defined criminology essay

1.2 What Is Criminology?

“Trying to understand the behavior of some people is like trying to smell the color 9.”

Janis Ian, activist and singer/songwriter

Criminology can be described as trying to understand people’s behavior as it relates to crime. Janis Ian’s quote humorously shows how challenging that can be. Still, it is this effort that sets criminology apart from criminal justice in terms of focus, approach, and perspective.

First, what is criminology exactly? Criminology  is the study of crime and why it happens. It considers individual factors and societal factors to better understand what drives someone to commit a crime. Once we, as a society, understand the why , we can address that cause and stop it in its tracks. With this goal in mind, criminologists look at crime from many perspectives—psychological, sociological, economic, political, biological, and more.

We can see criminology in action when criminologists attempt to break down why there has been an increase in violent crime since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically gun violence in Portland, Oregon, as described in the Chapter Overview. Criminologists are looking at what happened during the pandemic to figure out what caused the increase in crime, what the impacts of the crimes were, and what needs to change based on what they learn. Again, they do this with the belief that if they know why crime is happening, they can figure out how to prevent it.

1.2.1 Criminology and Criminal Justice Perspectives

Edwin Sutherland, one originator of this approach to understanding crime, explained criminology as the scientific study of breaking the law, making the law, and society’s reaction to those who break the law (1934). With a focus on crime and law, how is criminology different from criminal justice?

In the simplest terms, criminal justice is the what  and criminology is the why . Criminal justice  is the system that deals with crime and its consequences. It is made up of the three Cs—cops, courts, and corrections. Although the criminal justice system is essential for addressing crime, it is not set up for analyzing and addressing why the crime occurred in the first place. Rather, the criminal justice system is tasked with addressing the crime itself through law enforcement, the courts, and corrections.

Criminology, on the other hand, focuses on understanding crime. It is important for criminal justice and criminology to work hand in hand to have a positive impact on public safety, which is the goal of both areas and everyone involved in these fields. From the criminal justice perspective, when we talk about why , we are often talking about motive. However, from the criminology perspective, when we talk about why , we are talking about causes.

Let’s go back to the example in the Chapter Overview to see how the same phenomenon of an increase in gun violence in Portland is looked at differently through a criminal justice lens versus a criminology lens. In figure 1.2, the column on the left, Criminal Justice Perspective, lists several potential reasons those in law enforcement, the courts, and others focused on addressing crime may consider. The column on the right, Criminology Perspective, lists several potential reasons someone analyzing why this crime is happening in the first place may consider. As you can see, there is no simple answer on either side.

Figure 1.2. Criminal Justice and Criminology Perspectives on the Increase in Gun Violence in Portland, Oregon during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Consider how these different perspectives could lead to different attempts at solutions. What action might someone in a leadership position decide to take if they believe the cause of the increased gun violence in Portland is due to budget cuts in the police department? Compare this to the action they might take if they believe the cause is a lack of a safe place for teenagers to hang out in neighborhoods where gun violence is the highest.

Criminologists base their understanding of causes for crime on existing theories in psychology, sociology, economics, politics, and biology. Then they create new theories with the goal of painting an even clearer picture. We will discuss what it takes to create a theory and what that process looks like in the next section.

1.2.2 Licenses and Attributions for What is Criminology?

“What is Criminology?” by Taryn VanderPyl is licensed under CC BY 4.0 .

Figure 1.2. Criminal Justice and Criminology Perspectives Table by Taryn VanderPyl is licensed under CC BY 4.0 .

 Introduction to Criminology Copyright © by Taryn VanderPyl. All Rights Reserved.

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Jeffrey R. Wilson

"the word 'criminology'" in criminology, criminal justice, law & society.

The Word 'Criminology': A Philology and a Definition

This essay looks into the past of criminology as a way to think about its future. I take a philological approach to the word  criminology , looking at the etymology and history of that word, to argue for a new definition of the field: Criminology is  the systematic study of crime, criminals, criminal law, criminal justice, and criminalization. I expand and explain this  definition with respect to some common and (I argue) misguided dictates of criminology as it is traditionally understood.  Specifically, I argue that criminology is usually  but not necessarily  academic and scientific, which means that  criminology can be public and/or humanistic. I arrive at these thoughts by presenting some early English instances of the  word  criminology  which predate the attempt to theorize a field of criminology in Italy and France in the 1880s, and I  offer some new readings of those Italian and French texts. These philological analyses then come into conversation with  some twentieth-century attempts to define the field and some twenty-first-century innovations in an effort to generate a  definition of criminology that is responsive to the diversity of criminology in both its original formation and its ongoing  transformations. Thus, the virtue of this new understanding of criminology is its inclusiveness: It normalizes unorthodox  criminological research, which opens up new possibilities for jobs and funding in the name of criminology, which holds  the promise of new perspectives on crime, new theories of criminology, and new policies for prevention and treatment.

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What is Criminology? An Introduction

• Published: January 2011
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This chapter begins with a brief discussion of how criminology appears to be fragmenting at the precise moment that, as a discipline, it appears to be so vibrant and successful. It then sets out the purpose of the book, which is to bring together this collection of specially commissioned chapters that chart the intellectual shape of the discipline as it is currently configured. Contributors have taken a normative position, writing from their different perspectives about the way they view the current criminological landscape, about the subjects they choose to research, the approaches they take and the audiences they write for. Using a series of prompts, contributors were asked to consider the historical and intellectual background to their work and their ambitions for the discipline.

