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Interviews and Visits

List of Interview Questions for Cell and Mol Bio PhD

By CellMol Biologica January 31, 2012 in Interviews and Visits

CellMol Biologica

Hello friends,

I thought of starting a thread where people jot down an exhaustive list of the questions they were asked during their PhD admissions. It wd be great if they are from biological sciences, but other disciplines also welcome to write as I believe many questions will be generic to PhDs. Most helpful would be people who have already attended the interviews, but others who are yet to take their interviews may also write the types of questions they think might be asked.

It would be great if you can write in this format: (for those who already attended)

Program Name : PhD Development Biology

Type of Student : Domestic/ International

School Interviewed with:

(#1) U Penn

Type of interview: Phone/Skype/ Face-to-Face

Questions Asked :

(#2) Ohio State University

(#3) Cornell University

aberrant and snes

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Anyone, please compile a list here so that myself and other students can use it for years to come. Thanks

1 month later...

Buckyball60

Would be nice to get some answers on this.

3 weeks later...

the defenestration

Nice topic! I interviewed with and was accepted to three schools for Cell/Molecular PhD programs this past application season - Baylor College of Medicine, University of Maryland, and University of South Florida. My area of interest is Cancer Biology; only USF has a program entirely dedicated to cancer, but the other two have Cancer Bio tracks and many great researchers studying what I want to study.

I really found that my interviews resembled conversations more than they resembled a typical job interview. I was never asked "What is your greatest weakness?" or anything like that (though I prepared answers for those types of things, just in case). Generally, when I walked in the room, the interviewer would start off the conversation by making a friendly comment on where I was from or where I did my undergrad, and then they would ask me to tell me about myself. I talked for about 3 minutes or so about my major, my lab work, and how I became interested in cancer biology - this length of time seemed to work very well, and they would ask questions so it wasn't just me rambling. After this, the conversation could take a number of turns. I had a few interviewers who wanted to know about my research in great detail, so I explained exactly what my project entailed, drew some diagrams, etc. More often than not, though, the interviewer would talk about their own research for at least half the interview (I had a couple of interviewers who launched into explaining their own projects without even asking me about myself). I was a little worried that maybe I wasn't giving them enough information about myself since they were just talking about their own research, but people really do love talking about their own interests. If you can get your interviewer talking about their own research, they will remember your interview positively, even if you don't use the full 30 minutes to talk about how awesome you are. When they are explaining their research, take notes, act interested, and ask an intelligent question or two at the opportune moment.

All that said, there were a couple of questions that I got quite a bit:

1. Why do you want to be in this program? Not a hard one, but make sure you do your homework. Pay attention to what the program directors emphasize about the program as well - chances are, these are the reasons they want you to like their school, and it won't hurt to mention some of those things that particularly stand out to you.

2. What other schools have you applied to? As far as I can tell, they are trying to decide whether you will actually attend their program. Be honest; they know you're applying to more than one program, but it's unnecessary to mention schools you have been rejected from or are no longer considering. The interviewer will probably ask a question or make a comment about your answer, after which point you can re-state the reasons why THEIR program is such a great fit for you.

3. Why were your grades so terrible during this particular semester? If you have a weak point in your application, be prepared to explain it. When they ask about this weak point, they are not out to get you - they want you to have a good, reasonable explanation, and if you have an interview chances are you have the explanation.

4. Do you have any questions for me? Always have questions! Remember, you are trying to evaluate the program as much as they are trying to evaluate you. You may end up asking the same questions toward the end of the day, but you may also get different answers.

Really, I think that is about it. If I think of any other questions I was asked, I will add those. However, I would like to add a few interview tips that I could have used coming in:

1. You have control over your interview. This is huge. It really is a conversation, and you can steer that conversation in whatever way you want. Obviously, don't sidestep a pointed question, but focus on the things you want to talk about. Come in with some things you want to say about yourself, and say them. You don't have to wait for the interviewer to ask a particular question, because they probably won't. Work it into the conversation.

2. Elaborate on the things you are interested in. This kind of ties in with my first point. From speaking to other interviewees, I learned that one interviewer could be very difficult for one person but another person would find the same interviewer to be easygoing and kind. The difference was usually a matter of perspective. Those who had trouble generally answered the question, shut up, and waited for the interviewer to fire another one at them. Those who actually enjoyed the interview saw it as more of a back-and-forth. If you talk about the things you know and are interested in, the interviewer gets to see that you are smart and knowledgeable, and you can prevent the interview from becoming a grill session where you may be asked about things you are not as knowledgeable about. Caveat: don't ramble. If you're done talking, you're done talking, and if you keep talking just to fill silence, you are likely to say something dumb.

3. Get them to talk about their research. Takes pressure off you, they enjoy talking about themselves, and you get to gain more perspective on the program.

4. Pr epare, but don't overprepare. I think a good thing to do is to take a sheet of paper for every interviewer and write a few short bullet points about them - what they're doing, where they got their PhD, specific questions you want to ask them. Then, take the sheets to the interviews and use them to take notes. At least for my interviews, it was overkill to read papers by every single interviewer. If you are very interested in working with a particular professor, by all means read a paper or two and ask them about it. Otherwise, keep it simple and don't stress about it too much.

5. Know your research. Be able to explain it inside out. If your current research is in a field other than what you want to get your PhD in (as mine is) then know how to explain it to someone outside the field. Interestingly, I found it was not as important to be well-versed in what I want to work on at the PhD level. In fact, I was told by several interviewers that many students' interests change after the first year and that having your whole PhD planned out was not that important. This may depend on the school, though.

6. Relax! Your interviews will be fine. Your interviewers want to like you. Be engaging, be interested, be excited to meet your interviewers. If something goes wrong during your interview, brush it off and recover. During one particular interview, I was convinced that I had made the biggest idiot of myself and that the interview had gone just terribly. I later found out that my interviewers recommended me unanimously for admission - so it can't have gone too badly!

I hope this helped! I know it's quite long, but I was so nervous before my first interview that I was reading as much advice as I could get my hands on... so maybe some of you made it through. Cheers, and good luck!

cbus , ashraful001 , CRYTIME and 16 others

10 months later...

wow, what a comprehensive instruction for interview! I have just finished my first interview, and I think I made myself an idiot. But after reading your opinion, maybe it's not that bad, and I have learned something in it. thx~

I have been selected for interview via skype by University of Sciences in philadelphia for cancer Biology PhD program. My interview is next week.

I am pretty much nervous as this is my first interview ever for PhD program, that too on skype. Can anyone please help me to prepare for my interview.

Also how to dress up for this type of interview/

And how do i bring them down to talk about thier own research work?

Anyone there to answer my question?

4 weeks later...

@The Defenestration: great reply! Thank you for instructions and suggestions. Very thoughtful of you.

I think there's no big difference between the questions asked at interviews in US and in EU, so I think my experience(s) could help.

1. Be prepared to be in "tune" with the general sentiment of the interviewer. Certain cultural backgrounds imply more or less of familiarity and closeness. Don't get me wrong, I don't mean to sell stereotypes, but I had an interview with a friendly Italian and a reserved German. So, yeah, I might be biased, but nevertheless, be extra careful and considerate. I actually found a more distanced interviewer more helpful, since it left me enough time and energy (and mental space).

2. Be thoroughly prepared. Refresh your knowledge on the topic, and, needless to say, read the available publications of your prospective team/mentor.

3. Be honest and concise. When faced with so-called "stress questions", respond truthfully. When asked other "unpleasant" questions, as Defenestration pointed out, the aim is not to embarass you or get you. They just want to know you a little bit better, personally.

4. And last, but not least, most labs actually want someone who is pleasant enough to work with, and if you're enthusiastic, imaginitive, and hard-working, all your potential short-comings (e.g. a couple of lower grades, modest practical experience) will be eclipsed. I say this because it might help you or any other interviewee to remain calm and not too self-critical.

@NewLearner:

I hope your interview went fine. As you've probably seen, there's really nothing to be nervous about. And maybe you could also write something about your experience?

I had one interview several years ago, where the PI handed me a pad of paper and asked me to comprehensively document the synthetic transformations that had gone into my undergraduate thesis. It was quite nerve-wracking.

3 years later...

On 5/1/2013 at 9:08 AM, Eigen said: I had one interview several years ago, where the PI handed me a pad of paper and asked me to comprehensively document the synthetic transformations that had gone into my undergraduate thesis. It was quite nerve-wracking.

If someone asked me to do that i'd probably walk out. Jesus.

Wow that's dredging up an old post!

5 years later...

On 5/1/2013 at 6:08 PM, Eigen said: I had one interview several years ago, where the PI handed me a pad of paper and asked me to comprehensively document the synthetic transformations that had gone into my undergraduate thesis. It was quite nerve-wracking.

Here's me dragging it again in 2022. Holy crap I'd have left as well. Were you successful though? Did you get the position?

One major difference between American and European PhDs is that in America you typically apply to a program while in Europe you apply to a specific PhD position at a specific lab.

Story: I had an interview at a lab in France. This was all on zoom.

Was asked to present my thesis to the supervisor followed by some questions - fairly easy. But I was sure I was not going to get it as they had postponed the interview 5 minutes before the start and looked very bored. But a few hrs later I was asked to come for an interview with the PI the following week.

The PI was rude, postponed the interview in the nick of time, was speaking to someone on the phone when I logged on zoom. During the first 5 mins I managed to upset her with something I should have known but didn't. She then grilled me on my family life, saying her students worked 11-13 hrs in her lab not including weekends. Said I needed to finish my Phd in 3 yrs as she was unwilling to fund a 4th. She told me my knowedge was superficial (fair) and I needed to work hard to be in her lab (also fair). Then she started making plans on me visiting France to present my thesis work, explained how I could apply for a visa to do my PhD...etc.

Turns out, I had gotten the PhD position but no one told me explicitly that I had been selected by the supervisor.Anyway, I had to decline. I couldn't get into such a toxic workspace.

All to say that you never know what they will accept I suppose. Try your best. Read up on their work if you're applying to a certain lab. Be well versed in your own work.

P.S I had another interview with a French PI. Didn't do well, didn't get the position but the PI was very kind. These interviews were very focused on the technical and science aspect.

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Biology, PHD

On this page:, at a glance: program details.

Location: Tempe campus
Second Language Requirement: No

Program Description

Degree Awarded: PHD Biology

The PhD program in biology offers individualized courses of study tailored to students' interests that include laboratory, field and theoretical work. Flexibility in the program is achieved by requiring only one core class, which is a choice between two topics that cover the breadth of the research directions in this program.

Electives are also as flexible as possible and include areas outside of biology. The major goal is to provide students with the opportunity to create an adaptable and general degree program that allows both traditional and interdisciplinary approaches in any area of biology.

Program Faculty PhD Students

BIO 792 Research
BIO 514 Statistical Models for Biology
BIO 522 Populations: Evolutionary Ecology
BIO 507 Advanced Evolutionary Medicine
BIO 521 Landscape Ecology
BIO 530 Scientific Teaching (required in first semester for students that will TA at any point in degree)
BIO 533 K-12 STEM Education & Outreach
BIO 539 Computing for Research
BIO 541 SOLS Seminar Series
BIO 542 SOLS Current Topics in the Life Sciences
BIO 591 Society and Natural Resource Management
BIO 591 Social-Ecological Systems & Adaptation
BIO 591 Drylands in a Changing Earth
BIO 591 Population Genetic Reading Group
BIO 591 Communication for Scientists
BIO 591 Genetics and Genomics of Behavior
BIO 620 Research Prospectus Writing
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EVO 601 Principles of Evolution
EVO 610 Research Areas of Evolution

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Minimum requirements for admission include the following:

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Curriculum plan options.

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Additional Curriculum Information The program is tailored to the needs of the individual student. The plan of study is developed by the student and a supervisory committee consisting of a major professor and three additional faculty members. The electives credit hours are comprised of coursework showing breadth in biology subdisciplines, seminars and research.

An oral comprehensive examination is required in order to advance to candidacy, and a formal defense of the final written dissertation is required prior to graduation.

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Applicants must fulfill the requirements of both the Graduate College and The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences.

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Those who have earned a doctorate in biology are prepared for academic careers at every level, from community colleges to research universities. Their skills and knowledge are also valuable for government careers with federal and state agencies responsible for wildlife management and conservation, and for careers in industry and nongovernmental organizations.

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This page details the application process for the graduate program in Biology, including the application timeline, application requirements, and information for international students and students with disabilities.

MIT Graduate Biology is a doctoral program. There is no Masters offered. The average length of time until degree is 5 1/2 to 6 years.

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Application timeline

Deadline	Date
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Application Deadline	December 1
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MIT is committed to equal access for qualified students. Interested students may contact the MIT Student Disabilities Services office to learn about resources on campus.

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Interview Visits

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What is a Graduate School Interview Like

Being invited for an interview indicates that faculty in the program believe that you are prepared for graduate school and have intellectual interests that match topics studied within the program. For the program, the goal of the interview is to assess your interests, background and goals more in depth. The interview is also an opportunity for you to assess whether Emory is the right fit for you, and we hope that it is. During the interview you will meet with faculty and current students, both formally (in individual or group interviews) and informally (at dinners, other events). During your visit you will learn about the research being done by faculty and students. During interviews, faculty and students will want to learn about your previous research experience, what types of biological questions interest you, and to what degree you possess "intellectual curiosity". While you are not expected to know everything about each faculty member's research, it is good practice to review research that is conducted in the program. You should ask questions and make every effort to be engaged. You should convey your love of science and your enthusiasm for research. Finally, remember that this is a few days where you get to be around other people who love science. Enjoy it.

Typical Interview Questions

Your scientific interests.

What are your research interests? Put them in the context of the big picture.
What aspect of the program is of greatest interest to you and why?
Where do you see your field going in the next 5-10 years?
What do you want to work on in my lab? (Note, your answer should be question, not system driven)
Why are you interested in the research questions/field/discipline that you’re planning to pursue or are pursuing?
What is an interesting paper you have read lately?
What are the big picture questions (not topics) you want to investigate?
How do you plan to approach your questions?
Why do you want to pursue a PhD in your area of interest?

A General Perspective on You

How do you work best? Independent or with a team? At home?
What was the biggest challenge you encountered in your undergraduate classes or lab work, and how did you deal with it?
What motivated you to apply to grad school?
What have you done in the past that helps prepare you for graduate school?
What do you think you will contribute to the program?
Why do you feel prepared to start graduate school?

Previous Research Experience

Be prepared to discuss your previous research experience.
How has your research experience prepared you for graduate school?
What questions did you help answer?
Give examples of research troubles/failures/bad luck that you’ve tried to solve.
How do your interests/past research experiences fit with the strengths and goals of the program?
What are you looking to gain from your graduate school experience?
What skills do you want to develop at Emory? How are you going to do that?
Why do you need a PhD to achieve your career goal?
Where do you see yourself in 15 years?

Emory and the Program

Why are you considering Emory? In other words, what specific resources does Emory offer to enhance your scientific trajectory?
How do you think your interests will fit in with the program?
Why are you interested in the program?
Who are you interested in working with? Why?
Have you established a relationship with one or more faculty members within the program?
Why do you think this program would be a good fit for you?
What would make you choose Emory over other programs?
What questions do you have about the program?

Other Resources

General advice.

Graduate Admission Tips Interview
Interview Information
Impressing us on your Graduate School Interview

Questions you Might Want to Ask at an Interview

American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (ASBMB)

Preparing for Online Interviews

Ace Your Skype Job Interview GDBBS Interview Guide (PDF)

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Biology

The PhD in Biology is a research degree requiring graduate-level coursework, completion of a dissertation, and two semesters of participation in teaching (usually as a teaching fellow in laboratory or discussion sections of lecture courses led by Biology faculty). For most students, obtaining this degree typically involves five or more years of full-time study.

A summary of Biology PhD student expectations by year can be found here . Full details can be found in the Graduate Program Guide .

The Biology Department guarantees support for five years for all PhD students, contingent on satisfactory performance in the program.

