my native country uzbekistan essay

• Countries and Their Cultures
• Culture of Uzbekistan

Culture Name

Alternative names.

Uzbeq, Ozbek

Orientation

Identification. Uzbeks likely take their name from a khan. A leader of the Golden Horde in the fourteenth century was named Uzbek, though he did not rule over the people who would share his name.

Modern Uzbeks hail not only from the Turkic-Mongol nomads who first claimed the name, but also from other Turkic and Persian peoples living inside the country's borders. The Soviets, in an effort to divide the Turkic people into more easily governable subdivisions, labeled Turks, Tajiks, Sarts, Qipchaqs, Khojas, and others as Uzbek, doubling the size of the ethnicity to four million in 1924.

Today the government is strengthening the Uzbek group identity, to prevent the splintering seen in other multiethnic states. Some people have assimilated with seemingly little concern. Many Tajiks consider themselves Uzbek, though they retain the Tajik language; this may be because they have long shared an urban lifestyle, which was more of a bond than ethnic labels. Others have been more resistant to Uzbekization. Many Qipchaqs eschew intermarriage, live a nomadic lifestyle, and identify more closely with the Kyrgyz who live across the border from them. The Khojas also avoid intermarriage, and despite speaking several languages, have retained a sense of unity.

The Karakalpaks, who live in the desert south of the Aral Sea, have a separate language and tradition more akin to Kazakh than Uzbek. Under the Soviet Union, theirs was a separate republic, and it remains autonomous.

Location and Geography. Uzbekistan's 174,330 square miles (451,515 square kilometers), an area slightly larger than California, begin in the Karakum (Black Sand) and Kyzlkum (Red Sand) deserts of Karakalpakistan. The arid land of this autonomous republic supports a nomadic lifestyle. Recently, the drying up of the Aral Sea has devastated the environment, causing more than 30 percent of the area's population to leave, from villages in the early 1980s and then from cities. This will continue; the area was hit by a devastating drought in the summer of 2000.

Population increases to the east, centered around fertile oases and the valleys of the Amu-Darya River, once known as the Oxus, and the Zeravshan River, which supports the ancient city-states of Bokhara and Samarkand. The Ferghana Valley in the east is the heart of Islam in Uzbekistan. Here, where the country is squeezed between Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, the mountainous terrain supports a continuing nomadic lifestyle, and in recent years has provided a venue for fundamentalist guerrillas. Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan also border the country. In 1867 the Russian colonial government moved the capital from Bokhara to Tashkent. With 2.1 million people, it is the largest city in Central Asia.

Linguistic Affiliation. Uzbek is the language of about twenty million Uzbeks living in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Kazakhstan. The language is Turkic and abounds with dialects, including Qarlug (which served as the literary language for much of Uzbek history), Kipchak, Lokhay, Oghuz, Qurama, and Sart, some of which come from other languages. Uzbek emerged as a distinct language in the fifteenth century. It is so close to modern Uyghur that speakers of each language can converse easily. Prior to Russian colonization it would often have been hard to say where one Turkic language started and another ended. But through prescribed borders, shifts in dialect coalesced into distinct languages. The Soviets replaced its Arabic script briefly with a Roman script and then with Cyrillic. Since independence there has been a shift back to Roman script, as well as a push to eliminate words borrowed from Russian.

About 14 percent of the population—mostly non-Uzbek—speak Russian as their first language; 5 percent speak Tajik. Most Russians do not speak Uzbek. Under the Soviet Union, Russian was taught as the Soviet lingua franca, but Uzbek was supported as the indigenous language of the republic, ironically resulting in the deterioration of other native languages and dialects. Today many people still speak Russian, but the government is heavily promoting Uzbek.

Symbolism. Symbols of Uzbekistan's independence and past glories are most common. The flag and national colors—green for nature, white for peace, red for life, and blue for water—adorn murals and walls. The twelve stars on the flag symbolize the twelve regions of the country. The crescent moon, a symbol of Islam, is common, though its appearance on the national flag is meant not as a religious symbol but as a metaphor for rebirth. The mythical bird Semurg on the state seal also symbolizes a national renaissance. Cotton, the country's main source of wealth, is displayed on items from the state seal to murals to teacups. The architectures of Samara and Bukhara also symbolize past achievements.

Amir Timur, who conquered a vast area of Asia from his seat in Samarkand in the fourteenth century, has become a major symbol of Uzbek pride and potential and of the firm but just and wise ruler—a useful image for the present government, which made 1996 the Year of Amir Timur. Timur lived more than a century before the Uzbeks reached Uzbekistan.

Independence Day, 1 September, is heavily promoted by the government, as is Navruz, 21 March, which highlights the country's folk culture.

History and Ethnic Relations

Emergence of the Nation. The Uzbeks coalesced by the fourteenth century in southern Siberia, starting as a loose coalition of Turkic-Mongol nomad tribes who converted to Islam. In the first half of the fifteenth century Abu al-Khayr Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, led them south, first to the steppe and semidesert north of the Syr-Daria River. At this time a large segment of Uzbeks split off and headed east to become the Kazakhs. In 1468 Abu'l Khayr was killed by a competing faction, but by 1500 the Uzbeks had regrouped under Muhammad Shaybani Khan, and invaded the fertile land of modern Uzbekistan. They expelled Amir Timur's heirs from Samarkand and Herat and took over the city-states of Khiva, Khojand, and Bokhara, which would become the Uzbek capital. Settling down, the Uzbeks traded their nomadism for urban living and agriculture.

The first century of Uzbek rule saw a flourishing of learning and the arts, but the dynasty then slid into decline, helped by the end of the Silk Route trade. In 1749 invaders from Iran defeated Bokhara and Khiva, breaking up the Uzbek Empire and replacing any group identity with the division between Sarts, or city dwellers, and nomads. What followed was the Uzbek emirate of Bokhara and Samarkand, and the khanates of Khiva and Kokand, who ruled until the Russian takeover.

Russia became interested in Central Asia in the eighteenth century, concerned that the British might break through from colonial India to press its southern flank. Following more than a century of indecisive action, Russia in 1868 invaded Bokhara, then brutally subjugated Khiva in 1873. Both were made Russian protectorates. In 1876, Khokand was annexed. All were subsumed into the Russian province of Turkistan, which soon saw the arrival of Russian settlers.

The 1910s produced the Jadid reform movement, which, though short-lived, sought to establish a community beholden neither to Islamic dogma nor to Russian colonists, marking the first glimmer of national identity in many years. With the Russian Revolution in 1917 grew hopes of independence, but by 1921 the Bolsheviks had reasserted control. In 1924 Soviet planners drew the borders for the soviet socialist republics of Uzbekistan and Karakalpakistan, based around the dominant ethnic groups. In 1929 Tajikstan was split off from the south of Uzbekistan, causing lasting tension between the two; many Uzbeks regard Tajiks as Persianized Uzbeks, while Tajikstan resented Uzbekistan's retention of the Tajik cities of Bokhara and Samarkand. Karakalpakistan was transferred to the Uzbekistan SSR in 1936, as an autonomous region. Over the ensuing decades, Soviet leaders solidified loose alliances and other nationalities into what would become Uzbek culture.

In August 1991 Uzbek Communists supported the reactionary coup against Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev. After the coup failed, Uzbekistan declared its independence on 1 September. Though shifting away from communism, President Islom Kharimov, who had been the Communist Party's first secretary in Uzbekistan, has maintained absolute control over the independent state. He has continued to define a single Uzbek culture, while obscuring its Soviet creation.

National Identity. The Soviet government, and to a lesser extent the Russian colonial government that preceded it, folded several less prominent nationalities into the Uzbeks. The government then institutionalized a national Uzbek culture based on trappings such as language, art, dress, and food, while imbuing them with meanings more closely aligned with Communist ideology. Islam was removed from its central place, veiling of women was banned, and major and minor regional and ethnic differences were smoothed over in favor of an ideologically acceptable uniformity.

Since 1991 the government has kept the Soviet definition of their nationhood, simply because prior to this there was no sense or definition of a single Uzbek nation. But it is literally excising the Soviet formation of the culture from its history books; one university history test had just 1 question of 850 dealing with the years 1924 to 1991.

Ethnic Relations. The Soviet-defined borders left Uzbeks, Kyrgiz, Tajiks, and others on both sides of Uzbekistan. Since independence, tightening border controls and competition for jobs and resources have caused difficulties for some of these communities, despite warm relations among the states of the region.

In June 1989, rioting in the Ferghana Valley killed thousands of Meskhetian Turks, who had been deported there in 1944. Across the border in Osh, Kyrgyzstan, the Uzbek majority rioted in 1990 over denial of land.

There is official support of minority groups such as Russians, Koreans, and Tatars. These groups have cultural centers, and in 1998 a law that was to have made Uzbek the only language of official communication was relaxed. Nevertheless, non-Uzbek-speakers have complained that they face difficulties finding jobs and entering a university. As a result of this and of poor economic conditions, many Russians and others have left Uzbekistan.

Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space

In ancient times the cities of Samarkand and Bokhara were regarded as jewels of Islamic architecture, thriving under Amir Timur and his descendants the Timurids. They remain major tourist attractions.

During the Soviet period, cities became filled with concrete-slab apartment blocks of four to nine stories, similar to those found across the USSR. In villages and suburbs, residents were able to live in more traditional one-story houses built around a courtyard. These houses, regardless of whether they belong to rich or poor, present a drab exterior, with the family's wealth and taste displayed only for guests. Khivan houses have a second-story room for entertaining guests. Since independence, separate houses have become much more popular, supporting something of a building boom in suburbs of major cities. One estimate puts two-thirds of the population now living in detached houses.

The main room of the house is centered around the dusterhon, or tablecloth, whether it is spread on the floor or on a table. Although there are not separate areas for women and children, women tend to gather in the kitchen when male guests are present.

Each town has a large square, where festivals and public events are held.

Parks are used for promenading; if a boy and a girl are dating, they are referred to as walking together. Benches are in clusters, to allow neighbors to chat.

Food and Economy

Food in Daily Life. Bread holds a special place in Uzbek culture. At mealtime, bread will be spread to cover the entire dusterhon. Traditional Uzbek bread, tandir non, is flat and round. It is always torn by hand, never placed upside down, and never thrown out.

Meals begin with small dishes of nuts and raisins, progressing through soups, salads, and meat dishes and ending with palov, a rice-and-meat dish synonymous with Uzbek cuisine throughout the former Soviet Union; it is the only dish often cooked by men. Other common dishes, though not strictly Uzbek, include monti, steamed dumplings of lamb meat and fat, onions, and pumpkin, and kabob, grilled ground meat. Uzbeks favor mutton; even the nonreligious eschew pig meat.

Because of their climate, Uzbeks enjoy many types of fruits, eaten fresh in summer and dried in winter, and vegetables. Dairy products such as katyk, a liquid yogurt, and suzma, similar to cottage cheese, are eaten plain or used as ingredients.

Tea, usually green, is drunk throughout the day, accompanied by snacks, and is always offered to guests.

Meals are usually served either on the floor, or on a low table, though high tables also are used. The table is always covered by a dusterhon. Guests sit on carpets, padded quilts, chairs, or beds, but never on pillows. Men usually sit cross-legged, women with their legs to one side. The most respected guests sit away from the entrance. Objects such as shopping bags, which are considered unclean, never should be placed on the dusterhon, nor should anyone ever step on or pass dirty items over it.

The choyhona, or teahouse, is the focal point of the neighborhood's men. It is always shaded, and if possible located near a stream.

The Soviets introduced restaurants where meals center around alcohol and can last through the night.

Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. Uzbeks celebrate whenever possible, and parties usually consist of a large meal ending with palov. The food is accompanied by copious amounts of vodka, cognac, wine, and beer. Elaborate toasts, given by guests in order of their status, precede each round of shots. After, glasses are diligently refilled by a man assigned the task. A special soup of milk and seven grains is eaten on Navruz. During the month of Ramadan, observant Muslims fast from sunrise until sunset.

Basic Economy. The majority of goods other than food come from China, Turkey, Pakistan, and Russia. It is very common for families in detached homes to have gardens in which they grow food or raise a few animals for themselves, and if possible, for sale. Even families living in apartments will try to grow food on nearby plots of land, or at dachas.

Land Tenure and Property. Beginning in 1992, Uzbekistanis have been able to buy their apartments or houses, which had been state property, for the equivalent of three months' salary. Thus most homes have become private property.

Agricultural land had been mainly owned by state or collective farms during the Soviet period. In many cases the same families or communities that farmed the land have assumed ownership, though they are still subject to government quotas and government guidelines, usually aimed at cotton-growing.

About two-thirds of small businesses and services are in private hands. Many that had been state-owned were auctioned off. While the former nomenklatura (government and Communist Party officials) often won the bidding, many businesses also have been bought by entrepreneurs. Large factories, however, largely remain state-owned.

Major Industries. Uzbekistan's industry is closely tied to its natural resources. Cotton, the white gold of Central Asia, forms the backbone of the economy, with 85 percent exported in exchange for convertible currency. Agricultural machinery, especially for cotton, is produced in the Tashkent region. Oil refineries produce about 173,000 barrels a day.

The Korean car maker Daewoo invested $650 million in a joint venture, UzDaewoo, at a plant in Andijan, which has a capacity of 200,000 cars. However, in 1999 the plant produced just 58,000 cars, and it produced far less in 2000, chiefly for the domestic market. With Daewoo's bankruptcy in November 2000, the future of the plant is uncertain at best.

Trade. Uzbekistan's main trading partners are Russia, South Korea, Germany, the United States, Turkey, and Kazakhstan. Before independence, imports were mainly equipment, consumer goods, and foods. Since independence, Uzbekistan has managed to stop imports of oil from Kazakhstan and has also lowered food imports by reseeding some cotton fields with grain.

Uzbekistan is the world's third-largest cotton exporter.

Uzbekistan exported about $3 billion (U.S.), primarily in cotton, gold, textiles, metals, oil, and natural gas, in 1999. Its main markets are Russia, Switzerland, Britain, Belgium, Kazakhstan, and Tajikistan.

