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What is case study research?

Last updated

8 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

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Suppose a company receives a spike in the number of customer complaints, or medical experts discover an outbreak of illness affecting children but are not quite sure of the reason. In both cases, carrying out a case study could be the best way to get answers.

Organization

Case studies can be carried out across different disciplines, including education, medicine, sociology, and business.

Most case studies employ qualitative methods, but quantitative methods can also be used. Researchers can then describe, compare, evaluate, and identify patterns or cause-and-effect relationships between the various variables under study. They can then use this knowledge to decide what action to take. 

Another thing to note is that case studies are generally singular in their focus. This means they narrow focus to a particular area, making them highly subjective. You cannot always generalize the results of a case study and apply them to a larger population. However, they are valuable tools to illustrate a principle or develop a thesis.

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• What are the different types of case study designs?

Researchers can choose from a variety of case study designs. The design they choose is dependent on what questions they need to answer, the context of the research environment, how much data they already have, and what resources are available.

Here are the common types of case study design:

Explanatory

An explanatory case study is an initial explanation of the how or why that is behind something. This design is commonly used when studying a real-life phenomenon or event. Once the organization understands the reasons behind a phenomenon, it can then make changes to enhance or eliminate the variables causing it. 

Here is an example: How is co-teaching implemented in elementary schools? The title for a case study of this subject could be “Case Study of the Implementation of Co-Teaching in Elementary Schools.”

Descriptive

An illustrative or descriptive case study helps researchers shed light on an unfamiliar object or subject after a period of time. The case study provides an in-depth review of the issue at hand and adds real-world examples in the area the researcher wants the audience to understand. 

The researcher makes no inferences or causal statements about the object or subject under review. This type of design is often used to understand cultural shifts.

Here is an example: How did people cope with the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami? This case study could be titled "A Case Study of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami and its Effect on the Indonesian Population."

Exploratory

Exploratory research is also called a pilot case study. It is usually the first step within a larger research project, often relying on questionnaires and surveys . Researchers use exploratory research to help narrow down their focus, define parameters, draft a specific research question , and/or identify variables in a larger study. This research design usually covers a wider area than others, and focuses on the ‘what’ and ‘who’ of a topic.

Here is an example: How do nutrition and socialization in early childhood affect learning in children? The title of the exploratory study may be “Case Study of the Effects of Nutrition and Socialization on Learning in Early Childhood.”

An intrinsic case study is specifically designed to look at a unique and special phenomenon. At the start of the study, the researcher defines the phenomenon and the uniqueness that differentiates it from others. 

In this case, researchers do not attempt to generalize, compare, or challenge the existing assumptions. Instead, they explore the unique variables to enhance understanding. Here is an example: “Case Study of Volcanic Lightning.”

This design can also be identified as a cumulative case study. It uses information from past studies or observations of groups of people in certain settings as the foundation of the new study. Given that it takes multiple areas into account, it allows for greater generalization than a single case study. 

The researchers also get an in-depth look at a particular subject from different viewpoints.  Here is an example: “Case Study of how PTSD affected Vietnam and Gulf War Veterans Differently Due to Advances in Military Technology.”

Critical instance

A critical case study incorporates both explanatory and intrinsic study designs. It does not have predetermined purposes beyond an investigation of the said subject. It can be used for a deeper explanation of the cause-and-effect relationship. It can also be used to question a common assumption or myth. 

The findings can then be used further to generalize whether they would also apply in a different environment.  Here is an example: “What Effect Does Prolonged Use of Social Media Have on the Mind of American Youth?”

Instrumental

Instrumental research attempts to achieve goals beyond understanding the object at hand. Researchers explore a larger subject through different, separate studies and use the findings to understand its relationship to another subject. This type of design also provides insight into an issue or helps refine a theory. 

For example, you may want to determine if violent behavior in children predisposes them to crime later in life. The focus is on the relationship between children and violent behavior, and why certain children do become violent. Here is an example: “Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure and Participation in Adult Crime.”

Evaluation case study design is employed to research the effects of a program, policy, or intervention, and assess its effectiveness and impact on future decision-making. 

For example, you might want to see whether children learn times tables quicker through an educational game on their iPad versus a more teacher-led intervention. Here is an example: “An Investigation of the Impact of an iPad Multiplication Game for Primary School Children.” 

• When do you use case studies?

Case studies are ideal when you want to gain a contextual, concrete, or in-depth understanding of a particular subject. It helps you understand the characteristics, implications, and meanings of the subject.

They are also an excellent choice for those writing a thesis or dissertation, as they help keep the project focused on a particular area when resources or time may be too limited to cover a wider one. You may have to conduct several case studies to explore different aspects of the subject in question and understand the problem.

• What are the steps to follow when conducting a case study?

1. Select a case

Once you identify the problem at hand and come up with questions, identify the case you will focus on. The study can provide insights into the subject at hand, challenge existing assumptions, propose a course of action, and/or open up new areas for further research.

2. Create a theoretical framework

While you will be focusing on a specific detail, the case study design you choose should be linked to existing knowledge on the topic. This prevents it from becoming an isolated description and allows for enhancing the existing information. 

It may expand the current theory by bringing up new ideas or concepts, challenge established assumptions, or exemplify a theory by exploring how it answers the problem at hand. A theoretical framework starts with a literature review of the sources relevant to the topic in focus. This helps in identifying key concepts to guide analysis and interpretation.

3. Collect the data

Case studies are frequently supplemented with qualitative data such as observations, interviews, and a review of both primary and secondary sources such as official records, news articles, and photographs. There may also be quantitative data —this data assists in understanding the case thoroughly.

4. Analyze your case

The results of the research depend on the research design. Most case studies are structured with chapters or topic headings for easy explanation and presentation. Others may be written as narratives to allow researchers to explore various angles of the topic and analyze its meanings and implications.

In all areas, always give a detailed contextual understanding of the case and connect it to the existing theory and literature before discussing how it fits into your problem area.

• What are some case study examples?

What are the best approaches for introducing our product into the Kenyan market?

How does the change in marketing strategy aid in increasing the sales volumes of product Y?

How can teachers enhance student participation in classrooms?

How does poverty affect literacy levels in children?

Case study topics

Case study of product marketing strategies in the Kenyan market

Case study of the effects of a marketing strategy change on product Y sales volumes

Case study of X school teachers that encourage active student participation in the classroom

Case study of the effects of poverty on literacy levels in children

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Research Paper Examples

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A Sample Research Paper on Child Abuse

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• Analytical Research Paper: This type focuses on analyzing different viewpoints represented in the scholarly literature or data. The author critically evaluates and interprets the information, aiming to provide a comprehensive understanding of the topic.
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• Experimental Research Paper: Often used in the sciences, this type documents the process, results, and implications of an experiment conducted by the author. It provides a detailed account of the methodology, data collected, analysis performed, and conclusions drawn.
• Survey Research Paper: This involves collecting data from a set of respondents about their opinions, behaviors, or characteristics. The paper analyzes this data to draw conclusions about the population from which the sample was drawn.
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• Cause and Effect Research Paper: It explores the reasons behind specific actions, events, or conditions and the consequences that follow. The goal is to establish a causal relationship between variables.
• Review Research Paper: This paper synthesizes existing research on a particular topic, offering a comprehensive analysis of the literature to identify trends, gaps, and consensus in the field.

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Psychology Research Paper Examples

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Sociology Research Paper Examples

The sociology research paper examples examine societal structures, relationships, and processes. These papers provide insights into social phenomena, inequality, and change.

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Technology Research Paper Examples

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Each category of research paper examples provided by iResearchNet serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers seeking to deepen their understanding of a specific field. By offering a comprehensive collection of well-researched and thoughtfully written papers, iResearchNet aims to support academic growth and encourage scholarly inquiry across diverse disciplines.

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A research paper is an academic piece of writing, so you need to follow all the requirements and standards. Otherwise, it will be impossible to get the high results. To make it easier for you, we have analyzed the structure and peculiarities of a sample research paper on the topic ‘Child Abuse’.

The paper includes 7300+ words, a detailed outline, citations are in APA formatting style, and bibliography with 28 sources.

To write any paper you need to write a great outline. This is the key to a perfect paper. When you organize your paper, it is easier for you to present the ideas logically, without jumping from one thought to another.

In the outline, you need to name all the parts of your paper. That is to say, an introduction, main body, conclusion, bibliography, some papers require abstract and proposal as well.

A good outline will serve as a guide through your paper making it easier for the reader to follow your ideas.

I. Introduction

Ii. estimates of child abuse: methodological limitations, iii. child abuse and neglect: the legalities, iv. corporal punishment versus child abuse, v. child abuse victims: the patterns, vi. child abuse perpetrators: the patterns, vii. explanations for child abuse, viii. consequences of child abuse and neglect, ix. determining abuse: how to tell whether a child is abused or neglected, x. determining abuse: interviewing children, xi. how can society help abused children and abusive families, introduction.

An introduction should include a thesis statement and the main points that you will discuss in the paper.

A thesis statement is one sentence in which you need to show your point of view. You will then develop this point of view through the whole piece of work:

‘The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood.’

Child abuse is a very real and prominent social problem today. The impact of child abuse affects more than one’s childhood, as the psychological and physical injuries often extend well into adulthood. Most children are defenseless against abuse, are dependent on their caretakers, and are unable to protect themselves from these acts.

Childhood serves as the basis for growth, development, and socialization. Throughout adolescence, children are taught how to become productive and positive, functioning members of society. Much of the socializing of children, particularly in their very earliest years, comes at the hands of family members. Unfortunately, the messages conveyed to and the actions against children by their families are not always the positive building blocks for which one would hope.

In 2008, the Children’s Defense Fund reported that each day in America, 2,421 children are confirmed as abused or neglected, 4 children are killed by abuse or neglect, and 78 babies die before their first birthday. These daily estimates translate into tremendous national figures. In 2006, caseworkers substantiated an estimated 905,000 reports of child abuse or neglect. Of these, 64% suffered neglect, 16% were physically abused, 9% were sexually abused, 7% were emotionally or psychologically maltreated, and 2% were medically neglected. In addition, 15% of the victims experienced “other” types of maltreatment such as abandonment, threats of harm to the child, and congenital drug addiction (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006). Obviously, this problem is a substantial one.

In the main body, you dwell upon the topic of your paper. You provide your ideas and support them with evidence. The evidence include all the data and material you have found, analyzed and systematized. You can support your point of view with different statistical data, with surveys, and the results of different experiments. Your task is to show that your idea is right, and make the reader interested in the topic.

In this example, a writer analyzes the issue of child abuse: different statistical data, controversies regarding the topic, examples of the problem and the consequences.

Several issues arise when considering the amount of child abuse that occurs annually in the United States. Child abuse is very hard to estimate because much (or most) of it is not reported. Children who are abused are unlikely to report their victimization because they may not know any better, they still love their abusers and do not want to see them taken away (or do not themselves want to be taken away from their abusers), they have been threatened into not reporting, or they do not know to whom they should report their victimizations. Still further, children may report their abuse only to find the person to whom they report does not believe them or take any action on their behalf. Continuing to muddy the waters, child abuse can be disguised as legitimate injury, particularly because young children are often somewhat uncoordinated and are still learning to accomplish physical tasks, may not know their physical limitations, and are often legitimately injured during regular play. In the end, children rarely report child abuse; most often it is an adult who makes a report based on suspicion (e.g., teacher, counselor, doctor, etc.).

Even when child abuse is reported, social service agents and investigators may not follow up or substantiate reports for a variety of reasons. Parents can pretend, lie, or cover up injuries or stories of how injuries occurred when social service agents come to investigate. Further, there is not always agreement about what should be counted as abuse by service providers and researchers. In addition, social service agencies/agents have huge caseloads and may only be able to deal with the most serious forms of child abuse, leaving the more “minor” forms of abuse unsupervised and unmanaged (and uncounted in the statistical totals).

While most laws about child abuse and neglect fall at the state levels, federal legislation provides a foundation for states by identifying a minimum set of acts and behaviors that define child abuse and neglect. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), which stems from the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003, defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, “(1) any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation; or (2) an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk or serious harm.”

Using these minimum standards, each state is responsible for providing its own definition of maltreatment within civil and criminal statutes. When defining types of child abuse, many states incorporate similar elements and definitions into their legal statutes. For example, neglect is often defined as failure to provide for a child’s basic needs. Neglect can encompass physical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary food or shelter, or lack of appropriate supervision), medical elements (e.g., failure to provide necessary medical or mental health treatment), educational elements (e.g., failure to educate a child or attend to special educational needs), and emotional elements (e.g., inattention to a child’s emotional needs, failure to provide psychological care, or permitting the child to use alcohol or other drugs). Failure to meet needs does not always mean a child is neglected, as situations such as poverty, cultural values, and community standards can influence the application of legal statutes. In addition, several states distinguish between failure to provide based on financial inability and failure to provide for no apparent financial reason.

Statutes on physical abuse typically include elements of physical injury (ranging from minor bruises to severe fractures or death) as a result of punching, beating, kicking, biting, shaking, throwing, stabbing, choking, hitting (with a hand, stick, strap, or other object), burning, or otherwise harming a child. Such injury is considered abuse regardless of the intention of the caretaker. In addition, many state statutes include allowing or encouraging another person to physically harm a child (such as noted above) as another form of physical abuse in and of itself. Sexual abuse usually includes activities by a parent or caretaker such as fondling a child’s genitals, penetration, incest, rape, sodomy, indecent exposure, and exploitation through prostitution or the production of pornographic materials.

Finally, emotional or psychological abuse typically is defined as a pattern of behavior that impairs a child’s emotional development or sense of self-worth. This may include constant criticism, threats, or rejection, as well as withholding love, support, or guidance. Emotional abuse is often the most difficult to prove and, therefore, child protective services may not be able to intervene without evidence of harm to the child. Some states suggest that harm may be evidenced by an observable or substantial change in behavior, emotional response, or cognition, or by anxiety, depression, withdrawal, or aggressive behavior. At a practical level, emotional abuse is almost always present when other types of abuse are identified.

Some states include an element of substance abuse in their statutes on child abuse. Circumstances that can be considered substance abuse include (a) the manufacture of a controlled substance in the presence of a child or on the premises occupied by a child (Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Montana, South Dakota, Tennessee, and Virginia); (b) allowing a child to be present where the chemicals or equipment for the manufacture of controlled substances are used (Arizona, New Mexico); (c) selling, distributing, or giving drugs or alcohol to a child (Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Minnesota, and Texas); (d) use of a controlled substance by a caregiver that impairs the caregiver’s ability to adequately care for the child (Kentucky, New York, Rhode Island, and Texas); and (e) exposure of the child to drug paraphernalia (North Dakota), the criminal sale or distribution of drugs (Montana, Virginia), or drug-related activity (District of Columbia).

One of the most difficult issues with which the U.S. legal system must contend is that of allowing parents the right to use corporal punishment when disciplining a child, while not letting them cross over the line into the realm of child abuse. Some parents may abuse their children under the guise of discipline, and many instances of child abuse arise from angry parents who go too far when disciplining their children with physical punishment. Generally, state statutes use terms such as “reasonable discipline of a minor,” “causes only temporary, short-term pain,” and may cause “the potential for bruising” but not “permanent damage, disability, disfigurement or injury” to the child as ways of indicating the types of discipline behaviors that are legal. However, corporal punishment that is “excessive,” “malicious,” “endangers the bodily safety of,” or is “an intentional infliction of injury” is not allowed under most state statutes (e.g., state of Florida child abuse statute).

Most research finds that the use of physical punishment (most often spanking) is not an effective method of discipline. The literature on this issue tends to find that spanking stops misbehavior, but no more effectively than other firm measures. Further, it seems to hinder rather than improve general compliance/obedience (particularly when the child is not in the presence of the punisher). Researchers have also explained why physical punishment is not any more effective at gaining child compliance than nonviolent forms of discipline. Some of the problems that arise when parents use spanking or other forms of physical punishment include the fact that spanking does not teach what children should do, nor does it provide them with alternative behavior options should the circumstance arise again. Spanking also undermines reasoning, explanation, or other forms of parental instruction because children cannot learn, reason, or problem solve well while experiencing threat, pain, fear, or anger. Further, the use of physical punishment is inconsistent with nonviolent principles, or parental modeling. In addition, the use of spanking chips away at the bonds of affection between parents and children, and tends to induce resentment and fear. Finally, it hinders the development of empathy and compassion in children, and they do not learn to take responsibility for their own behavior (Pitzer, 1997).

One of the biggest problems with the use of corporal punishment is that it can escalate into much more severe forms of violence. Usually, parents spank because they are angry (and somewhat out of control) and they can’t think of other ways to discipline. When parents are acting as a result of emotional triggers, the notion of discipline is lost while punishment and pain become the foci.