How to Apply Frequently Asked Questions

Learning Outcomes

1. Demonstrate academic mastery in one of three areas of Biology: Ecology, Behavior & Evolution; Neurobiology; or Cellular & Molecular Biology.

2. Attain research expertise , including grant writing experience, and complete original research that advances a specific field of study within one of three broad subject areas represented in the department: Ecology, Behavior & Evolution; Neurobiology; or Cellular & Molecular Biology.

3. Attain teaching experience and expertise in one of three broad areas of Biology: Ecology, Behavior & Evolution; Neurobiology; or Cellular & Molecular Biology.

4. Attain the skills and qualifications needed for employment in an academic, government, or private sector position related to the life sciences.

Coursework Requirements

Students must complete 64 credits with a minimum grade point average of 3.0; at least 32 of these credits must be accrued from lecture, laboratory, or seminar courses. Students with prior graduate work may be able to transfer course credits. See the Graduate School of Arts & Sciences (GRS) Transfer of Credits policy for more details.

2 semesters of Progress in Research Seminars (2 credits each):

Cell & Molecular Biology: BI 583 & BI 584 (CM section)

Ecology, Behavior & Evolution: BI 579 & BI 580

Neurobiology: BI 533 & BI 5834

1 semester grant-writing course (2 credits):

Cell & Molecular Biology: BI 581

Ecology, Behavior & Evolution: BI 671

Neurobiology: BI 581

1 semester pedagogy course (1 credit): All Biology PhD students take BI 697
1 quantitative course (3–4 credits): from a list of recommended courses .
Additional courses vary by specific track below:

Cell & Molecular Biology

1. GRS BI 791/GRS BI 792 Graduate Rotation Credits (2 credits each/4 credits total)

2. GRS BI 753 Advanced Molecular Biology (4 credits)

3. GRS MB 721 Graduate Biochemistry (4 credits)

4. GRS BI 735 Advanced Cell Biology (4 credits)

5. Two electives (8 credits, 500-level and above), see the Graduate Program Guide for recommendations

6. Research credits, CAS BI 925/CAS BI 926 (remaining credits)

Ecology, Behavior & Evolution

1. Six electives (24 credits, 500-level and above), see the Graduate Program Guide for recommendations

2. Research credits, CAS BI 911/CAS BI 912 (remaining credits)

Ecology, Behavior & Evolution PhD candidate coursework is highly variable. Students, in consultation with advisors, develop a plan of coursework and research. Students are required to take a minimum of 32 credits of coursework. The remainder of the credits should be research.

Neurobiology

2. GRS BI 755 Cellular and Systems Neuroscience (4 credits)

3. GRS BI 741 Neural Systems: Functional Circuit Analysis (4 credits)

4. Four electives (16 credits, 500-level and above), see the Graduate Program Guide for recommendations

5. Research credits, CAS BI 939/CAS BI 940 (remaining credits)

Teaching Requirement

The department requires a minimum of two semesters of teaching as part of the Doctor of Philosophy program. During the first semester of teaching, students are required to enroll in our first-year seminar course, GRS BI 697 A Bridge to Knowledge . The course provides guidance and training on pedagogy and other aspects of graduate school.

Qualifying Examination

The qualifying examination must be completed no later than six semesters after matriculation. In most graduate curricula in the department, this consists of a research proposal—often in the form of a grant application—which the student submits to their committee and subsequently defends in an oral presentation. In the Cell & Molecular Biology and Ecology, Behavior & Evolution curricula , this is preceded by a comprehensive written examination testing the student’s general background from coursework.

Dissertation & Final Oral Examination

Candidates shall demonstrate their abilities for independent study in a dissertation representing original research or creative scholarship. A prospectus for the dissertation must be completed and approved by the readers, the Director of Graduate Studies, and the Biology Department Chair. Candidates must undergo a final oral examination in which they defend their dissertation as a valuable contribution to knowledge in their field and demonstrate a mastery of their field of specialization in relation to their dissertation. All portions of the dissertation and final oral examination must be completed as outlined in the GRS General Requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy Degree . The results of the dissertation must be presented at a department colloquium.

Graduation Timeline

Forms and additional information about PhD graduation can be found on the GRS website .

9 – 12 months before proposed graduation date

Dissertation Prospectus & approval form due to Graduate Program Specialist for departmental review and submission to GRS

Semester prior to your intended graduation cycle

Intent to Graduate Form completed online

About 2 months before dissertation defense

Meet with Graduate Program Specialist, Director of Graduate Studies, and Faculty Advisor to review requirements for defense
Arrange for Special Service Appointments if committee members are not BU faculty
Send first draft of dissertation to readers

Once defense date is confirmed with committee

Reserve room(s) for public seminar and defense

At least three weeks prior to dissertation defense

Schedule of Final Oral Exam with Abstract Approval due to GRS
Properly formatted draft of dissertation submitted as PDF to [email protected]

At least two weeks prior to dissertation defense

Send dissertation to all committee members

At least one week prior to dissertation defense

Send program information to Graduate Program Specialist

See the Graduate Program Guide for final dates to submit dissertation to ETD

Submit final dissertation to ETD (online submission)
Complete electronic signature page and forward confirmation to Graduate Program Specialist along with a copy of your submitted dissertation

MS Degree (En Route to PhD)

Option one: A PhD student who has advanced to candidacy (as demonstrated by passing the PhD qualifying exam), and has completed 32 credits of graduate-level coursework (not including research) may apply to the Graduate School for an MS degree in Biology. This must be approved by the Director of Graduate Studies within the Biology Department. The student’s major professor will receive notification of this application process.

Option two: A PhD student who has taken, but has not advanced to candidacy based on the PhD qualifying examination, may still receive an MS degree. This student may receive a Coursework MS degree provided they have completed 32 credits of coursework (not including research credits). Alternatively, this student may receive a Scholarly Paper or Research Thesis MS degree if the written portion of the qualifying examination is adapted to ensure it is of sufficiently high quality for a MS degree, and approved by a majority of the qualifying exam committee and the Director of Graduate Studies.

Interdisciplinary Study Options

Biology PhD students have the option to participate in the Boston University Graduate Program in Urban Biogeoscience and Environmental Health (BU URBAN), the National Science Foundation Research Traineeship Program Understanding the Brain: Neurophotonics (NSF NRT UtB: Neurophotonics), and the Biogeoscience Advanced Graduate Certificate Program . These programs require separate applications in addition to the standard Biology PhD application; those interested in BU URBAN are encouraged pre-apply .

Time Limits

Officially, the PhD must be completed within seven years after the first registration for doctoral study. PhD degrees are conferred in either May, August, or January, as specified on the GRS website . In addition, the PhD candidacy expires after the fifth anniversary of passing the Qualifying Examination. Petitions to extend this deadline are possible at the discretion of the Director of Graduate Studies, the Department Chair, and the Dean of the Graduate School, and can be obtained from the Office of the Graduate School of Arts & Sciences.

The Biology Department guarantees support for five years for all PhD students, contingent on satisfactory performance in the program. PhD students are encouraged to apply for fellowships and grants at funding agencies. All domestic students should apply for NSF Graduate Research Fellowships in the Fall semester of their first or second year.

Travel Grants may be available to assist students in their travel to professional scientific meetings; students presenting papers or posters on their research will receive first consideration.

Common Types of Funding:

Dean’s Fellowships: These are non-service fellowships allocated to first-year PhD students that do not have immediate teaching requirements.

Teaching Fellowships: These provide a stipend plus full tuition and fees for up to four full courses per semester plus a 2-credit teaching course. Teaching responsibilities usually require approximately 20 hours per week. Full or partial awards may be given.

Doctoral Research Fellowships: These awards are given to students who assist individual faculty with specific areas of research. These Research Fellowships provide a stipend and full tuition. The supervising faculty member determines the specific duties of the Research Fellow.

In addition to the above funding sources, several competitive Department awards and fellowships are available to graduate students in the Department of Biology.

How to approach biology and biomedical graduate school interviews

The graduate school application process is exhausting. Tailoring multiple applications for each school is a daunting task. A sigh of relief finally arrives when invitations to interview for graduate programs arrive. However, as part of the application process, interviews carry a lot of weight, and most students don’t get a blueprint for what to expect and how to best prepare. Knowing what lays ahead in the interview process allows you to relax and sit in the excitement of starting a new chapter in your academic career.

Interview expectations from field to field differ, but this is how I best prepared for applications to biology and biomedical graduate programs.

Be prepared to talk about your previous research experiences. .

Graduate programs in the biological sciences will spend a lot of time evaluating your letters of recommendation and prior research experience ahead of interviews. You will likely be asked about these experiences and how they informed your decision to go to grad school.

To practice for this part of the interview, I prepared an “elevator” speech of my previous research experiences. This entailed framing a research question, explaining what approaches I used to answer it, summarizing the results of these findings, and what I plan to do next. To prepare for unanticipated questions, I also read review articles in my field and a couple papers that provided the background and rationale for my project. The more comfortable you are with your own work, the more engaging and helpful your conversations with interviewers will be.

Do your research on your interviewers and the program to come up with questions ahead of time.

Towards the end of interviews, you will often be asked if you have any questions for the interviewer. This is an opportunity to really get to know them or their research, and voice your interest in the program. Often, graduate programs will not let you know who you’re interviewing with until 24-48 hours ahead of interviews. This is for a specific reason: they don’t want you to spend an exhaustive amount of time reading about the research of each individual interviewer. However, it is helpful to jot down basics about what their lab works on to ask big-picture, overarching questions that can drive conversation and open-ended discussion.

This is also an opportunity to convince your interviewer that you have done your research on the program and are seriously considering joining for graduate school. You can reference specific labs that interest you, courses you’re interested in taking, or training opportunities that are unique to the program. Interviewers are more likely to advocate for you when they can tell that you are passionate about joining.

Attend as many prospective student events as possible!

Attending as many student events as possible will give you a sense of how life is like outside of school and let graduate students get to know you. If there are any important factors guiding your decision on whether to move somewhere for grad school, now is the time to ask them! Prepare by drafting questions on topics that are important to you such as housing, life outside of campus, access to nature, etc.

Finally, relax and be yourself!

Most graduate programs in biology will only interview students whose applications were already impressive, so the hard part is over. During the interview, you are evaluating them as much as they are evaluating you. It’s important for you to go somewhere you feel yourself and can comfortably call home!

Ryan completed her undergraduate studies at Cornell University in Cellular and Molecular Biology. She is currently pursuing her PhD thesis research at MIT, where her work is focused on understanding how proliferating cancer cells reprogram metabolism to maintain the metabolic requirements for rapid cell growth and division.

PhD Interview Questions and Answers

Written by Mark Bennett

Your PhD interview will be an important part of your postgraduate research application. This is your chance to meet your prospective department, discuss your project and show your potential as an academic researcher.

Of course, it’s also when that potential is going to be assessed.

You’ll need to show an awareness of what’s involved in a PhD project and prove that you have the right aspirations and approach to work on one for three (or more) years. You’ll also need to make it clear that this is the right university , department, research group or laboratory for you.

None of this has to be especially intimidating. Putting some thought into your project and your choice of institution can make answering PhD entrance interview questions quite simple.

On this page we’ve put together a list of the questions you might be asked at an interview. We’ve also explained why the university might be asking each question, and provided some tips on how to answer them

You won’t necessarily be asked all of these questions – and you almost certainly won’t be asked them in the order here. Some of them also overlap with each other. But they’re all topics that you should prepare to discuss at a PhD interview .

We’ve also included a selection of questions to ask during a PhD interview .

Let's get you PhD ready

Interview questions about you

Your qualities as a researcher, team-member and individual are some of the most important factors in a university’s decision to accept you for a PhD.

Regardless of your subject area, you need to be the kind of person who can dedicate themselves to a three-year project. You also need to be able to work alongside other students and academics in a positive and successful research environment.

The interview is the best way for a university to assess this. Just as there’s more to doing a PhD than research and writing, there’s more to a prospective candidate than their academic record.

#1 Tell us about yourself…

This popular opener can feel like an awkwardly open ‘question’.

You’ll be prepared to explain your project, to say what a great fit it is for the university, perhaps even reference some current research. But how do you ‘answer’ an invitation to introduce yourself?

By introducing yourself.

Your interview panel isn’t trying to catch you out here. They’re offering an icebreaker to help ease you into the rest of the interview.

Obviously your response should be relevant to the occasion. But it doesn’t just have to be a presentation of your academic achievements, interests and goals (the interview will get to those in time!).

Say a little about your background, where you’re from and what your interests are. Don’t be afraid to relate these to your academic specialism and your choice of university.

If something specific inspired you to consider a PhD, mention it. If there’s something that’s attracted you to this city as well as the university, say so. (There’ll be plenty of time to talk up the institution and its research later).

I’ve always been interested in discovering how things work, but my time as an undergraduate opened my eyes to the excitement and wider benefit of science. I had the chance to do some original research on my Masters and that’s inspired me to take up the challenge of a PhD. I’m also a keen hiker and amateur naturalist, so I’d love to combine my studies here with the chance to visit the local area.
I was born in a house next to the local post-office. My first cat was called Timothy and he liked chasing string. At school my best friend was Kevin. My favourite colour is blue and my favourite flavour of ice-cream is raspberry ripple…

#2 What made you choose to do a PhD?

At some point in your interview your interviewers are going to want to know why you decided to do a doctorate.

This may seem like a simple question, but be wary of giving an overly simplistic answer. Just pointing out that you’re good at your subject and a PhD seemed like the logical next step won’t be enough – especially if there’s a funding decision to be made.

The panel is already satisfied that you’re academically capable and interested. You’ve demonstrated that by getting an interview (and turning up for it).

Now they want to assure themselves that you’ve got the motivation and drive to see you through three or more years of hard work on a PhD project.

I’ve enjoyed my academic work so far, but I really feel I’ve got more to offer as an independent researcher. I’m also passionate about this subject and don’t feel enough attention has been paid to the questions I’m looking to address.
I can’t think of anything to do with my Masters, but my current tutor says I’m clever enough for a PhD.

#3 What do you plan to do after you complete your PhD?

It might seem strange for your panel to ask about your post PhD plans. After all, those don’t have any really impact on your ability to do a PhD, do they? And graduation is at least three years away in any case; should you have thought that far ahead?

The answers to which are ‘yes’ and ‘of course you should.’

Universities want to make sure you’re doing a PhD for the right reasons (as above). Asking about your future plans is a great way to check this.

Students who ‘sleepwalk’ into a research project are much more likely to come unstuck or lose motivation when the going gets tough later on.

This doesn’t mean you have to have everything worked out, or that your ambitions have to be unique. If you're planning to apply for a post-doc after your PhD, say so. But demonstrate an understanding of academic career paths – and show that you’ve put some thought into alternatives.

It’s also the case that not everyone who gains a doctorate will go on to an academic job. Universities want to recruit PhD students responsibly and provide the kinds of skills and training they actually need.

So, don’t feel that you have to want to be a scholar to be accepted for a PhD. Research training can prepare you for a range of career paths . An appreciation of these will impress your interview panel. (Particularly if you’re applying for a professional doctorate ).

I feel my PhD project can open up new lines of inquiry for this field and want to use it as the foundation for a fruitful research career. But, I’m also interested in the wider development opportunities included in this doctoral programme. I want to be an academic, but I’m happy to keep other options open.
I expect someone will give me a job doing more research. That’s what PhDs do, right?

#4 What are your strengths and weaknesses?

A well-worn question, but a great opportunity to reflect on your abilities - as well as opportunities for further development during your PhD.

What your panel is really interested in is not so much what your strengths and weaknesses actually are , but your ability to identify them.

In practice, this means giving solid examples for strengths and showing how they relate to the PhD project you have in mind.

Don’t just say you’re a good time-keeper. Point out when you’ve had to be well organised and show that you understand the importance of self-directed study to a successful PhD.

When it comes to weaknesses, maintain the right balance.

