete spending, the State Department reported that companies have plowed nearly $1.3 billion in the region as of June 2024, the bulk of it in Guatemala and Honduras.

“We are on track to exceed our commitments,” Peter Bragdon, a top executive at Columbia Sportswear Company, said of their promise to purchase up to $200 million in products from the region. That pledge would create nearly 7,000 jobs over five years, the company said. The executive called Harris’ efforts a “work in progress” but “a smart approach.”

Katie Tobin, who worked as the top migration adviser at the National Security Council for three years, credited Harris’ focus with spurring investment in reducing these numbers, arguing that Harris “was able to leverage her credibility” and the power of the White House to persuade companies to invest in “a risky investment environment.”

“That was very much Kamala Harris,” she added. “I have never seen something like that done before in this space and it made a real impact.”

Republican Sen. Rick Scott of Florida, a sharp critic of Harris, said the vice president and White House were taking credit for investments that would have been made anyway.

The companies are “not doing it because someone asked them to,” said Scott, who co-founded a major medical company. “They’re doing it because it makes economic sense.”

Addressed corruption

Harris also sought to address endemic corruption that has fueled migration from Central America. Before her 2021 trip to Guatemala, Harris met with a group of exiled Guatemalan prosecutors and judges in Washington.

Among them was Thelma Aldana, a former chief prosecutor who fled her country after what she said were politically motivated corruption charges.

“I came out of it convinced that she has a genuine interest in seeing things change in Central America,” Aldana said.

The vice president also deserves credit for helping stop Guatemala’s former president, Alejandro Giammattei, from overturning the 2023 election of his successor, Bernardo Arévalo, according to Luis Von Ahn, a U.S.-based technology entrepreneur from Guatemala.

“Giammattei didn’t want to leave power, the administration of Kamala Harris came and told him ’stop (messing) around,’” said Von Ahn, the founder of the language app Duolingo. “That’s a big help to Guatemala. If an extremely corrupt president doesn’t want to leave it’s terrible and (his exit) lets us be a better country.”

Verdict is out on Harris’ approach

While the Harris campaign and White House have pointed to statistics that show migration from Northern Triangle countries has dropped substantially since early 2021, there is debate over what is responsible for that drop.

Sen. Chris Murphy, D-Conn., said Harris and the administration deserve credit for the reduction because their efforts “worked.”

Independent analysts, however, said they were skeptical that Harris’ approach was responsible for the dip. They said the decrease was likely driven by regional factors, including the ascension of El Salvador’s new president and his aggressive drive to combat violent crime. His government reported a 70% drop in homicides in 2023.

Julia Gelatt, associate director of the Migration Policy Institute in Washington, said investment can take years to alter migration patterns — if it ever does.

“Even a whole lot of economic development doesn’t curb immigration in the way countries hope it will,” Gelatt said.

Riccardi reported from Denver. Associated Press writer Sonia Pérez D. in Guatemala City contributed to this story.

National Politics | Presented with rise in border crossings, Kamala…

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National Politics

National politics | presented with rise in border crossings, kamala harris chose a long-term approach to the problem.

WASHINGTON (AP) — President Joe Biden , watching tens of thousands of migrants from Central America reach the U.S.-Mexico border just a few months into his administration, tapped his second-in-command to help address the influx — a decision that has exposed Vice President Kamala Harris to one of her biggest political liabilities.

In grappling with migration , Harris proceeded cautiously. She focused her time and prestige on boosting private investment in El Salvador, Honduras and Guatemala, the so-called Northern Triangle; her goal was to help create jobs to bolster economies and dissuade migrants from making the perilous journey to the United States.

It was a decidedly long-term — and limited — approach to a humanitarian crisis, and it has allowed Republicans to tie her to the broader fight over the border. While migration from the Northern Triangle ebbed, it surged from other nations, sparking an emergency at the U.S.-Mexico border, one that Republicans have aggressively sought to exploit at Harris’ expense.

A review of Harris’ work on immigration reveals a record that is more nuanced than the one presented by her critics or allies. It also provides insights into how Harris — who took over as the Democratic standard-bearer when Biden dropped out of the presidential race last month — might tackle one of the nation’s most vexing concerns.