In 2006, of the children who were found to be victims of child abuse, nearly 75% of them were first-time victims (or had not come to the attention of authorities prior). A slight majority of child abuse victims were girls—51.5%, compared to 48% of abuse victims being boys. The younger the child, the more at risk he or she is for child abuse and neglect victimization. Specifically, the rate for infants (birth to 1 year old) was approximately 24 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The victimization rate for children 1–3 years old was 14 per 1,000 children of the same age group. The abuse rate for children aged 4– 7 years old declined further to 13 per 1,000 children of the same age group. African American, American Indian, and Alaska Native children, as well as children of multiple races, had the highest rates of victimization. White and Latino children had lower rates, and Asian children had the lowest rates of child abuse and neglect victimization. Regarding living arrangements, nearly 27% of victims were living with a single mother, 20% were living with married parents, while 22% were living with both parents but the marital status was unknown. (This reporting element had nearly 40% missing data, however.) Regarding disability, nearly 8% of child abuse victims had some degree of mental retardation, emotional disturbance, visual or hearing impairment, learning disability, physical disability, behavioral problems, or other medical problems. Unfortunately, data indicate that for many victims, the efforts of the child protection services system were not successful in preventing subsequent victimization. Children who had been prior victims of maltreatment were 96% more likely to experience another occurrence than those who were not prior victims. Further, child victims who were reported to have a disability were 52% more likely to experience recurrence than children without a disability. Finally, the oldest victims (16–21 years of age) were the least likely to experience a recurrence, and were 51% less likely to be victimized again than were infants (younger than age 1) (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

Child fatalities are the most tragic consequence of maltreatment. Yet, each year, children die from abuse and neglect. In 2006, an estimated 1,530 children in the United States died due to abuse or neglect. The overall rate of child fatalities was 2 deaths per 100,000 children. More than 40% of child fatalities were attributed to neglect, but physical abuse also was a major contributor. Approximately 78% of the children who died due to child abuse and neglect were younger than 4 years old, and infant boys (younger than 1) had the highest rate of fatalities at 18.5 deaths per 100,000 boys of the same age in the national population. Infant girls had a rate of 14.7 deaths per 100,000 girls of the same age (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

One question to be addressed regarding child fatalities is why infants have such a high rate of death when compared to toddlers and adolescents. Children under 1 year old pose an immense amount of responsibility for their caretakers: they are completely dependent and need constant attention. Children this age are needy, impulsive, and not amenable to verbal control or effective communication. This can easily overwhelm vulnerable parents. Another difficulty associated with infants is that they are physically weak and small. Injuries to infants can be fatal, while similar injuries to older children might not be. The most common cause of death in children less than 1 year is cerebral trauma (often the result of shaken-baby syndrome). Exasperated parents can deliver shakes or blows without realizing how little it takes to cause irreparable or fatal damage to an infant. Research informs us that two of the most common triggers for fatal child abuse are crying that will not cease and toileting accidents. Both of these circumstances are common in infants and toddlers whose only means of communication often is crying, and who are limited in mobility and cannot use the toilet. Finally, very young children cannot assist in injury diagnoses. Children who have been injured due to abuse or neglect often cannot communicate to medical professionals about where it hurts, how it hurts, and so forth. Also, nonfatal injuries can turn fatal in the absence of care by neglectful parents or parents who do not want medical professionals to possibly identify an injury as being the result of abuse.

Estimates reveal that nearly 80% of perpetrators of child abuse were parents of the victim. Other relatives accounted for nearly 7%, and unmarried partners of parents made up 4% of perpetrators. Of those perpetrators that were parents, over 90% were biological parents, 4% were stepparents, and 0.7% were adoptive parents. Of this group, approximately 58% of perpetrators were women and 42% were men. Women perpetrators are typically younger than men. The average age for women abusers was 31 years old, while for men the average was 34 years old. Forty percent of women who abused were younger than 30 years of age, compared with 33% of men being under 30. The racial distribution of perpetrators is similar to that of victims. Fifty-four percent were white, 21% were African American, and 20% were Hispanic/Latino (National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System, 2006).

There are many factors that are associated with child abuse. Some of the more common/well-accepted explanations are individual pathology, parent–child interaction, past abuse in the family (or social learning), situational factors, and cultural support for physical punishment along with a lack of cultural support for helping parents here in the United States.

The first explanation centers on the individual pathology of a parent or caretaker who is abusive. This theory focuses on the idea that people who abuse their children have something wrong with their individual personality or biological makeup. Such psychological pathologies may include having anger control problems; being depressed or having post-partum depression; having a low tolerance for frustration (e.g., children can be extremely frustrating: they don’t always listen; they constantly push the line of how far they can go; and once the line has been established, they are constantly treading on it to make sure it hasn’t moved. They are dependent and self-centered, so caretakers have very little privacy or time to themselves); being rigid (e.g., having no tolerance for differences—for example, what if your son wanted to play with dolls? A rigid father would not let him, laugh at him for wanting to, punish him when he does, etc.); having deficits in empathy (parents who cannot put themselves in the shoes of their children cannot fully understand what their children need emotionally); or being disorganized, inefficient, and ineffectual. (Parents who are unable to manage their own lives are unlikely to be successful at managing the lives of their children, and since many children want and need limits, these parents are unable to set them or adhere to them.)

Biological pathologies that may increase the likelihood of someone becoming a child abuser include having substance abuse or dependence problems, or having persistent or reoccurring physical health problems (especially health problems that can be extremely painful and can cause a person to become more self-absorbed, both qualities that can give rise to a lack of patience, lower frustration tolerance, and increased stress).

The second explanation for child abuse centers on the interaction between the parent and the child, noting that certain types of parents are more likely to abuse, and certain types of children are more likely to be abused, and when these less-skilled parents are coupled with these more difficult children, child abuse is the most likely to occur. Discussion here focuses on what makes a parent less skilled, and what makes a child more difficult. Characteristics of unskilled parents are likely to include such traits as only pointing out what children do wrong and never giving any encouragement for good behavior, and failing to be sensitive to the emotional needs of children. Less skilled parents tend to have unrealistic expectations of children. They may engage in role reversal— where the parents make the child take care of them—and view the parent’s happiness and well-being as the responsibility of the child. Some parents view the parental role as extremely stressful and experience little enjoyment from being a parent. Finally, less-skilled parents tend to have more negative perceptions regarding their child(ren). For example, perhaps the child has a different shade of skin than they expected and this may disappoint or anger them, they may feel the child is being manipulative (long before children have this capability), or they may view the child as the scapegoat for all the parents’ or family’s problems. Theoretically, parents with these characteristics would be more likely to abuse their children, but if they are coupled with having a difficult child, they would be especially likely to be abusive. So, what makes a child more difficult? Certainly, through no fault of their own, children may have characteristics that are associated with child care that is more demanding and difficult than in the “normal” or “average” situation. Such characteristics can include having physical and mental disabilities (autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], hyperactivity, etc.); the child may be colicky, frequently sick, be particularly needy, or cry more often. In addition, some babies are simply unhappier than other babies for reasons that cannot be known. Further, infants are difficult even in the best of circumstances. They are unable to communicate effectively, and they are completely dependent on their caretakers for everything, including eating, diaper changing, moving around, entertainment, and emotional bonding. Again, these types of children, being more difficult, are more likely to be victims of child abuse.

Nonetheless, each of these types of parents and children alone cannot explain the abuse of children, but it is the interaction between them that becomes the key. Unskilled parents may produce children that are happy and not as needy, and even though they are unskilled, they do not abuse because the child takes less effort. At the same time, children who are more difficult may have parents who are skilled and are able to handle and manage the extra effort these children take with aplomb. However, risks for child abuse increase when unskilled parents must contend with difficult children.

Social learning or past abuse in the family is a third common explanation for child abuse. Here, the theory concentrates not only on what children learn when they see or experience violence in their homes, but additionally on what they do not learn as a result of these experiences. Social learning theory in the context of family violence stresses that if children are abused or see abuse (toward siblings or a parent), those interactions and violent family members become the representations and role models for their future familial interactions. In this way, what children learn is just as important as what they do not learn. Children who witness or experience violence may learn that this is the way parents deal with children, or that violence is an acceptable method of child rearing and discipline. They may think when they become parents that “violence worked on me when I was a child, and I turned out fine.” They may learn unhealthy relationship interaction patterns; children may witness the negative interactions of parents and they may learn the maladaptive or violent methods of expressing anger, reacting to stress, or coping with conflict.

What is equally as important, though, is that they are unlikely to learn more acceptable and nonviolent ways of rearing children, interacting with family members, and working out conflict. Here it may happen that an adult who was abused as a child would like to be nonviolent toward his or her own children, but when the chips are down and the child is misbehaving, this abused-child-turned-adult does not have a repertoire of nonviolent strategies to try. This parent is more likely to fall back on what he or she knows as methods of discipline.

Something important to note here is that not all abused children grow up to become abusive adults. Children who break the cycle were often able to establish and maintain one healthy emotional relationship with someone during their childhoods (or period of young adulthood). For instance, they may have received emotional support from a nonabusing parent, or they received social support and had a positive relationship with another adult during their childhood (e.g., teacher, coach, minister, neighbor, etc.). Abused children who participate in therapy during some period of their lives can often break the cycle of violence. In addition, adults who were abused but are able to form an emotionally supportive and satisfying relationship with a mate can make the transition to being nonviolent in their family interactions.

Moving on to a fourth familiar explanation for child abuse, there are some common situational factors that influence families and parents and increase the risks for child abuse. Typically, these are factors that increase family stress or social isolation. Specifically, such factors may include receiving public assistance or having low socioeconomic status (a combination of low income and low education). Other factors include having family members who are unemployed, underemployed (working in a job that requires lower qualifications than an individual possesses), or employed only part time. These financial difficulties cause great stress for families in meeting the needs of the individual members. Other stress-inducing familial characteristics are single-parent households and larger family size. Finally, social isolation can be devastating for families and family members. Having friends to talk to, who can be relied upon, and with whom kids can be dropped off occasionally is tremendously important for personal growth and satisfaction in life. In addition, social isolation and stress can cause individuals to be quick to lose their tempers, as well as cause people to be less rational in their decision making and to make mountains out of mole hills. These situations can lead families to be at greater risk for child abuse.

Finally, cultural views and supports (or lack thereof) can lead to greater amounts of child abuse in a society such as the United States. One such cultural view is that of societal support for physical punishment. This is problematic because there are similarities between the way criminals are dealt with and the way errant children are handled. The use of capital punishment is advocated for seriously violent criminals, and people are quick to use such idioms as “spare the rod and spoil the child” when it comes to the discipline or punishment of children. In fact, it was not until quite recently that parenting books began to encourage parents to use other strategies than spanking or other forms of corporal punishment in the discipline of their children. Only recently, the American Academy of Pediatrics has come out and recommended that parents do not spank or use other forms of violence on their children because of the deleterious effects such methods have on youngsters and their bonds with their parents. Nevertheless, regardless of recommendations, the culture of corporal punishment persists.

Another cultural view in the United States that can give rise to greater incidents of child abuse is the belief that after getting married, couples of course should want and have children. Culturally, Americans consider that children are a blessing, raising kids is the most wonderful thing a person can do, and everyone should have children. Along with this notion is the idea that motherhood is always wonderful; it is the most fulfilling thing a woman can do; and the bond between a mother and her child is strong, glorious, and automatic—all women love being mothers. Thus, culturally (and theoretically), society nearly insists that married couples have children and that they will love having children. But, after children are born, there is not much support for couples who have trouble adjusting to parenthood, or who do not absolutely love their new roles as parents. People look askance at parents who need help, and cannot believe parents who say anything negative about parenthood. As such, theoretically, society has set up a situation where couples are strongly encouraged to have kids, are told they will love kids, but then society turns a blind or disdainful eye when these same parents need emotional, financial, or other forms of help or support. It is these types of cultural viewpoints that increase the risks for child abuse in society.

The consequences of child abuse are tremendous and long lasting. Research has shown that the traumatic experience of childhood abuse is life changing. These costs may surface during adolescence, or they may not become evident until abused children have grown up and become abusing parents or abused spouses. Early identification and treatment is important to minimize these potential long-term effects. Whenever children say they have been abused, it is imperative that they be taken seriously and their abuse be reported. Suspicions of child abuse must be reported as well. If there is a possibility that a child is or has been abused, an investigation must be conducted.

Children who have been abused may exhibit traits such as the inability to love or have faith in others. This often translates into adults who are unable to establish lasting and stable personal relationships. These individuals have trouble with physical closeness and touching as well as emotional intimacy and trust. Further, these qualities tend to cause a fear of entering into new relationships, as well as the sabotaging of any current ones.

Psychologically, children who have been abused tend to have poor self-images or are passive, withdrawn, or clingy. They may be angry individuals who are filled with rage, anxiety, and a variety of fears. They are often aggressive, disruptive, and depressed. Many abused children have flashbacks and nightmares about the abuse they have experienced, and this may cause sleep problems as well as drug and alcohol problems. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and antisocial personality disorder are both typical among maltreated children. Research has also shown that most abused children fail to reach “successful psychosocial functioning,” and are thus not resilient and do not resume a “normal life” after the abuse has ended.

Socially (and likely because of these psychological injuries), abused children have trouble in school, will have difficulty getting and remaining employed, and may commit a variety of illegal or socially inappropriate behaviors. Many studies have shown that victims of child abuse are likely to participate in high-risk behaviors such as alcohol or drug abuse, the use of tobacco, and high-risk sexual behaviors (e.g., unprotected sex, large numbers of sexual partners). Later in life, abused children are more likely to have been arrested and homeless. They are also less able to defend themselves in conflict situations and guard themselves against repeated victimizations.

Medically, abused children likely will experience health problems due to the high frequency of physical injuries they receive. In addition, abused children experience a great deal of emotional turmoil and stress, which can also have a significant impact on their physical condition. These health problems are likely to continue occurring into adulthood. Some of these longer-lasting health problems include headaches; eating problems; problems with toileting; and chronic pain in the back, stomach, chest, and genital areas. Some researchers have noted that abused children may experience neurological impairment and problems with intellectual functioning, while others have found a correlation between abuse and heart, lung, and liver disease, as well as cancer (Thomas, 2004).

Victims of sexual abuse show an alarming number of disturbances as adults. Some dislike and avoid sex, or experience sexual problems or disorders, while other victims appear to enjoy sexual activities that are self-defeating or maladaptive—normally called “dysfunctional sexual behavior”—and have many sexual partners.

Abused children also experience a wide variety of developmental delays. Many do not reach physical, cognitive, or emotional developmental milestones at the typical time, and some never accomplish what they are supposed to during childhood socialization. In the next section, these developmental delays are discussed as a means of identifying children who may be abused.

There are two primary ways of identifying children who are abused: spotting and evaluating physical injuries, and detecting and appraising developmental delays. Distinguishing physical injuries due to abuse can be difficult, particularly among younger children who are likely to get hurt or receive injuries while they are playing and learning to become ambulatory. Nonetheless, there are several types of wounds that children are unlikely to give themselves during their normal course of play and exploration. These less likely injuries may signal instances of child abuse.

While it is true that children are likely to get bruises, particularly when they are learning to walk or crawl, bruises on infants are not normal. Also, the back of the legs, upper arms, or on the chest, neck, head, or genitals are also locations where bruises are unlikely to occur during normal childhood activity. Further, bruises with clean patterns, like hand prints, buckle prints, or hangers (to name a few), are good examples of the types of bruises children do not give themselves.

Another area of physical injury where the source of the injury can be difficult to detect is fractures. Again, children fall out of trees, or crash their bikes, and can break limbs. These can be normal parts of growing up. However, fractures in infants less than 12 months old are particularly suspect, as infants are unlikely to be able to accomplish the types of movement necessary to actually break a leg or an arm. Further, multiple fractures, particularly more than one on a bone, should be examined more closely. Spiral or torsion fractures (when the bone is broken by twisting) are suspect because when children break their bones due to play injuries, the fractures are usually some other type (e.g., linear, oblique, compacted). In addition, when parents don’t know about the fracture(s) or how it occurred, abuse should be considered, because when children get these types of injuries, they need comfort and attention.

Head and internal injuries are also those that may signal abuse. Serious blows to the head cause internal head injuries, and this is very different from the injuries that result from bumping into things. Abused children are also likely to experience internal injuries like those to the abdomen, liver, kidney, and bladder. They may suffer a ruptured spleen, or intestinal perforation. These types of damages rarely happen by accident.

Burns are another type of physical injury that can happen by accident or by abuse. Nevertheless, there are ways to tell these types of burn injuries apart. The types of burns that should be examined and investigated are those where the burns are in particular locations. Burns to the bottom of the feet, genitals, abdomen, or other inaccessible spots should be closely considered. Burns of the whole hand or those to the buttocks are also unlikely to happen as a result of an accident.

Turning to the detection and appraisal of developmental delays, one can more readily assess possible abuse by considering what children of various ages should be able to accomplish, than by noting when children are delayed and how many milestones on which they are behind schedule. Importantly, a few delays in reaching milestones can be expected, since children develop individually and not always according to the norm. Nonetheless, when children are abused, their development is likely to be delayed in numerous areas and across many milestones.