A PhD interview probably isn’t the best time to wallow in existential self-doubt (unless you’re applying for a very specific topic in Philosophy). Equally though, answers like ‘my only downfall is excessive perfectionism’ can sound a bit contrived. If the panel is asking you about strengths and weaknesses, they want you to identify and reflect on both.

Be honest about the things you find challenging, but identify them as training needs and discuss how you expect to improve upon them as part of your PhD.

I feel that I’m a good written communicator. My existing academic and professional work demonstrates an ability to put forward ideas clearly and concisely. I think this will help me manage the weight of information my PhD research needs to cover and the challenge of producing an effective thesis. But, I’m not always as organised as I’d like to be. I want to address this as part of my postgraduate training and hope to take advantage of classes and development opportunities early in my doctorate.
My greatest strength is that I have no weaknesses! And my only weakness is that I have no strengths. Hang on...

#5 Are there any training needs you can identify ahead of your PhD?

This question (and its answer) can be part of an invitation to reflect on your strengths and weaknesses (as above).

But, you may be asked about training needs more specifically. This is likely if you’re applying to a more structured programme, within a Doctoral Training Partnership or similar.

Either way, this is a great opportunity to reflect on your aspirations as a researcher and show that you’ve read up on the project you’re applying to. If the university offers a series of training modules, mention them. Say what you hope to gain from them and how you think they’ll help you succeed in your PhD.

You might also want to refer to any discussion of your aims and aspirations with a doctorate. If you’re keeping an open mind about non-academic career paths, show an awareness of the transferrable skills this PhD can give you.

And don’t worry about revealing a few gaps in the core skills required by your discipline. A PhD is a training process, not a three-year exam.

I’m really interested in communicating my research to a wider audience, but don’t know how best to go about doing this. I think the training module on public engagement will be a big help to me, both academically and more generally.
I’m really bad at interviews. Do you have a class for that?

Interview questions about your PhD project

This is the university’s chance to further assess your suitability for an advertised PhD position, and the likely fit between your planned project and the expertise it has available.

It’s also your chance to expand on your research proposal and show that you have the skills, experience and understanding to complete a doctorate. For funded places (or other competitive projects), this is the time for you to prove that you are the best student for this PhD.

It’s a good idea to reference your research proposal (or other appropriate parts of your application) when answering these questions. But expand upon what the panel has already read. (And make sure there isn’t anything in that proposal that you aren’t confident enough to ‘back up’ in your interview!)

#6 Why this project?

The exact focus of this question will depend on whether you’re applying for an advertised PhD project (more common in Science, Engineering and Medicine) or proposing your own research within a department's PhD programme (more common in Arts, Humanities and some branches of the Social Sciences).

If you’re being considered for a pre-defined project, make sure you know it inside out. Say what it is that interests you about it. Compare it to similar projects (if appropriate) and explain your particular choice.

If you’re proposing your own project, this is your chance to show some passion and enthusiasm for it. Refer to your research proposal and take the opportunity to discuss and expand upon it.

In both cases you should point to some existing scholarship and show an awareness of the field you’ll be entering. You’ll also want to re-iterate what makes your project distinctive. After all, the PhD is defined as offering ‘an original contribution to knowledge.’

This doesn’t mean preparing a comprehensive list of key works or current research projects (that ‘literature review’ will be one of the first things you do on the actual PhD). At this stage the panel just wants to see that you understand your proposed project and are enthusiastic enough to see it through.

Depending on how the question is phrased, you may also discuss your choice of university at this stage – or explain why your previous work makes you a good fit for this particular PhD (see below).

This PhD appeals to my existing research interests. But I’m also attracted by the opportunity to specialise and develop new expertise. Other projects didn’t seem to offer the same possibilities to pursue the questions that really interest me.
To be honest, I’ll do anything if it’s funded.

#7 What makes you the right candidate for this PhD?

If you’re applying for a pre-defined PhD project , you’ll almost certainly be asked why you are the best candidate to undertake it (especially if there’s funding available).

Remember too that some of these projects aren’t automatically funded. Their financing can depend on the quality of the student they attract, so your panel will be very keen to make sure you’re going to be ‘Dr Right’.

You might still be asked about your suitability for a self-proposed PhD (in Arts or Humanities, for example). This is another way for your interviewers to assess those all-important motivation and commitment factors.

Whatever your situation, this is a good place to talk a bit about your previous work at undergraduate or Masters level. The panel already knows the grades you received, but now you have the chance to talk about what you actually did on those degrees. Show passion and give examples.

If an undergraduate module on gothic literature inspired you to propose a PhD on an under-researched aspect of eighteenth-century culture, say so. If your Masters has given you skills in exactly the kind of statistical analysis required by this doctorate, mention that.

I’ve been interested in this topic since the final year of my undergraduate degree. This lead to my choice of Masters and helped me pick my dissertation topic, which I really enjoyed. I’m really excited to now go on and do some sustained research in this area as a PhD student.
Well, I really like books…

#8 What difficulties do you expect to encounter during this project?

This is another fairly popular question topic. It might form part of a discussion of your strengths, weaknesses and training needs. Or you might be invited to speak more specifically about the challenges involved in your project.

The panel isn’t trying to catch you out here, so don’t be afraid to speak frankly. All projects involve their own potential pitfalls and complications.

Overcoming them will be part of completing a PhD; recognising them will show that you're ready to begin one.

Show that you’ve put some thought into the approach necessary for your research and the methodology you might use.

Don’t be afraid to identify problems you aren’t yet certain how to solve (the best way to organise some data, the authors to include in your initial survey of texts, etc) but suggest how you might go about investigating them.

This is also a good time to mention any training needs (if you haven’t already) and speak about how you plan to take advantage of development opportunities within your programme.

I can see that some of the archival material I’ll need to examine for this project may be difficult to access. My first task will be to request permissions, arrange visits and develop a system for recording my findings. I’m hoping to undertake training in archival practices and seek advice from my supervisor as I develop these key skills early in my project.
Yeah, I know a PhD is hard, but I’m just going to see how I get on.

#9 What would you like the impact of this project to be?

‘Impact’ is an increasingly important factor in academic work and this applies to PhD research too – especially if you’re funded.

Even if your panel doesn’t explicitly ask about impact, it’s a good idea to mention what you hope the wider outcome of your project might be. If you are asked this question – and are prepared for it – this is a great chance to get a leg up on the competition.

Impact essentially refers to the measurable effects of research outside academia. It’s a given that your PhD will have an effect on future work in your field. But universities are increasingly focussed on the benefits of their work beyond the ‘ivory tower’ of higher education and research.

This is particularly important if your project is funded. The money supporting your studies will probably have come from public revenues (via a Research Council studentship) or from a large charity or trust. Those organisations will want to make sure their investment is worthwhile.

Examples of impact differ a bit between fields.

If you’re in the Social Sciences you may already have some idea of the ‘outputs’ from your project. These could be educational workshops, policy guidance, etc.

If you’re in Science, Medicine or Engineering you’ll hope to provide economic benefits to industry or to healthcare.

Arts and Humanities PhDs can have impact too. Think about the ways in which you could take part in public engagement, such as teaching people about local history or archival resources. You could partner with local schools, or even media companies producing documentary work.

I’m keen to share my passion for this subject with a wider audience. I’m hoping to maintain a public-facing blog documenting my research. I would also be keen to approach local schools and museums to discuss educational events.
To be honest, I can’t really see how my work on medieval manuscript preservation has any benefit outside the university. I’d still like some funding though.

#10 How will you fund this project?

This question is obviously more likely in interviews for non-funded PhDs. (It would be somewhat strange for a university to ask you about funding for a project that carries a full studentship).

However, you might still be asked about contingency plans if funding falls through (particularly if funding hasn’t been secured at this stage) or if your project over-runs.

Self-funding students will obviously need to go into more detail here. It’s not the responsibility of your university to ask for a complete breakdown of your finances (or for you to provide one). Yet the panel will want to be sure that you understand the cost involved in doing a PhD and have some kind of plans in place.

It’s fine to say that you’ll be looking for extra funding and part-time work as you start the project. But make it clear that you’ll still have enough time to apply yourself to the actual research.

I’ve shortlisted external funders and would be keen to investigate any small bursaries or other forms of support through the university. I’ve also made arrangements to work part-time, with the option to adjust this if my funding situation improves.
I have no idea how I’m going to afford this. Are you sure I can’t have a scholarship?

Interview questions about your choice of university

Unsurprisingly, your interview panel will be interested to know why you’ve chosen their university for your PhD.

If proposing your own project you’ll be asked about the fit between your research aims and the expertise of the department you’d be entering.

If applying to a pre-defined PhD, you’ll be invited to explain why this laboratory or research group particularly appeals to you and what you yourself can contribute to them.

Preparing for these kinds of questions is actually quite easy. Read up on your prospective university, department and supervisors. Show that you’re aware of the kind of work they do and give examples.

Feel free to mention other aspects of the university that appeal to you – its reputation, its alumni, even its location – but keep the main focus on the fit between your work and their research environment.

#11 Why have you chosen to study a PhD at this university?

Whatever else your panel asks, you can be pretty sure a question about your choice of university and department will crop up at some point in a PhD interview.

Your answer gives you the opportunity to do several important things.

Most obviously you can talk about the university and its research. Explain why you’d like to study with these supervisors in particular, when you’ve used their work during your Bachelors degree or Masters (if relevant) and how you can contribute to their future projects.

This is also an opportunity to reiterate your awareness of the wider research context for your project. If other departments or laboratories are undertaking related work, mention that. Say what attracted you to this university in particular and what you hope to achieve as one of its students.

If your PhD is part of a structured Doctoral Programme (as is increasingly likely) you can touch on any training and development opportunities it includes. You may mention these elsewhere in your interview, but make sure to include them when speaking about the university’s appeal to you.

Finally, show an awareness of any relevant research facilities, resources or collections.

Does the university hold a unique archive? Suggest how it might support your investigations. Has the laboratory you’re working in been equipped with any new facilities? Show that you know about them and are interested in using them (as relevant).

Universities spend a lot of money on facilities and resources. They want students – particularly postgraduate researchers – who will make use of them.

I’ve looked at lots of opportunities in this area. I feel that this project is the best of its kind, combining a unique research angle with a training programme that will meet my professional needs. I was already familiar with the work of my prospective supervisor and their research has greatly informed my own development as a scholar. I’m eager to combine my work with theirs and make use of the facilities the university has put together for this project.
I did my Masters here and already have a flat in the city.

#12 What can you bring to this research group?

PhD candidates are more than just students. You’ll function, in many ways, as a junior academic working within a wider research environment.

You’ll network with other students and academics. You’ll probably teach undergraduates. You may even publish some of your research (independently, or alongside your supervisor).

This means that your potential contribution to a department or laboratory is, in many ways, just as important as what it can offer you.

If you’re asked a question about this, take the opportunity to sell yourself a little.

Talk about your experience (academic or professional) and outline your ambitions. Make it clear that you will provide a return on the time, money and resources that the university is considering investing in you.

I’m eager to take advantage of the facilities and expertise this university has to offer. But I also want to contribute with my own expertise and enthusiasm. My previous work has given me the skills to make the most of the material involved in this project and I’m motivated to participate in new training. I’ll be proud to be a part of this department and would actively seek to represent it through my own publications and other research outputs.
I have a Bachelors and a Masters in this subject so I’m quite clever.

What to ask in a PhD interview

Your PhD entrance interview will probably end with an invitation for you to ask your own questions of the panel. This part of the interview is as important as the answers you'll have already given.

Asking good questions demonstrates your motivation. It also shows that you’ve given some genuine consideration to the project and / or programme you’re applying to.

Don’t just ask questions ‘for effect’ though. This is your chance to find out more about the project you’ll be doing, the people you’ll be working with and the expectations of you as a PhD student.

Remember: you’re a good student, with lots of potential. You’re considering at least three years of hard work with this university. You need to know that you’ll get on with your supervisor, that your work will be appreciated and that there are good prospects for your project.

You’re here to be interviewed for a PhD, but nothing’s stopping you from doing a little interviewing of your own.

Here are a few good questions to considering asking at your PhD interview. They include ways to express enthusiasm for your project, as well as some useful inquiries to make for yourself:

What will the supervision arrangements be for the project?

This shows that you’re thinking practically and looking ahead to the process of actually doing the PhD. It’s also something you’ll probably want to check for yourself.

What kind of training and skills sessions are offered as part of the PhD programme?

This shows that you’re interested in the development opportunities that form part of a modern PhD. It’s also a good way to address any concerns you have about your own skills. Be careful though. Avoid asking simple questions about material that’s already covered in the PhD project description, or in the university’s postgraduate prospectus.

Will I have opportunities to teach / present / publish?

This is something else you’ll want to know for yourself, but it also demonstrates a practical approach to your PhD (and future career). A good PhD programme should offer some opportunity to teach or demonstrate towards the end of your project. Equally, you should be encouraged to communicate your research and supported in doing so.

How many other PhD students has this supervisor seen to completion?

Don’t be afraid to ask about previous students and what they’ve gone on to do. You may also want to know if you’ll be working with or alongside other students and what the arrangements for that will be.

Are there likely to be any changes to the funding arrangements for the project?

A good practical question. If you’re applying for a funded place, make sure you understand the terms of that funding (its duration, whether you can combine it with any other income, etc). If you’re currently self-funding, it won’t hurt to ask if the university anticipates having any support available for you in future.

Is the university or department likely to run any events or other associated projects during the period of my PhD?

This might not seem like an obvious question, but it’s worth asking. The university might be in the early stages of planning a major hosted conference, external partnership or outreach project. Asking about these shows a genuine interest in your university and its research and suggests that you’ll be the right sort of PhD student to help deliver them. Needless to say, these kinds of projects are also excellent opportunities to gain experience and build your CV.

Other questions will probably occur to you according to your specific circumstances and the nature of the project you’re applying to.

Focus on the things that would concern you as a student actually doing the PhD in question, but avoid trivial topics. Your panel will be happy to talk about library resources and lab facilities. They’ll be less keen to advise on the best local pubs or say how often the bus runs between campus and town.

Also try to avoid asking for information that’s readily available elsewhere. This suggests you haven’t done your research – which is never a good sign when applying to do research.

Still looking for that perfect PhD project?

While you're preparing for the interview stage of applications, it's a good idea to keep searching as many PhD projects are advertised throughout the year .

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Mark bennett.

Mark joined FindAPhD to develop our first ever advice articles in 2013 and now serves as our Director of Audience & Editorial, making sure our websites and information are as useful as possible for people thinking about Masters and PhD study. He has a PhD in English Literature from the University of Sheffield, as well as Bachelors and Masters degrees from the University of Kent and the University of South Wales.

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Preliminary Qualifying Exam (PQE)

Overview In the spring of the second year, BPH students take a preliminary qualifying examination (PQE). The purpose of the PQE is to assess the student’s preparation and ability to embark on original scientific investigation. The primary goal of the PQE is to evaluate the student’s ability to identify and articulate a clear hypothesis for the thesis topic based upon familiarity with relevant literature, to propose critical experiments designed to prove or to disprove the hypothesis, and to interpret experimental outcomes in a manner that indicates awareness of the limitations of the methods used. It is not expected that preliminary data will be presented to support the hypothesis. The exam includes a written proposal and oral defense of that proposal on a topic related to the dissertation research.

