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Database Fundamentals Introduction

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Presentation on theme: "Database Fundamentals Introduction"— Presentation transcript:

Chapter 1 Overview of Databases and Transaction Processing.

Database Management3-1 L3 Database Management Santa R. Susarapu Ph.D. Student Virginia Commonwealth University.

Introduction to Databases

Prentice Hall, Database Systems Week 1 Introduction By Zekrullah Popal.

Introduction to Database Management  Department of Computer Science Northern Illinois University January 2001.

Overview of Databases and Transaction Processing Chapter 1.

Distributed Systems Architectures

Chapter 3 Database Management

File Systems and Databases

Database Management: Getting Data Together Chapter 14.

Transaction Processing IS698 Min Song. 2 What is a Transaction?  When an event in the real world changes the state of the enterprise, a transaction is.

Organizing Data & Information

Ch1: File Systems and Databases Hachim Haddouti

Chapter 4: Database Management. Databases Before the Use of Computers Data kept in books, ledgers, card files, folders, and file cabinets Long response.

Chapter 14 The Second Component: The Database.

Databases and Database Management System. 2 Goals comprehensive introduction to –the design of databases –database transaction processing –the use of.

1 Recap Database: –collection of data central to some enterprise that is managed by a Database Management System –reflection of the current state of the.

1 Introduction Introduction to database systems Database Management Systems (DBMS) Type of Databases Database Design Database Design Considerations.

Data Base Management System

Chapter 1 Introduction to Databases

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Databases for Beginners

An introduction to databases, SQL, and Microsoft Access

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On the surface, a database might seem much like a spreadsheet; it presents data arranged in columns and rows. But that is where the similarity ends, because a database is far more powerful.

What Can a Database Do?

If the database is relational, which most databases are, cross-references records in different tables. This means that you can create relationships between tables. For example, if you linked a Customers table with an Orders table, you could find all purchase orders from the Orders table that a single customer from the Customers table ever processed, or further refine it to return only those orders processed in a particular time period – or almost any type of combination you could imagine.

Because of these table relationships, a database supports complex querying, with various combinations of columns across tables and filters to fine-tune which rows return after the query executes.

A database performs complex aggregate calculations across several tables. For example, you could list expenses across a dozen retail outlets, including all possible sub-totals, and then a final total.

A database enforces consistency and data integrity, avoiding duplication and ensuring data accuracy through its design and a series of constraints.

What Is the Structure of a Database?

At its simplest, a database is made up of tables that contain columns and rows. Data separates by categories into tables to avoid duplication. For example, a business might have a table for Employees, one for Customers, and another for Products. 

Each row in a table is called a record , and each cell is a field . Each field (or column) holds a specific type of data, such as a number, text or a date. This specification is enforced by a series of rules called constraints to ensure that your data is accurate and dependable.

The tables in a relational database are linked through a key. This is an ID in each table that uniquely identifies a row. Each table uses a primary key column, and any table that needs to link to that table offers a foreign key column whose value will match the first table's primary key.

Queries and Reports

All database engines support querying, which is a process of defining a specific set of rules to obtain an extract a subset of information from the database. However, different engines offer different levels of support. A server-based solution, for example, returns tabular output that must be rendered more aesthetically pleasing through a different report-writing tool. A desktop-based database, like Microsoft Access, includes a visual report designer integrated with its query tool, leading to one-stop shopping for direct-to-print reports.

Common Database Products

Microsoft Access is one of the most popular database platforms on the market today. It's available with some Microsoft 365 plans and is compatible with all Office products. It features wizards and an easy-to-use interface that guides you through the development of your database. Other desktop databases are also available, including FileMaker Pro, LibreOffice Base (which is free) and Brilliant Database.

These solutions are optimized for small-scale, single-user desktop applications.

For businesses, a large-scale, multi-user database server makes more sense. Server databases like MySQL, Microsoft SQL Server, and Oracle are enormously powerful—but also expensive and can come with a steep learning curve.

Essential Skills

All but the simplest databases rely on Structured Query Language to develop new database assets (like tables and columns) or to extract information through queries. Although SQL is an easy scripting language, different database vendors use slightly different implementations of it relative to their own proprietary database engines.

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SQL Tutorial

Sql database, sql references, sql examples, introduction to sql.

SQL is a standard language for accessing and manipulating databases.

What is SQL?