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Tables of Contents

• Criminology Definition and History
• Criminology Theories
• Criminology vs. Criminal Justice

Careers in Criminology: Salary and Job Outlook

• Crime Statistics and Key Insights

In a time when the U.S. criminal justice system is under a microscope, criminologists are playing a key role in establishing a more equitable, science-based understanding of crime, policy, and social justice. Applying their theoretical knowledge and practical experience, professionals in this field support and strengthen the work of law enforcement agencies and legal professionals.

But what is criminology, really? This article will explore the many components of this rapidly evolving discipline and offer insights on how to pursue a variety of criminology careers.

Criminology definition and history

Criminology is the study of crime and criminal behavior, informed by principles of sociology and other non-legal fields, including psychology, economics, statistics, and anthropology.

Criminologists examine a variety of related areas , including:

• Characteristics of people who commit crimes
• Reasons why people commit crimes
• Effects of crime on individuals and communities
• Methods for preventing crime

Origins of criminology

The  roots of criminology  trace back to a movement to reform criminal justice and penal systems more than 200 years ago. The first collection and use of crime statistics in the 19th century then laid the groundwork for generations of increasingly sophisticated tools and methods, leading to our modern use of descriptive statistics, case studies, typologies, and predictive analytics.

18th-century origins of criminal theory

Cesare Beccaria’s “On Crime and Punishments,” published in 1764, called for  fitting the punishment to the severity of the crimes , as explained by the National Criminal Justice Reference Service.

• Punishments for crimes should be “public, prompt, necessary, the minimum possible under the given circumstances, and established by law.”
• Punishments are intended to deter the offender from further criminal activity.
• Severity is based on the level of harm caused by the offense rather than the intent of the offender.

The legal reference website JRank highlights the work of Beccaria and Jeremy Benthem: The motivation for people’s choices is to seek pleasure or avoid pain.  Punishment for a crime  should deter potential choices to break the law by ensuring that the pain of potential punishment is greater than the pleasure derived from committing the crime. This idea spurred the first efforts in the U.S. and Europe to codify and standardize the law.

Mid-20th century development of modern criminology

The mid-20th century development of  “modern” criminology  involved seeking to understand crime’s causes by studying sociological, psychological, and economic conditions. The American Law Institute’s work on the  Model Penal Code  was a 10-year effort completed in 1962. The code established new standards of criminal liability that considered the mental elements of crime.

The code served as a model for penal code revisions in several states. It was also instrumental in charting the federal penal code for the first time. The code inspired other efforts to reform criminal law through criminology research application.

“New Criminology” and the impact of social upheaval on crime

In the 20th century, new approaches to criminology focused on the causes of crime, such as  conflicts between social and economic classes leading to social upheaval , as JRank explains. Social-process criminology emphasizes criminal behavior as something people learn through interaction with others, usually in small groups.

In contrast, control theory focuses on training people to behave appropriately by encouraging law-abiding behavior. Control theory’s basis is the belief that personal bonds give rise to our internal controls, such as conscience and guilt, and our external controls, such as shame, that deter us from breaking the law.

A multidisciplinary approach to criminology

In their research, criminologists consider many perspectives on crime’s causes and effects. This  multidisciplinary approach of criminologists  accepts there is no single answer to why people commit crimes. JRank notes attempts to control bad behavior date back to the earliest civilizations. Today, factors may be biological, psychological, economic, or social. Criminals are motivated by greed, anger, jealousy, pride, and other emotions. They seek material gain; they want control, revenge, or power.

Potential causes of or motivations for criminal activity include:

• Parental relations
• Hereditary and brain activity
• Peer influence
• Drugs and alcohol
• Easy opportunity

Criminology and the legal perspective

Criminologists study crime as an illegal action society punishes through the government’s legal system. Researchers focus on the causes, prevention, and correction of crime generally. By contrast, the legal industry’s perspective of crime emphasizes specific crimes and punishments governed by statutes and regulations, as well as established legal processes.

The legal definition of a crime is  an offense against public law , as UpCounsel explains. To qualify as a crime, the offense must be punishable, whether by fine, loss of freedom, or other method.  Criminologists have broadened the definition of crime  to include conduct that doesn’t violate existing law, as JRank reports. This includes economic exploitation, racial discrimination, and unsafe or unhealthy work environments.

Criminology resources

• The Internet Journal of Criminology  — Links to government organizations, national and international organizations, academic institutions, and other criminology resources
• Critical Criminology  — A compilation of resources that examine law, crime, and justice from the perspective of people of color, women, restorative efforts, and community justice
• S. Department of Justice, National Criminal Intelligence Resource Center  — Links to criminal justice professional associations and groups that assist law enforcement in establishing policies, standards, training, and education

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Criminology Theories: Classical, Positivist, and Chicago School

Research into criminology theories is primarily sociological or psychological.  Sociological theories of criminology  perceive crime as a normal human response to social conditions that are “abnormal and criminogenic,” according to JRank.

Psychological theories of criminology  date back to Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Crime results from a failure to form healthy and loving attachments to parents. Behavioral psychology introduced the concept of rewards and punishments: A rewarded crime is repeated; a punished crime is not.

Three principal approaches to criminology

Today, three criminology theories predominate: the Classical, Positivist, and Chicago schools.