Harris was never the “border czar,” or put in charge of border security or halting illegal border crossings, as former President Donald Trump, Republicans and even the occasional media outlet have claimed. Instead, she was tasked in March 2021 with tackling the “root causes” of migration from the Northern Triangle and pushing its leaders — along with Mexico’s — to enforce immigration laws, administration officials said.

Harris’ backers say she demonstrated leadership by leveraging her stature to win investments that might curb migration years down the road.

“She felt — and I think she was right — that what she could do the most was help basically lead the effort to draw in investment, using the confidence that a relationship with the White House would give to investors,” said Ricardo Zúniga, a former State Department official who specialized in the Northern Triangle and who traveled with Harris to the region.

Critics contend that she could have done far more but chose a less risky path, ensuring the problem only worsened.

“She was like, ‘nope, I’m just root causes,’’” said Mark Krikorian, executive director of the Center for Immigration Studies, which advocates for less immigration. “Even if it worked, it’s the sort of thing that takes generations, not one term.”

He also said there was no evidence that Harris pushed Mexico and the Northern Triangle nations to enforce immigration laws.

Harris has defended her work, and her campaign began running a television ad Friday that said Harris as president would “hire thousands more border agents and crack down on fentanyl and human trafficking.” Democrats have also blasted Trump for helping tank a bipartisan immigration bill earlier this year that would have increased funding for border security, including the hiring of new Customs and Border Protection personnel.

Trump “has been talking a big game on securing the border, but he does not walk the walk,” the vice president said last month in Atlanta . Later, she added, “Donald Trump does not care about border security. He only cares about himself.”

FILE – Vice President Kamala Harris, right, smiles as women speak to her about their businesses during a meeting with Guatemalan women entrepreneurs and innovators at the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala, June 7, 2021, in Guatemala City. (AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin, File)

FILE – Vice President Kamala Harris speaks to the media, June 8, 2021, at the Sofitel Mexico City Reforma in Mexico City. (AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin, File)

FILE – Vice President Kamala Harris and Mexican President Andrés Manuel López Obrador wave from the balcony of the Eisenhower Executive Office Building on the White House complex in Washington, Nov. 18, 2021. (AP Photo/Susan Walsh, File)

Immigration becomes a big political issue

Immigration has long been an issue that motivates Trump and his base of supporters, and polls show it is among the most important issues on the minds of voters. As a presidential candidate in 2016, Trump said he would build a wall along the border between the United States and Mexico and get Mexico to pay for it. Trump was not able to complete the project, and Mexico did not fund the part of the barrier that was constructed. The former president also used explosive language to describe immigrants, launching his campaign by suggesting Mexico was sending its “rapists” and criminals to the United States.

While in office, Trump sought to tightly restrict asylum, which was challenged in the courts. This time around, Trump has promised to oversee a “mass deportation” of migrants who have committed crimes in the United States.

Migration numbers have spiked and dropped during both presidencies. Border Patrol arrests on the southern border fell in Trump’s first year in office, then shot back up his next two, rising to more than 850,000 in 2019. The numbers plunged in 2020 during the coronavirus pandemic before rising even higher during Biden’s presidency, reaching a peak of more than 250,000 encounters in December 2023, before falling below 84,000 in June of 2024, federal statistics show.

When Biden took office, he reversed dozens of Trump’s moves on immigration even as apprehension numbers began to rise.

Harris was put in a ‘difficult spot’

Harris received the migration assignment when border crossings were rising, garnering considerable attention and leading to bipartisan calls for action.

Chris Newman, an immigration rights advocate in Los Angeles, said Harris was put in a difficult spot.

“She was tasked with developing a long-term policy framework rather than creating a short-term political performance project,” said Newman, the legal director of the National Day Laborer Organizing Network.

Biden and Harris had taken office only two months before, and Harris was under pressure to build her policy portfolio. When he was vice president, Biden had taken on a similar role on immigration. In 2021, though, Harris was dealing with an especially challenging situation given the lack of governing partners in the region. El Salvador’s new president, Nayib Bukele, had a fraught relationship with the administration due to human rights questions raised by his crackdown on crime in his nation. The man who was then president of Honduras has since been convicted of drug trafficking.