Preparing for the PQE: Student Timeline

Complete the BPH Preliminary Qualifying Exam Course Form , listing the coursework taken to fulfill program requirements. The BPH Program must approve of satisfactory progress before the student proceeds in the PQE process.
The PQE committee will consist of three BPH program faculty * with relevant expertise for each student’s area of research, chosen by the student in consultation with the advisor and Faculty Director. Students may also name faculty with appointments in BPH-affiliated departments, who themselves might not be BPH members. The PQE committee chair , who will act to moderate and document the proceedings and outcomes of the exam, in addition to serving as an examiner, will be assigned from the ranks of the PQE Steering Committee , which is comprised of experienced examiners with collective expertise that cuts across the scientific spectrum covered within the program. The research/dissertation advisor is not part of the student’s PQE committee. The student must complete the PQE Committee Form and have it approved by the BPH Faculty Director. *NOTE: For students in dissertation labs outside of BPH (HILS-affiliated labs), one member of the student’s PQE committee can be from the HILS-affiliated lab’s department.
The student is required to send the PQE Committee Form and the PQE Course Form to the BPH Office as soon as they are complete along with the date, time and location of the exam. NOTE: It is critical for students to work with the BPH Office in scheduling PQEs so as to not conflict with other BPH academic endeavors such as Dissertation Defenses.
Topic and content : Students are expected to choose a topic for their exam that is ordinarily related to the topic of the student’s dissertation. While it is fully expected that the advisor would help guide the student toward their current topic of dissertation research and provided technical advice, the advisor and PQE committee are not allowed to assist the student in developing the scope and aims of the proposal. However, students are encouraged to get feedback and critical comment from their peers in the laboratory and program.
Preparation Period and Guidelines : During the preparation of the proposal, students may consult with faculty and other students. Consultation on general issues (clarification, technical advice, etc.) is appropriate, but solicitation regarding ideas for specific aims or experimental design is inappropriate. Faculty members, including dissertation advisors, should not read written drafts of the proposal in order to provide extensive help. Further, students should not seek feedback from the members of their exam committee.

THE WRITTEN PROPOSAL The written component is submitted to the PQE committee at least 10 calendar days before the oral exam. A copy of the proposal should also be provided to the BPH program office and the dissertation advisor. The proposal should be single spaced, following the form of an NIH post-doctoral fellowship application on the topic chosen (Ariel, 11 pt. font, 6-page maximum , excluding specific aims page and references). The proposal should include the following sections:

Specific Aims – Listing the objectives of the specific research proposed (e.g., to test a stated hypothesis, create a novel design, solve a specific problem, challenge an existing paradigm or clinical practice, address a critical barrier to progress in the field, or develop new technology). One page or less is recommended.
Background and Significance – Briefly sketch the background leading to the proposal, critically evaluate existing knowledge, and specifically identify the gaps that the project is intended to fill. State concisely the importance and health relevance of the research described in this application by relating the specific aims to the broad, long-term objectives. If the aims of the application are achieved, state how scientific knowledge will be advanced. Describe the effect of these studies on the concepts, methods, technologies, treatments, services or preventative interventions. Summarize your preliminary work, and work of others, that support the proposed research. Two pages are recommended.
Research Design and Methods – Describe the research design conceptual framework, procedures, and analyses to be used to accomplish the specific aims of the project. Briefly summarize how the data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. Describe any novel approaches, tools, technologies, or methods you may develop, and advantages over existing methodologies. Describe any novel concepts, approaches, tools, or technologies for the proposed studies. Discuss the potential challenges, difficulties, caveats, and limitations of the proposed procedures and alternative approaches to achieve the aims. Highlight anticipated outcomes, alternative interpretations, and potential pitfalls. Four pages are recommended.
References : (author, title, journal, inclusive pages, year)

THE ORAL EXAM The oral portion of the exam is built around a defense of the written proposal. At the outset of the exam, the student leaves the room for the PQE committee to discuss the merits of the written proposal and identify key areas they want to test the student on. Additionally, the Dissertation Advisor will be asked to attend the PQE exam at the very beginning to review the student’s preparation for the exam with the committee, but will not be present during the oral examination.

Once the student is asked back into the room, the exam starts with a short presentation by the student ( no more than 10 slides ) of the background, specific aims, rationale, preliminary data, and proposed approach. The examiners, having read the proposal in detail, then ask questions that are both directly relate to and tangential to the proposal. Students must defend and explain the hypothesis, methods, and anticipated results, while also recognizing alternative approaches and interpretations. The committee will invariably test the student’s understanding of the core principles that underlie the scientific problem and their origins. Students may be asked to draw models or experimental flowcharts on the board for clarity. The exam is usually completed in about 2 hours, at which time the committee deliberates an outcome with the student out of the room. The PQE Chair will serve not only as an examiner, but will also oversee the administering of the exam and arbitrate problems. The Chair will also see that the PQE Report Form is completed and on file in the BPH Program Office at the completion of the exam.

PQE OUTCOMES

The PQE committee evaluates the individual sections and overall content of the written proposal , with an emphasis on the rationale and feasibility of the aims and whether the aims are interdependent or not. Often, deficiencies in the written proposal are satisfactorily addressed in the oral exam. However, a critique of the proposal will be provided and students may be asked to rewrite specific sections or, on occasion, the entire proposal.

For the oral exam , the committee will deliberate on the student’s preparedness as it relates to:

1) Broad background knowledge of the chosen field and related literature; 2) The ability to deconstruct and think critically about the research project and field (i.e., what are the established first principles and how were they established and what assumptions have been made, but not proven, that impact the proposed study?); 3) The application of specific methods, including strengths, limitations, alternatives, and statistical considerations; 4) The capacity to interpret specific outcomes and define an appropriate course of subsequent experiments; 5) Presentation skills and clarity.

Specific comments on these areas of competency and others will be provided on the PQE Report Form .

Based on the performance of the student, the committee will make constructive recommendations or require specific actions related either to the written proposal or for improving in specific competency areas recognized from the oral exam.

The Potential Outcomes of the PQE are:

1) PASS – a constructive critique and list of recommendations for improvement is provided.

2) CONDITIONAL – This is a qualified pass. In addition to recommendations, a specific list of required changes to the written proposal or actions needed to improve competencies (e.g., through coursework, online modules, article reading, working with a tutor or faculty member on a specific area of deficiency, etc.) will be given and discussed with the student, along with a timeline for completion. For example, a student might be asked to write an additional one or two-page report on a specific area of importance to their project that they displayed insufficient knowledge of, which would be done after further reading of the literature and/or additional coursework. The satisfactory completion of these required actions within the set timeline will be overseen by the PQE chair, laboratory mentor, and Faculty Director.

3) RETAKE – If it is felt that both the written proposal and oral exam are inadequate, with substantial deficiencies being recognized in multiple areas, then the student will be asked to retake the exam. The PQE Report will delineate these deficiencies and make clear recommendations to the student on what needs to be improved. A decision to require a retake of the PQE must be signed off on by the Faculty Director and PQE steering committee after reviewing the case.

A meeting is then held with the PQE chair, Faculty Director, Advisor/PI and student to discuss the case and the specific improvements needed. Resources available to the student and a strategy to employ them for improvements in scientific understanding and reasoning, critical thinking, proposal writing, or presentation will be provided to the student. The student must retake the exam, including submission of a revised written proposal, within six months. Unless aspects of the previous exam were deemed potentially unfair to the student, the same PQE committee will administer the retake , and the Faculty Director or a representative of the PQE steering committee will attend as an observer. In rare circumstances, the student may be counseled to consider leaving the program at this stage.

4) FAIL – The outcome of the retake exam is either pass or fail , and a student can only fail the PQE at the retake stage. Failing the PQE would occur if a combination of the revised proposal and second oral exam are again found to be insufficient and demonstrating a lack of preparedness and qualifications to move forward in the program. If after final considerations by the Faculty Director, PQE steering committee, and mentor, it is concluded that the student is best served by leaving the Program to pursue other interests, the student will be asked to leave the program at the end of the semester.

Upon satisfactory completion of their PQE, BPH students advance to become PhD candidates.

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Human Genetics and Genomics, PhD

School of medicine, ph.d. program.

The Johns Hopkins Human Genetics and Genomics Training Program provides training in all aspects of human genetics and genomics relevant to human biology, health and disease.

Advances in human genetics and genomics continue at an astounding rate and increasingly they are being integrated into medical practice. The Human Genetics and Genomics Program aims to educate highly motivated and capable students with the knowledge and experimental tools that will enable them to answer important questions at the interface between genetics and medicine. Ultimately, our trainees will be the leaders in delivering the promise of genetics to human health.

The overall objective of the Human Genetics program is to provide our students with a strong foundation in basic science by exposure to a rigorous graduate education in genetics, genomics, molecular biology, cell biology, biochemistry and biostatistics as well as a core of medically-related courses selected to provide knowledge of human biology in health and disease.

This program is also offered as training for medical students in the combined M.D./Ph.D. program. Students apply to the combined program at the time of application to the M.D. program. (See section entitled Medical Scientist Training Program).

Research Facilities

Research laboratories are well equipped to carry out sophisticated research in all areas of genetics. The proximity to renown clinical facilities of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, including the Department of Genetic Medicine, and Oncology Center provides faculty and students with access to a wealth of material for study. Computer and library facilities are excellent. Laboratories involved in the Human Genetics Program span Johns Hopkins University; consequently supporting facilities are extensive.

Financial Aid

The program is supported by a training grant from the National Institute of General Medical Sciences. These fellowships, which are restricted to United States citizens and permanent United States residents, cover tuition, health care insurance and a stipend during year one. Once a student has joined a thesis lab, all financial responsibilities belong to the mentor. Students are encouraged, however, to apply for fellowships from outside sources (e.g., the National Science Foundation, Fulbright Scholars Program, Howard Hughes Medical Institute) before entering the program.

Applicants for admission should show a strong academic foundation with coursework in biology, chemistry and quantitative analysis. Applicants are encouraged to have exposure to lab research or to data science. A bachelor's degree from a qualified college or university will be required for matriculation. GREs are no longer required.

The Human Genetics and Genomics site has up-to-date information on “ How to Apply .” For questions not addressed on these pages, please access the contact information listed on the program page: Human Genetics and Genomics Training Program | Johns Hopkins Department of Genetic Medicine .

Program Requirements

The program includes the following required core courses: Advanced Topics in Human Genetics, Evolving Concept of the Gene, Molecular Biology and Genomics, Cell Structure and Dynamics, Computational Bootcamp, Pathways and Regulation, Genomic Technologies, Rigor and Reproducibility in Research, and Systems, Genes and Mechanisms of Disease. Numerous elective courses are available and are listed under sponsoring departments.

Our trainees must take a minimum of four electives, one of which must provide computational/statistical training.

The HG program requires the “OPTIONS” Career Curriculum offered by the Professional Development and Career Office. OPTIONS is designed to provide trainees with the skills for career building and the opportunity for career exploration as well as professional development training

Human Genetics trainees also take a two-week course in July at the Jackson Labs in Bar Harbor, Maine entitled "Human and Mammalian Genetics and Genomics: The McKusick Short Course" which covers the waterfront from basic principles to the latest developments in mammalian genetics. The faculty numbers about 50 and consists roughly in thirds of JAX faculty, Hopkins faculty and “guest” faculty comprising outstanding mammalian geneticists from other US universities and around the world.

The courses offered by the faculty of the program are listed below. All courses are open to graduate students from any university program as well as selected undergraduates with permission of the course director.

Trainees must complete three research rotations before deciding on their thesis lab. They must also participate in the Responsible Conduct of Research sessions offered by the Biomedical Program; starting at year 3, students must attend at least two Research Integrity Colloquium lectures per year.

Our trainees participate in weekly journal clubs, department seminars, monthly Science & Pizza presentations as well as workshops given twice a year on diversity, identity and culture.

At the end of the second year, trainees take their Doctoral Board Oral Examination. Annual thesis committee meetings must be held following successful completion of this exam.

Average time for completion is 5.3 years.

Course List
Code	Title	Credits
	Advanced Topics in Human Genetics	1.5
	Introduction to Rigor and Reproducibility in Reseach
	Evolving Concepts of the Gene	5
	Introduction to Responsible Conduct of Research	1
	Human Genetics Boot Camp	2
	Cell Structure and Dynamics	1.5
	Molecular Biology and Genomics	1.5
	Independent Research	1 - 18
	Systems, genes and mechanisms in disease	3
	Genomic Technologies: Tools for Illuminating Biology and Dissecting Disease	1.5
	Understanding Genetic Disease	0.5
	Pathways and Regulation	2

Graduates from the Human Genetics program pursue careers in academia, medicine, industry, teaching, government, law, as well the private sector. Our trainees are encouraged to explore the full spectrum of professional venues in which their training my provide a strong foundation. Driven by curiosity and a desire for excellence, our trainees stand out as leaders in the chosen arenas of professional life. They are supported in the development of their career plans by a program faculty and administration who are dedicated to their success, and by a myriad of support networks across the Johns Hopkins University, many of which are provided by the Professional Development Career Office of the School of Medicine.

Common PhD Interview Questions
Applying to a PhD

In this guide, we’ll share 11 common PhD interview questions and our suggestions on how to answer them.

A PhD interview is an essential step in securing a doctorate position. This is because it enables the prospective supervisor to get to know you better and determine whether you’d be a good fit for the project. Equally, it provides you with the opportunity to learn more about the project and what the university offers. Although being asked to attend an interview by the admissions committee can be daunting, it’s actually a positive sign. It means that based on your application and academic qualification, the academic department believes you have the potential to make a good PhD student for the position.

Whilst most questions you’ll be asked during your PhD interview will focus on your proposed research project, a handful of generic questions will almost certainly be asked. To give yourself the best chance of succeeding in the interview, we highly recommend that you prepare answers to these generic questions beforehand.

Without further delay, here are 11 common PhD interview questions and tips on how you should answer them.

1. Tell Us About Yourself

It comes at no surprise that this common ice-breaker question is at the top of our list. This question will likely be asked to help you calm your initial nerves and settle into your interview. As this is a warm-up question, aim to give the interviewer a general overview about yourself as opposed to a detailed breakdown. To achieve this, structure your answer into three sections:

Tell us about yourself - Common PhD Interview Questions

Academic History : start with a summary of your academic background – where and what have you studied? What grades did you achieve?
Research Topic : go onto explain your research interest in your chosen topic – what do you like about it? Do you intend to pursue a career related to it upon obtaining your degree?
Why a PhD : Finish with why you want to undertake a PhD – do you want to make a contribution to science? Do you want to get a job in academia?

2. Why Do You Want to Do A PhD?

Although you may have touched on this in your answer to the above, your interviews will want to know more of the detail if they ask this question as a direct followup.

Though it may appear obvious, the interviewer is specifically interested in discovering your personal motivations for undertaking a PhD . Too often, students answer this question by listing the benefits of a PhD. Not only will the interviewer already know the benefits of a PhD, but a generic answer also won’t help you stand out among the other applicants.

To answer this question and leave a lasting impact, try to include an academic or personal experience that has strengthened your passion for research. As well as this, outline what your career aspirations are and explain how the proposed PhD will help you achieve them. The key to selling yourself here is to let the interviewer know how passionate you are about the project without having to say it.

3. Why Did You Choose This Project?

This is your chance to show that you have researched the University, supervisor and project.

First, talk about the project. Is there a particular aspect that you’re interested in? If so, mention it. This will show that you’re engaged in the topic and already have a basic understanding of the field. Besides this, a great way to show that you’ve really looked into the research topic would be to discuss a certain part of the methodology the project could adopt.

Next, talk about the University – there may be several universities offering similar projects, but what makes this one stand out? Is it their resources? Is it the prospective supervisor’s research group? Is it their previous involvement in previous influential studies? Again, show that you’ve adequately researched the University and clearly understand what makes it unique.

Finally, you can mention if your decision to apply to their university has been influenced by the expertise of the proposed supervisor. Given that the supervisor will be highly knowledgeable in the research topic you’re applying to, it’s possible they may have contributed to some significant findings in it. If so, it’s acceptable to acknowledge this by mentioning how you would like the opportunity to work under their guidance. However, be careful not to overdo. Although you may be sincere in your answer, it can go against you if your supervisor feels like you’re trying to flatter him. To avoid giving this impression, focus on how his or her expertise will help you develop into a competent researcher.

4. Why Should We Choose You?

A very blunt question, but your PhD supervisor will want to make sure you’re the best candidate for the position. This is especially true given they’ll be responsible for supporting you over the next few years. Therefore, the primary aim of your answer will be to reassure them you have the skills and experience required to undertake a doctoral study. To achieve this, identify the critical knowledge and skills required for the project and discuss how you meet each of these. Follow up each justification with a short, relevant example to help give your answers more impact.