• The Classical School argues that people freely choose to engage in crime.  Bentham’s utilitarianism theory  states they are driven either by a desire for pleasure or by aversion to pain, as the Oxford University Press states.
• The Positivist School applies scientific theory to criminology. It focuses on factors that compel people to commit crimes.
• The Chicago School states that crime results from “ social disorganization ,” which is defined in the Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice as “the inability of a community to realize common values and maintain effective social controls.”

Criminology’s impact on reducing and preventing crimes

Two statistical programs run by the DOJ demonstrate the  impact that criminological studies have had on responding to, reducing, and preventing crimes .

• The Uniform Crime Reporting program (UCR) collects information from law enforcement agencies across the country on dozens of crimes. It is intended to assist researchers in studying crime among neighboring jurisdictions and those with similar populations or other characteristics.
• The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) analyzes crime incidents, victims, and trends. It collects data on reported and unreported crimes and provides researchers with demographic data on perpetrators and victims.

Research conducted by the Minnesota House Research Department  studied the effectiveness of the theory of criminal deterrence , which dates back to the 18th century. It reached three conclusions:

• Deterrence is most effective for preplanned crimes.
• Making already-long prison sentences even longer does little to deter crime.
• Increasing the likelihood of getting caught is a more effective crime deterrent than increasing punishment.

Criminology and society’s treatment of criminals and victims

Little attention was paid to the needs of crime victims until the 1970s, when the DOJ’s National Institute of Justice (NIJ) determined that a  primary reason for unsuccessful prosecutions  was the poor treatment of witnesses and victims by the criminal justice system. Since that time, legislation and law enforcement programs, including the Violence Against Women Act of 1990, have worked to protect and assist victims and witnesses.

Similarly, criminology research has affected how criminals are treated in custody. The American Bar Association (ABA) has developed  Standards on Treatment of Prisoners  that describe correctional policies and professional standards that comply with constitutional and statutory law.

Criminology has also highlighted the real cost of crimes on individuals, families, and communities. The 2017 report  “Costs of Crime”  from the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO) found that new study methods will improve the accuracy of crime cost estimates, particularly in the area of compensating victims for their pain and suffering.

Criminology theory resources

• “Predicting Pathways into Criminal Behavior: The Intersection of Race, Gender, Poverty, Psychological Factors”  investigates the factors involved in women’s involvement in criminal activity, including economic disadvantage related to education and employment.
• The National Institute of Justice discusses mapping in law enforcement in this paper:  “From Crime Mapping to Crime Forecasting: The Evolution of Place-Based Policing” .

Criminology vs. criminal justice: what’s the difference?

The  primary distinction when it comes to criminology vs criminal justice  is the former’s emphasis on the study of crime and the latter’s focus on society’s response to crime, as the Balance Careers explains. Criminal justice applies principles and concepts developed by criminologists to enforcing laws and investigating crimes, as well as to the trial, punishment, and rehabilitation of criminals.

Criminal justice definition

The Legal Dictionary  defines criminal justice  as a set of procedures:

• Investigating criminal conduct
• Gathering evidence of the crime
• Making arrests
• Bringing charges in court
• Raising defenses
• Conducting trials
• Rendering sentences
• Carrying out punishments

By contrast, its definition of criminology emphasizes the scientific and academic aspects of the field’s study of crime, criminal behavior, and law enforcement. Criminal justice includes the work of:

• Criminal courts
• Prisons and other correctional institutions
• Juvenile justice systems

Criminal justice and effective law enforcement

In the 20th century, the  field of criminal justice arose  as an effort to improve the effectiveness of law enforcement in light of expanding due process and other rights for criminal defendants, as Encyclopedia Britannica explains. The study of criminal justice expanded in the 1980s and 1990s in the form of qualitative descriptive analyses of the operations of specific criminal justice agencies.

More recent research in criminal justice emphasizes quantitative studies about the effectiveness of particular crime-fighting strategies and approaches. Researchers have studied whether an abusive spouse’s arrest prevents future incidents of abuse, and whether prison rehabilitation programs are effective in reducing recidivism.

One area of criminal justice research proven to be ineffective is the effort to predict which offenders are most likely to commit other crimes. Not only were models unable to identify habitual offenders, but researchers were questioned about whether such efforts violated people’s constitutional rights. The fear is that offenders may be punished not for what they had done but for what they might do in the future.

Such issues are at the forefront of modern discussions about the relationships between civil rights and law enforcement. With numerous  studies indicating a need to address systemic racism  in many corners of the justice system, future criminologists will play an important part in creating a more equitable framework for crime prevention.

Criminology and criminal justice work together to fight crime

Criminal justice and criminology are distinct fields, but they’re closely linked, theoretically and practically. From the viewpoint of potential criminologists and law enforcement professionals, the big difference is criminology’s focus on science and research, and criminal justice’s emphasis on application and administration.

For example, criminologists respond to a rise in homicides by studying underlying economic, sociological, and psychological conditions. By contrast, criminal justice officials respond by working to prevent future homicides and capture the perpetrators.

The two fields merge in  applied criminology , which studies “real-world” problems relating to crime and criminal justice. It applies criminology concepts to actual criminal justice policy and practice. The goal is to make criminology relevant in addressing crime, victimization, and the relationship between “governmental agendas and knowledge production.”

Criminologists promote crime-fighting efforts via tools such as the  New York Police Department’s CompStat system , which is now used by police departments across the country to  combine crime analysis and geographic information system technologies . Their work suggests innovative ways to improve law enforcement and instill trust in the criminal justice system.