• SQL stands for Structured Query Language
• SQL lets you access and manipulate databases
• SQL became a standard of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1987

What Can SQL do?

• SQL can execute queries against a database
• SQL can retrieve data from a database
• SQL can insert records in a database
• SQL can update records in a database
• SQL can delete records from a database
• SQL can create new databases
• SQL can create new tables in a database
• SQL can create stored procedures in a database
• SQL can create views in a database
• SQL can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

SQL is a Standard - BUT....

Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there are different versions of the SQL language.

However, to be compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the major commands (such as SELECT , UPDATE , DELETE , INSERT , WHERE ) in a similar manner.

Note: Most of the SQL database programs also have their own proprietary extensions in addition to the SQL standard!

Using SQL in Your Web Site

To build a web site that shows data from a database, you will need:

• An RDBMS database program (i.e. MS Access, SQL Server, MySQL)
• To use a server-side scripting language, like PHP or ASP
• To use SQL to get the data you want
• To use HTML / CSS to style the page

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RDBMS stands for Relational Database Management System.

RDBMS is the basis for SQL, and for all modern database systems such as MS SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, MySQL, and Microsoft Access.

The data in RDBMS is stored in database objects called tables. A table is a collection of related data entries and it consists of columns and rows.

Look at the "Customers" table:

Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the Customers table consist of CustomerID, CustomerName, ContactName, Address, City, PostalCode and Country. A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information about every record in the table.

A record, also called a row, is each individual entry that exists in a table. For example, there are 91 records in the above Customers table. A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with a specific field in a table.

Video: SQL Introduction

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DBMS Tutorial – Learn Database Management System

Database Management System is a software or technology used to manage data from a database. Some popular databases are MySQL, Oracle, MongoDB, etc. DBMS provides many operations e.g. creating a database, Storing in the database, updating an existing database, delete from the database. DBMS is a system that enables you to store, modify, and retrieve data in an organized way. It also provides security to the database.

In this Database Management System tutorial , you’ll learn basic to advanced topics like the ER model, Relational Model, Relation Algebra, Normalization, File Organization, etc.

Having a strong understanding of DBMS concepts is crucial for anyone preparing for exams like GATE, where database management forms a significant part of the syllabus. To build a solid foundation and enhance your preparation, consider the GATE CS Self-Paced Course . This course covers all essential DBMS topics in detail, providing you with the knowledge and skills needed to excel in your exams.

Tutorial Overview:

• Introduction

Entity Relationship Model

• Relational Model

Relational Algebra

Functional dependencies, normalization, transactions and concurrency control, indexing, b and b+ trees, file organization, advanced topics, interview questions, sql tutorial, dbms practices questions, advantages of dbms, disadvantages of dbms, dbms tutorial.

Prerequisites : Basic understanding of computer fundamentals, and familiarity with data concepts (tables, rows, and columns) will be helpful. Knowledge of basic SQL is recommended but not required.

• DBMS Introduction | Set 1
• DBMS Introduction | Set 2 (3-Tier Architecture)
• DBMS Architecture 2-level 3-level
• Need For DBMS
• Data Abstraction and Data Independence
• Database Objects
• Multimedia Database
• Categories of End Users
• Use of DBMS in System Software
• Choice of DBMS | Economic factors
• Enhanced ER Model
• Minimization of ER Diagram
• ER Model: Generalization, Specialization and Aggregation
• Recursive Relationships
• Impedance Mismatch
• Relational Model and CODD Rules
• Keys in Relational Model (Candidate, Super, Primary, Alternate and Foreign)
• Number of possible Superkeys
• Anomalies in Relational Model
• Mapping from ER Model to Relational Model
• Strategies for Schema design
• Schema Integration
• Star Schema in Data Warehouse modeling
• Data Warehouse Modeling | Snowflake Schema
• Dimensional Data Modeling

>> Quiz on ER and Relational Model

• Basic Operators
• Extended Operators
• Inner Join vs Outer Join
• Join operation Vs nested query
• DBMS | Tupple Relational Calculus
• Row oriented vs. column oriented data stores
• How to solve Relational Algebra Problems for GATE
• How to Solve Relational Algebra Problems for GATE
• Functional Dependency and Attribute Closure
• Finding Attribute Closure and Candidate Keys using Functional Dependencies
• Armstrong’s Axioms in Functional Dependency
• Equivalence of Functional Dependencies
• Canonical Cover
• Normal Forms
• Minimum relations satisfying 1NF
• The Problem of redundancy in Database
• Dependency Preserving Decomposition
• Lossless Join Decomposition
• LossLess Join and Dependency Preserving Decomposition
• How to find the Highest Normal Form of a Relation
• Domain Key normal form
• Introduction of 4th and 5th Normal form
• Denormalization in Databases
• DBMS | Data Replication