Division of Labor. According to government statistics, 44 percent of workers are in agriculture and forestry; 20 percent in industry; 36 percent in the service sector. Five percent unemployed, and 10 percent are underemployed. Many rural jobless, however, may be considered agricultural workers.

A particular feature of the Uzbekistan labor system is the requirement of school and university students, soldiers, and workers to help in the cotton harvest. They go en masse to the fields for several days to hand-pick cotton.

Many Uzbeks, particularly men, work in other parts of the former Soviet Union. Bazaars from Kazakhstan to Russia are full of Uzbek vendors, who command higher prices for their produce the farther north they travel. Others work in construction or other seasonal labor to send hard currency home.

About 2 percent of the workforce is of pension age and 1 percent is under sixteen.

Social Stratification

Classes and Castes. During the Soviet Union, Uzbekistani society was stratified not by wealth but by access to products, housing, and services. The nomenklatura could find high-quality consumer goods, cars, and homes that simply were unattainable by others. Since independence, many of these people have kept jobs that put them in positions to earn many times the $1,020 (U.S.) average annual salary reported by the United Nations. It is impossible to quantify the number of wealthy, however, as the vast majority of their income is unreported, particularly if they are government officials.

Many members of the former Soviet intelligentsia—teachers, artists, doctors, and other skilled service providers—have been forced to move into relatively unskilled jobs, such as bazaar vendors and construction workers, where they could earn more money. Urban residents tend to earn twice the salaries of rural people.

Symbols of Social Stratification. As elsewhere in the former Soviet Union, the new rich tend to buy and show off expensive cars and limousines, apartments, and clothes and to go to nightclubs. Foreign foods and goods also are signs of wealth, as is a disdain for shopping in bazaars.

Political Life

Government. Uzbekistan is in name republican but in practice authoritarian, with Kharimov's Halq Tarakiati Partiiasi, or People's Democratic Party, controlling all aspects of governance. On 9 January 2000 he was reelected for a five-year term, with a 92 percent turnout and a 92 percent yes vote. Earlier, a March 1995 referendum to extend his term to 2000 resulted in a 99 percent turnout and a 99 percent yes vote. The legislature, Oliy Majlis, was inaugurated in 1994. At that time the ruling party captured 193 seats, though many of these candidates ran as independents. The opposition political movement Birlik, or Unity, and the party Erk, or Will, lack the freedom to directly challenge the government.

Makhallas, or neighborhood councils of elders, provide the most direct governance. Some opinion polls have ranked makhallas just after the president in terms of political power. Makhallahs address social needs ranging from taking care of orphans, loaning items, and maintaining orderly public spaces, to sponsoring holiday celebrations. In Soviet times these were institutionalized, with makhalla heads and committees appointed by the local Communist Party. Then and now, however, makhallas have operated less smoothly in neighborhoods of mixed ethnicities.

Leadership and Political Officials. The president appoints the head, or khokim, of each of Uzbekistan's 12 regions, called viloyatlars, and of Karakalpakistan and Tashkent, who in turn appoint the khokims of the 216 regional and city governments. This top-down approach ensures a unity of government policies and leads to a diminishing sense of empowerment the farther one is removed from Kharimov.

Khokims and other officials were chiefly drawn from the Communist Party following independence—many simply kept their jobs—and many remain. Nevertheless, Kharimov has challenged local leaders to take more initiative, and in 1997 he replaced half of them, usually with public administration and financial experts, many of whom are reform-minded.

Corruption is institutionalized at all levels of government, despite occasional prosecution of officials. Students, for example, can expect to pay bribes to enter a university, receive high grades, or be exempted from the cotton harvest.

Social Problems and Control. The government has vigorously enforced laws related to drug trafficking and terrorism, and reports of police abuse and torture are widespread. The constitution calls for independent judges and open access to proceedings and justice. In practice, defendants are seldom acquitted, and when they are, the government has the right to appeal.

Petty crime such as theft is becoming more common; violent crime is much rarer. Anecdotal evidence points to an increase in heroin use; Uzbekistan is a transshipment point from Afghanistan and Pakistan to Europe, and access is relatively easy despite tough antidrug laws.

People are often reluctant to call the police, as they are not trusted. Instead, it is the responsibility of families to see that their members act appropriately. Local communities also exert pressure to conform.

Military Activity. Uzbekistan's military in 2000 was skirmishing with the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, a militant group opposed to the secular regime, and numbering in the hundreds or thousands. Besides clashes in the mountains near the Tajikistani border, the group has been blamed for six car bombings in Tashkent in February 2000.

Uzbekistan spends about $200 million (U.S.) a year on its military and has 150,000 soldiers, making it the strongest in the region.

Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations

Most domestic nongovernmental organizations are funded and supported by the government, and all must be registered. Kamolot, registered in 1996, is the major youth organization, and is modeled on the Soviet Komsomol. Ekosan is an environmental group. The Uzbek Muslim Board has been active in building mosques and financing religious education. The Women's Committee of Uzbekistan, a government organization, is tasked with ensuring women's access to education as well as employment and legal rights, and claims three million members.

The government also has set up quasi nongovernmental organizations, at times to deflect attention from controversial organizations. The Human Rights Society of Uzbekistan, for example, was denied registration from 1992 to 1997, before the government set up its own human rights monitor.

The leaders of these groups may receive privileges once granted to the Soviet nomenklatura, such as official cars and well-equipped offices.

There are no independent trade unions, though government-sponsored unions are common. The Employment Service and Employment Fund was set up in 1992 to address issues of social welfare, employment insurance, and health benefits for workers.

Ironically, some truly independent organizations from the Soviet period, such as the Committee to Save the Aral Sea, were declared illegal in 1994. Social groups associated with Birlik also have been denied registration.

Gender Roles and Statuses

Division of Labor by Gender. Before the Soviet period, men worked outside the house while women did basic domestic work, or supplemented the family income by spinning, weaving, and embroidering with silk or cotton. From the 1920s on, women entered the workforce, at textile factories and in the cotton fields, but also in professional jobs opened to them by the Soviet education system. They came to make up the great majority of teachers, nurses, and doctors. Family pressure, however, sometimes kept women from attaining higher education, or working outside the home. With independence, some women have held on to positions of power, though they still may be expected to comport themselves with modesty. Men in modern Uzbekistan, though, hold the vast majority of managerial positions, as well as the most labor-intensive jobs. It is common now for men to travel north to other former Soviet republics to work in temporary jobs. Both sexes work in bazaars.

The Relative Status of Women and Men. Uzbekistan is a male-dominated society, particularly in the Ferghana Valley. Nevertheless, women make up nearly half the workforce. They hold just under 10 percent of parliamentary seats, and 18 percent of administrative and management positions, according to U.N. figures.

Women run the households and traditionally control the family budgets. When guests are present they are expected to cloister themselves from view.

In public women are expected to cover their bodies completely. Full veiling is uncommon, though it is occasionally practiced in the Ferghana Valley. Women often view this as an expression of their faith and culture rather than as an oppressive measure.

Marriage, Family, and Kinship

Marriage. Uzbek women usually marry by twenty-one; men not much later. Marriage is an imperative for all, as families are the basic structure in society. A family's honor depends on their daughters' virginity; this often leads families to encourage early marriage.

In traditional Uzbek families, marriages are often still arranged between families; in more cosmopolitan ones it is the bride and groom's choice. Either way, the match is subject to parental approval, with the mother in practice having the final word. Preference is given to members of the kin group. There is particular family say in the youngest son's choice, as he and his bride will take care of his parents. People tend to marry in their late teens or early twenties. Weddings often last for days, with the expense borne by the bride's family. The husband's family may pay a bride price. Polygamy is illegal and rare, but it is not unknown.

Following independence, divorce has become more common, though it is still rare outside of major cities. It is easier for a man to initiate divorce.

Domestic Unit. Uzbek families are patriarchal, though the mother runs the household. The average family size is five or six members, but families of ten or more are not uncommon.

Kin Groups. Close relations extends to cousins, who have the rights and responsibilities of the nuclear family and often are called on for favors. If the family lives in a detached house and there is space, the sons may build their homes adjacent to or around the courtyard of the parents' house.

Socialization

Infant Care. Uzbek babies are hidden from view for their first forty days. They are tightly swaddled when in their cribs and carried by their mothers. Men generally do not take care of or clean babies.

Child Rearing and Education. Children are cherished as the reason for life. The mother is the primary caretaker, and in case of divorce, she will virtually always take the children. The extended family and the community at large, however, also take an interest in the child's upbringing.

When children are young, they have great freedom to play and act out. But as they get older, particularly in school, discipline increases. A good child becomes one who is quiet and attentive, and all must help in the family's labor.

All children go to school for nine years, with some going on to eleventh grade; the government is increasing mandatory education to twelve years.

Higher Education. Enrollment in higher-education institutions is about 20 percent, down from more than 30 percent during the Soviet period. A major reason for the decline is that students do not feel a higher education will help them get a good job; also contributing is the emigration of Russians, and declining standards related to budget cutbacks. Nevertheless, Uzbeks, particularly in cities, still value higher education, and the government gives full scholarships to students who perform well.

Elders are respected in Uzbek culture. At the dusterhon, younger guests will not make themselves more comfortable than their elders. The younger person should always greet the older first.

Men typically greet each other with a handshake, the left hand held over the heart. Women place their right hand on the other's elbow. If they are close friends or relatives, they may kiss each other on the cheeks.

If two acquaintances meet on the street, they will usually ask each other how their affairs are. If the two don't know each other well, the greeting will be shorter, or could involve just a nod.

Women are expected to be modest in dress and demeanor, with clothing covering their entire body. In public they may walk with their head tilted down to avoid unwanted attention. In traditional households, women will not enter the room if male guests are present. Likewise, it is considered forward to ask how a man's wife is doing. Women generally sit with legs together, their hands in their laps. When men aren't present, however, women act much more casually.

People try to carry themselves with dignity and patience, traits associated with royalty, though young men can be boisterous in public.

People tend to dress up when going out of the house. Once home they change, thus extending the life of their street clothes.

Religious Beliefs. Uzbeks are Sunni Muslims. The territory of Uzbekistan has been a center of Islam in the region for a thousand years, but under the Soviet Union the religion was heavily controlled: mosques were closed and Muslim education was banned. Beginning in 1988, Uzbeks have revived Islam, particularly in the Ferghana Valley, where mosques have been renovated. The call to prayer was everywhere heard five times a day before the government ordered the removal of the mosques' loudspeakers in 1998.

The state encourages a moderate form of Islam, but Kharimov fears the creation of an Islamic state. Since the beginning of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan's terror campaign in February 1999, he has cracked down even further on what he perceives as extremists, raising claims of human rights abuses. The government is particularly concerned about what it labels Wahhabism, a fundamentalist Sunni sect that took hold in the Ferghana Valley following independence.

Nine percent of the population is Russian Orthodox. Jews, Baptists, Roman Catholics, Lutherans, Seventh-Day Adventists, evangelical and Pentecostal Christians, Buddhists, Baha'is, and Hare Krishnas also are present.

Religious Practitioners. Most Sunni Uzbeks are led by a state-appointed mufti. Independent imams are sometimes repressed, and in May 1998, a law requiring all religious groups to register with the government was enacted. In addition to leading worship, the Muslim clergy has led mosque restoration efforts and is playing an increasing role in religious education.

Death and the Afterlife. Uzbeks bury their deceased within twenty-four hours of death, in above-ground tombs. At the funeral, women wail loudly and at specific times. The mourning period lasts forty days. The first anniversary of the death is marked with a gathering of the person's friends and relatives.

Muslims believe that on Judgment Day, each soul's deeds will be weighed. They will then walk across a hair-thin bridge spanning Hell, which leads to Paradise. The bridge will broaden under the feet of the righteous, but the damned will lose their balance and fall.

Medicine and Health Care

Current health practices derive from the Soviet system. Health care is considered a basic right of the entire population, with clinics, though ill-equipped, in most villages, and larger facilities in regional centers. Emphasis is on treatment over prevention. Yet the state health care budget—80 million dollars in 1994—falls far short of meeting basic needs; vaccinations, for example, fell off sharply following independence. Exacerbating the situation is a lack of potable water, industrial pollution, and a rise in infectious diseases such as tuberculosis.

Perhaps the most common traditional health practices are shunning cold drinks and cold surfaces, which are believed to cause colds and damage to internal organs, and avoiding drafts, or bad winds. Folk remedies and herbal treatments also are common. An example is to press bread to the ailing part of the body. The sick person then gives a small donation to a homeless person who will agree to take on his or her illness.

Secular Celebrations

The major secular holidays are New Year's Day (1 January); Women's Day (8 March), a still popular holdover from the Soviet Union, when women receive gifts; Navrus (21 March), originally a Zoroastrian holiday, which has lost its religious significance but is still celebrated with Sumaliak soup, made from milk and seven grains; Victory Day (9 May), marking the defeat of Nazi Germany; and Independence Day (1 September), celebrating separation from the Soviet Union.

Uzbeks typically visit friends and relatives on holidays to eat large meals and drink large amounts of vodka. Holidays also may be marked by concerts or parades centered on city or town squares or factories. The government marks Independence Day and Navrus with massive outdoor jamborees in Tashkent, which are then broadcast throughout the country, and places of work or neighborhoods often host huge celebrations.

The Arts and Humanities

Support for the Arts. During the Soviet period, the government gave extensive support to the arts, building cultural centers in every city and paying the salaries of professional artists. With independence, state funding has shrunk, though it still makes up the bulk of arts funding. Many dance, theater, and music groups continue to rely on the state, which gives emphasis to large productions and extravaganzas, controls major venues, and often has an agenda for the artists to follow.

Other artists have joined private companies who perform for audiences of wealthy business-people and tourists. Some money comes in from corporate sponsorship and international charitable organizations—for example UNESCO and the Soros Foundation's Open Society Institute. Yet many artists have simply been forced to find other work.

Literature. The territory of Uzbekistan has a long tradition of writers, though not all were Uzbek. The fifteenth-century poet Alisher Navoi, 1441–1501, is most revered; among his works is a treatise comparing the Persian and Turkish languages. Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, 973–1048, born in Karakalpakistan, wrote a massive study of India. Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna, 980–1037, wrote The Cannon of Medicine. Omar Khayyam, 1048–1131, came to Samarkand to pursue mathematics and astronomy. Babur, 1483–1530, born in the Ferghana Valley, was the first Moghul leader of India, and wrote a famous autobiography.