Criminology vs. Criminal Justice: Additional Resources

• Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics
• International Journal Of Criminal Justice Sciences, List of World Agencies/Organizations in Criminal Justice/Criminology
• The Balance Careers, “The Difference Between Careers in Criminology and Criminal Justice”

Typical  employers of criminologists  include law enforcement and other government agencies, university research labs, and other research institutions, as PayScale.com explains. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)  defines criminologists  or penologists as sociologists who specialize in the study of crime. They investigate the social influences of crime on individuals, groups, and organizations.

Career options for criminologists

The Balance Careers  distinguishes criminology positions  as being more academic than those in criminal justice, although there is a great degree of overlap between the two fields. For example, people typically earn a bachelor’s degree in criminology followed by a master’s degree in criminal justice, or vice versa.

Among the daily tasks of criminologists are collecting and examining evidence, visiting crime scenes, attending autopsies, and exploring the psychological aspects of a crime from investigation through conviction and rehabilitation. These tasks require the ability to organize data and evidence, conduct statistical analysis, and write reports.

The range of  positions available to criminologists  include jobs with federal, state, and local law enforcement, as well as public and private research organizations, think tanks, legislative bodies, and public policy bodies, as the Balance Careers reports. Criminologists strive to improve police operations via innovative programs, such as community-oriented policing and predictive policing.

Criminology Positions: Salaries and Employment Outlook

The BLS forecasts that the number of jobs for all sociologists, the category that includes criminologists, will increase by 9% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations. PayScale.com reports that the median annual criminology salary is around $44,000.

These are among the career options available to criminologists.

Forensic Science Technician

Forensic science technicians  assist in criminal investigations . They collect and analyze evidence, including fingerprints, weapons, and body fluids. They photograph and sketch crime scenes, and they catalog and preserve evidence before it is transferred to crime labs. They also work in labs, investigate possible suspects, and consult with experts in forensic medicine.

The BLS reports that the median annual salary of forensic science technicians as of May 2019 was $59,150. The number of jobs is forecast to increase by 14% between 2018 and 2028, which is much faster than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and Community Control Officer

According to BLS figures, the  median annual salary for probation officers and correctional treatment specialists  was $54,290 as of May 2019. The number of jobs for the position is forecast to increase by 3% between 2018 and 2028, which is lower than the average projected for all occupations.

Probation and community control officers help former offenders transition to productive lives after incarceration. The Balance Careers lists the  duties of probation and community control officers .

• Supervise probationers and parolees, including visiting their homes and meeting with their families
• Collaborate with church groups and community organizations
• Monitor probationers and parolees electronically
• Perform pretrial investigations, submit sentencing recommendations, and testify in court
• Prepare status reports on probationers and parolees, and assist them in job training and job searches

Police Officer

The median annual salary for police officers and detectives as of May 2019 was $65,170, according to the BLS. Jobs for police officers and detectives are expected to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average projected for all occupations.

Police officers are tasked with protecting the lives and property of community residents. The BLS explains the  duties of police officers :

• Respond to emergency and nonemergency situations
• Patrol specific areas
• Issue citations and conduct traffic stops
• Use computers in the field to search for warrants and vehicle registrations
• Conduct investigations at crime scenes
• Collect and secure evidence
• Prepare cases and testify in court

Corrections Officer

The median annual salary of corrections officers as of May 2019 was $47,830, according to BLS figures. The number of positions for corrections officers is forecast to decline by 7% between 2018 and 2028 as a result of expected reductions in prison populations.

Corrections officers oversee people who have been arrested and are awaiting a hearing or trial, as well as people who have been convicted and sentenced to serve time in jail or prison. The BLS notes the  duties of corrections officers :

• Maintain order in jails and prisons by enforcing rules
• Inspect facilities to ensure they meet safety and security standards
• Supervise inmate activities and search them for contraband
• Escort and transport inmates, and report on inmate conduct

Loss Prevention Manager

PayScale.com reports the median annual salary for loss prevention managers is around $52,000. The most common tasks of loss prevention managers are security risk management, safety compliance, inventory control, theft prevention, and security policies and procedures.

A loss prevention manager’s primary responsibility is to  prevent business losses due to internal or external theft, fraud, accidents, mishandling, or other causes , as PayScale.com explains. Other  duties of loss prevention managers  appear on O*Net Online:

• Investigate employee theft and other violations of the company’s loss-prevention policies
• Develop and implement programs to manage inventory, promote safety, and minimize losses
• Ensure that prevention exception reports and cash discrepancies follow corporate guidelines
• Train staff and managers on loss prevention strategies and techniques
• Interview people suspected of shoplifting and other forms of theft

Detective/Criminal Investigator

Also referred to as detectives, criminal investigators are  police officers who gather facts and collect evidence in criminal cases . The BLS notes that criminal investigators often specialize in a single category of crime, such as fraud or homicide. These are the primary duties of criminal investigators:

• Conduct interviews with crime victims, witnesses, suspects, and relevant experts
• Examine police and other records
• Monitor the activities of suspects and participate in raids and arrests
• Write reports, prepare cases for trial, and testify during court proceedings

The median annual salary for detectives and criminal investigators as of May 2019 was $83,170, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for police officers and detectives is forecast to increase by 5% between 2018 and 2028, which is equal to the average for all occupations.