>> Quiz on Normal Forms

• ACID Properties
• Concurrency Control -Introduction
• Implementation of Locking in DBMS
• Concurrency Control Protocols – Lock Based Protocol
• Concurrency Control Protocol | Graph Based Protocol
• Concurrency Control Protocol | Two Phase Locking (2-PL)-I
• Concurrency Control Protocol | Two Phase Locking (2-PL)-II
• Concurrency Control Protocol | Two Phase Locking (2-PL)-III
• Concurrency Control Protocol | Multiple Granularity Locking
• Concurrency Control Protocol | Thomas Write Rule
• Concurrency Control | Polygraph to check View Serializabilty
• DBMS | Log based recovery
• Timestamp Ordering Protocols
• Introduction to TimeStamp and Deadlock Prevention Schemes
• Dirty read in SQL
• Types of Schedules
• Conflict Serializability
• View Serializability
• How to test if two schedules are View Equal or not ?
• Recoverability of Schedules
• Precedence Graph for testing Conflict Serializabilty
• Transaction Isolation Levels in DBMS
• Database Recovery Techniques
• Starvation in DBMS
• Deadlock in DBMS
• DBMS | OLAP vs OLTP
• Types of OLAP Systems
• DBMS | Types of Recoverability of Schedules and easiest way to test schedule | Set 2
• Web Information Retrieval | Vector Space Model
• Why recovery is needed?

>> Quiz on Transactions and concurrency control

• Indexing and its Types
• B-Tree | Set 1 (Introduction)
• B-Tree | Set 2 (Insert)
• B-Tree | Set 3 (Delete)
• B+ Tree (Introduction)
• Bitmap Indexing
• Inverted Index
• Difference between Inverted Index and Forward Index
• SQL queries on clustered and non-clustered Indexes

>> Practice questions on B and B+ Trees >> Quizzes on Indexing, B and B+ Trees

• File Organization – Set 1
• File Organization – Set 2 (Hashing in DBMS)
• File Organization – Set 3
• File Organization – Set 4

>> Quiz on File structures

• Query Optimization
• How to store a password in database?
• Storage Area Networks
• Network attached storage
• Data Warehousing
• Data Warehouse Architecture
• Characteristics and Functions of Data warehouse
• Difficulties of Implementing Data Warehouses
• Data Mining
• Data Mining | KDD process
• Data Mining | Sources of Data that can be mined
• ODBMS – Definition and overview
• Architecture of HBase
• Apache HBase
• Architecture and Working of Hive
• Apache Hive
• Difference between Hive and HBase
• Difference between RDBMS and HBase
• Challenges of database security
• Federated database management system issues
• Distributed Database System
• Functions of Distributed Database System
• Semantic Heterogeneity
• Advantages of Distributed database
• Comparison – Centralized, Decentralized and Distributed Systems
• Characteristics of Biological Data (Genome Data Management)
• Data Management issues in Mobile database
• Future Works in Geographic Information System
• Difference between Structured, Semi-structured and Unstructured data
• DBMS interview questions | Set 1
• DBMS interview questions | Set 2
• SQL Interview Questions
• SQL Query Interview Questions
• PostgreSQL Interview Questions
• PL/SQL Intevriew Questions
• SQL | Tutorial
• Quiz on SQL

Database Management Systems | Set 1 Database Management Systems | Set 2 Database Management Systems | Set 3 Database Management Systems | Set 4 Database Management Systems | Set 5 Database Management Systems | Set 6 Database Management Systems | Set 7 Database Management Systems | Set 8 Database Management Systems | Set 9 Database Management Systems | Set 10 Database Management Systems | Set 11

There are some following reasons to learn DBMS:

• Organizing and management of data: DBMS helps in managing large amounts of data in an organized manner. It provides features like create, edit, delete, and read.
• Data Security: DBMS provides Security to the data from the unauthorized person.
• Improved decision-making: From stored data in the database we can generate graphs, reports, and many visualizations which helps in decision-making.
• Consistency: In a traditional database model all things are manual or inconsistent, but DBMS enables to automation of the operations by queries.
• Complexity: DBMS can be hard to design, implement, and manage, needing specialized knowledge.
• Cost: High setup costs, including hardware, software, and skilled personnel, can be expensive. Ongoing maintenance adds to the cost.
• Performance Overhead: DBMS might slow down simple tasks due to their extra features and general-purpose nature.
• Security Risks: Centralizing data can create security risks. If the system is hacked, all data could be compromised.
• Resource Intensive: DBMS need a lot of memory, storage, and processing power, which can be costly.
• Data Integrity Issues: Complex systems can lead to data integrity problems if not managed well.