Until the twentieth century, Uzbek literary tradition was largely borne by bakshi, elder minstrels who recited myths and history through epic songs, and otin-oy, female singers who sang of birth, marriage and death.

The Jadids produced many poets, writers, and playwrights. These writers suffered greatly in the Stalinist purges of the 1930s. Later the Soviet Union asked of its writers that they be internationalists and further socialist goals. Abdullah Qahhar, 1907–1968, for example, satirized Muslim clerics. But with the loosening of state control in the 1980s, a new generation of writers renewed the Uzbek language and Uzbek themes. Many writers also were active in Birlik, which started as a cultural movement but is now suppressed.

Graphic Arts. Uzbekistan has begun a revival of traditional crafts, which suffered from the Soviet view that factory-produced goods were superior to handicrafts. Now master craftsmen are reappearing in cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara, supported largely by foreign tourists. Miniature painting is narrative in character, using a wide palette of symbols to tell their stories. They can be read from right to left as a book, and often accompany works of literature. Wood carving, of architectural features such as doors and pillars and of items such as the sonduq, a box given to a bride by her parents, also is regaining a place in Uzbek crafts. Ikat is a method of cloth dying, now centered in the Yordgorlik Silk Factory in Margilan. Silk threads are tie-dyed, then woven on a loom to create soft-edged designs for curtains, clothing, and other uses.

Performance Arts. Uzbek music is characterized by reedy, haunting instruments and throaty, nasal singing. It is played on long-necked lutes called dotars, flutes, tambourines, and small drums. It developed over the past several hundred years in the khanates on the territory of modern Uzbekistan, where musicians were a central feature of festivals and weddings. The most highly regarded compositions are cycles called maqoms. Sozandas, sung by women accompanied by percussion instruments, also are popular. In the 1920s, Uzbek composers were encouraged, leading to a classical music tradition that continues today. Modern Uzbek pop often combines elements of folk music with electric instruments to create dance music.

Uzbek dance is marked by fluid arm and upper-body movement. Today women's dance groups perform for festivals and for entertainment, a practice started during the Soviet period. Earlier, women danced only for other women; boys dressed as women performed for male audiences. One dance for Navruz asks for rain; others depict chores, other work, or events. Uzbek dance can be divided into three traditions: Bokhara and Samarkand; Khiva; and Khokand. The Sufi dance, zikr, danced in a circle accompanied by chanting and percussion to reach a trance state, also is still practiced.

Uzbekistan's theater in the twentieth century addressed moral and social issues. The Jadidists presented moral situations that would be resolved by a solution consistent with Islamic law. During the Soviet period dramatists were sometimes censored. The Ilkhom Theater, founded in 1976, was the first independent theater in the Soviet Union.

Admission to cultural events is kept low by government and corporate sponsorship. It also has become common for dancers to perform for groups of wealthy patrons.

The State of the Physical and Social Sciences

Uzbekistan has several higher-education institutions, with departments aimed at conducting significant research. Funding, however, has lagged since independence. The goal of the Academy of Sciences in Tashkent is practical application of science. It has physical and mathematical, chemicalbiological, and social sciences departments, with more than fifty research institutions and organizations under them.

Bibliography

Adams, Laura L. "What Is Culture? Schemas and Spectacles in Uzbekistan." Anthropology of East Europe Review 16 (2): 65–71, 1998.

Ali, Muhammad. "Let Us Learn Our Inheritance: Get to Know Yourself." AACAR Bulletin 2 (3): 3–18, 1989.

Allworth, Edward A. The Modern Uzbeks: From the Fourteenth Century to the Present; A Cultural History, 1990.

Freedom House 2000. Freedom in the World, The Annual Survey of Political Rights and Civil Liberties, 1999–2000: Uzbekistan Country Report, 2000.

Griffin, Keith. Issues in Development Discussion Paper 13: The Macroeconomic Framework and Development Strategy in Uzbekistan, 1996.

Human Rights Watch. Human Rights Watch World Report 2000: Uzbekistan, 2000.

Jukes, Geoffrey J.; Kirill Nourzhanov, and Mikhail Alexandrov. Race, Religion, Ethnicity and Economics in Central Asia, 1998.

Kalter, Johannes, and Margareta Pavaloi. Uzbekistan: Heirs to the Silk Road, 1997.

Khan, Azizur Rahman. Issues in Development Discussion Paper 14: The Transition of Uzbekistan's Agriculture to a Market Economy, 1996.

Kharimov, Islom A. Uzbekistan on the Threshold of the Twenty-first Century: Challenges to Stability and Progress, 1998.

Nazarov, Bakhtiyar A., and Denis Sinor. Essays on Uzbek History, Culture, and Language, 1993.

Nettleton, Susanna. "Uzbek Independence and Educational Change," Central Asia Monitor 3, 1992.

Paksoy, H. B. "Z. V. Togan: The Origins of the Kazaks and the Ozbeks," Central Asian Survey 11 (3), 1992.

Prosser, Sarah. "Reform Within and Without the Law: Further Challenges for Central Asian NGOs," Harvard Asia Quarterly, 2000.

Schoeberlein-Engel, John. "The Prospects for Uzbek National Identity," Central Asia Monitor 2, 1996.

"Tamerlane v. Marx;" Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 50 (1), 1994.

U.N. Development Project. Human Development Report: Uzbekistan 1997, 1997.

UNESCO, Education Management Profile: Uzbekistan, 1998.

U.S. Department of State. Background Notes: Uzbekistan , 1998.

U.S. Department of State, Central Intelligence Agency. The CIA World Factbook , 2000.

U.S. Library of Congress. Kazakstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan: Country Studies, 1997.

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Geography Notes

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Lying south and southeast of Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan’s territory falls mainly be west of Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and between Central Asia’s two major rivers north of Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan, Syr Darya and Amu Darya, though they only partly from its boundaries. Although the territory does reach the Caspian Sea, it includes the southern part of the Aral Sea. The Soviet government created the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic as a constituent unit of the USSR in 1924, but in 1991 after the dissolution of the Soviet Union it de­clared its independence.

With a population of 24.5 million, the largest in Central Asia, the nation is not only the most populous, but contains the largest number of the native Turkic peo­ples, overwhelmingly outnumbering the other ethnic groups, and have registered the highest growth rate in the region. The cultural and historic roots of the Uzbeks date back to the ancient times. Several cit­ies such as Bukhara, Khiva, Kokand, and Samarkand were cultural, political and trade centers for centuries.

Although a large part of the country is occupied by the extensive desert of Kyzl Kum, some of the world’s richest irrigated oases exist m a narrow band of densely populated area in the east. The most im­portant of the oases is the Fergana Valley, drained by the Syr Darya, and divided pri­marily between Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.

This and other oases such as Tashkent, Andizhan, Bukhara, Khiva, Kokand and Mary (Merv), Samarkand, and Zeravshan form the rich agricultural tracts that fulfill the nation’s major producer of high-grade cotton. Most of the major oases are located where mountain streams de­scend on to the lowland except such oases or Zeravshan that are located in the desert lowlands.

Uzbekistan is Central Asia’s largest ag­ricultural producer. In cotton production it ranks third in the world (China and In­dia rank higher). Besides cotton, rice, sugar beets, vegetables, fruits (particularly grapes, pomegranates, figs and melons are grown. Known for its orchards and vine­yards, Uzbekistan is also important for raising Karakul sheep and silkworms.

Plenty of sunlight, mild winters, fertile ir­rigated soil, and good pastureland make conditions suitable for the cultivation of these crops and for cattle raising. Raising silkworms is a traditional occupation among farmers, dating to the 4th century. The Fergana Valley is especially known for silk production. The country’s mineral resources in elude metallic ores such as copper, zinc lead, tungsten and gold. Uzbekistan possesses substantial reserves of natural gas oil, and coal. Most of the natural gas is con­sumed domestically, and gas pipelines link the important cities and stretch from Buk­hara to the Ural Mountains in Russia.

Petroleum fields exist in the Fergana Val­ley, in the vicinity of Bukhara, and in Karakalpakstan. Dams on the Syr Darya and its tributaries are utilized to produce hydroelectricity. The country is deficient in water resources. The existing canals— the Great Fergana, Northern Fergana, Southern Fergana and Tashkent now face shortfalls in irrigation waters due to depletion of the rivers.

In manufacturing, Uzbekistan is Cen­tral Asia’s major producer of machinery and heavy equipment. The manufactured items include machines and equipment for cotton cultivation, harvesting and process­ing, and for use in textile industry, irrigation, and road construction. Cement, textile, chemical fertilizers, and tea packing are some other industries. The country predictably exports cotton, natural gas, oil, silk and fruits, as well as manufactured goods such as machines, cement, textiles, and fertilizers.

The country is nearly self-sufficient in energy sources, and agricultural products development. The disruption of the Soviet trading system caused by the collapse of the USSR in 1991 did not particularly af­fect the nation. Since independence, the nation has followed a slow and cautious path of privatization.

Economic develop­ment in the future would depend largely on overcoming the current infrastructural handicaps such as the antiquated means of distribution and processing of raw materi­als. Neither surface nor air transport now available is adequate to handle the trans­port of the produce such as fruits and vegetables.

There are few well-developed highways. Most of the country’s trade was with the Soviet Union; the nation is con­sidering plans to enlarge the trading area to include the developing countries. The majority of Uzbekistan’s popula­tion lives in rural areas. In the early 1990s just over 40 percent of the population was registered as urban and only 16 of the cit­ies contain population over 100,000. Population comprised mostly of the non- Uzbeks.

With a population of a little over 2 million is the largest city of Central Asia, and the capital and the “primate” city of Uzbekistan. It lies in a large oasis along the Chirchik River on the Trans- Caspian railroad in the foothills of the Tien Shan Mountains. Dating back to the 1st century B.C., the city has been a his­toric trade and handicraft center on the historic caravan routes from the Orient to Europe during medieval times.

When the Russians occupied it in 1865, the walled city had a population of 70,000. Several old buildings, mausoleums, and religious shrines survive in the “older” section. Tashkent lies in the most industrialized part of Uzbekistan, and contains one of the largest textile mills in Asia.

Other in­dustries include food-and tobacco- processing plants, and factories that manu­facture machinery, electrical equipment, chemicals and furniture. The modern, planned section built during the Russian period, co-exists with the old Oriental quarters with its narrow, winding streets, numerous mosques, and bazaars.

Other major cities of Uzbekistan— Samarkand (370,000), Audizham (293,000), Bukhara (238,000), Fergana (198,000), and Kokand (176,000) are con­siderably smaller than Tashkent, but are just as important from the cultural and his­toric standpoint. Their histories extend back to ancient times, and they have served as political, and trade centers for centuries.

With the exception of Bukhara these cities are located in the industrial heartland of the nation; each, including Bukhara, on the historic route way (be­tween China and the Middle East) has a significant industrial component. It spe­cializes primarily in the manufacture of textiles, processed food, and machinery. The “old” sections of these cities were partially reconstructed during the Soviet period.

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Uzbek Culture

Uzbek culture & traditions.

Uzbekistan is home to many cultures: the majority group is the Uzbek, making seventy-one percent of the population, followed by Russians, Tajiks, Kazakhs, and other minority groups. Uzbekistan culture is unique and vivid that has developed over long and vibrant history. Uzbek culture evolved blending various customs and traditions of the nations who inhabited the territory of today’s Uzbekistan.

The main contribution to the development of Uzbek culture was the ancient Iranians, nomad Turkic tribes, Arabs, Chinese, and eventually Russians. Traditions of multinational Uzbekistan are reflected in the music, dances, fine art, applied arts, language, cuisine, clothing, other handicrafts, and rituals. The Great Silk Road also played a significant role in the evolution of Uzbekistan culture as it served to exchange not only goods but also inventions, languages, ideas, religions, and customs.

After gaining Independence, Uzbekistan has seen a rapid development of handicrafts and traditional applied arts, the rebirth of Uzbek traditions and customs, and it could be said that the country has reinvented Uzbekistan’s traditional culture. Today Uzbekistan’s culture is one of the brightest and original cultures of the East. The best way to get acquainted with the Uzbek culture is through our Uzbekistan Tours or the Central Asia Tours .

Uzbek Cuisine

Uzbek cuisine is one of the most colorful of Oriental cuisines. Thanks to the Silk Road, Uzbekistan’s culinary tradition is made of a mix of East and West, offering roasted meats and tandoor-baked bread from Central and Eastern European countries like Turkey, Iran, and Morocco and steamed dumplings and noodles found in the likes of China, and other Eastern Asian countries.

Uzbek cuisine

Uzbek dance and music, uzbek music and national musical instruments.

Music and musical instruments traveled along with vagrant musicians following caravans moved from country to country.

Uzbek Music

Traditional uzbek dances.

The Uzbeks dances distinguish with softness, smoothness and expressiveness of movements, easy sliding steps, original movements on a place and on a circle.

Uzbek Dance

Uzbek national holidays, uzbek games, traditional uzbek clothes, uzbek national clothes.

The traditional costume of Uzbeks remains an important component of the cultural, ethnic, and religious identity. The most striking piece of male attire is the long, striped, wrap-around cloak chapan, doppe. While the women’s attire consists of the plain khan-atlas tunic-dress and wide trousers as well as skull-cap, kerchief and turban.

Uzbek National clothes

Uzbek crafts.

For ages Uzbekistan has been known for its beautiful handmade products. Including glazed tiles to the fines silks, finely worked jewelry set with precious stone, to handwoven and knotted carpets.

Uzbek Silk Production in Margilan

In the early days, silk was considered a luxury and Margilan was the silk capital of todays Uzbekistan. Silk was the most valuable material, that was practiced for the generation of money, as a tribute, and as a means of payment. 

Uzbek Suzani Culture

Within the remarkable traditions of Uzbek art, a special place takes an artistic design of fabrics suzani.   Uzbekistan is famed for its suzani: decorative silk embroideries, striking imagination with bright colors, and a variety of exquisite patterns. 

Uzbek Suzani

Carpet workshop.