Fish and Game Warden

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for fish and game wardens as of May 2019 was $57,500. The number of jobs for fish and game wardens is expected to increase by 2% between 2018 and 2028, which is below the average projected for all occupations.

Fish and game wardens are  responsible for enforcing laws related to hunting, fishing, and boating , as the BLS describes. These are among their primary duties:

• Conduct interviews with complainants, witnesses, and suspects
• Patrol fishing and hunting areas
• Participate in search and rescue efforts
• Monitor people suspected of violating regulations relating to fishing and hunting
• Educate the public about laws governing outdoor activities

Private Investigator

The median annual salary for private detectives and investigators as of May 2019 was $50,510, according to BLS figures. The number of jobs for private investigators is forecast to grow by 8% between 2018 and 2028, which is faster than the average growth projected for all occupations.

The work done by private investigators for businesses and individuals mirrors that done by criminal investigators for public law enforcement agencies. These professionals examine records and conduct other research relating to legal, financial, and personal matters. The BLS lists the  duties of private detectives and investigators :

• Conduct criminal and other background checks and verify statements made by individuals
• Interview suspects, witnesses, and experts and perform other research into missing persons
• Search for evidence in online, public, and court records
• Perform surveillance and collect other evidence for clients

Insurance Fraud Investigator

The BLS reports that the median annual salary for claims adjusters, examiners, and investigators was $66,790 as of May 2019. The agency expects the number of jobs for the category to decline by 4% between 2018 and 2028 due to automation of claims processing.

The position of insurance fraud investigator is included in the broad category of claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and investigators who evaluate insurance claims. These are among the  principle duties of insurance fraud investigators , as listed by the BLS:

• Examine and research insurance claims to confirm that they are legitimate
• Conduct interviews with claimants’ doctors, employers, and others to review suspicious claims
• Work with attorneys and other legal professionals to verify information related to claims
• Perform surveillance to identify fraudulent claims resulting from staged accidents, arson, unnecessary medical treatments, and other criminal activity

Crime statistics and key insights

An important role played by criminologists is compiling and reporting on crime statistics.  The New Yorker  highlights both the importance of crime statistics in formulating crime-prevention strategies and enforcement policies and the  difficulty criminologists encounter in accurately measuring crime .

The article describes the challenge in determining whether cannabis use increases or reduces crime levels. Various analyses of crime rate trends in states where cannabis has been legalized have come to conflicting conclusions, pointing to the complexity of arriving at a definitive answer about what contributes to criminal activity. Criminologists use a variety of sources and techniques to try to provide statistics that can accurately portray crime trends and inform criminal policies.

How criminologists support law enforcement

Two of the DOJ’s most effective statistical analysis tools for assisting local crime-fighting efforts are the FBI’s UCR system and Bureau of Justice Statistics’ NCVS, both of which are described above. The systems share a shortcoming: Local jurisdictions disagree on what constitutes a crime. Some jurisdictions only report offenses that involve incarceration, while others include fined infractions.

Criminologists have developed a range of statistics-based tools that support federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies.

• The City-Level Survey of Crime Victimization and Citizen Attitudes analyzes surveys conducted by the DOJ’s Office of Community Oriented Policing Services to  determine people’s perceptions of community policing and issues in their neighborhoods .
• Emergency Room Statistics on Intentional Violence surveys a sample of hospital emergency rooms throughout the U.S. to  identify instances of domestic violence, rape, child abuse, and other intentional injuries .
• The Police-Public Contact Survey interviews a representative sample of people across the country who either reported a crime or were detained in a traffic stop to  gauge their perceptions of the police’s conduct and response during the encounter .

Other organizations involved in the collection, analysis, and dissemination of information about police activities include the Center for Policing Equity’s  COMSTAT for Justice , which is intended to identify bias in policing, and the  U.S. Commission on Civil Rights , whose 2019 report titled  “Police Use of Force: An Examination of Modern Policing Practices”  recommended that  more data on the use of force by police  be made available to law enforcement agencies, and that police be trained in de-escalation techniques, cultural differences, and anti-bias mechanisms.

Criminology’s impact by the numbers

Many of the statistics used and shared by the DOJ and the U.S. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention are compiled by the  U.S. Census Bureau .

• The Annual Survey of Jails reports on the  number of inmates in regional, county, city, and private jails , as well as demographic and criminal justice statistics of the jail population, among other areas related to incarceration.
• The Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities gathers information on the  operation of the prisons and jails, and the conditions of confinement , such as capacity and crowding, court orders, staff workloads, and safety and security.
• The Survey of Sexual Victimization (formerly the Survey of Sexual Violence) collects data on  sexual assaults in correctional facilities , including state prisons, state juvenile correction facilities, federal prisons, U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) detention facilities, and the U.S. military.  

Other sources of information on the impact of criminology research in law enforcement include the  Historical Violence Database  maintained by Ohio State University Criminal Justice Research Center, the University of Michigan’s  National Archive of Criminal Justice Data , the  National Criminal Justice Reference Service , and the University at Albany’s  Sourcebook of Criminal Justice Statistics .

Criminologists: Serving Communities and Society

The work of criminologists touches nearly all aspects of social life. Crime investigation calls for specialized skills and training, sophisticated number-crunching ability, and a great deal of fieldwork interacting with colleagues within and outside criminal justice, and with the public.

Infographic Sources

The Balance Careers, “What Does a Criminologist Do?”