As children develop and grow, they should be able to crawl, walk, run, talk, control going to the bathroom, write, set priorities, plan ahead, trust others, make friends, develop a good self-image, differentiate between feeling and behavior, and get their needs met in appropriate ways. As such, when children do not accomplish these feats, their circumstances should be examined.

Infants who are abused or neglected typically develop what is termed failure to thrive syndrome. This syndrome is characterized by slow, inadequate growth, or not “filling out” physically. They have a pale, colorless complexion and dull eyes. They are not likely to spend much time looking around, and nothing catches their eyes. They may show other signs of lack of nutrition such as cuts, bruises that do not heal in a timely way, and discolored fingernails. They are also not trusting and may not cry much, as they are not expecting to have their needs met. Older infants may not have developed any language skills, or these developments are quite slow. This includes both verbal and nonverbal means of communication.

Toddlers who are abused often become hypervigilant about their environments and others’ moods. They are more outwardly focused than a typical toddler (who is quite self-centered) and may be unable to separate themselves as individuals, or consider themselves as distinct beings. In this way, abused toddlers cannot focus on tasks at hand because they are too concerned about others’ reactions. They don’t play with toys, have no interest in exploration, and seem unable to enjoy life. They are likely to accept losses with little reaction, and may have age-inappropriate knowledge of sex and sexual relations. Finally, toddlers, whether they are abused or not, begin to mirror their parents’ behaviors. Thus, toddlers who are abused may mimic the abuse when they are playing with dolls or “playing house.”

Developmental delays can also be detected among abused young adolescents. Some signs include the failure to learn cause and effect, since their parents are so inconsistent. They have no energy for learning and have not developed beyond one- or two-word commands. They probably cannot follow complicated directions (such as two to three tasks per instruction), and they are unlikely to be able to think for themselves. Typically, they have learned that failure is totally unacceptable, but they are more concerned with the teacher’s mood than with learning and listening to instruction. Finally, they are apt to have been inadequately toilet trained and thus may be unable to control their bladders.

Older adolescents, because they are likely to have been abused for a longer period of time, continue to get further and further behind in their developmental achievements. Abused children this age become family nurturers. They take care of their parents and cater to their parents’ needs, rather than the other way around. In addition, they probably take care of any younger siblings and do the household chores. Because of these default responsibilities, they usually do not participate in school activities; they frequently miss days at school; and they have few, if any, friends. Because they have become so hypervigilant and have increasingly delayed development, they lose interest in and become disillusioned with education. They develop low self-esteem and little confidence, but seem old for their years. Children this age who are abused are still likely to be unable to control their bladders and may have frequent toileting accidents.

Other developmental delays can occur and be observed in abused and neglected children of any age. For example, malnutrition and withdrawal can be noticed in infants through teenagers. Maltreated children frequently have persistent or untreated illnesses, and these can become permanent disabilities if medical conditions go untreated for a long enough time. Another example can be the consequences of neurological damage. Beyond being a medical issue, this type of damage can cause problems with social behavior and impulse control, which, again, can be discerned in various ages of children.

Once child abuse is suspected, law enforcement officers, child protection workers, or various other practitioners may need to interview the child about the abuse or neglect he or she may have suffered. Interviewing children can be extremely difficult because children at various stages of development can remember only certain parts or aspects of the events in their lives. Also, interviewers must be careful that they do not put ideas or answers into the heads of the children they are interviewing. There are several general recommendations when interviewing children about the abuse they may have experienced. First, interviewers must acknowledge that even when children are abused, they likely still love their parents. They do not want to be taken away from their parents, nor do they want to see their parents get into trouble. Interviewers must not blame the parents or be judgmental about them or the child’s family. Beyond that, interviews should take place in a safe, neutral location. Interviewers can use dolls and role-play to help children express the types of abuse of which they may be victims.

Finally, interviewers must ask age-appropriate questions. For example, 3-year-olds can probably only answer questions about what happened and who was involved. Four- to five-year-olds can also discuss where the incidents occurred. Along with what, who, and where, 6- to 8-year-olds can talk about the element of time, or when the abuse occurred. Nine- to 10-year-olds are able to add commentary about the number of times the abuse occurred. Finally, 11-year-olds and older children can additionally inform interviewers about the circumstances of abusive instances.

A conclusion is not a summary of what a writer has already mentioned. On the contrary, it is the last point made. Taking every detail of the investigation, the researcher makes the concluding point. In this part of a paper, you need to put a full stop in your research. You need to persuade the reader in your opinion.

Never add any new information in the conclusion. You can present solutions to the problem and you dwell upon the results, but only if this information has been already mentioned in the main body.

Child advocates recommend a variety of strategies to aid families and children experiencing abuse. These recommendations tend to focus on societal efforts as well as more individual efforts. One common strategy advocated is the use of public service announcements that encourage individuals to report any suspected child abuse. Currently, many mandatory reporters (those required by law to report abuse such as teachers, doctors, and social service agency employees) and members of communities feel that child abuse should not be reported unless there is substantial evidence that abuse is indeed occurring. Child advocates stress that this notion should be changed, and that people should report child abuse even if it is only suspected. Public service announcements should stress that if people report suspected child abuse, the worst that can happen is that they might be wrong, but in the grander scheme of things that is really not so bad.

Child advocates also stress that greater interagency cooperation is needed. This cooperation should be evident between women’s shelters, child protection agencies, programs for at-risk children, medical agencies, and law enforcement officers. These agencies typically do not share information, and if they did, more instances of child abuse would come to the attention of various authorities and could be investigated and managed. Along these lines, child protection agencies and programs should receive more funding. When budgets are cut, social services are often the first things to go or to get less financial support. Child advocates insist that with more resources, child protection agencies could hire more workers, handle more cases, conduct more investigations, and follow up with more children and families.

Continuing, more educational efforts must be initiated about issues such as punishment and discipline styles and strategies; having greater respect for children; as well as informing the community about what child abuse is, and how to recognize it. In addition, Americans must alter the cultural orientation about child bearing and child rearing. Couples who wish to remain child-free must be allowed to do so without disdain. And, it must be acknowledged that raising children is very difficult, is not always gloriously wonderful, and that parents who seek help should be lauded and not criticized. These kinds of efforts can help more children to be raised in nonviolent, emotionally satisfying families, and thus become better adults.

Bibliography

When you write a paper, make sure you are aware of all the formatting requirements. Incorrect formatting can lower your mark, so do not underestimate the importance of this part.

Organizing your bibliography is quite a tedious and time-consuming task. Still, you need to do it flawlessly. For this reason, analyze all the standards you need to meet or ask professionals to help you with it. All the comas, colons, brackets etc. matter. They truly do.

Bibliography:

• American Academy of Pediatrics: https://www.aap.org/
• Bancroft, L., & Silverman, J. G. (2002). The batterer as parent. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act, 42 U.S.C.A. § 5106g (1998).
• Childhelp: Child Abuse Statistics: https://www.childhelp.org/child-abuse-statistics/
• Children’s Defense Fund: https://www.childrensdefense.org/
• Child Stats.gov: https://www.childstats.gov/
• Child Welfare League of America: https://www.cwla.org/
• Crosson-Tower, C. (2008). Understanding child abuse and neglect (7th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
• DeBecker, G. (1999). Protecting the gift: Keeping children and teenagers safe (and parents sane). New York: Bantam Dell.
• Family Research Laboratory at the University of New Hampshire: https://cola.unh.edu/family-research-laboratory
• Guterman, N. B. (2001). Stopping child maltreatment before it starts: Emerging horizons in early home visitation services. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
• Herman, J. L. (2000). Father-daughter incest. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Medline Plus, Child Abuse: https://medlineplus.gov/childabuse.html
• Myers, J. E. B. (Ed.). (1994). The backlash: Child protection under fire. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
• National Center for Missing and Exploited Children: https://www.missingkids.org/home
• National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. (2006). Child maltreatment 2006: Reports from the states to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families.
• New York University Silver School of Social Work: https://socialwork.nyu.edu/
• Pitzer, R. L. (1997). Corporal punishment in the discipline of children in the home: Research update for practitioners. Paper presented at the National Council on Family Relations Annual Conference, Washington, DC.
• RAND, Child Abuse and Neglect: https://www.rand.org/topics/child-abuse-and-neglect.html
• Richards, C. E. (2001). The loss of innocents: Child killers and their victims. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources.
• Straus, M. A. (2001). Beating the devil out of them: Corporal punishment in American families and its effects on children. Edison, NJ: Transaction.
• Thomas, P. M. (2004). Protection, dissociation, and internal roles: Modeling and treating the effects of child abuse. Review of General Psychology, 7(15).
• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

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Research Design | Step-by-Step Guide with Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 20 March 2023.

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question  using empirical data. Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall aims and approach
• The type of research design you’ll use
• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects
• Your data collection methods
• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
• Your data analysis methods

A well-planned research design helps ensure that your methods match your research aims and that you use the right kind of analysis for your data.

Table of contents

Step 1: consider your aims and approach, step 2: choose a type of research design, step 3: identify your population and sampling method, step 4: choose your data collection methods, step 5: plan your data collection procedures, step 6: decide on your data analysis strategies, frequently asked questions.

• Introduction

Before you can start designing your research, you should already have a clear idea of the research question you want to investigate.

There are many different ways you could go about answering this question. Your research design choices should be driven by your aims and priorities – start by thinking carefully about what you want to achieve.

The first choice you need to make is whether you’ll take a qualitative or quantitative approach.

Qualitative research designs tend to be more flexible and inductive , allowing you to adjust your approach based on what you find throughout the research process.

Quantitative research designs tend to be more fixed and deductive , with variables and hypotheses clearly defined in advance of data collection.

It’s also possible to use a mixed methods design that integrates aspects of both approaches. By combining qualitative and quantitative insights, you can gain a more complete picture of the problem you’re studying and strengthen the credibility of your conclusions.

Practical and ethical considerations when designing research

As well as scientific considerations, you need to think practically when designing your research. If your research involves people or animals, you also need to consider research ethics .

• How much time do you have to collect data and write up the research?
• Will you be able to gain access to the data you need (e.g., by travelling to a specific location or contacting specific people)?
• Do you have the necessary research skills (e.g., statistical analysis or interview techniques)?
• Will you need ethical approval ?

At each stage of the research design process, make sure that your choices are practically feasible.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Within both qualitative and quantitative approaches, there are several types of research design to choose from. Each type provides a framework for the overall shape of your research.

Types of quantitative research designs

Quantitative designs can be split into four main types. Experimental and   quasi-experimental designs allow you to test cause-and-effect relationships, while descriptive and correlational designs allow you to measure variables and describe relationships between them.

With descriptive and correlational designs, you can get a clear picture of characteristics, trends, and relationships as they exist in the real world. However, you can’t draw conclusions about cause and effect (because correlation doesn’t imply causation ).

Experiments are the strongest way to test cause-and-effect relationships without the risk of other variables influencing the results. However, their controlled conditions may not always reflect how things work in the real world. They’re often also more difficult and expensive to implement.

Types of qualitative research designs

Qualitative designs are less strictly defined. This approach is about gaining a rich, detailed understanding of a specific context or phenomenon, and you can often be more creative and flexible in designing your research.

The table below shows some common types of qualitative design. They often have similar approaches in terms of data collection, but focus on different aspects when analysing the data.

Your research design should clearly define who or what your research will focus on, and how you’ll go about choosing your participants or subjects.

In research, a population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about, while a sample is the smaller group of individuals you’ll actually collect data from.

Defining the population

A population can be made up of anything you want to study – plants, animals, organisations, texts, countries, etc. In the social sciences, it most often refers to a group of people.

For example, will you focus on people from a specific demographic, region, or background? Are you interested in people with a certain job or medical condition, or users of a particular product?

The more precisely you define your population, the easier it will be to gather a representative sample.

Sampling methods

Even with a narrowly defined population, it’s rarely possible to collect data from every individual. Instead, you’ll collect data from a sample.

To select a sample, there are two main approaches: probability sampling and non-probability sampling . The sampling method you use affects how confidently you can generalise your results to the population as a whole.

Probability sampling is the most statistically valid option, but it’s often difficult to achieve unless you’re dealing with a very small and accessible population.

For practical reasons, many studies use non-probability sampling, but it’s important to be aware of the limitations and carefully consider potential biases. You should always make an effort to gather a sample that’s as representative as possible of the population.

Case selection in qualitative research

In some types of qualitative designs, sampling may not be relevant.

For example, in an ethnography or a case study, your aim is to deeply understand a specific context, not to generalise to a population. Instead of sampling, you may simply aim to collect as much data as possible about the context you are studying.

In these types of design, you still have to carefully consider your choice of case or community. You should have a clear rationale for why this particular case is suitable for answering your research question.

For example, you might choose a case study that reveals an unusual or neglected aspect of your research problem, or you might choose several very similar or very different cases in order to compare them.

Data collection methods are ways of directly measuring variables and gathering information. They allow you to gain first-hand knowledge and original insights into your research problem.

You can choose just one data collection method, or use several methods in the same study.

Survey methods

Surveys allow you to collect data about opinions, behaviours, experiences, and characteristics by asking people directly. There are two main survey methods to choose from: questionnaires and interviews.

Observation methods

Observations allow you to collect data unobtrusively, observing characteristics, behaviours, or social interactions without relying on self-reporting.

Observations may be conducted in real time, taking notes as you observe, or you might make audiovisual recordings for later analysis. They can be qualitative or quantitative.

Other methods of data collection

There are many other ways you might collect data depending on your field and topic.

If you’re not sure which methods will work best for your research design, try reading some papers in your field to see what data collection methods they used.

Secondary data

If you don’t have the time or resources to collect data from the population you’re interested in, you can also choose to use secondary data that other researchers already collected – for example, datasets from government surveys or previous studies on your topic.

With this raw data, you can do your own analysis to answer new research questions that weren’t addressed by the original study.

Using secondary data can expand the scope of your research, as you may be able to access much larger and more varied samples than you could collect yourself.

However, it also means you don’t have any control over which variables to measure or how to measure them, so the conclusions you can draw may be limited.

As well as deciding on your methods, you need to plan exactly how you’ll use these methods to collect data that’s consistent, accurate, and unbiased.

Planning systematic procedures is especially important in quantitative research, where you need to precisely define your variables and ensure your measurements are reliable and valid.

Operationalisation

Some variables, like height or age, are easily measured. But often you’ll be dealing with more abstract concepts, like satisfaction, anxiety, or competence. Operationalisation means turning these fuzzy ideas into measurable indicators.

If you’re using observations , which events or actions will you count?

If you’re using surveys , which questions will you ask and what range of responses will be offered?

You may also choose to use or adapt existing materials designed to measure the concept you’re interested in – for example, questionnaires or inventories whose reliability and validity has already been established.

Reliability and validity

Reliability means your results can be consistently reproduced , while validity means that you’re actually measuring the concept you’re interested in.

For valid and reliable results, your measurement materials should be thoroughly researched and carefully designed. Plan your procedures to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each participant.

If you’re developing a new questionnaire or other instrument to measure a specific concept, running a pilot study allows you to check its validity and reliability in advance.

Sampling procedures

As well as choosing an appropriate sampling method, you need a concrete plan for how you’ll actually contact and recruit your selected sample.

That means making decisions about things like:

• How many participants do you need for an adequate sample size?
• What inclusion and exclusion criteria will you use to identify eligible participants?
• How will you contact your sample – by mail, online, by phone, or in person?

If you’re using a probability sampling method, it’s important that everyone who is randomly selected actually participates in the study. How will you ensure a high response rate?

If you’re using a non-probability method, how will you avoid bias and ensure a representative sample?

Data management

It’s also important to create a data management plan for organising and storing your data.

Will you need to transcribe interviews or perform data entry for observations? You should anonymise and safeguard any sensitive data, and make sure it’s backed up regularly.

Keeping your data well organised will save time when it comes to analysing them. It can also help other researchers validate and add to your findings.

On their own, raw data can’t answer your research question. The last step of designing your research is planning how you’ll analyse the data.

Quantitative data analysis

In quantitative research, you’ll most likely use some form of statistical analysis . With statistics, you can summarise your sample data, make estimates, and test hypotheses.

Using descriptive statistics , you can summarise your sample data in terms of:

• The distribution of the data (e.g., the frequency of each score on a test)
• The central tendency of the data (e.g., the mean to describe the average score)
• The variability of the data (e.g., the standard deviation to describe how spread out the scores are)

The specific calculations you can do depend on the level of measurement of your variables.

Using inferential statistics , you can:

• Make estimates about the population based on your sample data.
• Test hypotheses about a relationship between variables.

Regression and correlation tests look for associations between two or more variables, while comparison tests (such as t tests and ANOVAs ) look for differences in the outcomes of different groups.

Your choice of statistical test depends on various aspects of your research design, including the types of variables you’re dealing with and the distribution of your data.

Qualitative data analysis

In qualitative research, your data will usually be very dense with information and ideas. Instead of summing it up in numbers, you’ll need to comb through the data in detail, interpret its meanings, identify patterns, and extract the parts that are most relevant to your research question.

Two of the most common approaches to doing this are thematic analysis and discourse analysis .