Every house in Uzbekistan is furnished with carpets. Although these days they are often factory-made synthetic rugs from China, however traditionally they would have been handwoven locally.

Uzbek carpets

Knife workshops of chust, uzbek knives, uzbek pottery​, uzbek ceramics, puppetry in uzbekistan.

Puppet theatre in the region was a rich tradition going back to the 5th century BCE under the reign of the Achaemenid Empire, possibly reaching its high point of popularity under Timur, who was a patron of the art form, and the Timurid dynasty during the 1400s.

Uzbek puppetry

Karakalpak culture, republic of karakalpakstan.

The traditional culture of Karakalpaks is one of nomadic agriculture, largely resembles neighboring Kazakh culture rather than Uzbek culture.

Karakalpak Culture

Uzbek traditions, uzbek wedding.

Weddings in Uzbekistan follow a lot of customs and traditions from centuries ago. Traditionally, the Uzbek people celebrate their wedding in a very cheerful and richly splendor with a lot of guests. Neighbors, immediate and remote relatives, workmates, and friends are all invited to the wedding.

Uzbek childbirth traditions

Uzbek childbirth traditions.

The birth of a child is a  joyful and significant event in Uzbekistan . In the Uzbek family, the arrival of the baby is followed by several traditional events following the growth of the newcomer. 

Uzbek Mahalla (The Neighborhood)

Uzbek mahalla, notable people of uzbekistan ​, notable people of uzbekistan.

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Uzbekistan’s History, Economic and Culture Research Paper

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Uzbekistan is a country in central Asia which boarders Kazakhstan in the northern side, Kyrgyzstan in the eastern side and Tajikistan in the southern eastern side. During the 4 th century B.C it was under the Persian rule that had been conquered by Alexander the Great.

The region incorporated Islam as a religion in 8th century when the Arab forces invaded the land. Around the 13 th century the region was taken over by the Mongols from the Seljuk Turks. The 16 th century saw the region been merged with their neighbors but was not to last for long as the region broke into principalities (Adams 19).

However, the city-states, which included khanates, Kokand and Bukhara were not to last for long as the Russians conquered them in the 19 th century. In 1924, the territory was a republic but it is in 1925 that it became an independent under socialist republic. However, in 1991 the country declared its independence making September 1 st their national holiday. The country today enjoys independence with a presidential rule.

Economically, the people of Uzbekistan are agriculturalist, however, the country is endowed with many minerals. Cotton has been their main produce but has recently been replaced by natural gas. The other minerals that the Uzbekistan people are involved with are gold and uranium. The country has recently grown to be a manufacturing country, especially in the automobiles industrial where they are a big exporter to Russian market.

The state has always been in control of most business enterprises, but in the recent past free market has been endorsed (Oliker 46). It is not easy to determine the growth rate of the country because the government keeps unreliable records. However, it is notable much of the wealth of the country is held by the elite in the society with almost a quarter of the population living below the poverty line.

The government has been instrumental in preventing the country from facing capital outflow by ensuring that the country adopts the policy of substitution of their imports. The actions of the government to control economic activities have even made convertibility of different currencies of the world. The low economy has transformed to some of the individuals in the country getting involved to human trafficking business. The business usually involves girls, as they are traffics to other countries as prostitutes (Boĭkova 181).

Amongst the people of Uzbekistan, the elders are the most respected people in the society. They have a mode of greetings where the men put their hands on the heart of other men when greeting them, while women usually put their right hands on each other’s elbow. The mode of dressing especially to women was such that they were to cover their bodies with their heads looking down to avoid any attention. The people of Uzbekistan are mostly Muslims with a small percentage of people enjoying other religions like Buddhist and Jewish.

Traditionally, matters of marriage were left to the man and the women but the approval of the parent was important. Virginity among the women was upheld and women were expected to be married much earlier than the men. Bride price had to be paid by the family of the man, and the cost incurred in the marriage ceremony was covered by the family of the wife (Hanks 83).

There were defined duties of both men and women. While men were expected to work outside, the house women were expected to work indoors engaging in activities like weaving and spinning using cotton. Women were expected to cover the whole of their bodies when in public and they viewed it as observance of their faith (Adams 17). Traditional medicine was also incorporated in their treatment where herbs were used for treatment.

There was also a taboo of drinking cold drinks since it was viewed as the reason why people caught cold. Arts performance that dated back during the soviet rule is still practiced. They include the crafts work as well as miniature painting. However, the practice of their music by the instruments they used in past is still in practice. Dotars that were put on the legs, flutes, and small drums are still used in the performance of their art.

Unlike other countries in central Asia, Uzbekistan has adhered to the principle of legal stability. The constitution gives rights to the people to own private property and it views it as a way of giving self-respect to the people as well as a way of developing the society. Solid constitutional bases have been laid down through the years to promote and upgrade political and social relations.

Economic freedom of the citizens has been highly promoted as well as the spirit of entrepreneurship with an aim of eliminating the repugnant old command-administrative system. The country has also incorporated a legal and organization environment where the society of Uzbekistan integrates with the world. Uzbekistan has adopted an open door policy that grants foreign investors reliable regal guarantee and broad economic opportunities in the economic activities.

The environment for foreign investors has continually been improved as well as simplification of the procedures that are involved in creation of manufacturing enterprise for foreigners (Karimov 172). Regulatory acts created by Uzbekistan have had a comprehensive system of taxation and incentive against poetical and commercial risk for the foreigners. In turn, there has been active participation by foreign investors in this country.

Some of their favorable policies to the foreigners are: freedom of buying property that the state has already privatized as well as ownership rights to these properties. Enterprises owned by foreigners are allowed to export without licenses as well to import duty free property from joint ventures (Karimov 173).

Economic relations between Uzbekistan and the United States have mostly been controlled by the bi-literal trade agreement signed by the two countries. The agreement was signed in 1994 and one of the benefits the agreements had to Uzbekistan was that it had an exemption provision to many of the United States importing tariffs.

In the year 2000, the two countries signed a bilateral investment treaty but it did not come into force because of the weak economic reforms in Uzbekistan. In terms of imports and exports, Uzbekistan imports machines and equipment. Also inclusive in the list of the imports are chemical products and food items, especially the ones that deal in plastics. The exports to the United States include inorganic chemistry products machines and equipment (Group Taylor & Francis 2548).

American companies have also been involved in investing in Uzbekistan economy in establishment of technological base in both agriculture and mining sectors.

Infrastructure and food processing are also other sectors of the economy where American companies have actively involved themselves in. The American company General Motors has also established a strong link with the government of Uzbekistan and collaborated in manufacturing of cars. It is also notable that Uzbekistan is the biggest export of uranium in United States (Zhukov 213).

The relation between United States and Uzbekistan can be traced back to 1991 when Uzbekistan was established as an independent nation. The following year saw the establishment of Uzbekistan embassy in United States. From that time, as part of the U.S policy, campaigns have been launched to support Uzbekistan upheld the rule of law.

The relationship between the two countries increased after September 11 attacks, which led to the war in Afghanistan. However, the closeness between the two countries went a drift when United States requested the international community to get involved in investigating the Andijon violence of 2005.

The reason behind sourness in the relations on was because Uzbekistan did not want involvement of United States or other European powers in influencing the government activities. However, year 2007 saw the two countries improving the relationship among them (Thackrah 240).

The relations were all round as they included security issues civil issues as well as economic issues. It is also an attempt by the United States to ensure that there is peace in central Asia since Uzbekistan is the country with the biggest population and the most instrumental in keeping stability.

The new relation between the two countries has since to improve to the best as in the United States assistance budget there was a provision that seeks to ensure better livelihood for the people of Uzbekistan (Group Taylor & Francis 554). The relationship between the two countries has also promoted the level of education in Uzbekistan as many students from Uzbekistan have studied in American universities.

Works Cited

Adams, Laura L. “The Spectacular State: Culture and National Identity in Uzbekistan.” Durham: Duke University Press , 2010. Print

Boĭkova Elena Vladimirovna, R. B. Rybakov. “Kinship in the Altaic world: proceedings of the 48th Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Moscow 10-15 July, 2005.” Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz Verlag , 2006. Print

Group, Taylor & Francis. “Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia 2004, Volume 4.” Lndon: Routledge , 2003. Print

Group, Taylor & Francis. “Europa World Year Book 2, Book 2.” London: Taylor & Francis, 2004. Print

Hanks, Reuel R. “Central Asia: a global studies handbook.” Califonia: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Print

Karimov, I. A. “Uzbekistan on the threshold of the twenty-first century: challenges to stability and progress.” New York: Palgrave Macmillan , 1998. Print

Oliker Olga, Thomas S. Szayna. “Faultlines of conflict in Central Asia and the south Caucasus: implications for the U.S. Army, Issue 1598.” Califonia: Rand Corporation, 2003. Print

Thackrah, John Richard. “Dictionary of terrorism.” New York: Routledge , 2004. Print

Zhukov, Boris Z. Rumer Stanislav Vi︠a︡cheslavovich. “Central Asia: the challenges of independence.” New York: M.E. Sharpe , 1998. Print

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The Permanent Mission of the Republic of Uzbekistan to the United Nations

Uzbekistan – the Crossroad of Cultures

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Over the centuries, ancient and prosperous land of Uzbekistan hosted representatives of different ethnic groups, cultures and regions. Hospitality, kindness, generosity and a true tolerance have always been distinct traits of Uzbek nation and its mentality.

Nowadays, representatives of more than 130 nations and ethnic groups coexist as a one family in Uzbekistan. They work with great dedication in all areas.

Serik Usenov, Chairman of Republican Kazakh Cultural Center

“Tolerance for Uzbekistan is the value inherited from ancestors. It is our common duty to protect and preserve this priceless legacy. Uzbeks are ancient nation that always shares bread it and says: “Welcome!”. All of us, living in a diversified country, have the same rights and duties. All of us, regardless of our nationality, live in Uzbekistan in peace and harmony.”

Notably, over 100 activists of national cultural centers received different medals and awards of the Republic of Uzbekistan. More than 10 representatives of various nationalities were awarded the title “Hero of Uzbekistan”.

The constitution of Uzbekistan and its law state that all citizens, regardless of their nationality, language and religion have equal rights and freedoms. They are granted necessary opportunities for preserving and enriching their ethnic culture, traditions and customs. State universities and institutions run their educational curriculum in 7 languages; National TV Radio Company broadcasts in 12 languages. Local newspapers and magazines are printed in more than 10 languages.

16 religious confessions carry out their activities in the country. “Enlightenment and religious tolerance” resolution put forward by the President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev on the 72nd session of the UN General Assembly in September 2017, in New York is a bright example of Uzbekistan’ commitment to human rights, principles of tolerance and friendship. This initiative was supported by international community that acknowledged its essence and in December 2018 unanimously adopted the resolution during the UN General Assembly session. The document strives to reaffirm religious tolerance and mutual respect, ensure religious freedom, protect the rights of religious devotee, protect their faith and prevent discrimination.

Viktor Pak, Chairman of Association of Korean Cultural Centers of Uzbekistan

“Koreans arrived to Uzbekistan more than 80 years. Around 200 thousand Koreans live in this country. They consider it a homeland. Some of my closest friends are Uzbeks. They wouldn’t start an evening meal without Korean salad “kim-chi”. In our family, cooking palov once a week has become a tradition. And this is for no reason. We love Uzbek bread and milk. We, Koreans, live in peace and understanding with all compatriots.:

141 national cultural centers play a significant role in embracing ethnic diversity and further harmonization of interethnic relations. Through developing cultural identity, language, folk crafts, they make a contribution to enriching cultural presence and strengthening one, multicultural family spirit.

Committee on Interethnic Relations and Friendship Cooperation with Foreign Countries under the Cabinet of Ministers of the Republic of Uzbekistan coordinates the work of cultural centers, provides practical assistance.

Bright events carried out across all regions of the country add a deeper meaning to cultural and social life of the Republic. It strengths tolerance and good-neighborliness spirit between all representatives of nations and ethnic groups living in Uzbekistan.

This all speaks of a unique and effective system of non-government organizations in the area of multinational relations. A range of activities held by the centers contribute to peaceful and prosperous living in the Republic, addressing significant cultural and education tasks and developing cooperation with foreign countries.

As per initiative of the President of Uzbekistan Shavkat Mirziyoyev, a unique building located on Babur street handed over to the Committee on Interethnic Relations and Friendship Cooperation with Foreign Countries. The building has become a Palace of Friendship and Culture. A park next to this building that hosts a number of cultural events renamed to “Friendship Park”.

National cultural centers are also committed to developing members’ cultural and humanitarian relations with their ancestry.

Vladimir Boyko, Chairperson of the Republican Ukrainian Cultural Center “Slavutich”

“In close collaboration with the Writers Union of Uzbekistan, the Embassy of Ukraine in Uzbekistan and Committee on Interethnic Relations and Friendship Cooperation with Foreign Countries we translated the works of eminent Ukrainian poets and writers into Uzbek language to introduce them to local readers. At the same time, we encourage Ukrainian diaspora to immerse themselves in cultural legacy of our homeland, Uzbekistan.”

Annually, representatives of all nations and ethnic groups celebrate a national holiday “Nowruz”, Russian “Maslenitsa”, Bulgarian “Martenitsa”, Armenian “Vardavar”, Polish “Dožínky”, Korean “Chuseok”, Tatar and Bashkir “Sabantuy”, Greek “Ohi Day”, Chinese New Year and other national holidays.

Uzbekistan implements the program on promoting cultural identity, folk crafts, traditions and customs of ethnic groups living in the country among the general public. The best concert venues, stages of theaters, exhibition halls of the country are provided for these occasions.

Social life of Uzbekistan is a proof that justice ensured in interethnic relations.

For example, the village of Manas in the Dustlik district of the Jizzakh region was the first settlement that was completely reconstructed in Uzbekistan under the program “Prosperous Villages”. The village inhabited with ethnic Kyrgyz group was transformed into a modern town with all amenities within 45 days.

New residential houses are being built in Jizzakh region. Particularly, gypsy community living in this area also feel positive changes and move to new houses.

More than 35 hectares of land and 780 new houses for 3,200 people were allocated in the makhallas of Altynkul and Almazar in the Pakhtakor region. Currently, renovation works of new villages are at its final stage. They comprise two sewing workshops to ensure women employment, including for representatives of gypsy community.