Understanding Database Management Systems (DBMS) is essential for managing and organizing data effectively. This DBMS tutorial has introduced you to key concepts like database models, SQL queries, normalization, and data security. With this knowledge, you can design efficient databases, maintain data integrity, and improve performance.

Quick Links:

• Last Minutes Notes(LMNs) on DBMS
• Quizzes on DBMS
• Practice Problems on DBMS

Database Management System(DBMS) – FAQs

What is database.

A database is a collection of organized data which can easily be created, updated, accessed, and managed. Records are kept maintained in tables or objects. A tuple (row) represents a single entry in a table. DBMS manipulates data from the database in the form of queries given by the user.

What are different languages present in DBMS?

DDL (Data Definition Language) : These are the collection of commands which are required to define the database. E.g., CREATE, ALTER, RENAME, TRUNCATE, DROP, etc. DML (Data Manipulation Language) : These are the collection of commands which are required to manipulate the data stored in a database. E.g., SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE, etc. DCL (Data Control Language) : These are the collection of commands which are dealt with the user permissions and controls of the database system. E.g, GRANT, and REVOKE. TCL (Transaction Control Language) : These are the collection of commands which are required to deal with the transaction of the database. E.g., COMMIT, ROLLBACK, and SAVEPOINT.

What are the ACID properties in DBMS?

The full form of ACID is Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability these are the properties of DBMS that ensure a safe and secure way of sharing data among multiple users. A – Atomic: All changes to the data must be performed successfully or not at all. C – Consistent: Data must be in a consistent state before and after the transaction. I – Isolated: No other process can change the data while the transaction is going on. D – Durable: The changes made by a transaction must persist.

What are the Advantages of DBMS?

The followings are the few advantages of DBMS : Data Sharing: Data from the same database can be shared by multiple users at the same time. Integrity: It allows the data stored in an organized and refined manner. Data Independence: It allows changing the data structure without changing the composition of executing programs. Data Security: DBMS comes with the tools to make the storage and transfer of databases secure and reliable. Authentication and encryption are the tools used in DBMS for data security.

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Introduction to Databases - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Introduction to Databases

Introduction to databases simplicity is the ultimate sophistication. leonardo da vinci class outline what is data and why is it important what is a database ... – powerpoint ppt presentation.