There are many other ways of analysing qualitative data depending on the aims of your research. To get a sense of potential approaches, try reading some qualitative research papers in your field.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population. Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research.

For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

Statistical sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population. There are various sampling methods you can use to ensure that your sample is representative of the population as a whole.

Operationalisation means turning abstract conceptual ideas into measurable observations.

For example, the concept of social anxiety isn’t directly observable, but it can be operationally defined in terms of self-rating scores, behavioural avoidance of crowded places, or physical anxiety symptoms in social situations.

Before collecting data , it’s important to consider how you will operationalise the variables that you want to measure.

The research methods you use depend on the type of data you need to answer your research question .

• If you want to measure something or test a hypothesis , use quantitative methods . If you want to explore ideas, thoughts, and meanings, use qualitative methods .
• If you want to analyse a large amount of readily available data, use secondary data. If you want data specific to your purposes with control over how they are generated, collect primary data.
• If you want to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables , use experimental methods. If you want to understand the characteristics of a research subject, use descriptive methods.

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Home » Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

Research Methods – Types, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

Research Methods

Definition:

Research Methods refer to the techniques, procedures, and processes used by researchers to collect , analyze, and interpret data in order to answer research questions or test hypotheses. The methods used in research can vary depending on the research questions, the type of data that is being collected, and the research design.

Types of Research Methods

Types of Research Methods are as follows:

Qualitative research Method

Qualitative research methods are used to collect and analyze non-numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to explore the meaning of phenomena, understand the experiences of individuals, or gain insights into complex social processes. Qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, ethnography, and content analysis.

Quantitative Research Method

Quantitative research methods are used to collect and analyze numerical data. This type of research is useful when the objective is to test a hypothesis, determine cause-and-effect relationships, and measure the prevalence of certain phenomena. Quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, and secondary data analysis.

Mixed Method Research

Mixed Method Research refers to the combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study. This approach aims to overcome the limitations of each individual method and to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. This approach allows researchers to gather both quantitative data, which is often used to test hypotheses and make generalizations about a population, and qualitative data, which provides a more in-depth understanding of the experiences and perspectives of individuals.

Key Differences Between Research Methods

The following Table shows the key differences between Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Research Methods

Examples of Research Methods

Examples of Research Methods are as follows:

Qualitative Research Example:

A researcher wants to study the experience of cancer patients during their treatment. They conduct in-depth interviews with patients to gather data on their emotional state, coping mechanisms, and support systems.

Quantitative Research Example:

A company wants to determine the effectiveness of a new advertisement campaign. They survey a large group of people, asking them to rate their awareness of the product and their likelihood of purchasing it.

Mixed Research Example:

A university wants to evaluate the effectiveness of a new teaching method in improving student performance. They collect both quantitative data (such as test scores) and qualitative data (such as feedback from students and teachers) to get a complete picture of the impact of the new method.

Applications of Research Methods

Research methods are used in various fields to investigate, analyze, and answer research questions. Here are some examples of how research methods are applied in different fields:

• Psychology : Research methods are widely used in psychology to study human behavior, emotions, and mental processes. For example, researchers may use experiments, surveys, and observational studies to understand how people behave in different situations, how they respond to different stimuli, and how their brains process information.
• Sociology : Sociologists use research methods to study social phenomena, such as social inequality, social change, and social relationships. Researchers may use surveys, interviews, and observational studies to collect data on social attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
• Medicine : Research methods are essential in medical research to study diseases, test new treatments, and evaluate their effectiveness. Researchers may use clinical trials, case studies, and laboratory experiments to collect data on the efficacy and safety of different medical treatments.
• Education : Research methods are used in education to understand how students learn, how teachers teach, and how educational policies affect student outcomes. Researchers may use surveys, experiments, and observational studies to collect data on student performance, teacher effectiveness, and educational programs.
• Business : Research methods are used in business to understand consumer behavior, market trends, and business strategies. Researchers may use surveys, focus groups, and observational studies to collect data on consumer preferences, market trends, and industry competition.
• Environmental science : Research methods are used in environmental science to study the natural world and its ecosystems. Researchers may use field studies, laboratory experiments, and observational studies to collect data on environmental factors, such as air and water quality, and the impact of human activities on the environment.
• Political science : Research methods are used in political science to study political systems, institutions, and behavior. Researchers may use surveys, experiments, and observational studies to collect data on political attitudes, voting behavior, and the impact of policies on society.

Purpose of Research Methods

Research methods serve several purposes, including:

• Identify research problems: Research methods are used to identify research problems or questions that need to be addressed through empirical investigation.
• Develop hypotheses: Research methods help researchers develop hypotheses, which are tentative explanations for the observed phenomenon or relationship.
• Collect data: Research methods enable researchers to collect data in a systematic and objective way, which is necessary to test hypotheses and draw meaningful conclusions.
• Analyze data: Research methods provide tools and techniques for analyzing data, such as statistical analysis, content analysis, and discourse analysis.
• Test hypotheses: Research methods allow researchers to test hypotheses by examining the relationships between variables in a systematic and controlled manner.
• Draw conclusions : Research methods facilitate the drawing of conclusions based on empirical evidence and help researchers make generalizations about a population based on their sample data.
• Enhance understanding: Research methods contribute to the development of knowledge and enhance our understanding of various phenomena and relationships, which can inform policy, practice, and theory.

When to Use Research Methods

Research methods are used when you need to gather information or data to answer a question or to gain insights into a particular phenomenon.

Here are some situations when research methods may be appropriate:

• To investigate a problem : Research methods can be used to investigate a problem or a research question in a particular field. This can help in identifying the root cause of the problem and developing solutions.
• To gather data: Research methods can be used to collect data on a particular subject. This can be done through surveys, interviews, observations, experiments, and more.
• To evaluate programs : Research methods can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of a program, intervention, or policy. This can help in determining whether the program is meeting its goals and objectives.
• To explore new areas : Research methods can be used to explore new areas of inquiry or to test new hypotheses. This can help in advancing knowledge in a particular field.
• To make informed decisions : Research methods can be used to gather information and data to support informed decision-making. This can be useful in various fields such as healthcare, business, and education.

Advantages of Research Methods

Research methods provide several advantages, including:

• Objectivity : Research methods enable researchers to gather data in a systematic and objective manner, minimizing personal biases and subjectivity. This leads to more reliable and valid results.
• Replicability : A key advantage of research methods is that they allow for replication of studies by other researchers. This helps to confirm the validity of the findings and ensures that the results are not specific to the particular research team.
• Generalizability : Research methods enable researchers to gather data from a representative sample of the population, allowing for generalizability of the findings to a larger population. This increases the external validity of the research.
• Precision : Research methods enable researchers to gather data using standardized procedures, ensuring that the data is accurate and precise. This allows researchers to make accurate predictions and draw meaningful conclusions.
• Efficiency : Research methods enable researchers to gather data efficiently, saving time and resources. This is especially important when studying large populations or complex phenomena.
• Innovation : Research methods enable researchers to develop new techniques and tools for data collection and analysis, leading to innovation and advancement in the field.

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What is a research sample: definition, types & examples..

Home » What is a Research Sample: Definition, Types & Examples.

In the realm of research, understanding the research sample is critical for drawing valid conclusions. A study's findings hinge on the quality and relevance of the sample selected, which represents the larger population being studied. By evaluating different attributes such as demographics and characteristics, researchers can ensure a more accurate reflection of the entire group.

The Research Sample Overview provides insights into various sample types, including random, stratified, and convenience samples. Each type serves specific research needs, ensuring that the data gathered aligns with the study's objectives. Understanding these intricacies helps in shaping effective research strategies and ultimately achieving reliable results.

Understanding Research Samples

Understanding research samples is crucial for gathering accurate and meaningful data in any study. A research sample serves as a representative subset of a larger population, allowing researchers to make inferences without surveying every individual. Accurately selecting a sample ensures that findings can be generalized and applied effectively.

There are several important types of research samples used in studies. Convenience samples involve selecting individuals who are easily accessible, while random samples ensure that every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen. Stratified samples, on the other hand, involve dividing the population into subgroups and sampling from each to capture diverse perspectives. Each sampling method has its strengths and weaknesses, influencing the reliability and applicability of the results. Understanding these methods enhances a researcher's ability to design effective studies and make data-driven decisions.

Definition: Research Sample Overview

A research sample overview provides a foundational understanding of how researchers select a subset from a larger population for analysis. This approach helps to gather insights and draw conclusions about the entire group based on data from this smaller segment. Understanding the research sample is crucial as it influences the reliability and applicability of the study's findings.

When defining a research sample, various concepts come into play, including the sampling methods and population characteristics. Researchers can choose from probability sampling, where every individual has a known chance of being selected, or non-probability sampling, which does not guarantee equal chances. Other factors, such as sample size and diversity, also affect the quality of the insights. Ultimately, a well-defined research sample overview enhances the credibility and effectiveness of research outcomes, making it an essential element in the research process.

Importance and Purpose of Research Samples

Research samples play a crucial role in the research process, as they provide insights into larger populations. The importance of a well-defined research sample lies in its ability to enhance the reliability and validity of findings. By selecting a representative subset of individuals or items, researchers can draw meaningful conclusions applicable to the entire group. This ultimately informs decision-making and drives evidence-based practices across various fields.

The purpose of research samples extends beyond mere data collection. They enable researchers to explore relationships, test hypotheses, and identify trends without necessitating extensive resources. Effective research samples can significantly enhance the quality of insights, particularly in market research, social sciences, and healthcare studies. By understanding the importance and purpose of research samples, stakeholders can better appreciate the deliberate steps taken to ensure data integrity and relevance in their research endeavors.

Types of Research Samples: An Overview

In every research endeavor, understanding the types of research samples is crucial. Various research sample types help researchers realistically represent their target populations, enhancing the reliability and validity of their findings. The primary sample categories include random, stratified, systematic, and convenience samples. Each type has its unique characteristics and is suited for specific research objectives, making it essential for researchers to select appropriately based on their study's goals and context.

Random samples guarantee that every individual has an equal chance of selection, minimizing biases. Stratified samples allow researchers to ensure representation across distinct subgroups, while systematic samples involve selecting every nth member from a list. Convenience samples, on the other hand, leverage easily accessible subjects, though they may introduce biases. Understanding these sample types not only aids in effective research design but also empowers researchers to draw credible conclusions from their studies.

Probability Sampling Methods

Probability sampling methods are essential tools in research design. They ensure that every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for a research sample. This randomness lends credibility to the findings, as it minimizes biases that can distort results. For effective probability sampling, researchers typically employ techniques like simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.

Each method serves a unique purpose. In simple random sampling, every individual has the same chance of selection, allowing for generalization from a small group to a larger population. Systematic sampling involves selecting samples at regular intervals, which can enhance efficiency. Stratified sampling ensures representation across different segments of a population, making it particularly useful in heterogeneous groups. Lastly, cluster sampling groups individuals into clusters before randomly selecting entire groups, which can be more manageable in certain contexts. Understanding these methods enriches the research sample overview and ultimately strengthens the reliability of research outcomes.

Non-Probability Sampling Methods

Non-Probability Sampling Methods prioritize subjective judgments over random selection, leading to a different approach to research sample overview. These methods allow researchers to select participants based on specific criteria, making them particularly useful in exploratory research where gaining insights is crucial. Common techniques include convenience sampling, purposive sampling, and snowball sampling, each serving distinct purposes based on the research objectives.

Convenience sampling focuses on readily available participants, while purposive sampling targets individuals with specific characteristics relevant to the study. Snowball sampling, on the other hand, builds a participant pool through referrals, often leading to unique perspectives. Understanding these methods enhances your knowledge about research sample collection, enabling more informed decisions in research design. By focusing on the specific needs of the research, non-probability sampling methods can yield valuable insights, despite the potential for bias.

Conclusion: Research Sample Overview and Its Importance

A research sample overview highlights the essential aspect of research methodology. The selection of a representative group is crucial as it impacts the validity of study results. A well-chosen sample can significantly enhance the reliability of findings, allowing researchers to generalize outcomes to the broader population.

Understanding this importance helps in designing effective research strategies. It also underscores the need for transparency in sampling methods to build trust. Ultimately, a strong research sample forms the foundation of meaningful insights, guiding decision-makers toward informed actions based on data-driven evidence.

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Sample Sizes for Usability Studies: One Size Does Not Fit All

How many times have you heard that question?

How many different answers have you heard?

After you sift through the non-helpful ones, probably the most common answer you’ve heard is five. You might have also heard that these “ magic 5 ” users can uncover 85% of a product’s usability issues. Is that true? Are five enough, too few, or too many?

How can you know? Can you really know?

Or are we just resigned to hearing the most dogmatic voices on social media? What are the alternatives?

Perhaps we should average the advice of others or make our lives easier by sidestepping the question altogether.

We’ve seen both approaches taken. But is there a better way to find sample sizes?

And is there a single sample size that is right for all usability studies?

One Size Does Not Fit All: Define the Study Type

You probably know the answer: One sample size does not fit all studies. Not much of a surprise there. But there is a way to get to a sample size that doesn’t involve democracy or demagoguery.

The first step in finding a sample size is to define the study type. For the purposes of sample size estimation, there are three types of usability studies: Problem Discovery, Estimation, and Comparison (Table 1).

In contrast to the focus on measurements taken during summative user research (study types 2 and 3), the goal of problem discovery usability studies (type 1) is to discover and enumerate the problems that users have when performing tasks with a product. It’s considered a formative type of evaluation .

So, what’s the sample size for each study type? 5, 50, 100?

One Size Does Not Fit All Even Within Study Types

While defining the study type helps narrow the proper approach to sample size estimation, it still doesn’t warrant recommending one number. Because there’s math involved, it’s understandable that people seek a simple single number. We’ve been trained to find a single answer to simple math problems: 2+2 always equals 4. The square root of 9 is always 3. The answer is determined because there aren’t any variables—life is great!

As soon as you introduce variables, however, things get more complicated. The hypotenuse of a triangle is always equal to the square root of the sum of the squares of the two other sides ( a 2 + b 2  = c 2 ), but the actual length of the hypotenuse depends on the length of the two sides.

The methods for finding sample sizes for summative studies are typically taught in university statistics classes. Those methods include several variables whose values can differ from study to study, including alpha and beta decision criteria (which control the long-run probability of Type I and Type II errors), the standard deviation of the metric, and the smallest difference that you need to detect to make the necessary decisions (i.e., the critical difference ). Changing any of these variables will change the sample size needed to meet the requirements.

Problem discovery sample sizes use a less familiar approach. We’ve discussed in previous articles the mathematics commonly used to derive sample sizes for formative problem discovery usability studies and how well that math matches reality .

So, what is the formula for finding sample sizes for problem discovery studies?

Sample Size Formula for Discovery Studies

While you don’t need to fully understand the derivation of the formula to use it, it helps to know how to use it. It has only two elements: n and p .

P (at least once) = 1 − (1 − p) n

The p is how likely a problem (or event) is to occur in the tested population and n is the sample size. In this formula, they compute the probability of seeing the problem at least once in a formative usability study with n participants.

Technical note : We manipulated the binomial probability formula to get to 1 − (1 − p ) n , but there are other ways to arrive at this formula, including the Poisson probability formula and capture-recapture models .

The formula above computes the probability of detecting a problem given a sample size and its frequency in the population. It can be rearranged using algebra to solve for the sample size.

Because n is an exponent in the formula, it’s necessary to use logarithms to manipulate the formula to focus on the sample size instead of the probability of discovering the event of interest at least once. The resulting formula is:

Don’t worry too much about the formula other than to note that it shows that the sample size for a discovery study is driven by the discovery goal ( P (at least once)) and how likely an event is to happen during the discovery ( p ).

As mentioned above, in the best-known rule of thumb for usability study sample sizes, the “magic number 5,” the claim is that five participants are enough for the discovery of 85% of usability problems (strictly speaking, 85% of the problems that are available for discovery given the constraints of the study regarding the sampled population and tasks).

Nothing is inherently right or wrong with a discovery goal of 85%. It deviates from the more expected convention of 95% or 90% used in confidence intervals , but like a confidence level, the discovery goal can take any value from 1% to 99%. So, where did 85% originally come from?

Several early investigations into using these formulas to predict problem discovery rates as a function of sample size (e.g., Virzi, 1990 ; Nielsen & Landauer, 1993 ) reported finding that four or five participants discover 80–85% of the problems in large-sample usability studies. Over time, these findings became the simplified “magic number 5” rule.

An early test of the simple goal of 85% discovery was an economic ROI simulation published in 1994 (by Jim) that estimated the costs associated with running additional participants, fixing problems, and failing to discover problems in formative usability studies. Although all the independent variables influenced the sample size at the maximum ROI, the variable with the broadest influence was the average likelihood of problem discovery ( p ), which also had the strongest influence on the percentage of problems discovered at the maximum ROI. The results indicated that, when the target value of p is small (e.g., 10%), practitioners should plan to discover about 86% of the problems available for discovery in the study. When p is greater (e.g., 25–50%), the appropriate goal is about 98% discovery.