Maftuna Tohtamisheva, seamstress

“We used to live in old barracks. But we have been provided with good living conditions. My family, for instance, moved in a house comprising three rooms.  I work in this sewing factory throughout the week and take care of house and my son during the weekend.”

Infrastructure development is yet another area. Thus, this village is supplied with more than 10 kilometers of roads, 8 kilometers of electricity and 3 kilometers of water supply networks. It also has a school and preschool educational institutions. The state allocated 150 billion soums for these purposes.

Radabboy Ravshanov, veteran

“We, gypsies, didn’t have any amenities for living. Today, we have paved road, flowers and spruce s; a lot of changes are happening around. Makhalla committee has a new building; a kindergarten is on the way. I was provided with six houses for six of my children. Constructions works are soon to end.”

Literacy courses were organized for some of the gypsy children who did not attend the school for various reasons. Thus, the gypsies who began to settle in the Jizzakh desert in the 1960s became equal citizens of the multinational country.

A person who loves its nation and people, respects representatives of other ethnic groups. A right course taken by the leader of the Republic displayed in the peace and tolerance for the world preached by the people of Uzbekistan.

“Dunyo” Information Agency, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Uzbekistan, 2020

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This volume contains ten individual articles which focus on a variety of topics relating to Uzbek history, culture, and linguistics. Coordinated by professors Bakhtiyar Nazarov and Denis Sinor, it is a joint project between American scholars and those from the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (now the Republic of Uzbekistan). At the time of its creation, it was intended to demonstrate the immense scholarly potential that could come from collaborations between the U.S. and Uzbek S.S.R. The essays it presents contain a vast breadth and depth of knowledge, and any scholar of Uzbek or Central Asian linguistics, history, or culture in general would be remiss to not read them.

Bakhtiyar Nazarov was a professor at the Institute of Language and Literature of the Academy of Sciences of the Uzbek SSR in Tashkent. Denis Sinor was a distinguished professor of Central Eurasian Studies at Indiana University. Along with serving as the first chair of the department, he founded the Institute for Inner Asian Studies at IU, which was renamed in his honor in 2007. Technical Editor: Devin DeWeese is an emeritus professor of Central Eurasian Studies at Indiana University. He specializes in Islamic Studies and Islamic Central Asia.

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During the 1980s religious practice surged, transforming many aspects of Uzbek life, especially in the towns of the Fergana Valley and other concentrations of Muslim believers. This resurgence affected the republic’s cultural life through the increased activities of religious schools, neighbourhood mosques, religious orders, and religious publishing ventures and through the Islamic Renaissance Party.

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Over the centuries, the territory of what is now Uzbekistan has produced great scholars, poets, and writers whose heritage has enriched the general culture of humanity. The scholar and encyclopaedist al-Bīrūnī , who lived in the 11th century, produced a series of geographic works about India and a wide range of writings in the natural sciences and humanities. In the 15th century the astronomer and mathematician Ulūgh Beg founded a famous observatory in Samarkand . The late 15th-century scholar, poet, and writer ʿAlī Shīr Navāʾī greatly advanced Turkic-language literature and was also a talented artist and composer.

The major writers of the early 20th century broke from the Navāʾī tradition in their style but continued to revere it in their literary history. In the Jadid era (1900–20) the foremost modern poets and prose writers included Abdalrauf Fitrat , Sadriddin Ayni , and Abdullah Qadiri , each of whom was bilingual in Uzbek and Tajik. These writers all began as poets and subsequently branched out to produce many of the first modern indigenous plays, stories, and novels of Central Asia. The younger poets Batu, Cholpán (Abdulhamid Sulayman Yunús), and Elbek (Mashriq Yunus Oghli) offered metres and rhyme schemes quite different from the verse composed in the traditions long employed by the poets of the region. Fitrat gained fame and popularity for such prose and poetic dialogues as Munazara (1909; The Dispute ), and Mahmud Khoja Behbudiy became known for a stage tragedy, Padarkush (1913; The Patricide ). Abdullah Qadiri became known for a first Uzbek historical novel , Otgän kunlär (1922–26; Days Gone By ), and Cholpan introduced a new lyricism in his short poems. Hamza Hakim-Zada Niyaziy was also an early 20th-century playwright and poet later much favoured by Soviet authorities for his simplified, class-oriented plots and subjects.

Most of these writers died violently either during the Russian Civil War or, more commonly, in Joseph Stalin’s purges of the 1930s. As a result, Uzbekistan’s intellectual and cultural life suffered trauma for decades to come. Only since independence have its finest modern authors regained posthumous recognition.

During the second half of the 20th century there was a great increase in the number of writers but not in the quality of the writing. Until the 1980s most Soviet Uzbek authors produced tendentious novels, plays, and verse in line with official Communist Party themes. Among the older generation of contemporary authors is Asqad Mukhtar (b. 1921), whose Socialist Realist novel Apä singillär ( Sisters ; original and translation published during the 1950s), has been translated into English and other languages. Mukhtar, along with others of his generation, effectively encouraged the creative efforts of younger Uzbek poets and authors, a group far less burdened than their elders by the sloganeering characteristic of Soviet “Socialist Realism.” Among these newer voices, Razzaq Abdurashid, Abduqahhar Ibrahim, Jamal Kamal, and Erkin Wahid, all born in the 1930s, and Rauf Parfi, Halima Khudayberdiy, Muhammad Ali, Sharaf Bashbek, Mamadali Mahmud, all born in the 1940s or later, stand out. Several of these new writers have contributed striking dramas and comedies to the theatre of Uzbekistan. Privately organized drama and theatre were very active in Samarkand, Margilan , Tashkent , and other cities before 1917. In the difficult economic situation of the 1990s, however, the loss of government subsidies led to a drastic decline in theatrical activity, and the cinema and television have further emptied the seats in legitimate theatres.

Musical tradition throughout southern Central Asia provides a distinctive classical form of composition in the great cycles of maqom s handed down from master performers to apprentices. Television and radio as well as concert halls offer maqom cycles in live performances.

Uzbekistan’s cultural heritage includes magnificent monuments in the national architectural tradition: the mausoleum of the Sāmānid ruler Ismāʿīl I (9th and 10th centuries) in Bukhara , the great mosques and mausoleums of Samarkand, constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries, and many other fine tombs, mosques, palaces, and madrasah s. An interesting recent development is the reclamation, renovation, and reconsecration of many smaller old mosques , some very elegant though badly damaged; these had been relegated by communist authorities to serve as garages, storehouses, shops, slaughterhouses, or museums. Muslim rebuilders now accurately reconstruct these damaged buildings as part of a comprehensive drive to re-create the Islamic life suppressed by the communists between 1920 and 1990.

Humans lived in what is now Uzbekistan as early as the Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age), some 55,000 to 70,000 years ago. The great states of Bactria , Khwārezm , and Sogdiana emerged during the 1st millennium bce in the fertile region around the Amu Darya , which served as a centre of trade and cultural exchange on the Silk Road between East and West.

After the 8th-century- ce introduction of Islam into Central Asia , several streams of population flowed into the territory now forming the land of Uzbekistan. Some migrations contributed to the demographic diversity that characterizes Uzbekistan. Before the lasting conquest by the Russians in the late 19th century, however, military invaders generally withdrew from the area soon after they arrived. Arabs after 711 ce , Mongols under Genghis Khan from the 13th century, Dzungars in the 15th–17th century, and Persians in the 18th century exerted less impact upon the makeup of the population than upon the social and political systems, because they left behind relatively small, assimilable numbers of their people.

On the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the country’s independence, cultural enlightenment events are being conducted in Samarqand Region under the slogan of “My life, my destiny – my native, unique Uzbekistan”.

On the occasion of the 25th anniversary of the country’s independence, cultural enlightenment events are being conducted in samarqand region under the slogan of “my life, my destiny – my native, unique uzbekistan”. as part of the implementation of the presidential decree dated 2 june 2016 “on preparations for the 25th anniversary of the state independence of the republic of uzbekistan and celebrations of this holiday”, such an event took place in the namoz polvon neighbourhood in kattaqorghon district, and it was attended by members of the republican propagation group. u.azizov, a senior lecturer of the state administrative development academy under the presidency of the republic of uzbekistan; and a poetess, z.muminova; have said that large-scale reforms being conducted in uzbekistan help to further develop the economy and raise the population’s prosperity. thanks to a great deal of creative work in localities, the appearances of villages and towns are improving with every passing year, and the people’s living standards are rising. “on the basis of the uzbek model worked out by the leader of our state, our economy is developing steadily. only a handful of countries have such achievements. the population’s peace is ensured, and this is recognized internationally. this is reflected in the results of sociological research and surveys conducted by many international organizations and institutes. it is necessary to explain to people, especially young people that it was not simple to achieve this. the work was done on the basis of the state’s purposeful policy. this would help to evaluate the bygone days correctly and to find an answer to this question: who were we yesterday, and who are we today” says a senior research scientist of the academy of sciences of uzbekistan, a.bozorboyev. during the event, active people of neighbourhoods, veterans and young people spoke about the benefits and values of independence, citing prosperous villages and people as examples. well-known writes and artistes read out poems and performed songs about the motherland, peace and independence..

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• > Story, Time, and Dependent Nationhood in the Uzbek...

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Story, time, and dependent nationhood in the uzbek history curriculum.

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  27 January 2017

In the 1950s the Soviet school system stabilized and teachers incorporated non-Russian national histories into the elementary curriculum. Shoshana Keller argues that in Soviet Uzbekistan teachers defined Uzbek nationhood partly through historical narrative, which told children that the Uzbek people had existed continuously from ancient times but the nation achieved independence only under Russian/Soviet leadership. Children learned that for millennia Uzbek hero/martyrs had fought losing batdes against foreign invaders. The best Uzbeks were from the lower classes, but the nation had also produced high culture. Above all, children were taught to imagine themselves, not within Eurasian Islamic historical time, but within European historical time as envisioned by Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, and Iosif Stalin. What children learned about Uzbek history in school was central to the formation of a personal sense of national identity and to the larger Soviet project of nation building.

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Research in Uzbekistan was made possible by a fellowship from the American Councils for International Education: ACTR/ACCELS, funded by the Title VIII Combined Research and Language Training Program, U.S. Department of State.

1. The voluminous literature that considers these assertions includes Althusser , Louis , “ Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses, ” Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays ( New York , 1971 ), 127 -86 Google Scholar ; Weber , Eugen , Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of RuralFrance, 1870-1914 ( Stanford , 1976 ), 332 -33 Google Scholar ; White , Hayden , “ The Value of Narrativity in the Representation of Reality, ” The Content oftheForm: Narrative Discourse and Historical Representation ( Baltimore , 1987 ), 1 – 25 Google Scholar ; Bhabha , Homi , “ DissemiNation: Time, Narrative, and the Margins of the Modern Nation, ” in Bhabha , Homi , ed., Nation and Narration ( London , 1990 ), 291 – 322 Google Scholar ; Hobsbawm , Eric , Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality ( Cambridge , Eng., 1990 ), 91 – 92 . Google Scholar

2. Brubaker , Rogers , Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe ( Cambridge , Eng., 1996 ), 30 – 31 CrossRef Google Scholar ; Slezkine , Yuri , “ The USSR as a Communal Apartment, or How a Socialist State Promoted Ethnic Particularism, ” Slavic Review 53 , no. 2 (Summer 1994 ): 414 -52. CrossRef Google Scholar

3. Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, 23.

4. Whether the Soviet Union was a colonial empire, as opposed to an aggressively modernizing state, has been a matter of extensive debate. Although Central Asia was a subordinate periphery attached by force to Moscow's metropole, Soviet nationalizing policies differed significantly from diose of colonial Britain or France. Nonetheless, as Mark Beissinger argues, the USSR's “family resemblance” to other empires makes die analytical category still useful if treated with care. See Beissinger , Mark R , “ Soviet Empire as ‘Family Resemblance' ” Slavic Review 65 , no. 2 (Summer 2006 ): 294 -303 CrossRef Google Scholar , and related articles by Adeeb Khalid, Adrienne Edgar, and Peter A. Blitstein in the same issue. See also Douglas Northrop, Veiled Empire: Gender and Power in Stalinist Central Asia (Ithaca, 2004), 19-22; Ronald Grigor Suny, “The Empire Strikes Out: Imperial Russia, ‘National’ Identity, and Theories of Empire,” in Suny , Ronald Grigor and Martin , Terry , eds., A State of Nations: Empire and Nation-Making in the Age of Lenin and Stalin ( Oxford , 2001 ), 24 – 27 Google Scholar ; and Francine Hirsch, “Toward an Empire of Nations: Border-Making and the Formation of Soviet National Identities,” and Yuri Slezkine, “Commentary: Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Socialism,” Russian Review 59, no. 2 (April 2000): 206-8 and 231-34.

5. Pliya , J. , “ African History in Training Programmes for Secondary School Teachers, ” in The Educational Process and Historiography in Africa ( Paris , 1985 ), 101 Google Scholar .

6. Fage , J. D. , “ Continuity and Change in the Writing of West African History, ” African Affairs 70 , no. 280 (July 1971 ): 236 -51 Google Scholar ; Nurullah , Syed and Naik , J. P. , A History of Education in India during the British Period ( Bombay , 1951 ), 369 -72. Google Scholar

7. Ernest , Gettner, Nations and Nationalism ( Ithaca , 1983 ), 39 – 40 Google Scholar ; Anderson , Benedict , Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism ( London , 1991 ), 46 Google Scholar .

8. Terry Martin modifies Miroslav Hroch's three-phase model of national development to fit the Soviet case in which the Communist Party acted as the “vanguard of non-Russian nationalism,” although Central Asian intellectuals had more control over “Phase A,” study and codification of culture, than he implies. Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923-1939 (Ithaca, 2001), 15. See also, Hroch , Miroslav , “ From National Movement to the Fully-Formed Nation: The Nation-Building Process in Europe, ” in Eley , Geoff and Suny , Ronald Grigor , eds., Becoming National: A Reader ( New York , 1996 ), 60 – 78 Google Scholar . Adeeb Khalid argues forcefully that the Jadids had deep influence despite their being destroyed. Khalid , , “ Backwardness and the Quest for Civilization: Early Soviet Central Asia in Comparative Perspective, ” Slavic Review 65 , no. 2 (Summer 2006 ): 239 -41 CrossRef Google Scholar .