• What is data and why is it important?
• What is a database and database schema?
• What is a database management system?
• What is a database application?
• What are the levels of database representation?
• What were the limitations of the systems that led to the development of the current relational database systems?
• What are various types of database systems?
• What do databases have to do with HEALTH SCIENCE?
• Organizational resources flow into and out of the organization
• Two types of major organizational resources Physical resources, Conceptual resources (data information)
• As scale of organization grows, it becomes increasingly difficult to manage by observation (i.e., reliance on conceptual resources)
• Conceptual resources can be managed just like physical resources or assets (e.g., employees, , equipment, etc.)
• Management of data information means getting it before its needed, protecting it, assuring quality, and getting rid of it when no longer required
• Management of data information can be achieved only through organizational commitment
• Organized collection of related information or data stored on a computer disk for easy, efficient use
• File systems were typically organized by function (use)
• The first data management systems performed clerical tasks (transactional processing) such as order entry processing, payroll, work scheduling.
• e.g., files for patients (file folder analogy) each record for a single patient another file for appointment/ billing information
• Worked adequately if data collection needs were relatively small.
• Problems arose as data files, information needs, and reporting requirements grow in complexity due to
• Extensive programming - use of third-generation languages (e.g., COBOL, FORTRAN) in which the programmer must specify what is be done as well as how it is to be done
• Poor mechanisms for sharing data across organization - files are often incompatible with one another (separate, isolated data)
• Data redundancy - duplicate information in two or more files
• Program/ data dependence - if the file structure changed, ALL programs using the file had to be modified - time-consuming
• Lack of flexibility - could not do ad hoc queries or reports required separate programs for every report or query
• Poor security - difficult to program, therefore, often omitted
• Difficulty of representing data in the users perspective
• Developed to overcome limitations of file systems, developed initially on mainframe computers in late 60s and early 70s - a typical early DBMS cost 100,000 (many are still in use)
• First general databases were created for General Electric Company (GEC) - Integrated Data Store (IDS), designed to run on GEC machines B.F. Goodrich ported IDS to IBM 360 - became dominant until 1980s
• As PCs gained popularity (1980s), single-user, personal databases developed at present, most database technology is used in workgroups
• A set of programs used to define,administer, and process the database and its applications conveniently and efficiently
• Program (or collection of programs) that enables users to create the database. The DBMS manages the storage and retrieval of data, and provides the user with certain functionalities to guarantee that the data will be logically organized and consistently applied.
• A computer program that performs a specific task of practical value in a business situation
• An interface that allows the user to enter and manipulate data User can request abstract views of data
• Created by database designers and developers using a DBMS program or a programming language
• represented by tables (like spreadsheets)
• tables are NOT linked with physical pointers
• unlike earlier systems, all three types of relationships can be represented
• accommodates the design of larger databases that involve complex relationships and intricate manipulations
• mechanisms for minimizing data redundancy and inconsistency
• logical database design is separated from physical aspects
• relatively program-data independent
• management of data for access, manipulation, and security
• flexible mechanisms for generating reports and queries
• program development and maintenance costs are reduced
• data can be accessed in a multiplicity of ways within and amongst organizations
• Disadvantages
• ease of use - many untrained people create and use databases without considering its design - usually incorporate many errors
• File Systems
• data dependence
• structural dependence
• demands upon programmer
• Hierarchical, Network DBMS
• data independence
• Relational DBMS
• structural independence
• demands upon computer
• Centralized (single site)
• microcomputer (desktop)
• legacy mainframe/ mini computer (1 CPU)
• client/server architecture (gt1 CPU)
• Distributed
• gt1 site, requires network
• not widely adapted yet due to many problems
• Hardware - physical devices
• computer, peripherals, network devices
• DBMS (manages the database)
• operating systems software (manages hardware software)
• application programs (user access and manipulate database)
• system administrators (manage general operations)
• database designers (architects of database structure)
• database administrators (ensure the database is functioning)
• systems analysts programmers (design implement database)
• end users (use application programs)
• Procedures - rules of the company governing use of data
• Conceptual design of databases determining their purpose, developing a model, identifying the tables that are required, designing normalized tables and identifying their relationship to one another.
• Laboratories
• Implement a database at the internal and external level create databases (tables) and database applications (queries, forms, reports, programs) using a typical microcomputer relational database management system, MS Access 2003.
• A collection of users data, organized logically and managed by a unifying set of principles, procedures, and functionalities, which help guarantee the consistent application and interpretation of that data
• (a) organized collection of related information or data stored on a computer disk for easy, efficient use represented in tabular format
• (b) A database is self-describing (metadata or system catalogues or data dictionary)
• A database contains a description of its own structure (e.g., the names of all the tables, the names and types of data in each column in all the tables)
• (c) Indexes are stored with the database
• Data accessed from a source table for sorting and searching is time-consuming without a pointer system, which improves performance and accessibility of the database
• The overhead cost of indexing is that each time data is updated, all indexes must also be updated, therefore, reserve index for cases in which they are needed
• table file relation
• column field attribute
• A record is a group of related fields of information about a single instance of one object or event in a database.
• Tables consist of zero, one, or more records.
• Order of rows is unimportant.
• row record tuple
• Database schema defines databases structure, tables, relationships, domains, and constraint rules
• EXPERIMENT (ExprId, GeneID, ExprName, DoctorID)
• GENE (GeneID, GeneName, GeneDescription)
• DOCTOR (DoctorID, DocFName, DocLName)
• Relationships
• Each experiment involves one and only one gene
• Each doctor is in charge of one or more experiments
• Domains (set of values in a column)
• Physical description (e.g., set of integers 0 lt x lt 99999)
• Constraints (business rules)
• Gene Name cannot be left blank

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An Introduction to Database Normalization