Things get trickier determining how often events of interest occur during the study. A common estimate of that likelihood is 31%. But where did that come from?

In the research Jakob Nielsen and Thomas Landauer published in 1993 , which was the basis of their recommendation for running formative usability studies with five participants, the value they computed for the likelihood of problem occurrence was .31.

This was the average of the problem discovery rates reported in 11 usability studies they had conducted or had acquired from other researchers at the time (including one from Jim Lewis—see Figure 1 for the correspondence between Nielsen and Lewis in 1991). When they used their version of 1 − (1 − p ) n and graphed the expected percentage of discovery for sample sizes from 1 to 15 and p = 31%, their estimated discovery rate was 85% when n = 5.

Figure 1: Correspondence between Jakob Nielsen and Jim Lewis in 1991. (Oh, the days of formal correspondence.…)

If you plug .85 and .31 into the sample size formula, you get:

n = ln(1 − .85)/ln(1 − .31) = (−1.897)/(−0.371) = 5.11

So, math supports running five participants in a discovery study if (1) the discovery goal is 85% and (2) the probability of the occurrence of an event of interest is 31%. (You can also use our online calculator , which will do the math for you.)

But as mentioned above, one size does not fit all . What if, in your research context, you need to discover more or fewer than 85% of the events of interest, and what if their probability of occurrence is less or greater than 31%?

In those cases, you need a size chart, analogous to shopping for a men’s dress shirt to fit a given neck size and sleeve length (desired discovery rate and problem likelihood). We’ll publish that size chart in a future article.

Summary and Discussion

How many participants do you need for a usability study?

It depends first on the study type. There are three study types—discovery, estimation, and comparison. In contrast to estimation and comparison studies, sample size estimation for discovery studies uses a different mathematical approach.

It still depends within study types. Don’t rely on averaging together recommendations or looking for a single number that will always work even when focusing within a study type such as discovery.

What about the “magic number 5?” The controversial claim based on the research of Nielsen and Landauer that “five is enough” turns out to sometimes be true, but only for a limited range of research contexts.

What about any other magic number? Because the appropriate sample size for discovery studies depends on two factors, no one magic number will be appropriate for all research contexts. In fact, there is no magic number for sample sizes for any type of usability study, formative or summative.

Use the formula for problem discovery. The problem discovery formula can be used to find the sample size based on expected problem occurrences ( p ) and the likelihood of seeing a problem at least once. You can also use the online calculator .

Parameters have defaults but should be changed when necessary to fit the research needs. The typical parameter for discovering problems is 85%, but this can be increased or decreased depending on the context. The parameter of 31% for the probability of problem occurrence came from an average across datasets from the 1990s. It’s not a bad place to start, but it shouldn’t be the only value for this parameter. Using values of 10%, 20%, and even 5% may make sense depending on how important it is to discover uncommon problems.

If there isn’t a magic number, should we give up on sample size estimation for formative usability studies? Giving up on magic numbers doesn’t mean you have to give up on sample size estimation for formative usability studies (or any other type of discovery study). You just need to be able to make decisions about (1) how rare of an event you need to be able to detect at least once and (2) what percentage of those events you need to discover in the study.

Bottom line: It would be nice if this process were simpler, but unfortunately, one sample size does not fit all research requirements. Fortunately, there is a mathematical model that can guide UX professionals to make reasoned decisions about sample size requirements for formative usability studies.

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18 Qualitative Research Examples

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Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Qualitative research is an approach to scientific research that involves using observation to gather and analyze non-numerical, in-depth, and well-contextualized datasets.

It serves as an integral part of academic, professional, and even daily decision-making processes (Baxter & Jack, 2008).

Methods of qualitative research encompass a wide range of techniques, from in-depth personal encounters, like ethnographies (studying cultures in-depth) and autoethnographies (examining one’s own cultural experiences), to collection of diverse perspectives on topics through methods like interviewing focus groups (gatherings of individuals to discuss specific topics).

Qualitative Research Examples

1. ethnography.

Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research design aimed at exploring cultural phenomena. Rooted in the discipline of anthropology , this research approach investigates the social interactions, behaviors, and perceptions within groups, communities, or organizations.

Ethnographic research is characterized by extended observation of the group, often through direct participation, in the participants’ environment. An ethnographer typically lives with the study group for extended periods, intricately observing their everyday lives (Khan, 2014).

It aims to present a complete, detailed and accurate picture of the observed social life, rituals, symbols, and values from the perspective of the study group.

Example of Ethnographic Research

Title: “ The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity “

Citation: Evans, J. (2010). The Everyday Lives of Men: An Ethnographic Investigation of Young Adult Male Identity. Peter Lang.

Overview: This study by Evans (2010) provides a rich narrative of young adult male identity as experienced in everyday life. The author immersed himself among a group of young men, participating in their activities and cultivating a deep understanding of their lifestyle, values, and motivations. This research exemplified the ethnographic approach, revealing complexities of the subjects’ identities and societal roles, which could hardly be accessed through other qualitative research designs.

Read my Full Guide on Ethnography Here

2. Autoethnography

Definition: Autoethnography is an approach to qualitative research where the researcher uses their own personal experiences to extend the understanding of a certain group, culture, or setting. Essentially, it allows for the exploration of self within the context of social phenomena.

Unlike traditional ethnography, which focuses on the study of others, autoethnography turns the ethnographic gaze inward, allowing the researcher to use their personal experiences within a culture as rich qualitative data (Durham, 2019).

The objective is to critically appraise one’s personal experiences as they navigate and negotiate cultural, political, and social meanings. The researcher becomes both the observer and the participant, intertwining personal and cultural experiences in the research.

Example of Autoethnographic Research

Title: “ A Day In The Life Of An NHS Nurse “

Citation: Osben, J. (2019). A day in the life of a NHS nurse in 21st Century Britain: An auto-ethnography. The Journal of Autoethnography for Health & Social Care. 1(1).

Overview: This study presents an autoethnography of a day in the life of an NHS nurse (who, of course, is also the researcher). The author uses the research to achieve reflexivity, with the researcher concluding: “Scrutinising my practice and situating it within a wider contextual backdrop has compelled me to significantly increase my level of scrutiny into the driving forces that influence my practice.”

Read my Full Guide on Autoethnography Here

3. Semi-Structured Interviews

Definition: Semi-structured interviews stand as one of the most frequently used methods in qualitative research. These interviews are planned and utilize a set of pre-established questions, but also allow for the interviewer to steer the conversation in other directions based on the responses given by the interviewee.

In semi-structured interviews, the interviewer prepares a guide that outlines the focal points of the discussion. However, the interview is flexible, allowing for more in-depth probing if the interviewer deems it necessary (Qu, & Dumay, 2011). This style of interviewing strikes a balance between structured ones which might limit the discussion, and unstructured ones, which could lack focus.

Example of Semi-Structured Interview Research

Title: “ Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review “

Citation: Puts, M., et al. (2014). Factors influencing adherence to cancer treatment in older adults with cancer: a systematic review. Annals of oncology, 25 (3), 564-577.

Overview: Puts et al. (2014) executed an extensive systematic review in which they conducted semi-structured interviews with older adults suffering from cancer to examine the factors influencing their adherence to cancer treatment. The findings suggested that various factors, including side effects, faith in healthcare professionals, and social support have substantial impacts on treatment adherence. This research demonstrates how semi-structured interviews can provide rich and profound insights into the subjective experiences of patients.

4. Focus Groups

Definition: Focus groups are a qualitative research method that involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals to gain their perspectives on a specific concept, product, or phenomenon. Typically, these discussions are guided by a moderator.

During a focus group session, the moderator has a list of questions or topics to discuss, and participants are encouraged to interact with each other (Morgan, 2010). This interactivity can stimulate more information and provide a broader understanding of the issue under scrutiny. The open format allows participants to ask questions and respond freely, offering invaluable insights into attitudes, experiences, and group norms.

Example of Focus Group Research

Title: “ Perspectives of Older Adults on Aging Well: A Focus Group Study “

Citation: Halaweh, H., Dahlin-Ivanoff, S., Svantesson, U., & Willén, C. (2018). Perspectives of older adults on aging well: a focus group study. Journal of aging research .

Overview: This study aimed to explore what older adults (aged 60 years and older) perceived to be ‘aging well’. The researchers identified three major themes from their focus group interviews: a sense of well-being, having good physical health, and preserving good mental health. The findings highlight the importance of factors such as positive emotions, social engagement, physical activity, healthy eating habits, and maintaining independence in promoting aging well among older adults.

5. Phenomenology

Definition: Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, involves the examination of lived experiences to gain an in-depth understanding of the essence or underlying meanings of a phenomenon.

The focus of phenomenology lies in meticulously describing participants’ conscious experiences related to the chosen phenomenon (Padilla-Díaz, 2015).

In a phenomenological study, the researcher collects detailed, first-hand perspectives of the participants, typically via in-depth interviews, and then uses various strategies to interpret and structure these experiences, ultimately revealing essential themes (Creswell, 2013). This approach focuses on the perspective of individuals experiencing the phenomenon, seeking to explore, clarify, and understand the meanings they attach to those experiences.

Example of Phenomenology Research

Title: “ A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: current state, promise, and future directions for research ”

Citation: Cilesiz, S. (2011). A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology: Current state, promise, and future directions for research. Educational Technology Research and Development, 59 , 487-510.

Overview: A phenomenological approach to experiences with technology by Sebnem Cilesiz represents a good starting point for formulating a phenomenological study. With its focus on the ‘essence of experience’, this piece presents methodological, reliability, validity, and data analysis techniques that phenomenologists use to explain how people experience technology in their everyday lives.

6. Grounded Theory

Definition: Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in qualitative research that typically applies inductive reasoning . The primary aim is to develop a theoretical explanation or framework for a process, action, or interaction grounded in, and arising from, empirical data (Birks & Mills, 2015).

In grounded theory, data collection and analysis work together in a recursive process. The researcher collects data, analyses it, and then collects more data based on the evolving understanding of the research context. This ongoing process continues until a comprehensive theory that represents the data and the associated phenomenon emerges – a point known as theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014).

Example of Grounded Theory Research

Title: “ Student Engagement in High School Classrooms from the Perspective of Flow Theory “

Citation: Shernoff, D. J., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Shneider, B., & Shernoff, E. S. (2003). Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory. School Psychology Quarterly, 18 (2), 158–176.

Overview: Shernoff and colleagues (2003) used grounded theory to explore student engagement in high school classrooms. The researchers collected data through student self-reports, interviews, and observations. Key findings revealed that academic challenge, student autonomy, and teacher support emerged as the most significant factors influencing students’ engagement, demonstrating how grounded theory can illuminate complex dynamics within real-world contexts.

7. Narrative Research

Definition: Narrative research is a qualitative research method dedicated to storytelling and understanding how individuals experience the world. It focuses on studying an individual’s life and experiences as narrated by that individual (Polkinghorne, 2013).

In narrative research, the researcher collects data through methods such as interviews, observations , and document analysis. The emphasis is on the stories told by participants – narratives that reflect their experiences, thoughts, and feelings.

These stories are then interpreted by the researcher, who attempts to understand the meaning the participant attributes to these experiences (Josselson, 2011).

Example of Narrative Research

Title: “Narrative Structures and the Language of the Self”

Citation: McAdams, D. P., Josselson, R., & Lieblich, A. (2006). Identity and story: Creating self in narrative . American Psychological Association.

Overview: In this innovative study, McAdams et al. (2006) employed narrative research to explore how individuals construct their identities through the stories they tell about themselves. By examining personal narratives, the researchers discerned patterns associated with characters, motivations, conflicts, and resolutions, contributing valuable insights about the relationship between narrative and individual identity.

8. Case Study Research

Definition: Case study research is a qualitative research method that involves an in-depth investigation of a single instance or event: a case. These ‘cases’ can range from individuals, groups, or entities to specific projects, programs, or strategies (Creswell, 2013).

The case study method typically uses multiple sources of information for comprehensive contextual analysis. It aims to explore and understand the complexity and uniqueness of a particular case in a real-world context (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). This investigation could result in a detailed description of the case, a process for its development, or an exploration of a related issue or problem.

Example of Case Study Research

Title: “ Teacher’s Role in Fostering Preschoolers’ Computational Thinking: An Exploratory Case Study “

Citation: Wang, X. C., Choi, Y., Benson, K., Eggleston, C., & Weber, D. (2021). Teacher’s role in fostering preschoolers’ computational thinking: An exploratory case study. Early Education and Development , 32 (1), 26-48.

Overview: This study investigates the role of teachers in promoting computational thinking skills in preschoolers. The study utilized a qualitative case study methodology to examine the computational thinking scaffolding strategies employed by a teacher interacting with three preschoolers in a small group setting. The findings highlight the importance of teachers’ guidance in fostering computational thinking practices such as problem reformulation/decomposition, systematic testing, and debugging.

Read about some Famous Case Studies in Psychology Here

9. Participant Observation

Definition: Participant observation has the researcher immerse themselves in a group or community setting to observe the behavior of its members. It is similar to ethnography, but generally, the researcher isn’t embedded for a long period of time.

The researcher, being a participant, engages in daily activities, interactions, and events as a way of conducting a detailed study of a particular social phenomenon (Kawulich, 2005).

The method involves long-term engagement in the field, maintaining detailed records of observed events, informal interviews, direct participation, and reflexivity. This approach allows for a holistic view of the participants’ lived experiences, behaviours, and interactions within their everyday environment (Dewalt, 2011).

Example of Participant Observation Research

Title: Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics

Citation: Heemskerk, E. M., Heemskerk, K., & Wats, M. M. (2017). Conflict in the boardroom: a participant observation study of supervisory board dynamics. Journal of Management & Governance , 21 , 233-263.

Overview: This study examined how conflicts within corporate boards affect their performance. The researchers used a participant observation method, where they actively engaged with 11 supervisory boards and observed their dynamics. They found that having a shared understanding of the board’s role called a common framework, improved performance by reducing relationship conflicts, encouraging task conflicts, and minimizing conflicts between the board and CEO.

10. Non-Participant Observation

Definition: Non-participant observation is a qualitative research method in which the researcher observes the phenomena of interest without actively participating in the situation, setting, or community being studied.

This method allows the researcher to maintain a position of distance, as they are solely an observer and not a participant in the activities being observed (Kawulich, 2005).

During non-participant observation, the researcher typically records field notes on the actions, interactions, and behaviors observed , focusing on specific aspects of the situation deemed relevant to the research question.

This could include verbal and nonverbal communication , activities, interactions, and environmental contexts (Angrosino, 2007). They could also use video or audio recordings or other methods to collect data.

Example of Non-Participant Observation Research

Title: Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non-participant observation study

Citation: Sreeram, A., Cross, W. M., & Townsin, L. (2023). Mental Health Nurses’ attitudes towards mental illness and recovery‐oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units: A non‐participant observation study. International Journal of Mental Health Nursing .

Overview: This study investigated the attitudes of mental health nurses towards mental illness and recovery-oriented practice in acute inpatient psychiatric units. The researchers used a non-participant observation method, meaning they observed the nurses without directly participating in their activities. The findings shed light on the nurses’ perspectives and behaviors, providing valuable insights into their attitudes toward mental health and recovery-focused care in these settings.

11. Content Analysis

Definition: Content Analysis involves scrutinizing textual, visual, or spoken content to categorize and quantify information. The goal is to identify patterns, themes, biases, or other characteristics (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005).

Content Analysis is widely used in various disciplines for a multitude of purposes. Researchers typically use this method to distill large amounts of unstructured data, like interview transcripts, newspaper articles, or social media posts, into manageable and meaningful chunks.

When wielded appropriately, Content Analysis can illuminate the density and frequency of certain themes within a dataset, provide insights into how specific terms or concepts are applied contextually, and offer inferences about the meanings of their content and use (Duriau, Reger, & Pfarrer, 2007).

Example of Content Analysis

Title: Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news .

Citation: Semetko, H. A., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50 (2), 93-109.

Overview: This study analyzed press and television news articles about European politics using a method called content analysis. The researchers examined the prevalence of different “frames” in the news, which are ways of presenting information to shape audience perceptions. They found that the most common frames were attribution of responsibility, conflict, economic consequences, human interest, and morality.

Read my Full Guide on Content Analysis Here

12. Discourse Analysis

Definition: Discourse Analysis, a qualitative research method, interprets the meanings, functions, and coherence of certain languages in context.

Discourse analysis is typically understood through social constructionism, critical theory , and poststructuralism and used for understanding how language constructs social concepts (Cheek, 2004).

Discourse Analysis offers great breadth, providing tools to examine spoken or written language, often beyond the level of the sentence. It enables researchers to scrutinize how text and talk articulate social and political interactions and hierarchies.

Insight can be garnered from different conversations, institutional text, and media coverage to understand how topics are addressed or framed within a specific social context (Jorgensen & Phillips, 2002).

Example of Discourse Analysis

Title: The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis

Citation: Thomas, S. (2005). The construction of teacher identities in educational policy documents: A critical discourse analysis. Critical Studies in Education, 46 (2), 25-44.