9. Chatterjee , Partha , The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories ( Princeton , 1993 ), chaps. 4 and 5, Google Scholar and Chatterjee , , Nationalist Thought and the Colonial World: A Derivative Discourse ( Minneapolis , 1986 ). Google Scholar

10. Gerschenkron , Alexander , Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective ( Cambridge , Mass., 1966 ), 25 Google Scholar ; Szporluk , Roman , Communism and Nationalism: Karl Marx versus Friedrich List ( New York , 1988 ), 215 -16 Google Scholar ; Suny , Ronald Grigor , The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union ( Stanford , 1993 ), 6, 107 -8. Google Scholar

11. Pierre Bourdieu and Jean-Claude Passeron have argued that all “pedagogic action“ is “symbolic violence” because it involves the forcible imposition of meaning. Bourdieu and Passeron, Reproduction in Education, Society and Culture (1977; reprint, London, 1990), 5. This is an extreme position, but justifiable in the Soviet context.

12. Muminov , Ashirbek , “ Veneration of Holy Sites of the Mid-Sirdarya Valley: Continuity and Transformation, ” in Kemper , Michael , Kiigelgen , Anke von , and Yermakov , Dmitriy , eds., Muslim Culture in Russia and Central Asia from the 18th to the Early 20th Centuries ( Berlin , 1996 ), 1: 355 -68 Google Scholar ; DeWeese , Devin , Islamization and Native Religion in the Golden Horde: Baba Tukles and Conversion to Islam in Historical and Epic Traditions ( University Park , Penn., 1994 ), 382 -87, 520-23 Google Scholar ; Khalid , Adeeb , “ The Emergence of a Modern Central Asian Historical Consciousness, ” in Sanders , Thomas , ed., Historiography of Imperial Russia: The Profession and Writing of History in a Multi-National State ( Armonk , N.Y., 1999 ), 436 -38 Google Scholar ; Shir Muhammad Mirab Munis and Muhammad Riza Mirab Agahi, Firdaws al-Iqbal, trans.Yuri Bregel (Leiden, 1999), 13-25. For broader discussions of Islamic historical time, see Robinson , Chase , Islamic Historiography ( Cambridge , Eng., 2003 ), 124 -26 Google Scholar , and Waldman , Marilyn Robinson , Toward a Theory of Historical Narrative: A Case Study in Perso-IslamicateHistoriography ( Columbus , 1980 ), 6 – 16 Google Scholar .

13. Manz , Beatrice F. , “ Multi-Ethnic Empires and the Formulation of Identity, ” Ethnic and Racial Studies 26 , no. 1 (January 2003 ): 80 – 82 CrossRef Google Scholar ; Barfield , Thomas , “ Turk, Persian and Arab: Changing Relationships between Tribes and State in Iran and along Its Frontier, ” in Keddie , Nikki and Mathee , Rudi , eds., Iran and the Surrounding World: Interactions in Culture and Cultural Politics ( Seattle , 2002 ), 62 Google Scholar ; Armstrong , John , Nations before Nationalism ( Chapel Hill , 1982 ), 38 – 46 Google Scholar .

14. Hanson , Stephen E. , Time and Revolution: Marxism and the Design of Soviet Institutions ( Chapel Hill , 1997 ), 18 – 19 and chap. 1 Google Scholar ; Anderson, Imagined Communities, 24, citing Walter Benjamin, also noted that modern time is “empty,” lacking the prefiguration and fulfillment of prophecy that medieval Christian time was built around. In its own way, Soviet Marxism refilled this emptiness of time. On Marxist-Leninist historical time and nationality policies, see Hirsch , Francine , Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Making of the Soviet Union ( Ithaca , 2005 ), 28 – 29 , 45. Google Scholar

15. Duara , Prasenjit , Rescuing History from the Nation: Questioning Narratives of Modern China ( Chicago , 1995 ), 20 CrossRef Google Scholar . White , Hayden , Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe ( Baltimore , 1973 ), 327 -30 Google Scholar ; Connor , Walker , TheNational Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy ( Princeton , 1984 ), 9 – 11 Google Scholar ; Szporluk , , Communism and Nationalism, 174 -76 Google Scholar , points out that Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels assumed that the west would be the center of the revolution, but Vladimir Lenin turned that assumption on its head.

16. Tillet , Lowell , The Great Friendship: Soviet Historians on the Non-Russian Nationalities ( Chapel Hill , 1969 ), 40 – 49 Google Scholar ; Fitzpatrick , Sheila , Education and Social Mobility in the Soviet Union, 1921-1934 ( Cambridge , Eng., 1979 ), 225 CrossRef Google Scholar ; Eimermacher , Karl and Bordiugov , Gennadi , eds., Natsional'nye istorii v sovetskom i postsovetskikh gosudarstvakh ( Moscow , 1999 ), 29 -39 Google Scholar ; Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 445-48; Brandenberger , David , National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931-1956 ( Cambridge , Mass., 2002 ), 33 – 37 , 47-53. Google Scholar

17. “Umumii majburii ta'lim planini to'la amalga oshirish uchun” (To fulfill the plan in general compulsory primary education), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 7 January 1954, 4; Pennar , jaan , Bakalo , Ivan I. , and Bereday , George Z. F. , Modernization and Diversity in Soviet Education: With Special Reference to Nationality Groups ( New York , 1971 ), 292 Google Scholar . Figures published in the USSR for the 1955-1956 school year showed 1,288,000 students in Uzbek schools. Of those, 47.6 percent in were in grades 1-4, 34.8 percent in grades 5-7, and 17.6 percent in grades 8-10. The percentages for the USSR were 48.4 percent, 33.1 percent, and 18.5 percent, respectively, out of a total 28,101,000 pupils. The statisticians did not record the total number of children by age groups, making it impossible to determine what percentage of the population received at least a fourth-grade education.

18. The Soviets turned Uzbekistan into a giant cotton plantation. Even urban children regularly left school for months to pick cotton by hand. E. Qadyrov, “Sovet maktabning ulughbor vazifalari” (The greatest tasks of the Soviet school), Sovet maktabi, no. 4 (April 1956): 9-15; R. Sharafutdinova, Shkol'noe obrazovanie v Uzbekskoi SSR, 1917-1955gg. (Tashkent, 1961), 22-26; Kadyrov , I. K. , Narodnoe obrazovanie Sovetskogo Uzbekistana ( Tashkent , 1964 ), 26 Google Scholar ; Tokhtakhodjaeva , Marfua and Turgumbekova , Elmira , Daughters of Amazons: Voices from Central Asia, trans. Aslam , Sufian ( Lahore , Pakistan, 1996 ), 128 Google Scholar .

19. A. K. Abdulov, “To'rtinchi sinfda SSSR tarixini o'qitish metodikasining ba'zibir masalalari” (Fundamental methodological questions of teaching Soviet history in the fourth grade), Sovet maktabi, no. 5 (September-October 1953): 61-67; T. Ashrapova, “Uchinchi sinfda izohli o'qish materiallarini planlashtirish” (Planning materials for explanatory teaching in the third grade), Sovet maktabi, no. 10 (September 1954): 34. Szporluk, Communism and Nationalism, 230-31, calls Stalinist historiography a process of reformulating Marxism-Leninism “as a doctrine of national liberation.”

20. “Qishloq maktablarining 6, 8, va 9-nchi sinflarida o'quv materiallarni planlashtirish to'ghrisida” (About planning teaching materials in village schools for the 6th, 8th, and 9th grades), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 7january 1954, 4; “Tarix (programma) materiallarini qisqartib o'qitish haqida” (On teaching abbreviated history [curriculum] materials), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 18 November 1956, 2. While this curriculum was for rural schools, it followed the standard plan for all Soviet schools. The hours devoted to each topic were for the entire school year. Brandenberger, National Bolshevism, 36.

21. O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 27 January 1954, 4; Tillett, Great Friendship, 185-92.

22. Not surprisingly, “the peoples of Central Asia met the historic decision with great joy.” H. Tursunov, “O'zbekiston Sovet Sotsialistik Respublikasining tashkil etilishi” (Organizing the Soviet Socialist Republic of Uzbekistan), Sovet maktabi, no. 8 (August 1954): 7-15.

23. E. Qadirov, “Sovet maktabning ulug'bar vazifalari” (The greatest tasks of the Soviet school), Sovet maktabi, no. 4 (April 1956): 11-12; A. S. Efimov, “Abu Ali Ibn Sino tarbiia haqida” (Education about Abu Ali Ibn Sino), Sovet maktabi, no. 10 (October 1956): 14-19.

24. “Maktabda tarix kabineti” (A history room in school), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 30 January 1954, 3; Abdulov, “To'rtinchi sinfda SSSR,” 64-65.

25. “Zakon ob ukreplenii sviazi shkoly s zhizn'iu i o dal'neishem razvitii sistemy narodnogo obrazovaniia v SSSR” (24 December 1958) and “O nekotorykh izmeneniiakh v prepodovanii istorii v shkolakh” (8 October 1959), in Narodnoe obrazovanie v SSSR: Obshcheobrazovatel'naia shkola. Sbornik dohumentov 1917-1933gg. (Moscow, 1974), 53-61 and 196-97; Matthews , Mervyn , Education in the Soviet Union: Policies and Institutions since Stalin ( London , 1982 ), 24 – 28 . Google Scholar

26. O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 9 January 1952, 4, photo of costumed children in the “Stalin“ Pioneer unit.

27. Khalid, “Emergence of a Modern Central Asian Historical Consciousness,” 446-48. See also Khalid, “Nation into History: The Origins of National Historiography in Central Asia,” in Dudoignon , Stéphane A. , ed., Devout Societies vs. Impious States? Transmitting Islamic Learning in Russia, Central Asia and China through the Twentieth Century ( Berlin , 2004 ), 140 -42 Google Scholar ; Saidkulov , T. S. , Ocherki istoriografii istorii narodov Srednei Azii ( Tashkent , 1992 ), 184 -87 Google Scholar .

28. Stalin , J. V. , “ Marxism and the National Question, ” Works ( Moscow , 1953 ), 2 : 304 -7 Google Scholar ; Suny, Revenge of the Past, 110-12; Smith , Jeremy , The Bolsheviks and the National Question, 1917-1923 ( New York , 1999 ), 18 – 19 . CrossRef Google Scholar

29. Shnirelman , Victor A. , Who Gets the Past? Competition for Ancestors among Non-Russian Intellectuals in Russia ( Washington , D.C., 1996 ), 10 Google Scholar ; Akhunova , M. A. and Lunin , B. V , Istoriia istoricheskoi nauki v Uzbekistan ( Tashkent , 1970 ), 98 Google Scholar .

30. Trever , K. V , Iakubovskii , A. Iu. , and Voronets , M. E. , eds., Istoriia narodov Uzbekistan ( Tashkent , 1947 -1950). Google Scholar S. P. Tolstov, V. Iu. Zakhidov, la. G. Guliamov, and R. N. Nabiev, scholars at the Uzbek Academy of Sciences, also got credit for working on this edition; as the local editors they probably wrote most of it. In 1955 they updated and retitled it Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR.

31. Ghulomov , Iahia Gh. , Nabiev , Rashid N. , and Vahobov , M. Gh. , O'zbekiston SSR tarixi (birtomlik) (History of the Uzbek SSR, one volume) ( Tashkent , 1958 ), 18 – 21 Google Scholar ; “4-sinfda SSSR tarixi o'rganish masalalariga doir” (Pertaining to questions of advising USSR history in the fourth grade), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 7 August 1959, 2; “Sakkiz yilik maktabning o'quv programmalari haqida” (On die curriculum of the eight-year school), Sovet maktabi, no. 8 (August 1959): 29.

32. “4-sinfda,” 2; Ghulomov, Nabiev, and Vahobov, O'zbekiston SSR tarixi, 41. The most widely used series of Istoriia SSSR textbooks was edited by A. M. Pankratova, but Uzbek schools used two different series in Russian and Uzbek, one by S. P. Alekseev and V G. Kartsov and another by M. V. Nechkina.

33. G. Prives, “SSSR tarixi epizodik kursini o'qitishdagi izchillikka doir” (Pertaining to consistency in teaching the episodic course in Soviet history), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 29 December 1959, 3.

34. Juvaini, who had different political imperatives, described Torobi in 1238 as “a sieve-maker, of whom it was said that in stupidity and ignorance he had not his equal.” Juvaini , Ata-Malik , Genghis Khan: The History of the World Conqueror, trans. Boyle , J. A. ( Seattle , 1997 ), 109 . Google Scholar

35. Kamil Akilov and Nina Teikh, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR: Rasskazy dlia 4-ogo klassa (Tashkent, 1963, 1986), 33, 50-52 (although some editorial changes were made in the 1986 edition, there are no substantive differences between the two editions); Tillett, Great Friendship, 368-74.

36. Ghulomov, Nabiev, and Vahobov, O'zbekiston SSR tarixi, 186, 190-91. Al-Biruni (973-1048) was a mathematician and cartographer. Ibn Sino (980-1037), known to Europeans as Avicenna, was the greatest philosopher and physician of his day. Ulugh Bek (1394-1449) built a huge sextant in Samarkand and compiled the first original star chart since Ptolemy. He was decapitated on orders of his own son in a power struggle, although Soviet histories had him murdered by obscurantist clergy.

37. See, for example, Allen J. Frank, “Islamic Shrine Catalogues and Communal Geography in the Volga-Ural Region: 1788-1917,“/oim«i£ of Islamic Studies 7, no. 2 (1996): 265-86.

38. “4-sinfda,” 2; Kamil Oqilov and Nina Teikh, “4-sinf o'qituvchilariga yordam“ (Help for fourth-grade teachers), O'qituvchilargazetasi, 25 September 1959, 4; Akilov and Teikh, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 9.