When asked this question, some students tend to just summarise their academic CV and cover letter . This isn’t an effective way to answer the question as you’re telling the supervisor information they already know about you. It’s fine to reiterate a few key points, however, try to delve deeper into what you can offer going forward as opposed to what you’ve achieved in the past. As part of your answer, identify the soft skills which will be imperative to the doctorate and state how you have each of these. These can include skills such as effective communication, great time management, problem-solving, adaptability and high work ethic.

5. How Did You Come up With This Project?

If you’ve developed your own research proposal , then expect to have to defend it as part of your interview. You should have a thorough understanding of what the current gaps in knowledge are surrounding your research topic and how these could limit the findings of your study. Besides this, you’ll want to show that you’re clear on what the key aims and objectives of your project are and appreciate how they could contribute to your field of research. This last point is essential in convincing the interviewers this project is a worthy pursuit. What makes your project groundbreaking and worth dedicating several years to?

The interviewer wants to know if you have thought out all aspects of your project and so will likely scrutinise the finer details of your proposal. Therefore, be ready to outline the literature you’ve read and discuss how you evaluated different methodologies before suggesting your current one.

If you want an edge over other students, you can also produce a high-level plan, similar to the one below (but with more detail), which outlines the different phases of your research project. This can include stages such as the literature review, undertaking experiments, producing your thesis and preparing for your viva voce. Although they won’t expect your plan to be fully accurate, especially given how dynamic research projects can be, it will show your positive attitude towards being imitative and taking responsibility for your project.

PhD Project Plan - How to Prepare for A PhD Interview

6. What Challenges Are You Expecting to Encounter in This Project?

A common PhD interview question students struggle with is “What difficulties do you think you will face?” This purpose of this question is to check how much you’ve thought about the project. Students who provide a poor answer generally do so as they think admitting to any potential difficulties may make them seem incompetent. This couldn’t be any further from the truth.

Identifying potential difficulties shows the interviewers you’ve given serious thought to the project. This reassures the supervisor that should you run into difficulties during the research, you’re not only capable of identifying them but also mature enough to do so. Not highlighting potential difficulties, whether it’s due to a lack of confidence or understanding the project, suggests your project will be vulnerable to problems which could go amiss.

When answering this question, try to follow up on each potential difficulty with how you intend to address it. This can include measures such as making use of internal development opportunities, enrolling onto external training courses or signing up to specific research master classes.

7. What Are Your Strengths and Weaknesses?

This is a standard question for most interviews, and a PhD interview is no different.

Pick strengths that compliment your PhD programme. For example, if applying to a Physics or Engineering PhD, mentioning you have good attention to detail would be highly beneficial given the amount of data analysis involved. Try to support each of your claims with a relevant example. Using the above case as an example, you could discuss how as part of your Bachelor’s or Master’s dissertation project, your high attention to detail allowed you to streamline some of your experiments or identify potential problems with your data.

Likewise, try to discuss a weakness that won’t be detrimental to your research project. An example of something you would want to avoid would be “I have a tendency to put the hard tasks off until the end until I know I should really start working on them to not miss any deadlines“. Although this may seem like a harmless response, it will seriously concern the interview panel. This is because a model student will need to be consistent in their efforts to meet the challenging workload, even in times of difficulty. As before, follow up your weakness with a plan on how you intend to address it. For example, if you state your weakness as public speaking, a suitable follow up would be to discuss how you would like to work on it by presenting your research to undergraduate students and attending seminars.

Finding a PhD has never been this easy – search for a PhD by keyword, location or academic area of interest.

8. Can You Describe a Time You Encountered a Problem or Challenge and How You Approached It?

A key trait of all successful researchers is the ability to overcome problems independently. Given that even a minor problem can derail a research project, it’s important for your project supervisor to know whether you can adequately address them.

Despite what your example may me, try to cover the below three aspects as part of your answer:

Identification – How did you identify the problem? Was a check you had in place triggered or did you stumble upon it naturally?
Deconstruction – How did you break the problem down? Did you identify any assumptions or limitations which could have been associated with it? If so, how?
Overcoming – How did you identify the solution? If you had several solutions, how did you determine the most sensible one? What did you learn from it?

Your example doesn’t need to relate directly to the research programme you’re applying to, however, it should be kept academic if possible. For example, you could discuss a challenge you encountered during your undergraduate dissertation project, such as limited literature on your research topic or inaccurate experiment results.

The key point to remember here is that a supervisor is there to supervise, not to fix all your problems. Not only will they not have the time do to this, but it will directly go against the ethical requirement of ensuring your work is yours and yours alone.

9. What Are Your Career Aspirations?

PhD Interview Questions - Career path and aspirations

Your interviewers will want to see that you’ve considered what you will do after completing your PhD. This is to help them determine what your motivations are and to confirm that you want to enrol onto a PhD for the right reasons. It’s clear that anyone who has thought through their decision will have a long-term plan in mind, even if it’s a handful of well-considered options.

Don’t feel like your answer needs to relate to academia. One of the many benefits of a PhD degree is that it can lead to a variety of career paths. By being open with your true intentions, they can better determine what support and training you’ll require from them.

Despite your long-term goals, research into this and know the route you’d like to take post-PhD. A good understanding of your career plans and how to get there will go a long way in conveying your commitment to the project.

10. How Will You Fund This Project?

The interviewing panel will ask about this if your project is self-funded or conditionally funded (e.g. competitive funding schemes where funding is not guaranteed).

You don’t need to provide a complete breakdown of your savings, nor would they expect you to. The primary concern the interviewers want to address is that you’re fully aware of the costs associated with undertaking a PhD . If you intend to apply for external funding or take on a part-time job, mention this. In doing so, make sure you stress that you will base your part-time work around your PhD and not the other way around. The interviewers want to reassure themselves that you will make your research your top priority throughout the course of your degree.

11. Do You Have Any Questions for Us?

This interview is not only for the supervisors to evaluate you but also for you to evaluate them, the PhD project and University.

Although you will have already researched the position at length, ensure you ask questions when offered to do so. Asking questions will show that you’re engaged and are an individual who likes to make informed decisions. Not asking questions, or not asking well thought-out ones, will send the wrong message.

If you’re wondering what makes a great question, a quick internet search for “What questions should I ask at a PhD Interview?” show’s you’re not alone. Some examples of great questions to ask in a PhD interview are:

Are there any major developments or partnerships planned for the department? – Although this won’t always be the case, the department may be planning to upgrade its research facilities or partner with another leading institution. Asking about this shows you’re genuinely enthusiastic about undertaking influential research.
What are the supervision arrangements? – This is a great way to find out if your expectations match that of your potential supervisors. This can include aspects such as how often the two of you will meet and what level of support they intend to provide.
Will there be any opportunities for teaching within the department? – If you intend to pursue an academic career after completing your research, this will be a brilliant way to show them you’re committed to your long-term plans. Even if you plan on following a different career path, asking will let you know whether there is any opportunity to earn whilst you study.
What opportunities will I have for presenting my research? – This shows you intend to be an active member within your research field. This won’t be great only for your development but will help the university increase its research network and reputation in the wider community.

Other PhD Interview Tips and Advice to Help You Prepare

Format – The format of the PhD interview varies depending on the University. If you’re unsure of what format your upcoming interview will follow, get in touch with the department you will interview with. They should be able to give you an idea about what to expect and how long it will typically last. This knowledge will prove invaluable when preparing for a PhD interview.
Video interview – Some interviews will be conducted as either a phone interview or a skype interview. This is especially true if you’re an international student still within your home country. If so, conduct your interview in a place with a reliable internet connection and a clean backdrop.
Attendance – Usually, your interview will comprise the primary and secondary supervisor. However, sometimes your interview panel can comprise non-technical staff or the Head of Department.
Presentation – You may be asked to prepare a PhD interview presentation if you’re proposing your own research topic . If you’re requested to do this, keep it brief, use at least 80% of the time they permit and base it around your research proposal.
Paperwork – Bring two to three copies of your application form, and if applicable, your research proposal. Although in most cases your interviewers would have bought their own copy, it’s better to be on the safe side.
Etiquette – If you’re unsure of what to wear to a PhD interview, a good general rule of thumb is to wear what you would to a formal job interview. In other words, keep it formal. Additionally, learn how to pronounce the names of the interviewers and any other staff members you may mention beforehand.
Practice – There’s a lot of truth in the old saying ‘practice makes perfect’. You will want to practise as many PhD interview questions as you can. Don’t just limit yourself to the ones discussed on here. Find as many PhD questions as you can and prepare draft answers for all of them. In fact, you don’t even need to limit yourself to questions specifically for PhD students. There are many out there that, although written for generic academic interviews or the job market, will be applicable to you. If you find yourself short on resources, try searching for ‘tell us a time when you…’ in google as these will provide great scenario-based questions you can practise with.

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Common PhD Viva Questions

It can be pretty difficult knowing how to prepare for your PhD viva. Having successfully defended my own STEM PhD remotely in the last year, I want to help you to prepare! What follows are some common PhD viva questions which your examiners may ask you. Plus some additional advice based off my own PhD viva experience.

For an intro to the PhD viva including the typical structure and potential outcomes please see my introductory post:

How to Defend a Thesis: An Introduction to the PhD Viva

How Much Do You Need to Prepare For A PhD Viva?

There is no hard and fast rule for how much you need to prepare. And unlike a written exam, there are of course no past-papers to practice on!

It may help ease your mind to think about what the purpose of a PhD viva is. Namely the purpose of the PhD viva (or defence) is to check that:

You did the work;
You understand the work;
The research is up to the standard for a PhD.

For more detail see my separate post here including Imperial’s PhD viva mark scheme.

In hindsight I probably didn’t spend as much time preparing for my viva as is normal. Though I did unexpectedly move house less than a week before !

Besides reading through my thesis once in the few days leading up to it, I didn’t spend much time thinking up answers to questions or “revising” certain topics which could come up. The viva went fine, but it wouldn’t have done me any harm to have been a little better prepared.

It certainly helped that I’d managed to schedule a viva which took place less than six weeks after I submitted the thesis so it was all very fresh in my mind. If you submitted your thesis months before your viva I’d suggest spending slightly more time refreshing your memory in preparation for questions you may get asked.

In summary, I think it’s useful for all PhD students to get an idea of some potential lines of questioning for their oral exam!

Update: Keen to get prepared for your viva? I’ve put together a set of viva preparation worksheets which are available in the resource library. Click the image below for free access!

Listed below are common PhD viva questions which I’ve roughly grouped together. We’ll start with some higher-level questions about your PhD which should be quite easy and friendly, then progress through to some more technical (and potentially unfriendly!) questions.

It is worth noting that many examiners will ask for a short presentation at the start of the viva and this could eliminate some potential questions. In this list I’ve left in the main questions I’d expect for this presentation to address, such as what future work you’d recommend.

Very few of the questions are ones you’re guaranteed to get asked, but I can assure you that you’ll get asked at least some of them!

General PhD Viva Questions – usually friendly!

These ones are simply inquisitive and you don’t really have to worry about getting caught out. The examiners are simply interested in the work and want an insight from someone who has spent the last few years working on it.

What is the most important finding from your PhD work?
What was the motivation behind this research?
Who is your research relevant to?
Which aspects of your work are you publishing? Follow on: and where?
What future work would you recommend?
What are the limitations of your research?
Which aspect of your work surprised you the most?
What are the potential applications of your PhD research?

Method-Specific Questions – mostly friendly!

These questions dive a little deeper but even so shouldn’t be too much of a cause for concern. They come down to your own judgement and as long as you justify your decicisions you’ll be fine in answering them.

Why did you do [things] a certain way?
What were the alternatives to [this certain method]?
Why did you test [that specific number] of samples?
What effect did you think changing [something in your method] would have?
What do you think you could have gained by using [another approach]?
Why did you not use [another technique]?
How did you deal with the ethical implications of your work?

Results & Analysis-Specific Questions – mostly friendly!

In a similar manner to the previous section about your methodology, you’ll often get some questions targeting your analysis and presentation of results.

What is this graphical figure illustrating?
Why was [this analytical technique] appropriate? Follow on: why did you use [this other technique]?
Which of your results do you find the most interesting?
How do you know that your findings are correct?

Literature Questions – may be less friendly!

This is where things may get tough if your examiners want to try and test your limits. Even so, they’ll still likely cut you some slack. If you have 100+ references it’s very possible that under the nerves of your exam you can’t remember specifics for each and every reference. Just don’t make things up. They’d rather you were honest than trying to deceive them.

Please explain the key findings of reference number [X]
Which papers would you say had the biggest impact on your work?
What do you think are the biggest differences between [these two previous studies]?
What have been the biggest advancements in the field over the last 10 years?
Why did you not reference [this other study]?
How does your work compliment the existing literature?
What do you think the next big advancements will be in the field?

Highly Technical Questions – potentially very unfriendly!

These are the ones I was a bit scared of getting, but it is a PhD viva after all. Of course it should be expected that you have a solid understanding of the principles that underpin your project. Even so it can be unnerving thinking of how large the range of potential questions like this can be!

Unlike at a conference or in other settings where you may be able to brush over things you’re not 100% comfortable with, there is no hiding when your examiners need to test your knowledge. Particularly when they have hours of time at their disposal to do so!

Explain how [a technique] works. This could be anything from sample preparation, equipment and analysis through to statistics. I’ve known people to get asked to explain things like a statistical t-test from first principles, with follow-on questions being asked with every answer to drill deeper.
Explain [some fundamental concept, phenomenon or principle]. Just like the last question but applied to basic-sciences. I’ve known students to get asked questions such as: explain energy (to a mechanical engineer) and explain toughness (to a materials scientist). I’m sure we can all explain these concepts to a certain level but my concern was whether or not I could explain them at a deep enough level to satisfy the examiner.

With both of these types of questions there ultimately comes a point where you (or the internal examiner ) can push back and say that answering that question was not the focus of your PhD!

What Questions I Got Asked at My Own PhD Viva

I was really surprised at my own viva how few questions I actually got in general.

The viva lasted a whopping five hours (excluding a quick break) and yet almost all of the time was spent discussing improvements to my viva to help with publishing papers.

Even so, I could have done with putting a bit more time into preparing for potential questions: which was my motivation to help you by putting together this post!

The few questions I had included:

If you were to do the project again would you do anything differently?
Clarification of what I meant by certain sentences in my thesis .

You may be wondering if I avoided getting asked deeper questions by the examiners because I already had a relationship with them so they were satisfied with my knowledge and capabilities. But I didn’t really know the examiners! I’d met my external examiner at a conference and he had seen me present but I’d never actually met my internal examiner before.

Instead, what I think did go a long way to helping was having already had something published in a respected journal.

Nevertheless, in a way I actually walked away a little unsatisfied by the lack of questioning at my PhD viva.

It was great to get so much feedback on my thesis which has already helped to get two more papers published since the viva, but I felt like it would have been nice to feel a bit more taxed and known that I could hold my own in the exam if it came down to it.

Now looking back on the viva 10 months later, I’m just happy to have the PhD done!

My Tips for Answering Common PhD Viva Questions

Keep calm and take your time before answering . There is no rush to answer questions. Having a sip of a drink may help provide a pause for thinking up an answer.
Tell the truth. If you don’t know something, just say so! It’s likely the examiners will quickly be able to tell that you don’t know what you’re talking about. Plus, there is the risk that they’ll ask deeper follow-on questions which could unravel any lies.
Try to enjoy the experience. Think of it as a discussion, rather than a police investigation. Your examiners are interested in the work and want to hear more about it!

If you’d like personalised help with preparing for your PhD viva I am now starting to offer a small number of one-to-one sessions. Please contact me to find out more or click here to book a call.

I hope these common PhD viva questions can help you to prepare for your own viva.

If there are other aspects of the examination you want covered, just let me know.