Overview: The author examines how an education policy in one state of Australia positions teacher professionalism and teacher identities. While there are competing discourses about professional identity, the policy framework privileges a  narrative that frames the ‘good’ teacher as one that accepts ever-tightening control and regulation over their professional practice.

Read my Full Guide on Discourse Analysis Here

13. Action Research

Definition: Action Research is a qualitative research technique that is employed to bring about change while simultaneously studying the process and results of that change.

This method involves a cyclical process of fact-finding, action, evaluation, and reflection (Greenwood & Levin, 2016).

Typically, Action Research is used in the fields of education, social sciences , and community development. The process isn’t just about resolving an issue but also developing knowledge that can be used in the future to address similar or related problems.

The researcher plays an active role in the research process, which is normally broken down into four steps: 

• developing a plan to improve what is currently being done
• implementing the plan
• observing the effects of the plan, and
• reflecting upon these effects (Smith, 2010).

Example of Action Research

Title: Using Digital Sandbox Gaming to Improve Creativity Within Boys’ Writing

Citation: Ellison, M., & Drew, C. (2020). Using digital sandbox gaming to improve creativity within boys’ writing. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 34 (2), 277-287.

Overview: This was a research study one of my research students completed in his own classroom under my supervision. He implemented a digital game-based approach to literacy teaching with boys and interviewed his students to see if the use of games as stimuli for storytelling helped draw them into the learning experience.

Read my Full Guide on Action Research Here

14. Semiotic Analysis

Definition: Semiotic Analysis is a qualitative method of research that interprets signs and symbols in communication to understand sociocultural phenomena. It stems from semiotics, the study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation (Chandler, 2017).

In a Semiotic Analysis, signs (anything that represents something else) are interpreted based on their significance and the role they play in representing ideas.

This type of research often involves the examination of images, sounds, and word choice to uncover the embedded sociocultural meanings. For example, an advertisement for a car might be studied to learn more about societal views on masculinity or success (Berger, 2010).

Example of Semiotic Research

Title: Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia

Citation: Symes, C. (2023). Shielding the learned body: a semiotic analysis of school badges in New South Wales, Australia. Semiotica , 2023 (250), 167-190.

Overview: This study examines school badges in New South Wales, Australia, and explores their significance through a semiotic analysis. The badges, which are part of the school’s visual identity, are seen as symbolic representations that convey meanings. The analysis reveals that these badges often draw on heraldic models, incorporating elements like colors, names, motifs, and mottoes that reflect local culture and history, thus connecting students to their national identity. Additionally, the study highlights how some schools have shifted from traditional badges to modern logos and slogans, reflecting a more business-oriented approach.

15. Qualitative Longitudinal Studies

Definition: Qualitative Longitudinal Studies are a research method that involves repeated observation of the same items over an extended period of time.

Unlike a snapshot perspective, this method aims to piece together individual histories and examine the influences and impacts of change (Neale, 2019).

Qualitative Longitudinal Studies provide an in-depth understanding of change as it happens, including changes in people’s lives, their perceptions, and their behaviors.

For instance, this method could be used to follow a group of students through their schooling years to understand the evolution of their learning behaviors and attitudes towards education (Saldaña, 2003).

Example of Qualitative Longitudinal Research

Title: Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study

Citation: Hackett, J., Godfrey, M., & Bennett, M. I. (2016). Patient and caregiver perspectives on managing pain in advanced cancer: a qualitative longitudinal study.  Palliative medicine ,  30 (8), 711-719.

Overview: This article examines how patients and their caregivers manage pain in advanced cancer through a qualitative longitudinal study. The researchers interviewed patients and caregivers at two different time points and collected audio diaries to gain insights into their experiences, making this study longitudinal.

Read my Full Guide on Longitudinal Research Here

16. Open-Ended Surveys

Definition: Open-Ended Surveys are a type of qualitative research method where respondents provide answers in their own words. Unlike closed-ended surveys, which limit responses to predefined options, open-ended surveys allow for expansive and unsolicited explanations (Fink, 2013).

Open-ended surveys are commonly used in a range of fields, from market research to social studies. As they don’t force respondents into predefined response categories, these surveys help to draw out rich, detailed data that might uncover new variables or ideas.

For example, an open-ended survey might be used to understand customer opinions about a new product or service (Lavrakas, 2008).

Contrast this to a quantitative closed-ended survey, like a Likert scale, which could theoretically help us to come up with generalizable data but is restricted by the questions on the questionnaire, meaning new and surprising data and insights can’t emerge from the survey results in the same way.

Example of Open-Ended Survey Research

Title: Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey

Citation: Hertlein, K. M., & Ancheta, K. (2014). Advantages and disadvantages of technology in relationships: Findings from an open-ended survey.  The Qualitative Report ,  19 (11), 1-11.

Overview: This article examines the advantages and disadvantages of technology in couple relationships through an open-ended survey method. Researchers analyzed responses from 410 undergraduate students to understand how technology affects relationships. They found that technology can contribute to relationship development, management, and enhancement, but it can also create challenges such as distancing, lack of clarity, and impaired trust.

17. Naturalistic Observation

Definition: Naturalistic Observation is a type of qualitative research method that involves observing individuals in their natural environments without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

Naturalistic observation is often used when conducting research on behaviors that cannot be controlled or manipulated in a laboratory setting (Kawulich, 2005).

It is frequently used in the fields of psychology, sociology, and anthropology. For instance, to understand the social dynamics in a schoolyard, a researcher could spend time observing the children interact during their recess, noting their behaviors, interactions, and conflicts without imposing their presence on the children’s activities (Forsyth, 2010).

Example of Naturalistic Observation Research

Title: Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study

Citation: Kaplan, D. M., Raison, C. L., Milek, A., Tackman, A. M., Pace, T. W., & Mehl, M. R. (2018). Dispositional mindfulness in daily life: A naturalistic observation study. PloS one , 13 (11), e0206029.

Overview: In this study, researchers conducted two studies: one exploring assumptions about mindfulness and behavior, and the other using naturalistic observation to examine actual behavioral manifestations of mindfulness. They found that trait mindfulness is associated with a heightened perceptual focus in conversations, suggesting that being mindful is expressed primarily through sharpened attention rather than observable behavioral or social differences.

Read my Full Guide on Naturalistic Observation Here

18. Photo-Elicitation

Definition: Photo-elicitation utilizes photographs as a means to trigger discussions and evoke responses during interviews. This strategy aids in bringing out topics of discussion that may not emerge through verbal prompting alone (Harper, 2002).

Traditionally, Photo-Elicitation has been useful in various fields such as education, psychology, and sociology. The method involves the researcher or participants taking photographs, which are then used as prompts for discussion.

For instance, a researcher studying urban environmental issues might invite participants to photograph areas in their neighborhood that they perceive as environmentally detrimental, and then discuss each photo in depth (Clark-Ibáñez, 2004).

Example of Photo-Elicitation Research

Title: Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study

Citation: Green, E. M., Spivak, C., & Dollahite, J. S. (2021). Early adolescent food routines: A photo-elicitation study. Appetite, 158 .

Overview: This study focused on early adolescents (ages 10-14) and their food routines. Researchers conducted in-depth interviews using a photo-elicitation approach, where participants took photos related to their food choices and experiences. Through analysis, the study identified various routines and three main themes: family, settings, and meals/foods consumed, revealing how early adolescents view and are influenced by their eating routines.

Features of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is a research method focused on understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

Some key features of this method include:

• Naturalistic Inquiry: Qualitative research happens in the natural setting of the phenomena, aiming to understand “real world” situations (Patton, 2015). This immersion in the field or subject allows the researcher to gather a deep understanding of the subject matter.
• Emphasis on Process: It aims to understand how events unfold over time rather than focusing solely on outcomes (Merriam & Tisdell, 2015). The process-oriented nature of qualitative research allows researchers to investigate sequences, timing, and changes.
• Interpretive: It involves interpreting and making sense of phenomena in terms of the meanings people assign to them (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). This interpretive element allows for rich, nuanced insights into human behavior and experiences.
• Holistic Perspective: Qualitative research seeks to understand the whole phenomenon rather than focusing on individual components (Creswell, 2013). It emphasizes the complex interplay of factors, providing a richer, more nuanced view of the research subject.
• Prioritizes Depth over Breadth: Qualitative research favors depth of understanding over breadth, typically involving a smaller but more focused sample size (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2020). This enables detailed exploration of the phenomena of interest, often leading to rich and complex data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

Qualitative research centers on exploring and understanding the meaning individuals or groups attribute to a social or human problem (Creswell, 2013).

It involves an in-depth approach to the subject matter, aiming to capture the richness and complexity of human experience.

Examples include conducting interviews, observing behaviors, or analyzing text and images.

There are strengths inherent in this approach. In its focus on understanding subjective experiences and interpretations, qualitative research can yield rich and detailed data that quantitative research may overlook (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Additionally, qualitative research is adaptive, allowing the researcher to respond to new directions and insights as they emerge during the research process.

However, there are also limitations. Because of the interpretive nature of this research, findings may not be generalizable to a broader population (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). Well-designed quantitative research, on the other hand, can be generalizable.

Moreover, the reliability and validity of qualitative data can be challenging to establish due to its subjective nature, unlike quantitative research, which is ideally more objective.

Compare Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methodologies in This Guide Here

In conclusion, qualitative research methods provide distinctive ways to explore social phenomena and understand nuances that quantitative approaches might overlook. Each method, from Ethnography to Photo-Elicitation, presents its strengths and weaknesses but they all offer valuable means of investigating complex, real-world situations. The goal for the researcher is not to find a definitive tool, but to employ the method best suited for their research questions and the context at hand (Almalki, 2016). Above all, these methods underscore the richness of human experience and deepen our understanding of the world around us.

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Prevalence and future estimates of frailty and pre-frailty in a population-based sample of people 70 years and older in Norway: the HUNT study

• Open access
• Published: 10 September 2024
• Volume 36 , article number  188 , ( 2024 )

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• Ingebjørg Lavrantsdatter Kyrdalen   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5538-019X 1 , 2 ,
• Bjørn Heine Strand 1 , 3 , 4 ,
• Geir Selbæk 1 , 2 , 4 ,
• Pernille Thingstad 5 , 6 ,
• Heidi Ormstad 7 ,
• Emiel O. Hoogendijk 8 ,
• Håvard Kjesbu Skjellegrind 6 , 10 &
• Gro Gujord Tangen 1 , 4 , 9  

3 Altmetric

Frailty in older people is a rising global health concern; therefore, monitoring prevalence estimates and presenting projections of future frailty are important for healthcare planning.

To present current prevalence estimates of frailty and pre-frailty and future projections according to both dominant frailty models in a large population-based observational study including adults ≥ 70 years in Norway.

In this population-based observational study, we included 9956 participants from the HUNT4 70 + study, conducting assessments at field stations, homes, and nursing homes. Frailty was assessed using Fried criteria and a 35-item frailty index (HUNT4-FI). Inverse probability weighting and calibration using post-stratification weights and aggregated register data for Norway according to age, sex, and education ensured representativeness, and population projection models were used to estimate future prevalence.

According to Fried criteria, the current prevalence rates of frailty and pre-frailty in people ≥ 70 years were 10.6% and 41.9%, respectively, and for HUNT4-FI 35.8% and 33.2%, respectively. Compared to previous European estimates we identified higher overall frailty prevalence, but lower prevalence in younger age groups. Projections suggest the number of Norwegian older adults living with frailty will close to double by 2040.

Frailty in older people in Norway is more prevalent than previous European estimates, emphasising the imperative for effective interventions aimed to delay and postpone frailty and ensure healthcare system sustainability in an ageing population. Future planning should consider the great heterogeneity in health and functioning within the 70 + population.

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Frailty is a multisystem and dynamic clinical condition that affects one’s ability to respond to stressors and increases the risk of functional dependency, hospitalisation and death [ 1 ]. Frailty prevalence rises with age, and as the world’s population ages, frailty as a global health concern represents a significant challenge to health systems and societies [ 1 ]. Monitoring frailty prevalence is especially important due to its link to greater health-care costs [ 1 ]. Frailty surveys provide insight into population health and may help us understand the diversity of ageing [ 2 ].

There are two dominant models for defining frailty. One is the physical frailty model, in which frailty is understood to be a distinct high-risk state linked to multisystemic dysregulation [ 3 ], frequently measured using Fried criteria [ 4 ]. The second model is based on the accumulation of age-related deficits, often called the deficit accumulation model, measured using a frailty index (FI) [ 5 ]. In the trajectory from healthy ageing to frailty, pre-frailty is a potentially reversible risk-state. Pre-frailty predisposes to adverse outcomes regarding health and social care as well as progression to frailty [ 6 ].

According to a systematic review of studies including community-dwelling people ≥ 50 years, the estimated global prevalence rates of physical frailty and pre-frailty were 12% and 46%, respectively, whereas the corresponding prevalence rates according to FI were 24% and 49% [ 7 ]. Regardless of operationalisation, Europe showed the lowest prevalence of frailty among the continents, with 8% using physical frailty criteria and 22% using FI. However, studies included in the review reported widely varying frailty prevalence, data were heterogeneous and only a few studies reported representative data on both frailty models [ 7 ].

Previous Nordic studies have reported prevalence rates ranging from 1.6 to 8.4% with Fried criteria [ 8 , 9 , 10 ] and from 17.5 to 30.2% with FI [ 10 , 11 ]. The generalisability of the results of these population-based studies is limited because they excluded individuals with severe functional limitations. As far as we know, there are no nationally representative prevalence studies in Nordic countries that include the oldest age groups and use both frailty models.

To provide valid, updated estimates of the prevalence of frailty, there is a need both globally and for Nordic countries to conduct suitably powered studies applying both frailty models, including all individuals in a geographic area [ 7 ], also those not able to attend test stations. For the estimations to be useful to health authorities, both current prevalence numbers and projections of future frailty are necessary. According to the divergent estimates dependent on the choice of frailty model, using both the Fried criteria and FI in the same population facilitates the interpretation of our estimates across different study populations. This wide-ranging approach is also critical for expanding the present knowledge about prevalence of frailty and pre-frailty in Europe to prepare for the near future.

The aim of this paper is to present current prevalence estimates of frailty and pre-frailty according to both dominant frailty models stratified by age groups and sex from a large population-based study in Norway that included both home-dwelling older adults and nursing home residents ≥ 70 years. Furthermore, we will forecast future frailty prevalence for years 2030 and 2040, showing the estimated proportion of the Norwegian population we expect to be living with frailty and pre-frailty.

Participants

We used data from the fourth wave of the Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT), one of the largest population-based health studies worldwide, conducted in the former Nord-Trøndelag County, Central Norway [ 12 ]. This district consists of small towns and rural areas. In the fourth wave of HUNT, an additional examination of participants ≥ 70 years was conducted (HUNT4 70+). All 19,403 inhabitants ≥ 70 years living in Nord-Trøndelag County were invited by mail and eligible for inclusion in HUNT4 70+. In total, 9956 (51.3%) adults aged 70–103 years consented to participate and were included. The data were collected from September 2017 to March 2019. Flow-chart of the sample is shown in Fig.  1 .

Analytical sample scheme

Study design and data collection

This was a cross-sectional observational study. Participants completed self-report forms and underwent clinical examinations, face-to-face interviews and laboratory tests by healthcare professionals who had undergone a two-day training in the HUNT protocol. Field stations were established in all 23 municipalities. Additionally, participation was offered in private homes and nursing homes for those not able to attend the field station. Most participants (85.8%) were assessed at field stations, 7.8% in their own home, and 6.4% in nursing homes. All participants were asked to fill out two questionnaires which is the main source for self-reported data in both frailty models. However, given the high prevalence of cognitive impairment and dementia in Norwegian nursing homes, the HUNT4 70 + also used an adapted protocol in nursing homes that provided supplementary information from health personnel who knew the residents well. For consistency, we chose to use information regarding sleep, physical activity level, anxiety, depression, appetite and oral health from this adapted protocol for all nursing home residents, regardless of their cognitive status. Further details are described in Supplementary Tables 3 and 4 .

For participants residing in nursing homes, written consent was requested to conduct a telephone interview with their next of kin. The same procedure applied to participants in the field stations/homes who reported subjective memory problems or who scored below age-related cut-off values on cognitive tests. We also used information from these interviews as sources of supplementary information about functional level, neuropsychiatric symptoms and cognitive difficulties.

Procedures and assessments

For assessment of physical frailty, we used Fried criteria [ 4 ]. To assess frailty according to the deficit accumulation model, we constructed a 35-item FI, named HUNT4-FI. Both Fried criteria and FI are widely used and highly valued in research and clinical practice [ 13 ].