39. Akilov and Teikh, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 10.

40. Oqilov and Teikh, “Arab istilochilariga qarshi kurash tarixidan” (History of the struggle against Arab invaders), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 29 September 1959, 4; Iakh'ia Guliamov and Rashid Nabiev, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR: Uchebnoe posobie dlia 7-8-ikh klassov shkol Uzbekistana (Tashkent, 1971), 30; Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Jafar al-Narshakhi, TheHistory of Bukhara, trans. Richard Frye (Cambridge, Mass., 1954), 65-75.

41. Oqilov and Teikh, “4-sinf o'qituvchilariga yordam,” 4; Akilov and Teikh, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 12; Guliamov and Nabiev, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 28.

42. Oqilov and Teikh, “O'rta asrning buiuk olimlari va yozuvchilari” (Great writers and scholars of the Middle Ages), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 9 October 1959, 4; Guliamov and Nabiev, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 37-39.

43. “8-10 sinflarda SSSR tarikhini o'rganishda mahalii materiallardan foidalanish metodlari” (Using methods in teaching Soviet history from local materials in grades 8-10), O'qituvchilargazetasi, 21 August 1960, 2; Efimov, “Abu Ali Ibn Sino tarbiia haqida,” 15-16; Akilov and Teikh, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR (1963), 18-21 and (1986), 11-14. Iran also claims these same scholars as great national heroes. Golnar Mehran, “The Presentation of the ‘Self and the ‘Other’ in Postrevolutionary Iranian School Textbooks,” in Keddie and Mathee, eds., Iran and the Surrounding World, 236.

44. Guliamov and Nabiev, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 16; Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically: Historical and HermeneuticalEssays (Princeton, 1997), 27-28; Brandenberger, National Bolshevism, 86. The Greek source, Polyaenus, is described as the “auuior of a miscellany of stratagems selected on merit rather than authenticity.” Ilya Gershevitch, ed., The Cambridge History of Iran (Cambridge, Eng., 1985), 2:220.

45. Spitamenes's death acquired more political meaning with each new textbook edition: Ghulomov, Nabiev, and Vahobov, O'zbekiston SSR tarixi, 51, wrote that Spitamenes was killed by his in-laws. The 1963 Akilov and Teikh textbook said he was killed in battle (Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 10). The 1971 textbook by Guliamov and Nabiev blamed Spitamenes's death on elites who felt threatened by him (istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 16-18).

46. Akilov and Teikh, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 11.

47. Abolala Soudavar, “The Early Safavids and Their Cultural Interactions with Surrounding States,” in Keddie and Mathee, eds., Iran and the Surrounding World, 94-98.

48. Bol'shakov , O. G. , “ Kul'tura Srednei Azii v srednie veka, ” Prepodavanie istorii v shkole, no. 1 (January-February 1956 ): 37 . Google Scholar

49. Guliamov and Nabiev, Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, 58, 40, 59.

50. Hanson, Time and Revolution, 20.

51. A. Sultonov and A. Ziyoev, “Tarix muzei qandai tashkil qilindi?” (How was the history museum organized?), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 4 April 1963, 4. This was a major project that had begun in 1959; obviously, the students had a great deal of help from adults. “Maktabda tarix muzei” (A history museum in school), O'qituvchilar gazetasi, 17July 1959, 4.

52. Muhamedov , H. , “ Qadimgi so'ghd vohasini mudofaa qilish tarixidan ” (From the history of defending an ancient Soghdian oasis), Sovet maktabi, no. 5 (May 1959 ): 36 – 41 Google Scholar ; Muhammadjonov , A. , “ Qadimgi suv omborlari ” (Ancient irrigation conduits), Sovet maktabi, no. 6 (June 1966 ): 42 – 45 Google Scholar ; Iunusov , N. , “ Maktabda o'lkashunoslik muzei ” (A regional studies museum in school), Sovet maktabi, no. 6 (June 1964 ): 31 – 32 . Google Scholar

53. “Izuchat’ i znat’ svoi krai,” Prepodavanie istorii v shkole, no. 3 (1958): 125.

54. Text and photographic examples from issues of O'qituvchilar gazetasi and Sovet maktabi from 1954 to 1961. Sadly, there was no photograph of children dancing the “Andijan polka” in November 1959. The earliest photo I have seen of hair bows was on die back cover of Sovet maktabi, no. 3 (March 1958).

55. Tavakoli-Targhi , Mohamad , Refashioning Iran: Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Historiography ( New York , 2001 ), 4, 99 – 104 CrossRef Google Scholar . See also Kurzman , Charles , “ Weaving Iran into the Tree ofNations, ” InternationalJournal ofMiddle East Studies 37 , no. 2 ( 2005 ): 137 -66. CrossRef Google Scholar

56. Lewis , Bernard , The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3d ed. ( New York , 2002 ), 358 -60 Google Scholar ; Poulton , Hugh , Top Hat, Grey Wolf and Crescent: Turkish Nationalism and the Turkish Republic ( New York , 1997 ), 101 -9 Google Scholar . On the Soviets and race, see Hirsch, Empire of Nations, 231-72.

57. Sagdullaev , A. S. , Kostetskii , V A. , and Norkulov , N. K. , htoriia Uzbekistana 6 ( Tashkent , 2000 ), 149 , 153-55 Google Scholar ; Muhammadjonov , A. , O'zbekiston tarixi 7 ( Tashkent , 2001 ), 122, 126-30, 135-38, 166-67 Google Scholar . See also Büşra Ersanli, “History Textbooks as Reflections of the Political Self: Turkey (1930s and 1990s) and Uzbekistan (1990s),” InternationalJournal of Middle East Studies 34, no. 2 (May 2002): 337-49; Keller , Shoshana , “ Going to School in Uzbekistan, ” in Sahadeo , Jeff and Zanca , Russell , eds., Daily Life in Central Asia ( Bloomington , 2007 ) Google Scholar .

58. See Saidkulov's 1992 textbook for the study of traditional histories: Saidkulov, Ocherki istoriografii istorii narodov SredneiAzii. See also, Malikov , Azim M. , “ History in Uzbekistan, ” in Rasuly-Paleczek , Gabriele and Katschnig , Julia , eds., Central Asia on Display ( Vienna , 2004 ), 133 -38. Google Scholar

59. Suny , Ronald Grigor , “ Constructing Primordialism: Old Histories for New Nations, ” Journal of Modern History 73 , no. 4 (December 2001 ): 862 -96 CrossRef Google Scholar ; Kamp , Marianne , “ A Structuralist Argument concerning the Consolidation of Uzbek Identity, ” Ab Imperio 4 ( 2005 ): 301 -12 CrossRef Google Scholar and related essays in the same issue, 279-360; Ilkhamov , Alisher and Zhukova , Liudmila , eds., Etnicheskii atlas Uzbekistana ( Tashkent , 2002 ), 268 – 311 . Google Scholar

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• Volume 66, Issue 2
• Shoshana Keller
• DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/20060220

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The Culture of Uzbekistan

Uzbekistan culture.

In international business, understanding the culture of the host country is one of the key elements that promote successful internationalisation of operations. Understanding the values and norms professed by the host culture provides an excellent grounding on which a deeper connection with the prospective market can be established. According to Ladegaard (2007), the major benefit of considering the local culture to an international business is that it can enhance the business local-responsiveness, which confers a sense of importance to the members of the host culture. The responsiveness communicates that the international business has the best interest of the local population at heart and that it seeks to integrate and meet their unique and specific needs.

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The country under consideration is Uzbekistan. It is located in the middle of Asia and borders such countries as Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Afghanistan. Uzbekistan is a small country, almost the same size as the state of California with the population of approximately 24.8 million people (‘Uzbekistan’ 2015). The choice of the country is explained by the cultural vibrancy of Uzbeks and other residents of Uzbekistan. It thus provides an apt opportunity to investigate the influence of the host culture on an international business establishment.

The paper interrogates the Uzbekistan culture to determine how international business can be successfully set up in Uzbekistan. The paper will explore some of the cultural dimension theories to establish the cultural values that distinguish the different cultures in the world and then use an intercultural communication model to demonstrate how an international business can enhance its competencies in Uzbekistan through communication.

The paper will conclude by making a set of recommendations on how foreigners ought to communicate or otherwise interact with the locals when conducting their business. Analysis indicates that the Uzbekistan culture is a high context culture rooted in collectivism, thus, international business should not pursue individual interests at the expense of the local community.

Literature Review about Culture

Culture refers to a set of attitudes, beliefs, societal norms and behaviours that are shared by a group of related persons (Spencer-Oatey 2012). The relation may be grounded on shared ethnicity, heritage, residence, or activity (Fischer 2009). Culture defines social morals, knowledge, and beliefs. Consequently, it is possible to have synonymous events or activities having different meanings and implications in different societies. The function of culture in the society is to establish shared values and meanings on which interactions between the members of the society can take place (Fletcher et al. 2013). Through their components such as rituals, language, rites, and religion, cultures form a common programming that allows for easier comprehension and interpretations of words, actions, and symbols (Ladegaard 2007). These interpretations are crucial in the functioning of the society and peaceful coexistence of its members.

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There are several cultural dimension theories or models that have been advanced to explicate various values that differentiate cultures around the world. Some of the most common ones are the Hofstede’s cultural dimension theory and the Edward Hall’s cultural factors framework. Hofstede’s cultural dimension model analyses cultures through dichotomising the five dimensions of culture that govern interactions between the members of the society. The first element is the power distance. This refers to the degree to which the people accept the inequality in power distribution in the society (Hofstede 1984). Cultures with a low power distance index have almost equal distribution of powers among individuals, and the reverse is also true. The second dimension is uncertainty avoidance. This refers to the degree of tolerance for ambiguity or uncertainty (Hofstede 1984). Cultures with a low uncertainty avoidance index embrace uncertainty and ambiguous settings and even use them to their advantage. However, those with a high uncertainty avoidance index feel extremely uncomfortable in such situations and put measures in place to avoid the ambiguous and uncertain situations (Hofstede 1984). The third dimension is masculinity versus femininity which refers to the degree to which the members of the cultural group are either task oriented or person oriented. Masculinity implies the people are more focused on achieving goals while femininity implies the primary focus is on personal development (Hofstede 1984).

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The next dimension is individualism versus collectivism. In individualistic societies, people put their interests first and present themselves as individuals, whereas in collectivist societies the interests of the community come first and those of the individual are subservient to that of the community (Hofstede 1984). The last dimension is the long term and short term orientation. Long term oriented cultures value adaptation and pragmatism in developing solutions; the short term oriented cultures value the local traditions instead (Hofsted 1984).

Edward Hall’s model investigates the uniqueness of cultures through contexts, time, and place. In context, Hall (1977) establishes that there are low context and high context cultures. High context cultures are the cultures where there are many contexts to be appropriated by the members in deciphering the message (Hall 1977). There are many unwritten rules which are only understood by the people embracing that specific culture. In low context cultures, there are less shared meanings and as such nearly all meanings have to be spelt out (Hall 1977). With regards to time, there are monochromatic and polychromatic cultures. Monochromatic cultures value time, conduct one task at a time, and are very time-conscious (Hall 1977). Polychromatic cultures view time as a fluid element that can be changed as circumstances dictate (Hall 1977). The last factor of space dichotomises cultures into high territorial and low territorial. High territoriality values individual spaces and marks them out for possession; the reverse is also true (Hall 1977).

Intercultural Business Communication

Intercultural business communication refers to a form of communication that identifies and addresses the intercultural perspectives that present communication limitations (Ladegaard 2007). Intercultural business communication enhances competencies through enhancing intercultural contexts when receiving, processing, and disseminating information. The function of intercultural communication in international business is to enable the foreigners to establish shared meanings with the native people and culture, thereby establishing communication links. The shared meanings enhance understanding. The understanding, in turn, facilitates and promotes the conduction of business dealings between people of diverse cultural backgrounds (Fletcher et al. 2013).

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One of the models that have been used to study intercultural communication is the Developmental Model of Cultural Sensitivity (DMIS) advanced by Milton Bennett in 1993. The model explores the process of acculturation and divides the process into two phases: the ethnocentrism phase and the ethno-relativism phase (Bennett 1998). When interacting with a foreign culture, one enters the ethnocentrism phase and moves along to the ethno-relativism phase as one experiences the difference and embraces the diversity. When in the ethnocentrism phase, a foreigner exhibits negation in his communication as he is still hostile towards cultural diversity (Bennett 1998). Gradually, the foreigner gravitates to the defence stage where there is over-analysing of the native culture and making comparisons with others. The person then moves to the minimisation stage where the person identifies the similarities between the two cultures. The ethno-relativism starts from the fourth stage of acceptance where the foreigner starts acknowledging and respecting the cultural differences (Bennett 1998). As the assimilation continues, the foreigner enters the adaptation stage where communication employs alternative cultural interpretations. Lastly, the foreigner enters the integration stage where the cultural values of the native culture start being incorporated into the communication system of the foreigner (Bennett 1998). It is at this phase that the person assumes an intercultural or multicultural identity.

Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Model

Uzbekistan has a unique culture. One of its most conspicuous characteristics is that it is a collectivist culture as opposed to an individualistic one (Adam 2010). As such, the interests of the community supersede those of the individuals. Through institutions such as the Mahalla, Uzbeks are able to enhance their sense of collectivism via traditional forms of social relations (‘Uzbekistan’ 2015). The family setting is largely communal with large extended families that span several generations living in the same house. Individualistic tendencies such as abnormal profit-making are frowned upon by the members of the society (Yusupov 2009). Also, explicit expression of individualism such as expression of sexuality is considered a taboo. Women are generally expected to wear loose, free flowing clothes that do not show the shape of their bodies (‘Uzbekistan’ 2015). The same is expected of men but the demands are not as strict as they are for the women.

With regards to the power distance as defined by Hofstede (1984), the Uzbekistan culture has a low index. Uzbeks readily accept the inequality in distribution of power in the society. For instance, the elderly persons possess immense amount of powers and elicit more respect as compared to the young members of society. There is also intense gender inequality. The women are considered a weaker gender and are expected to play second fiddle to their male counterparts (MacFadyen 2006). For instance, the Uzbek women are not expected to sit at the table where the men are holding conversation and are not expected to hold familial leadership positions. Women in the Uzbekistan culture are also expected to walk with their heads tilted down when in public so as not to unnecessarily attract attention, whereas men can walk in any way they please provided it is dignified (Yusupov 2009). As of 2010, the women held a paltry 8% of the parliamentary seats and 18% of all administrative positions in the country demonstrating male dominance and patriarchal nature of the Uzbekistan culture (Adam 2010).