The headaches for Harris began almost immediately, validating the concerns of some on her team that it was a no-win assignment.

Harris traveled to Mexico and Guatemala in June 2021, where she defended the fact she had not been to the U.S.-Mexico border during an interview with NBC’s Lester Holt by saying she hadn’t “been to Europe. And I mean, I don’t … understand the point that you’re making.”

She also drew criticism on that trip for warning migrants bluntly: “Don’t come” to the U.S.

Harris decided to focus on bringing private investment to the region, tapping into a network of business and nonprofit executives and using the prestige of the White House to signal the Biden administration was backing this effort.

The work linked multinational companies — like Visa, Nestle and Meta — with smaller nonprofits and Latin American businesses, all of which pledged to increase their investments or bolster their work with at-risk communities.

Focused on private investment

The Associated Press contacted all the nearly two dozen companies the White House touted as participants in the outreach effort. Some, like AgroAmerica, a sustainable food corporation, that pledged to invest more than $100 million in six new projects, reported their work had begun and they were on track to meet their investment goals. Others, including Columbia Sportswear Company, said they would likely surpass their pledges.

Most companies, however, either declined to comment or did not respond when asked about their efforts.

The vice president’s office has said Harris’ efforts have generated more than $5.2 billion in investment promises. In an illustration of how long it takes the promises to translate into concrete spending, the State Department reported that companies have plowed nearly $1.3 billion in the region as of June 2024, the bulk of it in Guatemala and Honduras.

“We are on track to exceed our commitments,” Peter Bragdon, a top executive at Columbia Sportswear Company, said of their promise to purchase up to $200 million in products from the region. That pledge would create nearly 7,000 jobs over five years, the company said. The executive called Harris’ efforts a “work in progress” but “a smart approach.”

Katie Tobin, who worked as the top migration adviser at the National Security Council for three years, credited Harris’ focus with spurring investment in reducing these numbers, arguing that Harris “was able to leverage her credibility” and the power of the White House to persuade companies to invest in “a risky investment environment.”

“That was very much Kamala Harris,” she added. “I have never seen something like that done before in this space and it made a real impact.”

Republican Sen. Rick Scott of Florida, a sharp critic of Harris, said the vice president and White House were taking credit for investments that would have been made anyway.

The companies are “not doing it because someone asked them to,” said Scott, who co-founded a major medical company. “They’re doing it because it makes economic sense.”

Addressed corruption

Harris also sought to address endemic corruption that has fueled migration from Central America. Before her 2021 trip to Guatemala, Harris met with a group of exiled Guatemalan prosecutors and judges in Washington.

Among them was Thelma Aldana, a former chief prosecutor who fled her country after what she said were politically motivated corruption charges.

“I came out of it convinced that she has a genuine interest in seeing things change in Central America,” Aldana said.

The vice president also deserves credit for helping stop Guatemala’s former president, Alejandro Giammattei, from overturning the 2023 election of his successor, Bernardo Arévalo, according to Luis Von Ahn, a U.S.-based technology entrepreneur from Guatemala.

“Giammattei didn’t want to leave power, the administration of Kamala Harris came and told him ’stop (messing) around,’” said Von Ahn, the founder of the language app Duolingo. “That’s a big help to Guatemala. If an extremely corrupt president doesn’t want to leave it’s terrible and (his exit) lets us be a better country.”

Verdict is out on Harris’ approach

While the Harris campaign and White House have pointed to statistics that show migration from Northern Triangle countries has dropped substantially since early 2021, there is debate over what is responsible for that drop.

Sen. Chris Murphy, D-Conn., said Harris and the administration deserve credit for the reduction because their efforts “worked.”

Independent analysts, however, said they were skeptical that Harris’ approach was responsible for the dip. They said the decrease was likely driven by regional factors, including the ascension of El Salvador’s new president and his aggressive drive to combat violent crime. His government reported a 70% drop in homicides in 2023.

Julia Gelatt, associate director of the Migration Policy Institute in Washington, said investment can take years to alter migration patterns — if it ever does.

“Even a whole lot of economic development doesn’t curb immigration in the way countries hope it will,” Gelatt said.

Riccardi reported from Denver. Associated Press writer Sonia Pérez D. in Guatemala City contributed to this story.

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