PayScale, “Average Criminologist Salary”

PayScale, “Average FBI Agent Salary”

PayScale, “Average Forensic Scientist Salary”

PayScale, “Average Police Detective Salary”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Employment Statistics, “Detectives and Criminal Investigators”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Forensic Science Technicians”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Police and Detectives”

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook, “Sociologists”

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State crimes and state harms: a tale of two definitional frameworks

• Published: 25 October 2007
• Volume 48 , pages 43–55, ( 2007 )

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• Rick A. Matthews 1 &
• David Kauzlarich 2  

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Criminologists have long debated the issue of how to define crime, and hence, the scope of criminological inquiry. For years, some critical criminologists have argued for expanded definitions of crime that include harmful behaviors of the state that may not be officially defined as criminal. Other critical criminologists have argued that existing legal frameworks may be used to study varieties of state crime, and that defining the harmful actions of the state as criminal is important to help mobilize public support for their control. In this paper, we first trace the historical development of these two perspectives, and then offer a tentative solution to the seeming tension between these two perspectives.

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Tifft, L., & Sullivan, D. (2006). Needs-based anarchist criminology. In S. Henry, & M. Lanier (Eds.) Thee essential criminology reader (pp. 259–277). Boston: Roman and Littlefield.

U.S. House of Representatives (2006). A Failure of Initiative: Final Report of the Select Bipartisan Committee to Investigate the Preparation for and Response to Hurricane Katrina. Report 109-377, 109th Congress, 2nd session. Washington, D.C.

Ward, T. (2004). State harms. In P. Hillyard, C. Pantazis, S. Tombs, & D. Gordon (Eds.) Beyond criminology: Taking harm seriously (pp. 84–100). London: Pluto Press.

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Matthews, R.A., Kauzlarich, D. State crimes and state harms: a tale of two definitional frameworks. Crime Law Soc Change 48 , 43–55 (2007). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-007-9081-5

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-007-9081-5

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Feminist Theories

Introduction, general overviews.

• Liberal Feminism
• Radical Feminism
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• Postmodern Feminism
• Multiracial Feminism
• Masculinities and Crime
• Gendered Pathways
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Feminist Theories by Claire M. Renzetti LAST REVIEWED: 14 December 2009 LAST MODIFIED: 14 December 2009 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780195396607-0013

Feminist theories are a group of related theories that share several principles in common. First, feminist theories maintain that gender—the socially constructed expectations about the attitudes and behaviors of women and men that are typically referred to as femininity and masculinity, respectively—is a central organizing component of social life, including criminal offending, victimization, and criminal justice processing. Second, feminist theories hold that because of patriarchal sexism—that is, the valuing of men and masculinity over women and femininity—women and girls have been systematically excluded or marginalized in criminology, both as professionals and as subjects of study. Consequently, a core principle of feminist theories is to include female perspectives and experiences in all research and practice. Feminist theories, though, do not treat women or men as homogenous groups but rather recognize that gender privilege varies across different groups of women and men. Therefore, a third fundamental principle of feminist theories is to examine criminal offending, victimization, and criminal justice processing in the context of multiple intersecting social factors, including—in addition to gender, race, and ethnicity—social class, age, and sexual orientation. Fourth, feminist theories not only attempt to explain criminal offending, victimization, and criminal justice processing but also combine theory with practice so as to develop more equitable and just solutions to the crime problem. Although feminist theories share these four major principles, the theories themselves are diverse. Among the major feminist theories are liberal feminism , radical feminism , Marxist/socialist feminism , postmodern/poststructuralist feminism , and multiracial feminism .

Several recently published books, book chapters, and articles offer a general overview of feminist theories and their application to various subfields of criminology (e.g., the study of violent crime, gangs, drug offenses, policing, corrections). Belknap 2007 critiques traditional theories of crime, comparing them with feminist theories, and uses a feminist theoretical perspective to analyze offending, victimization, and the criminal justice professions. Morash 2006 provides a similar approach. Renzetti, et al. 2006 along with Reasons, et al. 2001 and Daly and Maher 1998 bring together the writings of several criminologists who take a feminist approach and also emphasize the intersection of gender inequality with other inequalities. Rafter and Heidensohn 1995 is a collection of essays written by feminist criminologists throughout the world who discuss the impact of feminism on criminology in their countries. Chesney-Lind and Faith 2001 reviews the central tenets of different types of feminist theories. These works join others that may be considered classics in introducing and establishing feminist theories in criminology, including Smart 1976 and Daly and Chesney-Lind 1988 .

Belknap, Joanne. 2007. The invisible woman: Gender, crime, and justice , 3d ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

An overview of feminist theories in contrast to traditional theories and their application to female offending, female victims of male violence, and women working in the criminal legal system.

Chesney-Lind, Meda and Karlene Faith. 2001. What about feminism? Engendering theory-making in criminology. In Explaining criminals and crime . Edited by Raymond Paternoster and Ronet Bachman, 287–302. Los Angeles: Roxbury.

A review of the major schools of feminist thought as well as the authors’ assessment of what criminology gains from feminist theory and the future of feminist criminology.

Daly, Kathleen, and Meda Chesney-Lind. 1988. Feminism and criminology. Justice Quarterly 5:497–538.

DOI: 10.1080/07418828800089871

Two pioneers of feminist criminology critique the historical exclusion of women from criminological research and theorizing and show how a feminist perspective could be beneficial to the discipline.