Jan 07, 2020

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An Introduction to Database Normalization. Mike Hillyer – MySQL AB. About Me. Mike Hillyer, BSc. Member of the MySQL AB documentation team MySQL Core and Pro Certified MySQL expert at www.experts-exchange.com Resident MySQL expert at SearchOpenSource.com

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An Introduction toDatabase Normalization Mike Hillyer – MySQL AB

About Me Mike Hillyer, BSc • Member of the MySQL AB documentation team • MySQL Core and Pro Certified • MySQL expert at www.experts-exchange.com • Resident MySQL expert at SearchOpenSource.com • http://www.openwin.org/mike/index.php/about-me/

About You How many of you… • Currently use MySQL? • Another RDBMS? • Are responsible for database design? • Will be in the future? • Know about database normalization?

About This Session • http://www.openwin.org/mike/index.php/presentations/ • http://dev.mysql.com/tech-resources/articles/intro-to-normalization.html • Introduction • What Is Database Normalization? • What are the Benefits of Database Normalization? • What are the Normal Forms? • First Normal Form • Second Normal Form • Forming Relationships • Third Normal Form • Joining Tables • De-Normalization • Conclusion

What Is Database Normalization? • Cures the ‘SpreadSheet Syndrome’ • Store only the minimal amount of information. • Remove redundancies. • Remove anomalies. • Restructure data.

What are the Benefitsof Database Normalization? • Decreased storage requirements! 1 VARCHAR(20) converted to 1 TINYINT UNSIGNED in a table of 1 million rows is a savings of ~20 MB • Faster search performance! • Smaller file for table scans. • More directed searching. • Improved data integrity!

What are the Normal Forms? • First Normal Form (1NF) • Second Normal Form (2NF) • Third Normal Form (3NF) • Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) • Fourth Normal Form (4NF) • Fifth Normal Form (5NF) • Sixth Normal Form (6NF)

First Normal Form • All values must be atomic • Each row must be unique • Use a primary key • Benefits • Easier to query/sort the data • More scalable • Each row can be identified for updating

Satisfying 1NF Book Author Subject Publisher

Forming Relationships • Three Forms • One to (zero or) One • One to (zero or) Many • Many to Many • One to One • Same Table? • One to Many • Place PK of the One in the Many • Many to Many • Create a joining table

Many-to-Many (Joining Tables) Book_Author Book_Subject

One-To-Many Book

Second Normal Form • Table must be in First Normal Form • Composite keys • All columns in a row must refer to the entire key • Benefits • Increased storage efficiency • Less data repetition Review

Third Normal Form • Table must be in Second Normal Form • If your table is 2NF, there is a good chance it is 3NF • All columns must depend directly on the primary key • “The key, the whole key, and nothing but the key” • Benefits • No extraneous data

Satisfying Third Normal Form Publisher Zip

Finding Balance

Joining Tables • Two Basic Joins • Inner-Join • Outer Join • LEFT OUTER JOIN • RIGHT OUTER JOIN • FULL OUTER JOIN

Inner Join mysql> SELECT First_Name, Last_Name, ISBN -> FROM Author INNER JOIN Book_Author ON Author.Author_ID = Book_Author.Author_ID; +------------+-----------+------------+ | First_Name | Last_Name | ISBN | +------------+-----------+------------+ | Chad | Russell | 1590593324 | | Jon | Stephens | 1590593324 | +------------+-----------+------------+ 2 rows in set (0.05 sec)

LEFT OUTER JOIN mysql> SELECT First_Name, Last_Name, ISBN -> FROM Author LEFT OUTER JOIN Book_Author ON Author.Author_ID = Book_Author.Author_ID; +------------+-----------+------------+ | First_Name | Last_Name | ISBN | +------------+-----------+------------+ | Chad | Russell | 1590593324 | | Jon | Stephens | 1590593324 | | Mike | Hillyer | NULL | +------------+-----------+------------+ 3 rows in set (0.00 sec)

De-Normalizing Tables • Use with caution • Normalize first, then de-normalize • Use only when you cannot optimize • Try temp tables, UNIONs, VIEWs, subselects first

Conclusion • http://dev.mysql.com/tech-resources/articles/intro-to-normalization.html • MySQL Database Design and Optimization • Jon Stephens & Chad Russell • Chapter 3 • ISBN 1-59059-332-4 • http://www.openwin.org/mike/books • http://www.openwin.org/mike/index.php/presentations

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