I have many more upcoming PhD (and beyond!) posts . I f you want to get notified about them you can subscribe here:

How to Plan a Research Visit

13th September 2024 13th September 2024

Self portrait photo of me thinking about the key lessons from my PhD

The Five Most Powerful Lessons I Learned During My PhD

8th August 2024 8th August 2024

Image with a title showing 'How to make PhD thesis corrections' with a cartoon image of a man writing on a piece of paper, while holding a test tube, with a stack of books on the desk beside him

Minor Corrections: How To Make Them and Succeed With Your PhD Thesis

2nd June 2024 2nd June 2024

Privacy Overview

Stanford Biology Preview Program (BPP): Navigating the Stanford Biology PhD application process

Stanford Biology PhD Preview Program: Navigating the Biology PhD application process

Applications for BPP 2024 will open on June 17th, 2024 and will close on July 21st, 2024. The program will be held online on September 12th and 13th, 2024.

Program Overview

The Stanford Biology Preview Program (BPP) focuses on supporting scholars from diverse and non-traditional backgrounds in navigating the application process to PhD programs. The Stanford BPP offers virtual workshops to raise awareness about Stanford’s Biology PhD Program application process, to build on the strengths of prospective PhD applicants, as well as provide individual mentorship and feedback on participants’ application materials. During the Stanford BPP, participants will also have the opportunity to engage with current Stanford Biology graduate students, postdocs, staff, and faculty to learn more about program requirements, expectations, and students’ experiences. Please note that the Stanford BPP is not the Stanford Biology PhD program, and participation in the BPP is not a requirement for prospective Stanford Biology PhD applicants, nor is it a guarantee of acceptance into the PhD program. You can check the schedule of last year’s BPP and recorded workshops below in the “2023 BPP schedule and recorded workshops” section.

Please direct any questions about the program or application to the BPP organizing committee: preview-stanfordbio [at] lists.stanford.edu (preview-stanfordbio[at]lists[dot]stanford[dot]edu) .

The future challenges of biology will require new generations of creative thinkers dedicated to tackling the unknown. Research has shown that teams with diverse perspectives are best suited for making progress on such challenges. This will require recruiting the next generation of excellent scientists with diverse backgrounds, interests, and strengths. However, the process of applying to graduate programs is unfamiliar to many prospective applicants. The Stanford BPP aims to facilitate participants’ understanding of the Stanford Biology PhD application process by helping them identify the differences in the admission processes in the Cellular, Molecular and Organismal Biology (CMOB) and Ecology and Evolution (Eco/Evo) tracks, and encourage them to apply to the Stanford Biology PhD program. We especially encourage applicants who have the potential to enhance the diversity - broadly defined - in STEM fields to apply. More details on the eligibility criteria can be found in the “Program details & Eligibility” section below.

Program details & Eligibility

Applications open on June 17th, 2024.
Applications close on July 21st, 2024.
Selected BPP participants will be notified by August 5th, 2024.
BPP participants will be paired with a current Stanford Biology graduate student or postdoctoral scholar for one-on-one mentorship throughout the application process.
The primary two-day program will take place September 12th, 2024 and September 13th, 2024 from 9:00am to 4:00 pm Pacific time (PDT). These will include sessions focused on navigating the application process for the two Stanford Biology tracks, one-on-one mentoring, group meetings with faculty, and social meetings with graduate students in the department. Some of the material covered during the program will be recorded and available for future reference. Please see 2023 BPP Schedule and recorded workshops for an idea of the sessions available.
In addition to the program on September 12th and 13th, the BPP organizing team will host additional optional sessions, as well as office hours to address questions about the application process (dates TBD).

Eligibility

The Stanford Biology Preview Program is open to people from all backgrounds. You are eligible to apply to the Stanford Biology Preview Program if:

you are a college graduate or will graduate by the summer of 2025
you are considering applying to the Biology PhD program at Stanford in the Fall of 2024
you are available (virtually) for the dates and times mentioned above
you have not participated in the BPP before

International students are eligible to apply.

Applications for the 2024 BPP will open on June 17th, 2024.

Biology Preview Program (BPP) application instructions:

To apply for the BPP 2024, please fill out the application form here . Please direct any questions about the application to the BPP committee: preview-stanfordbio [at] lists.stanford.edu (preview-stanfordbio[at]lists[dot]stanford[dot]edu)

The use of generative AI to substantially complete this application (e.g. submission of any output of an entered prompt as one’s own work) is not permitted. Applications will be screened by a generative AI detection tool, and we request that you disclose and document other uses of AI in the generation of your application during submission.

Please note that the Stanford BPP is not the Stanford Biology PhD program, and participation in the BPP is not a requirement for prospective Stanford Biology PhD applicants, nor is it a guarantee of acceptance into the PhD program.

Question: Can I apply to BPP if I haven’t graduated from college or if I am not yet a senior/rising senior?

Answer: Due to programming limitations, we will only accept applications from students who will graduate no later than Summer 2025 and plan to apply to graduate school in Fall 2024 (to start a program in Fall 2025).

Question: Do I need to apply or be accepted in BPP to be eligible for applying for the Stanford Biology PhD program?

Answer: No. You are not required to apply to or participate in BPP to be eligible for the Stanford Biology PhD program. These two programs are independent of each other. Participating in BPP does not guarantee acceptance into the PhD program. BPP aims to work with participants to navigate the application process and encourage prospective students to apply to the Stanford Biology PhD program, especially students from diverse backgrounds - broadly defined.

Question: When is the application deadline?

Answer: The deadline for applying to the Preview program is July 21st, 2024. You can fill out your application here .

Question: Do I have to pay a fee to apply for BPP?

Answer: No, this program is free to all participants.

Question: Do I need to participate in the entire program?

Answer: We require participants to be available for both days of the workshop. If you have any concerns about potential schedule conflicts, please contact us at preview-stanfordbio [at] lists.stanford.edu (preview-stanfordbio[at]lists[dot]stanford[dot]edu)

Question: Can I apply to BPP if I am considering applying for other graduate degree programs (MS, MD, JD, professional degrees)?

Answer: BPP is intended for those interested in applying to the Stanford Biology PhD program. Therefore, we are not accepting applications from students who plan to enroll in other graduate degree programs. You can find more information about other Stanford graduate programs here .

Question: Can international students apply to BPP?

Answer: Yes, international students are eligible to apply to the program.

Biology Preview Program (BPP) contact information

If you have any questions about the Biology Preview Program, please email preview-stanfordbio [at] lists.stanford.edu (preview-stanfordbio[at]lists[dot]stanford[dot]edu) . We will get back to you as soon as possible.

If you have general questions about applying to the Biology PhD program, please email biologyadmissions [at] stanford.edu ( biologyadmissions[at]stanford[dot]edu ) or visit the Stanford Biology PhD Admissions website .

Attend all workshops on September 12 and 13, 2024.
Fill out all surveys sent by the BPP organizing team.
Have a draft of your application materials (i.e. CV, statement of purpose) ready before meeting with your BPP mentor (an additional workshop on how to structure these application materials will be hosted before the two-day program).
Meet with your mentor at least three times throughout the application cycle and update your application materials after each meeting.

Have access to a device compatible (such as a computer, table, or smartphone) with Zoom in order to attend the workshops. Please contact us at preview-stanfordbio [at] lists.stanford.edu (preview-stanfordbio[at]lists[dot]stanford[dot]edu) if this is a concern for you.

Day 1 - October 12, 2023 - Link to recorded workshops

8:00 am - 9:00 am - Welcome and orientation (with BPP organizing team, Stanford Biology Chair and Director of Graduate Studies)
9:00 am - 10:00 am - Mentoring Up Workshop: mentorship in graduate school and strategies for mentees to improve mentoring relationships)
10:00 am - 11:00 am - Track-specific discussions: exploring the differences in Stanford Biology’s CMOB and Eco/Evo tracks
11:00 am - 12:00 pm - Guided tour of the Stanford Biology PhD application
12:00 pm - 1:00 pm - Social lunch/coffee break: informal chats with the BPP organizing team
1:00 pm - 2:00 pm - Finances in graduate school and Q&A

Day 2 - October 13, 2023

8:00 am - 9:00 am - Structured Q&A with graduate students
9:00 am - 12:00 pm - CV, Personal Statement and Mock Interview session with your BPP mentor
12:00 pm - 1:00 pm - Informal conversations with faculty
1:00 pm - 2:00 pm - Chat with previous BPP participants
2:00 pm - 2:30 pm - Closing remarks and survey

The 2024 BPP Organizing Team

Eduardo Tassoni Tsuchida (he/him)

Eduardo is a PhD candidate in the Cellular,Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the Stanford Biology department. He is a first-generation college student, born and raised in São Paulo, Brazil, where he received his bachelor and teaching degrees in Biological Sciences from the University of São Paulo. His PhD thesis focuses on understanding how protein synthesis is regulated when cells are exposed to environmental stress, such as heat shock and nutrient starvation. Eduardo has been one of the organizers of the Stanford BPP since 2020

Lauren Lubeck (she/her)

Lauren is a PhD candidate in the Cellular, Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the Stanford Biology department. Lauren was raised in Tampa, FL, and attended Brown University for her undergraduate degree, before spending two years as a Research Assistant at Rockefeller University in NYC. Lauren is currently based at Stanford’s Hopkins Marine Station in Monterey, CA, where she studies evolution and development of marine invertebrates specifically in complex life cycles. Outside of lab, Lauren loves baking, reading, beach volleyball, and spending time at the beach.

Ben Moran (he/him)

Ben is a PhD candidate in the Ecology and Evolution (Eco/Evo) track in the Stanford Biology Department. Ben grew up on a dairy farm in Minerva, OH, before attending Northeastern University for his undergraduate degree in Marine Biology. At Stanford, he has studied how human impacts on the environment can cause hybridization between freshwater fishes, and how maladaptive genetic interactions can lead to dysfunctional mitochondria in the resulting hybrids. In his free time, Ben enjoys getting outdoors in general, and plays the trombone and sings.

Weaverly Colleen Lee (she/her)

Weaverly is a PhD candidate in the Cellular, Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track. Weaverly grew up in the Philippines and obtained her undergraduate degree in Molecular Biology from the University of the Philippines, Diliman. She now works in Scott Dixon’s lab and is investigating novel therapeutic strategies and non-apoptotic cell death pathways in glioblastoma. Outside the lab, Weaverly is an avid scuba diver and volunteers at the California Academy of Sciences.

Nim Robles (they/them)

Nim is a PhD student in the Ecology and Evolution (Eco/Evo) track in the Stanford Biology Department. Nim grew up in El Paso, TX and is first-generation, low-income, and Latine. They received their undergraduate degree from Brown University in Geology-Biology in 2018, where they studied marine community ecology. They now study the evolution of hybrid incompatibilities and their role in the speciation process in Molly Schumer’s lab. Outside of the lab, they enjoy listening to musical theater and playing the violin badly.

Tris Dodge (he/him)

Tris is a PhD student in the Ecology and Evolution (Eco/Evo) track in Stanford Biology. He grew up in Oakland, California, and did his undergrad in Biology at Carleton College in Minnesota. He was then a technician at U.C. Berkeley, where he studied genetics of adaptation and domestication in plants. Now as a 4th year graduate student in Molly Schumer’s lab, Tris studies the genetics and evolution of pigmentation traits in swordtail fish. Outside of science, he enjoys running, eating, and catching lizards.

James Zwierzynski (he/him)

James is a PhD student in the Cellular, Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the Stanford Biology Department. He is a FGLI college student, and grew up in rural Indiana. He received a bachelor’s degree in Philosophy from the University of Notre Dame, then worked for three years as a research analyst at Indiana University School of Medicine while taking undergraduate science courses. He is in Kristy Red-Horse’s lab, and studies the development and remodeling of blood vessels in the uterus and placenta throughout pregnancy. Outside of lab, he enjoys reading, making pottery, and spoiling his pets.

Nadia Haghani (she/her)

Nadia is a PhD candidate in the Cellular, Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the Stanford Biology department. She grew up in sunny San Diego, California, and spent most of her summers playing soccer. Now, Nadia is broadly fascinated by the genetics underlying pigmentation traits and studies these in swordtail fish. You can commonly find her backpacking, tidepooling, or petting dogs!

Isabel Jabara (she/her)

Isabel is a PhD candidate in the Cellular, Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the Stanford Biology department. She grew up in Bethesda, MD and did her undergraduate degree in Molecular and Cellular Biology at UCLA. She is now in Max Diehn’s lab, where she is studying molecular predictors of radiation toxicity.

Claire Stewart (she/her)

Claire is a postdoctoral scholar in the Stanford Biology Department. She grew up in Loma Linda, CA and received her bachelor's degree in Biochemistry at Oakwood University in Huntsville, AL. She earned her PhD in Chemistry from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where she conducted research under the mentorship of Gary Pielak. She is now in the lab of Naima Sharaf, and focuses on the characterization of bacterial membrane proteins.

Nabor Vázquez-Martínez (he/him)

Nabor is a PhD candidate in the cellular, molecular, and organismal biology track. Nabor grew up in Highwood, Illinois before attending Lawrence University. He graduated with a Bachelors in Arts in Biology. Then he was a research associate in Dr. Daniel Colón-Ramos’ lab at Yale. Currently, his thesis tries to uncover molecules that lead to a unique microtubule organization during development in Dr. Jessica Feldman’s lab. Nabor tries to foster a welcoming environment and is passionate about diversifying STEM. He works with different organizations to recruit and promote STEM to high school/undergraduate students of underrepresented backgrounds. Outside of the lab, you can find Nabor playing soccer, taking nature walks and watching superhero movies/TV shows.

Meghan Nolan (she/her)

Meghan is a PhD candidate on the Cellular, Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the Biology Department at Stanford. She is a first-generation college student who received associate's degrees in Biology and Chemistry from the College of San Mateo before transferring to UC Berkeley, where she received a bachelor's degree in Molecular Environmental Biology with a concentration in Environment and Human Health. Meghan is part of the Sarafan ChEM-H Chemistry/Biology Interface (CBI) training program; her work in the Jacobs-Wagner lab applies chemical biology and cell biology to investigate lipid trafficking in the Lyme disease bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi. Meghan was in the first cohort of BPP participants and has been a member of the organizing team since 2021.

Carly is a PhD student in the Cellular, Molecular, and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the Stanford Biology Department. Originally from Los Angeles, CA, they received their bachelor’s degree in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology from UC Santa Cruz. They then worked as a Forensic Autopsy Technician before returning to academia to obtain a master’s degree in Molecular and Microbiology from San José State University. Under the mentorship of Dr. Bree Grillo-Hill, their research at San José State explored the role of pH dynamics in cell proliferation and cell death. Currently, their research interests include how nuclear mechanotransduction affects chromatin states across normal and cancer cell processes. Outside of the lab, they can be found at one of the Bay Area’s many skateparks doing aggressive roller skating with friends.

Amanda Muñoz Meneses (She/Her)

Amanda Muñoz Meneses (She/Her) is a PhD candidate on the Cellular, Molecular and Organismal Biology (CMOB) track in the O’Connell Lab. Amanda grew up in Colombia and is a FLI, non-traditional student who received a biology degree from the University of Cauca, and a master’s degree in Ecology and Evolution and Systematics from the University of Munich. She studies the host-pathogen interactions of chytridiomycosis using poison frogs as a model to understand how this disease affects organisms with chemical defenses in their skin. Outside of lab, Amanda loves spending time with her son, traveling, and working on her family business. Amanda was part of the first cohort of BPP in 2020, and has been part of the organizing team since 2022.

Naima Gabriela Sharaf (she/her)

Naima Gabriela Sharaf (she/her) is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Biology at Stanford University. Her laboratory focuses on utilizing biochemical and biophysical tools to study proteins within bacterial membranes, such as lipoproteins and membrane proteins. Born in Quito, Ecuador, Naima lived in Australia before immigrating to the United States at the age of twelve. She earned her B.S. degree from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and her PhD from the University of Pittsburgh, where she worked under Dr. Angela Gronenbron. She completed her postdoctoral research in Doug Rees's lab at Caltech. Outside of the laboratory, Naima enjoys playing chess, listening to music, and spending time with her husband and two sons.