Fried criteria

The Fried criteria comprise five items: grip strength, gait speed, exhaustion, low physical activity and unintentional weight loss [ 4 ]. Grip strength was measured with a JAMAR Plus + digital dynamometer. The participant had three attempts on both hands, with the best result counting. Preferred gait speed was measured over 4 m with a static start. The participants were tested twice, gait speed (m/s) was calculated by using the fastest time from those two tests. Self-reported data on unintentional weight loss, physical activity and exhaustion were collected via face-to-face interviews, or via information from staff in nursing homes. Participants who met one or two of Fried criteria were categorised as pre-frail, and from three to five as frail in accordance with the original protocol [ 4 ]. Participants with fewer than four valid items were excluded from the statistical analysis (Fig.  1 ). In total, 9324 participants ( 93.7%) had sufficient information to be included in analyses based on Fried criteria. A detailed description of variables, cut-off values and compliance with Fried’s original protocol is available in Supplementary Table 3 .

Construction of HUNT4-FI

The HUNT4-FI was constructed in accordance with the original procedure for creating a FI [ 5 , 14 ] and recently updated recommendations [ 15 ]. We identified 35 items in the HUNT4 70 + dataset that met the criteria for constructing a FI. These included 11 laboratory markers, 14 clinical assessment items, and ten self-reported items. Supplementary Table 4 contains detailed information on construction, variables, cut-off values and scoring. Participants with > 20% missing HUNT4-FI values were excluded from the analyses. In total, 9318 participants (93.6%) had sufficient information to be included in the HUNT4-FI analyses (Fig.  1 ). For presentation purposes and best possible basis for comparison with the Fried criteria, the HUNT4-FI score was also converted to a categorical variable with the following cut-off values: Robust: <0.15, pre-frail: 0.15–0.24, frail: ≥0.25 in accordance with previous studies [ 16 , 17 ].

Demographic characteristics

Education is reported as elementary school ( ≤ 9 years), secondary school (10–12 years) and college/university (≥13years) retrieved from the National Education Database from Statistics Norway [ 18 ]. Information regarding cohabitation and municipal health services (defined as receiving home assistance, home nursing or being a nursing home resident) was based on self-report.

Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics for the total sample and for each group were calculated with means, standard deviations, frequencies and percentages. Differences between subgroups for continuous outcomes were analysed using t-tests, and chi-squared tests for categorical outcomes. To develop national estimates for prevalence of frailty in Norway for year 2019, we performed inverse probability weighting (IPW) in a two-step procedure, in line with a previous HUNT study [ 19 ]. First, we adjusted the prevalence estimates for non-responders in our sample; all eligible participants invited to HUNT4 70+, N  = 19,403. For Fried criteria, we had 10,079 non-responders, for HUNT4-FI the number was 10,085. This step allowed us to estimate representative prevalence of frailty and pre-frailty on a regional level (Nord-Trøndelag). Secondly, calibration using post-stratification weights and aggregated register data for Norway for year 2019 according to age (70–74, 75–79, 80–84, 85–89, 90–94, 95+), sex, and education (primary (≤ 9 years); secondary (10–12 years); tertiary (≥ 13 years) was performed and made it possible to present national estimates based on the regional data from Nord-Trøndelag.

Nord-Trøndelag lacks large cities, has a low immigration population and a lower educational level compared to Norway as total, while general health and life expectancy is on national average, and is considered to be representative of Norway [ 12 , 20 , 21 ]. Future projections of frailty due to population ageing in Norway in the coming decades were estimated by fixating the standardised prevalence of frailty in 2019 by age and sex. Finally, we multiplied our prevalence data with population projection data (main alternative) from Statistics Norway [ 22 ] by the same age groups and sex for the years 2023, 2030 and 2040. Analyses were conducted in STATA 18.

Table  1 presents demographic and clinical characteristics of the total sample, sorted by frailty status for participants included in Fried criteria sample and the HUNT4-FI sample. More women than men were classified as frail, regardless of frailty models ( p  < 0.001). Participants who were classified as frail were older, less educated, had lower scores on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) and slower gait speed than those classified as robust or pre-frail (all p  < 0.001). Participants classified as frail, regardless of the frailty models, were also more likely to live alone, to receive municipal health services or being a nursing home resident compared to their robust or pre-frail counterparts (all p  < 0.001). According to HUNT4-FI, frail participants had significantly higher body mass index (BMI) than robust or pre-frail participants ( p  < 0.001). According to Fried criteria, frail participants had significantly higher BMI than robust participants ( p  < 0.001), but not compared to pre-frail participants ( p  = 0.83).

The HUNT4-FI score ranged from zero to 0.76. The mean score was higher for women than men (0.22 (± 0.11) and 0.20 (± 0.11), respectively). Nursing home residents had a higher mean HUNT4-FI score than community-dwellers (0.45 (± 0.09) and 0.20 (± 0.10), respectively; p  < 0.001).

Table  2 presents prevalence of frailty on a national level sorted by sex, age and frailty measurement. The prevalence of frailty in people ≥ 70 years in Norway in 2019 was 10.6% (95% confidence interval (CI) 10.0-11.3) according to Fried criteria and 35.8% (95% CI 34.9–36.6) according to HUNT4-FI. National prevalence of pre-frailty was 41.9% (95% CI 40.9–42.9) as measured by Fried criteria and 33.2% (95% CI 32.2–34.1) as measured by HUNT4-FI.

The prevalence of frailty increased with age (p-trend < 0.001), with a steeper curve from the age of 80–84 according to Fried criteria and from the age of 75–79 according to HUNT4-FI (Fig.  2 ). While there was a slight decrease in prevalence of pre-frailty from the age of 75–85 according to HUNT4-FI, prevalence of pre-frailty was slightly increasing until age of 85–89 according to Fried criteria.

Prevalence of frailty by age. The margin plot depicts how the proportion of participants in each age group is classified as robust, pre-frail, or frail according to Fried criteria (a) and HUNT4-FI (b)

Figure  3 shows estimates of the proportion of older people with frailty in the Norwegian population for 2023, 2030 and 2040. According to Fried criteria and HUNT4-FI, we estimate that older people with frailty accounted for 1.3% and 4.7%, respectively, of the total Norwegian population by 2023. This will increase to 2.1% (Fried criteria) and 7.3% (HUNT4-FI) by 2040.

Current and future estimates, proportion of older people living with frailty out of the Norwegian population. Standardised prevalence of frailty in 2019 by age and sex, multiplied population projection data from Statistics Norway (main alternative) by the same age groups and sex for the years 2023, 2030 and 2040

In this large population-based study in Norway, 10.6% of adults ≥ 70 years were classified as frail, and 41.9% as pre-frail according to Fried criteria. Corresponding proportions using HUNT4-FI were 35.8% and 33.2%. Irrespective of frailty criteria used, prevalence was higher in women than in men, in nursing home residents than among community-dwellers and increased with age. According to demographic projections the proportion of older people living with frailty in the overall population in Norway will rise significantly during the next 17 years.

We found higher prevalence of frailty according to both models compared to previous Nordic [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ] and European [ 7 , 23 ] estimates. This indicates that health authorities should anticipate a greater proportion of older people at risk of functional decline and dependency than previously assumed. However, we found lower prevalence of frailty according to Fried criteria in the youngest age groups than in similar age groups reported from Europe overall, but in line with Sweden, Switzerland, Germany and Denmark [ 23 ]. This supports previous research showing a strong relationship between a country’s economic factors and its prevalence of frailty among middle-aged and older people [ 24 ], particularly in people < 80 years [ 25 ]. It is well-established that frailty is closely linked to multimorbidity [ 26 ], and a recent study found later onset of age-related diseases in Western European populations compared to the rest of Europe [ 27 ]. Taken together, our findings suggest that Norway and comparable countries in Western Europe should expect most people aged 70–79 to be robust and merely require efforts to help preserve and strengthen mental and physical reserves to prevent and postpone frailty. The overall higher prevalence of frailty in our study compared to previous studies is likely due to the efforts made in HUNT4 70 + to facilitate participation in the entire 70 + population. The way the data collection was designed and carried out, most likely resulted in a more representative sample in terms of age and function compared to previous European studies.

Those in our overall sample with inadequate data to be included in the final frailty analyses were older, less educated, a higher proportion received municipal health services, and there were more women than men ( p  < 0.001) (Supplementary Table 1 ). These are all factors associated with frailty [ 1 ]. Consequently, our findings may be interpreted as conservative estimates.

It is debatable whether frailty is understood as a precursor to functional impairment and need for assistance, or whether the condition itself includes functional limitations [ 1 ]. Participants considered frail according to Fried criteria had more functional limitations than did those considered frail according to HUNT4-FI (Table  1 ). Hence, the threshold for being categorised as frail seems to be higher using Fried criteria than when using HUNT4-FI. This finding is in line with previous studies [ 28 , 29 ]. Additionally, HUNT4-FI appears to capture more men living with frailty than does Fried criteria. These findings support what prior studies have stated: the divergent operationalisations of frailty should be understood as complementary models with different strengths and limitations, and which to prefer depends on the purpose, population and setting [ 30 , 31 ]. There is well-established evidence that frailty is associated with lower education [ 32 ], and our sample is no exception. Frail participants, regardless of criteria, had less education than robust or pre-frail ones. This highlights education`s impact on health diversity in old age even in high-income countries like Norway. Furthermore, it underscores the necessity for understanding and addressing modifiable risk factors earlier in life.

Due to the strong link between frailty and high healthcare costs [ 1 ], projection models for frailty should be given significant consideration. These data allow us to plan and assess the benefits of prevention and management efforts. However, future predictions of frailty prevalence should be regarded with caution because they are based on the premise that the age- and sex- specific prevalence (%) of frailty fixed at 2019 levels would remain constant in the future. Thus, there are uncertainties in our estimates. It is not accounted for if later born cohorts have lower levels of frailty than in this study. Previous population-based studies have reported that more recent born generations of older Norwegians perform better in terms of cognition [ 33 ] and grip strength [ 34 ]. Most likely, educational level will rise in more recent cohorts, and these factors could have a beneficial impact on our estimates. On the other side, the increasing prevalence of overweight, obesity and diabetes in Norway [ 12 ] may affect our estimates. All of these factors have been linked to higher levels of frailty [ 35 , 36 ]. Considering these uncertainties, the results still stress the huge challenges posed by the ongoing demographic shift [ 1 ]. In 2040, we expect that 21 per 1000 Norwegians will be people ≥ 70 years living with frailty (Fried criteria), corresponding to 73 per 1000 according to HUNT4-FI. Our findings emphasise the significance of methodical planning that considers the great heterogeneity in health of the older part of the population. Addressing the age group 70–80 years in public health policies and research may be advisable to delay the sharp increase in frailty seen from the age of 80–84.

A strength of our study is the large population-based sample and the HUNT4 70 + design [ 12 ], which ensured inclusion of participants with a wide range in age and functioning, and our use of both dominant frailty models. Furthermore, our procedures for measuring frailty with Fried criteria are close to the original [ 4 ], and HUNT4-FI was created in accordance with updated recommended procedures [ 15 ].

There are several limitations in our study. Most HUNT participants were Caucasian, potentially limiting the generalisability of our findings to populations with greater ethnic diversity. Additionally, findings from Asia and America suggest that frailty prevalence is higher in rural areas [ 37 ]. The absence of large cities in Nord-Trøndelag may have influenced the frailty prevalence; however, there is limited evidence from European studies on this topic. Although our projections account for changes in age and sex distribution, they do not account for future shifts in health, lifestyle, and environmental factors within the population. There is no agreement on an operational definition of pre-frailty, and ongoing research aimed at determining the best measurement tools for identifying pre-frailty have high priority [ 38 ]. Our methods of using sub-threshold scores on Fried criteria and HUNT4-FI to classify pre-frailty may not be the most accurate tool to identify pre-frailty.

We estimated frailty prevalence rates and future projections by analysing a large sample of representative data from 50% of all residents aged 70 and older in a geographical region of Norway. We found higher overall prevalence of frailty according to both dominant frailty models, compared to previous European estimates. We provide reliable estimates for governments to facilitate the planning of sustainable healthcare systems in the coming decades. Currently, our projections pose a substantial challenge to a society where health resources are already under strain. These findings accentuate the need for further research on modifiable risk factors in a life-course approach as a foundation for effective interventions to prevent and postpone frailty.

Data availability

Data for this study were provided by The Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT), available at https://www.ntnu.edu/hunt. Access to HUNT data analysis is open to research groups with a Principal Investigator affiliated with a Norwegian research institute. Non-Norwegian groups must collaborate with a partner in Norway for data use. Approval from the HUNT Data Access Committee (DAC), Regional Committee for Medical and Health Research Ethics, and sometimes the Data Inspectorate is required for each study. Participant data is not publicly accessible to maintain confidentiality.

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Acknowledgements

The HUNT Study is a collaboration between the HUNT Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), the Trøndelag County Council, the Central Norway Health Authority and the Norwegian Institute of Public Health. We are grateful to the HUNT study participants and the HUNT study management for allowing us to use their data.

This work was supported by South-Eastern Norway Regional Health Authority research grant [grant number 2023039]. The funder played no role in any part of the study.

Open access funding provided by Vestfold Hospital Trust

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Ingebjørg Lavrantsdatter Kyrdalen, Bjørn Heine Strand, Geir Selbæk & Gro Gujord Tangen

Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway

Ingebjørg Lavrantsdatter Kyrdalen & Geir Selbæk

Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway

Bjørn Heine Strand

Department of Geriatric Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway

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Department of Public Health and Nursing, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, HUNT Research Centre, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Levanger, Norway

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University of South-Eastern Norway, Drammen, Norway

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Department of Epidemiology & Data Science and Department of General Practice, Amsterdam UMC – location VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

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Department of Rehabilitation Science and Health Technology, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway

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ILK, BHS, GS, PT, HO, EOH, HKS and GGT all contributed to planning the study, conceptualisation, editing and reviewing of the final draft. ILK, BHS, GS and GGT had full access and verified the individual participant level data, and ILK, BHS and GGT performed formal analyses. GS, PT and HKS planned the design and data collection in HUNT4 70+. ILK was responsible for the original draft of the paper as well as the submission process. All authors accept the responsibility to submit for publication.

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Correspondence to Ingebjørg Lavrantsdatter Kyrdalen .

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All data collection in the HUNT surveys has been approved by the Norwegian Data Directorate. Participants in the HUNT studies are included based on an informed, written consent. For those who, in the opinion of assessors or nursing care staff, did not have the capacity to consent inclusion was based on informed, written consent provided by a close proxy. The present study is approved by the Regional Ethics Committee (ref. 253357) and The Norwegian Data Protection Authority (ref. 314425).

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Kyrdalen, I.L., Strand, B.H., Selbæk, G. et al. Prevalence and future estimates of frailty and pre-frailty in a population-based sample of people 70 years and older in Norway: the HUNT study. Aging Clin Exp Res 36 , 188 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40520-024-02839-y

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Research Question Examples 🧑🏻‍🏫

25+ Practical Examples & Ideas To Help You Get Started 

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | October 2023

A well-crafted research question (or set of questions) sets the stage for a robust study and meaningful insights.  But, if you’re new to research, it’s not always clear what exactly constitutes a good research question. In this post, we’ll provide you with clear examples of quality research questions across various disciplines, so that you can approach your research project with confidence!

Research Question Examples

• Psychology research questions
• Business research questions
• Education research questions
• Healthcare research questions
• Computer science research questions

Examples: Psychology

Let’s start by looking at some examples of research questions that you might encounter within the discipline of psychology.

How does sleep quality affect academic performance in university students?

This question is specific to a population (university students) and looks at a direct relationship between sleep and academic performance, both of which are quantifiable and measurable variables.

What factors contribute to the onset of anxiety disorders in adolescents?

The question narrows down the age group and focuses on identifying multiple contributing factors. There are various ways in which it could be approached from a methodological standpoint, including both qualitatively and quantitatively.

Do mindfulness techniques improve emotional well-being?

This is a focused research question aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of a specific intervention.

How does early childhood trauma impact adult relationships?

This research question targets a clear cause-and-effect relationship over a long timescale, making it focused but comprehensive.

Is there a correlation between screen time and depression in teenagers?

This research question focuses on an in-demand current issue and a specific demographic, allowing for a focused investigation. The key variables are clearly stated within the question and can be measured and analysed (i.e., high feasibility).

Examples: Business/Management

Next, let’s look at some examples of well-articulated research questions within the business and management realm.

How do leadership styles impact employee retention?

This is an example of a strong research question because it directly looks at the effect of one variable (leadership styles) on another (employee retention), allowing from a strongly aligned methodological approach.

What role does corporate social responsibility play in consumer choice?

Current and precise, this research question can reveal how social concerns are influencing buying behaviour by way of a qualitative exploration.

Does remote work increase or decrease productivity in tech companies?

Focused on a particular industry and a hot topic, this research question could yield timely, actionable insights that would have high practical value in the real world.

How do economic downturns affect small businesses in the homebuilding industry?

Vital for policy-making, this highly specific research question aims to uncover the challenges faced by small businesses within a certain industry.

Which employee benefits have the greatest impact on job satisfaction?

By being straightforward and specific, answering this research question could provide tangible insights to employers.

Examples: Education

Next, let’s look at some potential research questions within the education, training and development domain.

How does class size affect students’ academic performance in primary schools?

This example research question targets two clearly defined variables, which can be measured and analysed relatively easily.