Daly, Kathleen, and Lisa Maher., eds. 1998. Criminology at the crossroads: Feminist readings in crime and justice . New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

An edited volume of fourteen chapters on gender, crime, and justice that addresses issues feminist criminologists struggle with, including the consequences of the intersections of gender, race, class, politics, and justice.

Morash, Merry. 2006. Understanding gender, crime, and justice . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

A textbook treatment of the gendered nature of crime and criminal justice that provides a feminist alternative to traditional criminology texts for undergraduate courses.

Rafter, Nicole Hahn, and Frances M. Heidensohn. eds. 1995. International feminist perspectives in criminology: Engendering a discipline . Berkshire, UK: Open Univ. Press.

A collection of essays written by feminist criminologists from the United States, Canada, Europe, Australia, and South Africa, who discuss how feminist theories have impacted traditional criminology in their countries and offered alternative analyses of various crimes, including crimes of violence against women.

Reasons, Charles E., Darlene J. Conley, and Julius Debro., eds. 2001. Race, class, gender, and justice in the United States: A text-reader . Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

A compilation of eighteen readings that examine the significance of not only gender, race, and class in criminology and criminal justice but also other social-locating factors, such as age and sexual orientation.

Renzetti, Claire M., Lynne Goodstein, and Susan L. Miller. eds. 2006. Rethinking gender, crime, and justice: Feminist readings . Los Angeles: Roxbury.

An edited volume of eighteen original papers that introduce feminist theories and show their application to the study of various types of offending, victimization, criminal justice processing, and employment in the criminal justice system.

Smart, Carol. 1976. Women, crime, and criminology: A feminist critique . London: Routledge.

One of the first feminist critiques of traditional criminology that simultaneously lays out a feminist theoretical framework.

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What is crime?

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Crime is an essentially contested concept. There is no universally agreed definition of what a crime is. However, the most straightforward way of thinking about crime is to look at it in terms of a legalistic perspective - from this approach a crime is an act which is illegal. It’s against the law. Specifically it is against the criminal law. In so doing the act will have certain aspects to it - it will have an aspect of criminal harm and it will have an aspect of criminal blame. 

Interestingly though, many people have questioned this legalistic definition. First of all this is because it’s always going to be partial and determined within a very specific and limited set of criteria about what is crime. If a given act isn’t illegal, then whilst we might see it as wrong, or problematic or harmful, it’s not going to be something which will be defined as a crime. Many criminologists have argued that it is important to unpack the legal definition, and have questioned the very notions of what is and what isn’t criminal harm. Criminologists have also questioned notions around criminal blame and both the strengths and weaknesses of a backward looking approach grounded in individual culpability.

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A crime is an essentially contested concept. So it’s something where there is no universally agreed definition of what a crime is. However, the most straightforward way of thinking about crime is to look at it in terms of a legalistic perspective and that is, is that a crime is something which is illegal. It’s against the law. It’s against the criminal law and also it will have certain aspects to it. So it will have an aspect of criminal harm and it will have an aspect of criminal blame. Interestingly though, many people have actually questioned this legalistic definition. First of all, because it’s always going to be partial and determined within a very small kind of idea of what is crime. If something isn’t illegal, then albeit we might see it as wrong, or problematic or harmful but it’s not going to actually be something which we can define as a crime. So many people have looked to unpack that legal definition, have questioned the very notions of what is and what isn’t criminal harm and have also questioned notions around criminal blame and both the strengths and weaknesses of that side of things. Some people have even gone as far to say that a crime is a statist category, i.e. that it’s defined by the state and it’s infused with certain interests, ideas and power relations which reflect the interests of the powerful. It reflects the interests of those who have something to lose in society where it does not necessarily reflect the interests of those who are powerless or those at the bottom end of society. Hence, the crime logic is seen as imposed. It’s something which is placed as a category, as a way of generating meanings and understandings and some have argued that that actually is a problem in itself and that we shouldn’t necessarily even think about the logic of crime because actually crime will lead us to certain pathways of solutions, such as punishment.

-End of opinion piece-

A number of criminologists have even gone as far to say that a crime is a statist category, i.e. that it’s defined by the state and it’s infused with certain interests, ideas and power relations which reflect the interests of the powerful. For these critics, the state defined categories of crime reflects the interests of those who have something to lose in society, where as at the same time it does not necessarily reflect the interests of those who are powerless or those at the bottom end of society. 

Hence, the crime logic is seen as imposed and perhaps even a reconstruction of reality in legalistic and statist classifications. A crime something which is placed as a specific legal category, as a way of generating meanings and understandings and some criminologists (sometimes referred to as abolitionists) have argued that this is a problem in itself and that we shouldn't necessarily even think about the logic of crime because using the language and logic of crime will lead those who are responding to it down certain pathways which may be considered solutions, such as punishment.

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crime , the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially harmful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, and punishable under criminal law .

Most countries have enacted a criminal code in which all of the criminal law can be found, though English law —the source of many other criminal-law systems—remains uncodified. The definitions of particular crimes contained in a code must be interpreted in the light of many principles, some of which may not actually be expressed in the code itself. For example, many legal systems take into account the mental state of the accused person at the time the alleged crime was committed. Most legal systems also classify crimes for the purpose of assigning cases to different types of court. Social changes often result in the adoption of new criminal laws and the obsolescence of older ones.