Hall’s Cultural Factors Model

Edward Hall’s cultural factors model also demonstrate the unique characteristics of the Uzbekistan culture. For instance, with regards to the context as espoused in Hall’s model, the Uzbekistan culture is a high context culture (MacFadyen 2006). There are scores of shared meanings which means there is little divulged in terms of talking as every member has the required context to insinuate the implied communication (Hall 1977). The women, for instance, are not expected to offer a handshake when greeting a male person. A nod of the head suffices. However, they can greet one another through placing their right hands on the elbow of the person they are greeting if it is a stranger or acquaintance, and kiss them on the cheeks if it is a close friend or relative. The men, however, can offer and receive handshakes.

With regards to orientation as defined by Hall (1984), the Uzbekistan culture has a long term orientation. As such, the traditions are highly valued in problem solving efforts. Uzbeks are keen to observe and celebrate all the life-related rituals including birth, circumcision, engagement, marriage, and death. An exemplary Uzbek is the one who observes the prescribed social norms, beliefs, and values. The Uzbekistan people are deeply religious, as religion forms one of the mainstays of the Uzbekistan culture. The majority of the Uzbekistan population, an upwards of 90%, professes Islam (‘Uzbekistan’ 2015). The rest of the population is Roman Catholic, Russian Orthodox, evangelical, and Pentecostal Christians (Adam 2010).

As for Hall’s space factor, the Uzbekistan culture is clearly a low territorial culture. According to Hall (1977), such cultures have less ownership of space and do not consider boundaries to be of much significance. Communal undertakings such as harvesting and house buildings are common in Uzbekistan (Adam 2010). When the harvesting season is nigh, for instance, school and university students and even the military personnel are expected to participate in communal harvesting of cotton. The Uzbekistan culture has and continues to experience changes as time progresses. The women are increasingly assuming bigger roles and the younger population is embracing global outlooks (‘Uzbekistan’ 2015).

Bennett’s Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity

The aforementioned unique characteristics of the Uzbekistan culture will definitely influence how an international business organisation operates in Uzbekistan. Using the Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity (DMIS), one would have to acknowledge and accept that in Uzbekistan one cannot make abnormal profits. Ethno-relativism informs a foreign operator that the Uzbekistan abhors individualism. The need for profit making should be subservient to that of satisfying the need of the community for the product on offer (Yusupov 2009). Another influence will be on the products offered. For instance, being a deeply religious society where the majority is Muslims, it will not be prudent to offer products that are repugnant with the Islamic beliefs (Adam 2010). To communicate that the business organisation has adapted and integrated with the Uzbekistan culture, the organisation should refrain from offering products such as pork or scanty dresses for sale to Uzbeks. To fully integrate into the Uzbekistan culture, an international business is also expected to employ the locals. It will also greatly help in alleviating the scourge of unemployment which stands at 18% (‘Uzbekistan’ 2015). Also since Uzbekistan is a high context culture with a lot of shared meanings, it is not necessary to draft very detailed contracts like in low context cultures where every detail must be captured in writing (Adam 2010). Adaptation should also be expected with regards to gender equality, hospitality, and greetings when interacting with the customers.

In summary, it is evident that culture influences international business operations. A culture provides a framework where shared meanings can be established and used to enable correct interpretations and fruitful interactions. If an international business ignores the culture of the native country, it will be easy to lose legitimacy through performing acts or offering products that infringe the taste and expectations of the natives. Efficient and effective communication is, therefore, important for the success of the international business. Through the DMIS model of intercultural communication, a person can embrace the native culture and improve information flow by moving from negation to integration. Full integration into the host culture optimises the local responsiveness of the international business which in turn optimises the company’s sales and consequent profitability in the long run.

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Useful tips for foreigners in Uzbekistan include the following:

• Make a point of learning Uzbek as it is a vital part of the Uzbekistan culture. Knowing the language will facilitate communication and will give an impression that a foreigner is genuinely interested in the natives, not just in their money.
• Be reactive as opposed to proactive. Follow leads, do not lead. For instance, unless a foreigner is explicitly offered a handshake, they should not offer one. Instead one should just place their right hand above the heart accompanied by verbal greetings.
• Avoid making extensive eye contact. In the Uzbekistan culture it is considered disrespectful (Yusupov 2009).
• If one is making a presentation, one should restrict the hand movements; the Uzbekistan culture considers it not only potentially distracting but also offensive.
• Crucially, do not point at places or persons with the index finger when making a point or giving directions, rather use an open palm (MacFadyen 2006).
• Lastly, avoid public display of affection as the Uzbekistan culture highly discourages this behaviour. A pat in the back, a hug, and even holding another person’s shoulder, especially of the opposite sex, in the public even for congratulatory purposes, should be avoided.

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My Native Town Essays – Yangon, Bago, Myitkyinam & Lashio

Read following 4 essays , written as a student. He is  describing about his native town Yangon, Bago, Myitkyinam Lashio. He also discuss the geography, history, culture, and people of his native town.

Table of Contents

Essay About My Native Town – Yangon, Bago, Myitkyinam Lashio

1. Introduction:

My native town is a small town located in the rural area of [insert location]. It is a place where everyone knows everyone, and the community is tight-knit. I have lived here my entire life and have grown to love the charm and character that my town has to offer. In this essay, I will be discussing the various aspects of my town, including its geography, history, culture, and people.

2. Body Paragraphs

1. Geography:

My native town is situated in the heart of the [insert geographical location] and is surrounded by lush green forests and hills. The town is located near a river, which provides a source of water for the residents and is also a popular spot for fishing and swimming during the summer months. The town’s landscape is picturesque, with rolling hills and meadows that provide a serene and peaceful environment.

2. History:

My town has a rich history that dates back to [insert historical event]. It was once a trading center for merchants, who came to sell their goods and products to the local people. As the town grew, it became an important center for agriculture and farming, with the majority of the population working in the fields or raising livestock. Today, the town has preserved many of its historical landmarks, including [insert landmarks] which are popular tourist attractions.

3. Culture:

The culture of my town is deeply rooted in tradition and values. The residents are friendly and welcoming to visitors and take great pride in their heritage. The town celebrates many cultural festivals and events throughout the year, including [insert festivals/events] which showcase the town’s unique customs and traditions. The town’s cuisine is also distinctive, with dishes that are prepared using locally grown produce and ingredients.

The people of my town are the heart and soul of the community. They are hardworking, honest, and committed to preserving the town’s traditions and culture. The residents are passionate about their town and work tirelessly to make it a better place to live. They are warm and hospitable and are always ready to lend a helping hand to those in need.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, my native town is a beautiful and charming place that has a lot to offer. Its rich history, vibrant culture, stunning geography, and welcoming people make it a unique and special place. Despite its small size, my town has a big heart and a strong sense of community that is felt by everyone who visits or lives here. I feel fortunate to call this town my home and am proud to be a part of its history and culture.

 My Native Town Yangon Essay

As a student, I am proud to call Yangon my native town. Yangon, also known as Rangoon, is the largest city in Myanmar and has a rich history and culture. Yangon is home to some of the most beautiful temples, pagodas, and parks in the country. It is a city that is always bustling with life, and I am grateful to have grown up in such a vibrant and unique place.

Yangon has a rich history that dates back to the 11th century. It was once the capital of Myanmar and served as an important trading hub for the region. Yangon’s history can be seen in the architecture and design of its buildings, which range from traditional wooden houses to modern skyscrapers.

One of the most iconic landmarks in Yangon is the Shwedagon Pagoda. It is a magnificent golden temple that stands at 99 meters tall and is covered in gold leaf. It is considered one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Myanmar and attracts visitors from all over the world.

Another must-see location in Yangon is the Bogyoke Aung San Market. It is a bustling market filled with vendors selling everything from traditional clothing and jewelry to handmade crafts and souvenirs. It is the perfect place to immerse oneself in the local culture and pick up some unique gifts.

Growing up in Yangon has also exposed me to the unique culture of Myanmar. The people of Myanmar are incredibly warm and welcoming, and their culture is deeply rooted in tradition and respect. Traditional music and dance performances are a common sight in Yangon, and the city is known for its delicious street food, such as mohinga, a traditional noodle soup.

3. Conclusion:

In conclusion, as a student, I am proud to call Yangon my native town. Yangon is a city with a rich history and culture that has shaped my identity. The beauty and diversity of Yangon have made me appreciate the unique aspects of my hometown, and I will always cherish my personal connection to this vibrant city. I am grateful for the experiences and memories I have gained in Yangon, and I hope to continue exploring and discovering new aspects of this beautiful city.

2. My Native Town Bago Essay

As a student, I am proud to call Bago my native town. Bago, also known as Pegu, is a small town in Myanmar that is steeped in history and culture. It is a town that is known for its ancient temples and pagodas, traditional crafts, and delicious food. I am grateful to have grown up in such a unique and beautiful place.

Bago has a rich history that dates back to the Mon Kingdom, which ruled the region between the 9th and 11th centuries. The town was an important trading hub during this time and served as the capital of the Mon Kingdom. The history of Bago can be seen in the architecture and design of its buildings, which range from ancient pagodas and temples to modern homes.

One of the most iconic landmarks in Bago is the Shwemawdaw Pagoda. It is a magnificent golden temple that stands at 114 meters tall and is considered one of the holiest Buddhist sites in Myanmar. The temple attracts visitors from all over the world and is a source of pride for the people of Bago.

Another must-see location in Bago is the Kyaikpun Pagoda. It is a unique temple that features four 30-meter-tall Buddha statues, each facing a different direction. The temple is believed to have been built in the 15th century and is an important cultural and religious site in Bago.

Growing up in Bago has also exposed me to the unique culture of Myanmar. The people of Myanmar are incredibly warm and welcoming, and their culture is deeply rooted in tradition and respect. Traditional crafts such as weaving, pottery, and woodcarving are still practiced in Bago, and the town is known for its delicious street food, such as mont let saung, a traditional dessert made with coconut milk and glutinous rice.

In conclusion, as a student, I am proud to call Bago my native town. Bago is a town with a rich history and culture that has shaped my identity. The beauty and diversity of Bago have made me appreciate the unique aspects of my hometown, and I will always cherish my personal connection to this beautiful town. I am grateful for the experiences and memories I have gained in Bago, and I hope to continue exploring and discovering new aspects of this unique town.

3. My Native Town Myitkyina Essay

As a student, I am proud to call Myitkyina my native town. Myitkyina is a small town in the Kachin State of Myanmar that is known for its unique culture and traditions. It is a town that is surrounded by natural beauty, and its people are warm and welcoming. I am grateful to have grown up in such a vibrant and diverse place.

Myitkyina is a town that is deeply connected to its traditions and culture. The people of Myitkyina are predominantly Kachin, and their traditional customs and practices are an important part of their daily lives. One of the most important cultural events in Myitkyina is the Kachin Manau Festival. The festival is a celebration of Kachin culture and traditions, and it includes traditional dances, music, and food. The festival is held every year and is a source of pride for the people of Myitkyina.

Another important aspect of Myitkyina’s culture is its food. Myitkyina is known for its delicious cuisine, which includes traditional Kachin dishes such as Khauk-swe, a type of noodle soup that is made with chicken or pork broth and served with vegetables and egg. Other popular dishes include Tum, a type of Kachin salad that is made with fermented tea leaves, and Jaung-bua, a type of dumpling that is filled with pork and vegetables.

In addition to its culture and traditions, Myitkyina is also surrounded by natural beauty. The town is situated near the Irrawaddy River, which is one of the most important waterways in Myanmar. The river provides a source of livelihood for the people of Myitkyina, and it is also a popular destination for tourists who come to enjoy the scenic beauty of the region.

In conclusion, Myitkyina is a town that is deeply connected to its culture, traditions, and natural beauty. As a student, I am proud to call Myitkyina my native town. Myitkyina has played a significant role in shaping my identity and has taught me the importance of preserving and celebrating cultural heritage. I will always cherish my personal connection to Myitkyina and the memories and experiences that I have gained from growing up in this unique town.

4. My Native Town Laisho Essay

Lashio is a small town nestled in the northern Shan State of Myanmar. It is a place where modernity and tradition coexist harmoniously. As a student who grew up in Lashio, I have a deep affection for my hometown. In this essay, I will describe the various aspects that make Lashio special, from its stunning natural scenery to its unique cultural heritage.

One of the most striking features of Lashio is its natural beauty. The town is surrounded by lush green hills and misty mountains, which offer breathtaking views. During the monsoon season, the landscape transforms into a sea of green, with paddy fields stretching out as far as the eye can see. The cool and refreshing climate makes Lashio an ideal place to escape the heat and hustle of the city.

Lashio is also a town with a rich cultural heritage. The Shan people, who make up the majority of the population, have a unique culture that is distinct from other ethnic groups in Myanmar. The town is famous for its traditional Shan noodles, which are served in various ways and are a must-try for anyone visiting Lashio. The Shan people also celebrate their cultural festivals with great enthusiasm, and visitors can witness colorful processions and traditional dance performances during these events.

As a student, I am particularly proud of the educational opportunities available in Lashio. The town has a number of excellent schools and colleges that provide quality education to students from all walks of life. The educational institutions in Lashio have produced many successful professionals who have made a significant contribution to the development of the town and the country as a whole.

Another aspect of Lashio that I love is the warm and welcoming nature of the people. The residents of Lashio are friendly, helpful, and always ready to lend a hand to those in need. This sense of community and camaraderie is what makes Lashio such a special place to live.

In conclusion, Lashio is a town that holds a special place in my heart. From its stunning natural beauty to its rich cultural heritage and welcoming people, Lashio has everything that one could ask for in a hometown. As a student, I am proud to call Lashio my native town and will always cherish the memories and experiences I have had there.

Hello! Welcome to my Blog StudyParagraphs.co. My name is Angelina. I am a college professor. I love reading writing for kids students. This blog is full with valuable knowledge for all class students. Thank you for reading my articles.

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