Do online courses result in better retention of material than traditional courses?

Timely, specific and focused, answering this research question can help inform educational policy and personal choices about learning formats.

What impact do US public school lunches have on student health?

Targeting a specific, well-defined context, the research could lead to direct changes in public health policies.

To what degree does parental involvement improve academic outcomes in secondary education in the Midwest?

This research question focuses on a specific context (secondary education in the Midwest) and has clearly defined constructs.

What are the negative effects of standardised tests on student learning within Oklahoma primary schools?

This research question has a clear focus (negative outcomes) and is narrowed into a very specific context.

Need a helping hand?

Examples: Healthcare

Shifting to a different field, let’s look at some examples of research questions within the healthcare space.

What are the most effective treatments for chronic back pain amongst UK senior males?

Specific and solution-oriented, this research question focuses on clear variables and a well-defined context (senior males within the UK).

How do different healthcare policies affect patient satisfaction in public hospitals in South Africa?

This question is has clearly defined variables and is narrowly focused in terms of context.

Which factors contribute to obesity rates in urban areas within California?

This question is focused yet broad, aiming to reveal several contributing factors for targeted interventions.

Does telemedicine provide the same perceived quality of care as in-person visits for diabetes patients?

Ideal for a qualitative study, this research question explores a single construct (perceived quality of care) within a well-defined sample (diabetes patients).

Which lifestyle factors have the greatest affect on the risk of heart disease?

This research question aims to uncover modifiable factors, offering preventive health recommendations.

Examples: Computer Science

Last but certainly not least, let’s look at a few examples of research questions within the computer science world.

What are the perceived risks of cloud-based storage systems?

Highly relevant in our digital age, this research question would align well with a qualitative interview approach to better understand what users feel the key risks of cloud storage are.

Which factors affect the energy efficiency of data centres in Ohio?

With a clear focus, this research question lays a firm foundation for a quantitative study.

How do TikTok algorithms impact user behaviour amongst new graduates?

While this research question is more open-ended, it could form the basis for a qualitative investigation.

What are the perceived risk and benefits of open-source software software within the web design industry?

Practical and straightforward, the results could guide both developers and end-users in their choices.

Remember, these are just examples…

In this post, we’ve tried to provide a wide range of research question examples to help you get a feel for what research questions look like in practice. That said, it’s important to remember that these are just examples and don’t necessarily equate to good research topics . If you’re still trying to find a topic, check out our topic megalist for inspiration.

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• Open access
• Published: 02 September 2024

Causal associations of hypothyroidism with frozen shoulder: a two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization study

• Bin Chen 1 ,
• Zheng-hua Zhu 1 ,
• Qing Li 2 ,
• Zhi-cheng Zuo 1 &
• Kai-long Zhou 1  

BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders volume  25 , Article number:  693 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Many studies have investigated the association between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder, but their findings have been inconsistent. Furthermore, earlier research has been primarily observational, which may introduce bias and does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship. To ascertain the causal association, we performed a two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis.

We obtained data on “Hypothyroidism” and “Frozen Shoulder” from Summary-level Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) datasets that have been published. The information came from European population samples. The primary analysis utilized the inverse-variance weighted (IVW) method. Additionally, a sensitivity analysis was conducted to assess the robustness of the results.

We ultimately chose 39 SNPs as IVs for the final analysis. The results of the two MR methods we utilized in the investigation indicated that a possible causal relationship between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder. The most significant analytical outcome demonstrated an odds ratio (OR) of 1.0577 (95% Confidence Interval (CI):1.0057–1.1123), P  = 0.029, using the IVW approach. Furthermore, using the MR Egger method as a supplementary analytical outcome showed an OR of 1.1608 (95% CI:1.0318–1.3060), P  = 0.017. Furthermore, the results of our sensitivity analysis indicate that there is no heterogeneity or pleiotropy in our MR analysis. In the reverse Mendelian analysis, no causal relationship was found between frozen shoulders and hypothyroidism.

Our MR analysis suggests that there may be a causal relationship between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder.

Peer Review reports

Frozen shoulder, also known as adhesive capsulitis, is a common shoulder condition. Patients with frozen shoulder usually experience severe shoulder pain and diffuse shoulder stiffness, which is usually progressive and can lead to severe limitations in daily activities, especially with external rotation of the shoulder joint [ 1 ]. The incidence of the disease is difficult to ascertain because of its insidious onset and the fact that many patients do not choose to seek medical attention. It is estimated to affect about 2% to 5% of the population, with women affected more commonly than men (1.6:1.0) [ 2 , 3 ]. The peak occurrence of frozen shoulder is typically between the ages of 40 and 60, with a positive family history present in around 9.5% of cases [ 4 ]. However, the underlying etiology and pathophysiology of frozen shoulder remains unclear.

The prevalence of frozen shoulder has been reported to be higher in certain diseases such as dyslipidemia [ 5 ], diabetes [ 6 , 7 ], and thyroid disorders [ 4 , 8 ]. The relationship between diabetes and frozen shoulder has been established through epidemiological studies [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. However, the relationship between thyroid disease and frozen shoulder remains unclear. Thyroid disorders include hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, thyroiditis, subclinical hypothyroidism, and others. Previously, some studies reported the connection between frozen shoulders and thyroid dysfunction. However, the conclusions of these studies are not consistent [ 4 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. In addition, these studies are primarily observational and susceptible to confounding variables. Traditional observational studies can only obtain correlations, not exact causal relationships [ 17 ].

MR is a technique that utilizes genetic variants as instrumental variables (IVs) of exposure factors to determine the causal relationship between exposure factors and outcomes [ 17 , 18 ]. MR operates similarly to a randomized controlled trial as genetic variants adhere to Mendelian inheritance patterns and are randomly distributed in the population [ 19 ]. Moreover, alleles remain fixed between individuals and are not influenced by the onset or progression of disease. Consequently, causal inferences derived from MR analyses are less susceptible to confounding and reverse causality biases [ 20 , 21 ]. And with the growing number of GWAS data published by large consortia, MR studies can provide reliable results with a sufficient sample size [ 22 ]. In this study, we performed a two-sample bidirectional MR analysis to evaluate the causal relationship between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder.

Study design description

The bidirectional MR design, which examines the relationship between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder, is succinctly outlined in Fig.  1 . Using summary data from Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) datasets, we conducted two MR analyses to explore the potential reciprocal association between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder. In the reverse MR analyses, Frozen Shoulder was considered as the exposure and Hypothyroidism as the outcome, while the forward MR analyses focused on Hypothyroidism as the exposure. Figure  1 illustrates the key assumptions of the MR analysis.

Description of the study design in this bidirectional MR study. A  MR analyses depend on three core assumptions. B  Research design sketches

Data source

Genetic variants associated with Hypothyroidism were extracted from published Summary-level GWAS datasets provided by the FinnGen Consortium, using the “Hypothyroidism” phenotype in this study. The GWAS included 16380353 subjects, including 22997 cases and 175475 controls. Data for Frozen Shoulder were obtained from the GWAS, which was derived from a European sample [ 23 ]. The frozen shoulder was defined based on the occurrence of one or more International Classification of Disease, 10th Revision (ICD10) codes (as shown in the supplementary material). Our MR study was conducted using publicly available studies or shared datasets and therefore did not require additional ethical statements or consent.

Selection of IV

For MR studies to yield reliable results, they must adhere to three fundamental assumptions [ 24 ], Regarding the IV selection, the following statements hold true: (1) IVs exhibit substantial correlation with exposure factors; (2) IVs do not directly impact outcomes but influence outcomes through exposure; (3) IVs are not correlated with any confounding factors that could influence exposure and outcome. Firstly, we selected single‐nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from the European GWAS that met the genome-wide significance criterion ( p  < 5 × 10 –8 ) and were associated with the exposure of interest as potential SNPs. Subsequently, we excluded any selected SNPs that linkage disequilibrium (LD) using the clump function (r 2  = 0.001, kb = 10000). Furthermore, palindromic SNPs and ambiguous SNPs were excluded. These excluded SNPs were not included in subsequent analyses. To evaluate weak instrumental variable effects, we utilized the F-statistic, considering genetic variants with an F-statistic < 10 as weak IVs and excluding them. Then for the second assumption, we needed to manually remove SNPs associated with outcome ( p  < 5 × 10 –8 ). For the third assumption, “ IVs are not correlated with any confounding factors that could influence exposure and outcome,” implying that the IVs chosen should not have horizontal pleiotropy. The final set of SNPs meeting these criteria were utilized as IVs in the subsequent MR analysis.

MR analysis

In this study, we evaluated the relationship between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder using two different MR methods: IVW [ 25 ] and MR-Egger regression [ 26 ]. The Wald ratio for each IV will be meta-analyzed using the IVW approach to investigate the causal relationship. In contrast to the MR-Egger technique, which remains functional even in the presence of invalid IVs, the IVW method assumes that all included genetic variants are valid instrumental variables. Furthermore, MR-Egger incorporates an intercept term to examine potential pleiotropy. If this intercept term equals 0 ( P  > 0.05), the results of the MR-Egger regression model closely align with those obtained from IVW; However, if the intercept term deviates significantly from 0 ( P  < 0.05), it suggests possible horizontal pleiotropy associated with these IVs. MR-Egger employed as estimation method alongside IVW. Although less efficient, these approaches can provide reliable predictions across a broader range of scenarios.

Sensitivity analysis

We performed a sensitivity analysis to investigate potential horizontal pleiotropy and heterogeneity in our study, aiming to demonstrate the robustness of our findings. Cochran’s Q test was employed to identify possible heterogeneity. Cochran’s Q statistic assessed genetic variant heterogeneity while considering significance at p  < 0.05 level and I 2  > 25% as an indication of heterogeneity. on the results, we generated funnel plots. MR-Egger intercept tests were then utilized to estimate horizontal pleiotropy (with presence of an intercept and horizontal pleiotropy considered when p  < 0.05). Additionally, a leave-one-out to determine if causality depended on or was influenced by any specific SNP. All statistical analyses were performed using the “TwoSampleMR” packages in R (version 3.6.3, www.r-project.org/ ) [ 27 ].

Instrumental variables

We ultimately chose 39 SNPs as IVs for the final analysis after going through the aforementioned screening process. All IVs had an F-statistic > 10, indicating a low probability of weak IV bias. Comprehensive information on each IV can be found in Appendix 1 .

Mendelian randomization results

According to the outcomes of the two MR techniques we employed for our analysis, hypothyroidism increases the risk factors for developing frozen shoulder. Specifically, as shown in the results of Table  1 , the primary analytical outcome using the IVW method revealed an OR of 1.0577 (95% CI:1.0057–1.1123), P  = 0.029. Additionally, employing the MR Egger method secondary analytical outcome resulted in an OR of 1.1608 (95% CI:1.0318–1.3060), P  = 0.017. Furthermore, scatter plots (Fig.  2 ) and forest plots (Fig.  3 ) were generated based on the findings of this MR study.

Scatterplot of MR analysis

Forest plot of MR analysis

Heterogeneity and sensitivity test

The heterogeneity of causal estimates obtained for each SNP reflects their variability. A lower level of heterogeneity indicates higher reliability of MR estimates. To further validate the dependability of the results, we conducted a sensitivity analysis to examine the heterogeneity in MR. The funnel plots we created are displayed in Fig.  4 together with the results of Cochran’s Q test (Table  2 ), which revealed no heterogeneity in IVs. Additionally, the MR-Egger intercept test results (p  = 0.0968) indicated no presence of pleiotropy in our data. Furthermore, the outcomes leave-one-out test demonstrated that causation remained independent and unaffected by any specific SNP (Fig.  5 ).

Funnel plot to assess heterogeneity

Sensitivity analysis by the leave-one-out method

Reverse Mendelian randomization analysis

In the reverse two-sample MR analysis, frozen shoulder was chosen as the exposure factor, and hypothyroidism as the outcome factor. The same threshold was set, and chain imbalance was eliminated. Finally, four SNPs were included as IVs in the reverse MR analysis. None of the four results from the MR analysis support a causal relationship between genetic susceptibility to frozen shoulder and the risk of hypothyroidism, as shown in Table  3 .

The frequent shoulder ailment known as frozen shoulder is characterized by joint pain and dysfunction. It has a significant negative impact on patient’s quality of life and increases the financial strain on families and society. Frozen shoulder can be caused by various factors, with thyroid disorders being one of them, although the exact causal relationship between them remains unclear.

There is considerable debate over whether hypothyroidism enhances the prevalence of frozen shoulder in the population. Results from Carina Cohen et al. [ 4 ] indicate that thyroid disorders, particularly hypothyroidism and the presence of benign thyroid nodules, significantly contribute to the risk of developing frozen shoulder. These factors increase the likelihood of acquiring the condition by 2.69 times [ 4 ]. A case–control study conducted in China revealed that thyroid disease is associated with an elevated risk of developing frozen shoulder [ 14 ]. Hyung Bin Park et al. also discovered a notable association between subclinical hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder [ 16 ]. Consistent with previous studies, a case–control study from Brazil reported that patients with hypothyroidism were more likely to be diagnosed with frozen shoulder than comparable patients [ 28 ]. However, there are some inconsistencies. Kiera Kingston et al. [ 13 ] discovered hypothyroidism in 8.1% of individuals with adhesive capsulitis; however, this rate was lower than the 10.3% identified in the control population [ 13 ]. Hyung et al. concluded that there was no association between them [ 15 ]. Studies by Chris et al. also questioned the relationship between heart disease, high cholesterol and thyroid disease and frozen shoulder [ 29 ]. All of these studies, we discovered, had poor scores on the evidence-based medicine scale, were vulnerable to a wide range of confounding variables, and carried a number of significant risks of bias. Additionally, conventional observational studies only provide correlations rather than precise causal links.

To overcome this shortcoming, we performed the MR analysis. The results of the two MR methods examined in this study suggest a possible causal relationship between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder. Importantly, no substantial heterogeneity or pleiotropy was observed in these findings. Our conclusions are similar to those of Deng et al. [ 30 ]. However, our study conducted a reverse Mendelian randomization analysis and had a larger sample size. Several mechanisms may underlie this association. First, fibrosis plays a crucial role in the movement disorders associated with frozen shoulder. Hypothyroidism impairs the synthesis and breakdown of collagen, elastic fibers, and polysaccharides within soft tissues, resulting in tissue edema and fibrosis, contributing to the development of frozen shoulder [ 31 ]. Second, hypothyroidism influences various signaling pathways including growth factors, the extracellular matrix, and calcium signaling, which can impact the differentiation and functionality of osteocytes, leading to bone degeneration and subsequently progressing to frozen shoulder [ 32 ]. Third, hypothyroidism can result in reduced nerve conduction velocity, nerve fiber degeneration, and neuritis, subsequently compromising the sensory and motor functions of nerves and elevating the risk of developing frozen shoulder [ 33 ]. The outcomes of the MR analysis can be used to screen potential risk factors in advance. Accordingly, people with hypothyroidism are more likely to develop frozen shoulder. It is suggested that clinicians should pay attention to the patients with shoulder discomfort when treating hypothyroidism, and provide some ideas for early intervention, which is beneficial to the prognosis of patients.

Our research has some advantages. Firstly, by employing the MR approach, confounding factors and reverse causality were carefully controlled, at least to a large extent. Secondly, our study relied on data derived from previously published GWAS studies, which boasted a substantial sample size and encompassed numerous genetic variants. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that we also used different methods to estimate the impacts, which improves the reliability of our results. However, our MR study still has limitations. First, there may be unobserved pleiotropy beyond vertical pleiotropy. In addition, the samples for this study were all from the European population. Research results based on race may limit their generalizations to other populations. Therefore, large-scale, multi ethnic clinical and basic research may be needed to validate these issues.

With the help of two Mendelian randomization studies, we found that there may be a causal relationship between hypothyroidism and frozen shoulder, and hypothyroidism may be associated with an increased risk of frozen shoulder. However, the exact mechanism remains to be elucidated. More research is required to investigate the underlying mechanisms of this causal relationship.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

• Mendelian randomization

Genome-Wide Association Studies

Inverse-Variance Weighted

Confidence Interval

Instrumental Variables

Single‐Nucleotide Polymorphisms

Linkage Disequilibrium

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This study was supported by the Project of State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Soochow University (No. GZK12023047).

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Chen, B., Zhu, Zh., Li, Q. et al. Causal associations of hypothyroidism with frozen shoulder: a two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization study. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 25 , 693 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12891-024-07826-y

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Published on June 20, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

When you start planning a research project, developing research questions and creating a  research design , you will have to make various decisions about the type of research you want to do.

There are many ways to categorize different types of research. The words you use to describe your research depend on your discipline and field. In general, though, the form your research design takes will be shaped by:

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Keep in mind that the methods that you choose bring with them different risk factors and types of research bias . Biases aren’t completely avoidable, but can heavily impact the validity and reliability of your findings if left unchecked.

Choosing between all these different research types is part of the process of creating your research design , which determines exactly how your research will be conducted. But the type of research is only the first step: next, you have to make more concrete decisions about your research methods and the details of the study.

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