This article focuses on the definition and classification of crime, how it is measured and detected, the characteristics of offenders, and the various stages of criminal proceedings. The material draws principally from common, or Anglo-American, law, with supplementary treatment of civil-law and other systems, including Islamic, African, and Chinese law. For full treatment of particular legal aspects of crime, see criminal law ; civil law ; common law ; court ; police ; and procedural law . Particular legal systems are treated in Roman law ; Germanic law ; Chinese law ; Indian law ; Sharīʿah (Islamic law); and Soviet law . Aspects related to crime are also addressed in criminal justice ; criminology ; juvenile justice ; parole ; prison ; and punishment .

The concept of crime: criminal codes

Criminal behaviour is defined by the laws of particular jurisdictions, and there are sometimes vast differences between and even within countries regarding what types of behaviour are prohibited. Conduct that is lawful in one country or jurisdiction may be criminal in another, and activity that amounts to a trivial infraction in one jurisdiction may constitute a serious crime elsewhere. Changing times and social attitudes may lead to changes in criminal law, so that behaviour that was once criminal may become lawful. For example, abortion , once prohibited except in the most unusual circumstances, is now lawful in many countries, as is homosexual behaviour in private between consenting adults in most Western countries, though it remains a serious offense in some parts of the world. Once criminal, suicide and attempted suicide have been removed from the scope of criminal law in some jurisdictions. Indeed, in the U.S. state of Oregon the Death with Dignity Act (passed in 1997) allows terminally ill individuals to end their lives through the use of lethal medications prescribed by a physician . Nonetheless, the general trend has been toward increasing the scope of criminal law rather than decreasing it, and it has been more common to find that statutes create new criminal offenses rather than abolishing existing ones. New technologies have given rise to new opportunities for their abuse, which has led to the creation of new legal restrictions. Just as the invention of the motor vehicle led to the development of a whole body of criminal laws designed to regulate its use, so the widening use of computers and especially the Internet has created the need to legislate against a variety of new abuses and frauds—or old frauds committed in new ways.

In most countries, the criminal law is contained in a single statute , known as the criminal, or penal, code. Although the criminal codes of most English-speaking countries are derived from English criminal law, England itself has never had a criminal code. English criminal law still consists of a collection of statutes of varying age—the oldest still in force being the Treason Act (1351)—and a set of general principles that are chiefly expressed in the decisions of the courts (case law). England’s lack of a criminal code is not the result of a lack of effort; since the early 19th century, there have been several attempts to create such a code. The first effort (1833–53) was made by two panels of criminal-law commissioners, who systematically surveyed the prevailing state of the criminal law. Confronted by a vast number of often overlapping and inconsistent statutes, the commissioners found that determining precisely what the law provided on any particular topic was enormously difficult. Different statutes covering the same conduct, often with widely varying penalties, allowed for wide judicial discretion and inconsistency in punishments. The commissioners drew up a number of draft codes that were presented to Parliament , but none was enacted. Eventually, owing to the judiciary’s resistance, efforts to codify the criminal law were abandoned, and instead there was a consolidation of most of the criminal law in 1861 into a number of statutes—the Larceny Act, the Malicious Damage Act, and the Offences Against the Person Act being among the most important. Because those statutes were consolidations rather than codifications, many of the inconsistencies of the earlier legislation were preserved. The Offences Against the Person Act is still largely in force, though the others have been replaced by more-modern provisions.

Interest in codification was not limited to England. A similar process ensued in India, then under British rule, and a criminal code was written during the 1830s and eventually enacted in 1861. The code remains substantially in force in India, as well as in Pakistan. Certain parts of Africa that were once British colonies also adopted similar codes.

In England, efforts to establish a criminal code resumed in the late 1870s, and in 1879–80 a draft criminal code bill was again presented to Parliament. Largely the work of the celebrated legal author and judge James Fitzjames Stephen , this code received widespread publicity throughout England and its colonial possessions. Although it was not adopted in England, it was subsequently enacted in Canada (1892) and in several Australian states and British colonies. As interest in codification declined in the 20th century, attempts were made to make specific and particular changes in criminal laws. The permanent Criminal Law Revision Committee, established in 1959, eventually made a variety of specific recommendations, including the elimination of the distinction between felonies and misdemeanours. In addition, the Law Commission, also a permanent body, was established in 1965 with the goal of continually reviewing the entire law, not just the criminal law. In 1981 the commission undertook a new attempt at codification of the criminal law, and a draft code was published in 1989. However, it was severely criticized, and the commission dropped the attempt and instead produced a series of more-specific recommendations.

Criminal-law reform was one of the interests of the U.S. states in the period following the American Revolution . In the early 1820s, a comprehensive draft code was prepared for Louisiana, though it was never enacted. Other states also moved to codify their criminal laws. New York enacted a criminal code in 1881, setting an example that was eventually followed by most of the states. Because American criminal law is primarily a matter for the individual states (in contrast to Canada, for example, where the national Parliament enacts the criminal code for the whole country), there has been considerable variation in the content of the code from one state to another. In the mid-20th century, reform efforts in the United States led to the publication of the Model Penal Code (1962), an attempt to rationalize the criminal law by establishing a logical framework for defining offenses and a consistent body of general principles on such matters as criminal intent and the liability of accomplices. The Model Penal Code had a profound influence on the revision of many individual state codes over the following decades; although never enacted completely, it inspired a long period of criminal-code reform.