Regardless of whether you apply to the Preview program, check out these resources for applying to Stanford’s Biology PhD program .

When applying for the Stanford Biology PhD program, you will need:

Online application (the application is quite long, so give yourself time to fill it out)
Statement of purpose
Letters of recommendation
Transcripts
TOEFL (required for non-native English speakers)
Non-refundable application fee of $125 (for information on fee waivers, please click here )

Stanford Biology is one of the 14 Stanford Biosciences PhD programs and is a department in the School of Humanities & Sciences. Refer to this page from the Office of Graduate Education for information about applying to Stanford Biosciences PhD programs. You can find additional resources, including a guide on getting into graduate school, on this page from the Stanford School of Humanities & Sciences.

Other programs:

Stanford Biosciences’ ADVANCE Undergraduate Institute (AUI) is a three-day intensive institute designed to introduce diverse sophomores and juniors to the Stanford University campus and provide guidance on the graduate school admissions process.

SSRP-AMGEN Scholars Program is intended for students who plan to pursue PhDs to gain valuable research experience. SSRP is a fully funded research-intensive program that takes place on Stanford’s campus for an eight-week period.

Ph.D. Program in Biology

Our graduate program provides students of diverse backgrounds with the opportunity to intensely engage in research in the biological sciences and contribute to the broader scientific community.

Average time to degree: 5.3 years

Percentage of graduates in post-doctoral or permanent positions: 94%

Average publications after completion of program: 3.8 per person

Ph.D. Program

The Department of Biology introduces graduate students to diverse fields of biological science, and provides them with expert guidance to excel in research. The department is invested in training students to become excellent scientists, researchers, science communicators, and instructors. We are a diverse and global community, committed to expanding scientific career opportunities to all. Some of our graduates become academics, whereas others find careers in government, private industry, public policy, or elsewhere (see where recent graduates are now). The ability to communicate ideas and research results clearly and convincingly is key to success in any career.

Experience Biology at Georgetown University

Professors and current students share their perspectives on Georgetown’s cutting-edge biology graduate program.

Potential applicants are urged to identify and contact potential research mentors directly before applying. Please refer to the research page and the list of faculty interested in accepting students . Not all laboratories will have open positions available for a new graduate student in a given year.

Financial Assistance for PhD Students

students who are accepted into the phd program in biology are guaranteed a minimum of five years of full funding. this funding includes:.

Stipend The stipend for PhD students in Biology is set by the Collective Bargaining Agreement between Georgetown University and the Georgetown Alliance of Graduate Employees ( GAGE ). The current stipend rate is $36,934 for the year. The stipend is paid on a 12-month contract, typically in 26 biweekly paychecks.

Tuition Waiver The Graduate School of Arts & Sciences (GSAS) provides full tuition waivers for all PhD students for the duration of the PhD program.

Health Insurance Health insurance is required. The GSAS provides free student health insurance to all students. The insurance covers doctor’s visits, hospital stays, and prescription drugs. Students may waive this benefit if they prefer a different plan through parents or a spouse.

Dental Insurance The GSAS provides free dental insurance to all students. The insurance covers routine dental care, such as cleanings and exams.

Yates Athletic Facility All students are eligible to use the Yates athletic facility for free. The facility has a gym, swimming pool, and fitness classes.

Parental Leave Graduate student workers are guaranteed six weeks of paid parental leave. This leave can be used to bond with a new child or to care for a sick child.

Medical Leave Graduate student workers are guaranteed six weeks of paid medical leave. This leave can be used to recover from a medical condition or to care for a sick family member.

To learn more about financial assistance for PhD students, please visit the Graduate Funding page. You can read more about what it means to do a PhD in a union-protected graduate program here

Student Quotes

“Until you start your journey in grad school you might not know what you are missing out on. Other than the course work, grad school has been instrumental in inculcating important life values and skills such as confidence, time management, survival, and holding personal and professional relationships in higher esteem. ”

“Studying at Georgetown has enabled me to be a lot more confident in my ability to ask questions and chart my own path in scientific research. My advisor and mentors here at Georgetown have been top quality in terms of both academic and personal support”

“Georgetown is a place with an environment conducive to learning and professional growth for prospective scientists working towards their graduate degrees and beyond. In this program, I found mentorship and training that foster the critical thinking required to answer the questions I am interested in. I found the multidisciplinary nature of the graduate student body to be engaging and supportive from the beginning of my journey.”

“The breadth of research that goes on in the Bio department really facilitates a broad understanding of biology from the life of single cells to the life of much larger organisms. It really is something unique that you don’t get at other more specific departments and has really helped me think outside of the box with my own work.”

Graduate Research Opportunities

Learn about the research programs that the department of Biology offers and find out which programs are recruiting graduate students.

Graduate Teaching Opportunities

Find out about the many opportunities that are offered to graduate students to develop teaching and mentoring skills.

Graduate Funding Opportunities

Learn about stipend funding and the additional funds from the GU Graduate School offered to help support graduate dissertation research or travel to meetings.

Department of Biology and Biochemistry

Graduate Programs

Prospective Students

Ph.D. Programs

The Department of Biology & Biochemistry offers Ph.D. degrees in Biochemistry and in Biology. The Ph.D. program in Biology has two degree tracks: the Cell and Molecular Biology degree track, and the Ecology and Evolution degree track.

Biochemistry

Faculty and graduate student research focuses on biochemical processes at the subcellular and macro-molecular levels and encompasses a variety of fields and methodologies. Areas of study include macromolecular structure and function as elucidated by nuclear magnetic resonance; X-ray crystallographic and spectroscopic techniques; enzyme reaction mechanisms; genomics; computational methods in molecular biology; computational biochemistry/biophysics; computer-aided drug design; signal transduction; neurochemistry; ion channel structure and function; the role of RNA in molecular evolution; the structure and function of virulence factors; and biotechnology.

View requirements

Cell and Molecular Biology

The faculty and students in this program share common interests in understanding the molecular mechanisms which drive both fundamental cellular processes and the developmental processes of morphogenesis, cell differentiation and gene regulation. The strength of the program is the diversity of the biological systems under study, which stimulates extensive exchange and collaboration between the various groups. Faculty expertise spans the disciplines of cell and developmental biology, molecular biology, physiology, microbiology, neuroscience, immunology, and genetics.

Ecology and Evolution

This program blends knowledge and methodology from diverse biological disciplines to better understand ecological and evolutionary processes operating at multiple scales—from molecules to individuals to societies to communities. Current research programs include experimental evolution, evolution of development, evolutionary genetics, behavioral ecology, community ecology and evolutionary bioinformatics in systems ranging from bacteria to ants, from protists to grasses. Faculty conduct studies in natural habitats including the Colorado plateau, and coastal salt marshes, and in artificial systems such as petri dishes and theoretical models.

Financial Assistance

The Department of Biology & Biochemistry believes that high-quality graduate studies require a commitment to high-quality research. As a result, our graduate students receive financial support sufficient to provide a modest standard of living that enables them to make a full-time commitment to their graduate training. Some of the types of financial support available to students are listed below. Additional financial assistance may also be available from the College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics and the University of Houston Graduate School .

Teaching Assistantships (TAs)

TAs are the main source of support for first-year students but are available in subsequent years for students not supported by grant funds. TAs will be provided a salary of $2,194.66/month (U.S. $26,335.92 per year). This level of support is sufficient for international students to obtain an F1 visa.

Research Assistantships (RAs)

RAs are the main source of support for students after their first year in the program. RA support is provided through grants to the lab the student joins to conduct graduate research. RA support is currently $2,194.66/month (U.S. $26,335.92 per year).

Graduate Tuition Fellowship (GTF)

Students supported as TAs or RAs are eligible for tuition fellowships to cover their mandatory tuition and fees. These fellowships provide the students with approximately $20,000/year to pay for mandatory tuition and fees. See more information on eligibility criteria .

Non-resident Tuition Waiver

Out-of-state students and international students employed as TAs or RAs receive a waiver of the additional tuition charged to non-residents.

Presidential Fellowship

All applications submitted for admission to the Biology & Biochemistry Graduate Program are reviewed by our Graduate Recruiting and Admissions Committee. This committee is comprised of a group of faculty from each division of the department. Once admitted to the program, accepted applicants are further evaluated for the Presidential Fellowship. The criteria for evaluation are as follows:

Appropriate academic coursework in the major
Outstanding grades in previous university coursework
Demonstrated research ability or potential for research excellence.

If awarded, the student receives $2,000/per year for the first two years. This fellowship is in addition to the monthly stipend and Graduate Tuition Fellowship given to all students admitted to our graduate program. Students must meet minimum full-time enrollment (9 hours) and a cumulative 3.00 GPA to maintain the fellowship each semester it is held.

Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo Scholarship

This scholarship is awarded to outstanding students enrolled in our graduate program. The maximum award is $2,000/year. Recipients must be Texas residents and citizens or permanent residents of the United States. Students apply annually on the UH Foundation website.

Medical Insurance

In addition to their stipend, graduate students employed as TAs or RAs receive $150/month for health insurance. For more information about the student health insurance plan endorsed by and designed especially for the University of Houston, please see Student Health Insurance .

Cost of Living

Houston has a relatively low cost of living compared to most major U.S. cities and many low-cost apartments and houses are available.

Admission Requirements

The minimum entrance criteria for doctoral graduate studies in the Department of Biology & Biochemistry are as follows:

Completion of a baccalaureate degree (B.S.) with a major in Biology, Biochemistry, or an equivalent discipline. You can apply to our programs before you complete your degree, provided you graduate before you enter the program. ( NOTE: A prior M.S. is not a requirement to apply to our Ph.D. programs.)
Grade Point Average ≥ 3.0 / 4.0 (overall or for the last 60 hours of coursework completed).
The GRE is no longer required by our Ph.D. programs . If you decide to submit GRE scores, UH's Institutional Code is 6870.
Informative, coherent and well-written statement of purpose .
Three strong letters of recommendation .
English Language Proficiency Requirement. All applicants, regardless of citizenship status, must demonstrate proficiency in English to obtain admission. To fulfill this requirement, applicants must satisfy one of the following criteria: a) Bachelor's degree (or higher) earned from a regionally accredited U.S. institution or at an institution at which English is the medium of instruction in the following countries: Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the Bahamas, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Jamaica, Liberia, Trinidad, the Virgin Islands, Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Barbados, Grenada, Turks and Caicos, and English-speaking Canadian provinces. b) TOEFL. The minimum TOEFL score required is 79 for the internet-based test. The minimum TOEFL score for the new revised paper-based exam is: Reading 20, Listening 20, and Writing 20. TOEFL scores must be received directly from Educational Testing Service (ETS). UH's Institutional Code is 6870. c) IELTS. The minimum IELTS score required is an overall score of 6.5. The testing agency should mail the official results directly to UH. No electronic IELTS are accepted. d) Duolingo. A minimum score of 105 is required.

Use the online application to submit all your documents electronically. Your references will be automatically contacted to submit their letters of recommendation. Please follow the instructions on the UH Graduate School Application page.

Tips for Applying

What we look for.

We seek to admit students who show a strong record of academic achievement and a high level of motivation and interest. Your record of academic achievement and ability is conveyed by your transcripts, GPA, and Graduate Record Exam (GRE) scores, as well as your letters of recommendation. Your level of motivation and interest is conveyed by your personal statement and letters of recommendation. We will evaluate your application on the basis of your transcripts, test scores (GRE scores for everyone, TOEFL/IELTS scores for foreign students), your personal statement, and the letters of recommendation.

Transcripts and GPA

Successful applicants to our program generally have GPA's of 3.00 or higher. However, a student with a high GPA and a transcript with lots of non-rigorous courses may not be viewed as favorably as a student with a somewhat lower GPA who has taken courses that are essential preparation for graduate work (such as Genetics, Cell Biology, Biochemistry, Evolutionary Biology, etc.). It is not essential to have all of these" foundation" courses before you start graduate school, but if you do not have most of them, you will not be well prepared for graduate school.

The GRE provides information regarding your overall academic ability. You are more likely to do well on the GRE if you prepare for the exam. Preparation guides and practice tests are available at most college bookstores.

Your school may provide assistance in preparing for the GRE; check with your career or academic counseling office.

TOEFL/IELTS

This exam is required for all applicants who have not obtained a prior university degree from an institution where English is the medium of instruction (see list of exempt countries and English Language Proficiency Requirements ). These scores must be officially reported to the University before we can admit you to the program or offer financial support.

Statement of Purpose

Your personal statement is your opportunity to tell us why you want to join our graduate program and what your long-term goals and interests are. You do not have to know exactly what you want to do, or what scientific questions you want to pursue, but you should tell us what excites your interest or curiosity. Be specific. Your statement is also a chance to discuss any aspect of your application (such as academic history) that you feel warrants further explanation.

If there is a reason for your low GPA (a bad semester due to personal difficulties, for instance), you can provide a brief explanation in your personal statement. High GRE scores can make up for a low GPA, and a high GPA can balance out low GRE scores. In some cases, research experience and strong letters of recommendation can make up for low grades and low GRE scores.

Letters of Recommendation

You will need 3–4 letters of recommendation. Most or all should be from your professors, and the letters should come from people who know you personally as well as your academic performance. Make sure your letter writers know your academic record, reasons for wanting to go to graduate school, and long-term goals.

Contacting Faculty

You can contact individual faculty members in our department whose research is of interest to you, either before or after sending your application. Faculty interests and contact information are available on this Faculty Profiles webpage.

Find more information about the application process on the How to Apply page on the NSM website.

Open for Applications: June 1
Deadline: September 1
Open for Applications: August 1
Deadline: January 1

For More Information

Contact: Rosezelia Jackson 713-743-2633 [email protected]

Department of Biological Sciences

Graduate Admissions

The ph.d. in biological sciences.

The graduate Program in Biological Sciences provides our students with training across the foundational areas of the biological sciences, with a focus on engaging in state-of-the-art research with renowned faculty. Our graduates are successful in securing careers in science and related fields in a variety of settings that include academic research and teaching, biotech, and governmental agencies. Students in the program develop critical thinking skills and technical expertise through dissertation research, a firm foundation of course work, seminars, teaching opportunities, and a wide range of professional development activities.

Because the research interests of the faculty in the Department of Biological Sciences are diverse, our graduate program is highly flexible and allows students and their faculty mentors to design paths that maximize the growth of each individual student. The biological sciences program also offers training in teaching, and all graduate students serve as a teaching assistant for at least one semester during their graduate training.

First year graduate students engage in course work, professional development exercises, and laboratory research rotations. This combination allows each student to grow in multiple areas of biology while also identifying an area of specific interest. Students then select a mentor and begin dissertation research in their lab of choice. Specific requirements for completion of the doctorate in biological sciences are detailed in the curriculum section of this website.

Applying to the Program

Students enter the biological sciences program via two pathways. Applications may be made directly to the Department of Biological Sciences; here students enter the program at the beginning of their first year (direct entry). Alternatively, students can apply to Vanderbilt University’s Interdisciplinary Graduate Program (IGP) or the Quantitative and Chemical Biology Program (QCB) and after rotating with biological sciences faculty, may enter Biological Sciences at the end of their first year.

Qualifications: the Program in Biological Sciences seeks students with backgrounds in any area of biology or a related discipline and, most importantly, a passion for original research. These areas include molecular, cellular, chemical, developmental, evolutionary, organismal, or computational biology.
Application deadline: applications for the start of the upcoming academic year open on August 1 and must be submitted through the Vanderbilt Graduate School application portal by December 1 .
Application: strong applications to the biological sciences program include the student’s academic record from prior institutions, a statement of purpose that details the student’s interests in graduate school and beyond, and several reference letters that provide insight into an applicant’s prior experience, motivation for graduate school, and aptitude for research. Results from the GRE exam are not required.
Evaluation and interviews: all applications are evaluated by a dedicated admissions committee. The top applicants are then invited to an in-person interview that is fully paid for by Vanderbilt University.
Questions? Please email [email protected] or call (615) 343-2008 for assistance.

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Example PhD interview questions and answers

How to succeed in your PhD interview with answers to frequently asked questions

The interview is a crucial and inevitable part of the PhD application process. It is an opportunity for the supervisor(s) and funding bodies (if it is a funded PhD) to determine whether you are the right candidate for the challenge that is undertaking a PhD. Although this can be a daunting process, with preparation you can go into your interview feeling confident and put your best self forward.

Interviews for PhD positions will likely involve a short presentation on the proposed research project and/or your previous research experience. You can adapt the focus of this depending on how much prior experience you have to showcase. If you have an extensive research portfolio from your BSc/MSc project or time spent in industry, do not shy away from it, especially where there is direct relevance to the project you are applying for.

Following the presentation, you will be asked questions and will also have the opportunity to ask questions of your own (we recommend having a few prepared!).

We have collated some of the questions that are frequently asked in a PhD interview, along with tips on how to answer them. But please remember, the interview process varies widely and this blog aims to provide a suggestive framework on how to answer.

“Tell us about yourself”

This is a typical opening interview question and is often used as an icebreaker. You can practice your answer to help you get off to a good start when you will be most nervous. While it might be tempting to go straight into the details of the project and your career thus far, you can ease into the interview – there will be plenty of opportunity to discuss the project later. Instead, you can focus on your academic career so far, your scientific interests (e.g., a strong interest in biochemistry), and relate them to your desire to undertake a PhD.

“Why do you want to do a PhD?”

This is an important question that you also need to ask yourself, and be convinced of the answer! A PhD is a big undertaking and having the right reasons will carry you through the potentially tough times. Example points to include here:

A professor during your undergraduate degree that inspired you
A desire to help improve the outcome of patients with a specific disease (relevant to the proposed project)
A love for science that you want to put into practice and contribute to the collective knowledge in that area
You are an inquisitive problem-solver and want to combine this with your interest in [topic].

Stay true to yourself with the reasons that motivate you to do a PhD – there is no right answer and if you have come this far you likely have the right motivations.

“Why do you want to work on this project/Why do you think this project is important”?

This is your opportunity to go into the details of the research proposal and its relevance in the wider context of the research field. This is particularly important if the project will be competing for limited funding. You want to demonstrate to the panel that this project is a worthwhile investment and has clear, impactful outcomes. You can also discuss specific techniques that will be used in your PhD, and how these are cutting-edge and are perhaps more likely to lead to a publication. If the project has potential for collaboration, highlight this and the intended outcomes.

“Why do you want to work in this research group/for this PI?”

Make sure you have thoroughly researched your supervisor’s group, and their previous publications and collaborations. Perhaps highlight a recent high-profile publication or a new technique they have recently developed. This will show your commitment and enthusiasm to join the group, as well as reflect what the group and university are proud of. A supervisor needs to know that your research goals align and that you will mesh well with the rest of the team.

“What can you bring to this group?”

This is your opportunity to showcase both your technical and soft skills. Here you can mention the research experience you already have and how these skills and ideas will enhance the lab. If you do not have much research experience, talk about how you are a fast learner (with examples) and have a keen sense of science and willingness to learn. As mentioned in the previous answer, your future supervisor will want to ensure you are a valuable addition to their team. If you are not specialized in a technique, don’t worry – you are here to learn and most people starting a PhD have limited lab experience.

“Why do you want to be at this university/on this funding program?”

A PhD is a significant time and financial commitment; the funders or members of the university need to know candidates are committed to them as well as the research. Spaces are limited and there needs to be differentiation between candidates. A tip here is to flatter your interviewers by mentioning what they are proud of about their institutions (easy to find online). Example points to mention:

A world-leading institution with an excellent publication and funding record
Research collaborations that interest you or could benefit you (e.g., close ties with clinical trials or pharmaceuticals companies)
Specific facilities or equipment the university has to offer (e.g., a super-resolution microscope)
The ethos of the university is one you closely align with
Funding programs that come with additional training and funding opportunities for internships and collaborations. Specific benefits outside of the research are the ones you will want to highlight to the funders, to show your commitment not only to the PhD but also to their investment in you.

“What makes you the right candidate for this PhD project?”

This can be a tough question to answer if you have had limited prior experience, but do not be afraid of positively selling yourself. Focus on your determination and desire to contribute to research, your drive for this project, your technical skills, your belief in the impact of the project, and how well suited you are to your supervisor/supervisor’s team.

“What would you like the impact of this project to be?”

Impact in research is mostly measured by publications or obtaining data to apply for further grants. Your ability to discuss this shows your awareness of the research world beyond the microsphere of your PhD. Research is meant to be disseminated via publications and conferences. The immediate impact of your project will not be clear-cut at the start, but you can openly discuss it, which shows a maturity that will benefit you in the interview. Essentially, you want to demonstrate that the proposed project will have an impact beyond the PhD itself and will inform future research.

“What difficulties do you expect to encounter during this project?”

Here you can discuss the specific technical challenges you have identified (e.g., I will need to optimize the culture of these primary cells or I will need to establish a new model to investigate vascular dementia in iPSCs). This shows that you have thoroughly considered the project and are not afraid of facing challenges. If you can, discuss how you plan to overcome these challenges.

“What are your strengths/weaknesses?”

This is another popular interview question and one to prepare. Personalize your answer with examples and use tools like STAR (S-situation, T-task, A-action, R-response) to structure your answer. When discussing weaknesses, you can share how you are working on these, or perhaps put a positive spin on them. Read our interview success blog for general interview tips !

“What do you want to do after your PhD?”

You may not be sure of your future career plans at the time of your interview, but it’s good to prepare a response as this is a common question. Doing a PhD sets you up for an academic career path in research and teaching. Even if this is your plan for your career, emphasize your desire to work in academia and teaching. It is also okay to say you will keep your options open to whatever paths come your way during the 4+ years of your PhD.

“Describe a time you experienced a setback and how you overcame it.”

This is a very common interview question in general and we would advise giving an example in a professional or learning setting rather than a personal one. Plan ahead and respond in a STAR format to help you give a clear and impactful answer. If a similar situation arose again and you dealt with it differently, make sure to highlight this.

“How will you keep yourself motivated throughout the project?”

You can discuss your driving factors behind wanting to do a PhD, and this project specifically. Be open to the knowledge that you will experience peaks and troughs throughout your time as a PhD student – this demonstrates to the interviewers that you’re realistic about the hardships of doing a PhD. Perhaps mention the hobbies (exercise, reading, cooking, etc.) you use to relax outside of work and ensure you maintain a healthy work-life balance.

“What are some recent publications in the field?”

This question is to ensure you have read around your project before the interview and are ready to discuss/summarize some recent publications. This shows your dedication and passion for the PhD project and your preparation for the interview.

“Do you have any questions for us?”

You should have some questions prepared to ask the interviewers. This reinforces your interest and that you are serious about the PhD.

Here are some questions you can ask:

If speaking directly to the supervisor, you can ask project-specific questions or clarifications from the research proposal
Will I have any teaching opportunities?
Are there opportunities and support available to disseminate my work (e.g., conferences, publications)?
What are the training and career development opportunities?
Are there any developments planned for the department or university?

For other tips on careers and life as an early-career researcher, please visit our ECR hub .

Blog written by Lucie Reboud, intern at Proteintech, PhD student in cancer research at the University of Manchester.

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Frequently Asked Biology Questions and Answers

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Cell Biology
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Biology is a wondrous science that inspires us to discover more about the world around us. While science may not have the answers to every question, some biology questions are answerable. Have you ever wondered why DNA is twisted or why some sounds make your skin crawl? Discover answers to these and other intriguing biology questions.

Why Is DNA Twisted?

DNA is known for its familiar twisted shape. This shape is often described as a spiral staircase or twisted ladder. DNA is a nucleic acid with three main components: nitrogenous bases, deoxyribose sugars, and phosphate molecules. Interactions between water and the molecules that compose DNA cause this nucleic acid to take on a twisted shape. This shape aids in the packing of DNA into chromatin fibers, which condense to form chromosomes . The helical shape of DNA also makes DNA replication and protein synthesis possible. When necessary, the double helix unwinds and opens to allow DNA to be copied.

Why Do Certain Sounds Make Your Skin Crawl?

Nails on a chalkboard, squealing brakes, or a crying baby are all sounds that can make one's skin crawl. Why does this happen? The answer involves how the brain processes sound. When we detect a sound, sound waves travel to our ears and the sound energy is converted to nerve impulses. These impulses travel to the auditory cortex of the brain's temporal lobes for processing. Another brain structure, the amygdala , heightens our perception of the sound and associates it with a particular emotion, such as fear or unpleasantness. These emotions can elicit a physical response to certain sounds, such as goose bumps or a sensation that something is crawling over your skin.

What Are the Differences Between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells?

The primary characteristic that differentiates eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic cells is the cell nucleus . Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus that is surrounded by a membrane, which separates the DNA within from the cytoplasm and other organelles . Prokaryotic cells do not have a true nucleus in that the nucleus is not surrounded by a membrane. Prokaryotic DNA is located in an area of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid region. Prokaryotic cells are typically much smaller and less complex than eukaryotic cells. Examples of eukaryotic organisms include animals, plants, fungi and protists (ex. algae ).

How Are Fingerprints Formed?

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Fingerprints are patterns of ridges that form on our fingers, palms, toes, and feet. Fingerprints are unique, even among identical twins. They are formed while we are in our mother's womb and are influenced by several factors. These factors include genetic makeup, position in the womb, amniotic fluid flow, and umbilical cord length. Fingerprints are formed in the innermost layer of the epidermis known as the basal cell layer. Rapid cell growth in the basal cell layer causes this layer to fold and form various patterns.

What Are the Differences Between Bacteria and Viruses?

While both bacteria and viruses are capable of making us sick, they are very different microbes. Bacteria are living organisms that produce energy and are capable of independent reproduction. Viruses are not cells but particles of DNA or RNA encased within a protective shell. They do not possess all of the characteristics of living organisms. Viruses must rely on other organisms in order to reproduce because they do not possess the organelles needed to replicate. Bacteria are typically larger than viruses and susceptible to antibiotics . Antibiotics do not work against viruses and viral infections.

Why Do Women Typically Live Longer Than Men?

In almost every culture, women usually outlive men. While several factors can influence the life expectancy differences between men and women, genetic makeup is considered to be the major reason women live longer than men. Mitochondrial DNA mutations cause males to age faster than females. Since mitochondrial DNA is only inherited from mothers, mutations that occur in female mitochondrial genes are monitored to filter out dangerous mutations. Male mitochondrial genes are not monitored so the mutations accumulate over time.

What Are the Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells?

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Animal cells and plant cells are both eukaryotic cells with a number of common characteristics. These cells also differ in a number of characteristics such as size, shape, energy storage, growth, and organelles. Structures found in plant cells and not animal cells include a cell wall , plastids, and plasmodesmata. Centrioles and lysosomes are structures that are found in animal cells but not usually in plant cells. While plants are capable of generating their own food through photosynthesis , animals must obtain nutrition through ingestion or absorption.

Is the 5-second Rule True or a Myth?

The 5-second rule is based on the theory that food that has been dropped on the floor for a brief period of time does not pick up many germs and is safe to eat. This theory is somewhat true in that the less time food is in contact with a surface, the fewer bacteria are transferred to the food. Several factors play a role in the level of contamination that may occur once food has been dropped on the floor or another surface. These factors include the texture of the food (soft, sticky, etc.) and the type of surface (tile, carpet, etc.) involved. It is always best to avoid eating food that has a high risk of contamination, such as food that has been dropped in the trash.

What Are the Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis?

Mitosis and meiosis are cell division processes that involve the division of a diploid cell . Mitosis is the process by which somatic cells ( body cells ) reproduce. Two identical daughter cells are produced as a result of mitosis. Meiosis is the process by which gametes (sex cells) are formed. This two-part cell division process produces four daughter cells that are haploid . In sexual reproduction , the haploid sex cells unite during fertilization to form a diploid cell.

What Happens When Lightning Strikes You?

Lightning is a powerful force that can cause serious injury to those that are unfortunate enough to be hit by it. There are five ways in which individuals may be hit by lightning. These types of strikes include a direct strike, side flash, ground current strike, conduction strike, and a streamer strike. Some of these strikes are more serious than others but all involve electrical current traveling through the body. This current moves over the skin or through the cardiovascular system and nervous system causing serious damage to vital organs .

What Is the Purpose of Bodily Functions?

Have you ever wondered why we yawn, burp, sneeze, or cough? Some bodily functions are the result of voluntary actions controlled by the individual, while others are involuntary and not under the control of the individual. Yawning, for example, is a reflex response that occurs when a person is tired or bored. Though the reasons for yawning are not fully understood, studies indicate that it helps to cool the brain.

What Are the Different Types of Plant Growth?

Have you ever noticed how plants grow toward different types of stimuli? Growth of a plant in the direction of a stimulus is called plant tropism. Some of these stimuli include light, gravity, water, and touch. Other types of plant tropisms include growth in the direction of chemical signals (chemotropism) and growth in response to heat or temperature changes (thermotropism).

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Biology Prefixes and Suffixes: meso-

PhD Requirements

The first year.

The time to degree (normative time) of the Computational Biology PhD is five years. The first year of the program emphasizes gaining competency in computational biology, the biological sciences, and the computational sciences (broadly construed). Since student backgrounds will vary widely, each student will work with faculty and student advisory committees to develop a program of study tailored to their background and interests. Specifically, all first-year students must:

Perform three rotations with Core faculty (one rotation with a non-Core faculty is acceptable with advance approval)
Complete course work requirements (see below)
Complete a course in the Responsible Conduct of Research
Attend the computational biology seminar series
Complete experimental training (see below)

Laboratory Rotations

Entering students are required to complete three laboratory rotations during their first year in the program to seek out a Dissertation Advisor under whose supervision dissertation research will be conducted. Students should rotate with at least one computational Core faculty member and one experimental Core faculty member.

Click here to view the rotation policy.

Course Work & Additional Requirements

Students must complete the following coursework in the first three (up to four) semesters. Courses must be taken for a grade and a grade of B or higher is required for a course to count towards degree progress:

Fall and Spring semester of CMPBIO 293, Doctoral Seminar in Computational Biology
A Responsible Conduct of Research course, most likely through the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology.
STAT 201A & STAT 201B: Intro to Probability and Statistics at an Advanced Level. Note: Students who are offered admission and are not prepared to complete STAT 201A and 201B will be required to complete STAT 134 or PH 142 first.
CS61A: The Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs. Note: students with the equivalent background can replace this requirement with a more advanced CS course of their choosing.
3 elective courses relevant to the field of Computational Biology, one of which must be at the graduate level (see below for details).
Attend the computational biology invited speaker seminar series. A schedule is circulated to all students by email and is available on the Center website. Starting with the 2023 entering class, CCB PhD students must enroll in CMPBIO 275: Computational Biology Seminar , which provides credit for this seminar series.
1) completion of a laboratory course at Berkeley with a minimum grade of B,
2) completion of a rotation in an experimental lab (w/ an experimental project), with a positive evaluation from the PI,
a biological sciences undergraduate major with at least two upper division laboratory-based courses,
a semester or equivalent of supervised undergraduate experimental laboratory-based research at a university,
or previous paid or volunteer/internship work in an industry-based experimental laboratory.

Students are expected to develop a course plan for their program requirements and to consult with the Head Graduate Advisor before the Spring semester of their first year for formal approval (signature required). The course plan will take into account the student’s undergraduate training areas and goals for PhD research areas.

Satisfactory completion of first year requirements will be evaluated at the end of the spring semester of the first year. If requirements are satisfied, students will formally choose a Dissertation advisor from among the core faculty with whom they rotated and begin dissertation research.

Waivers: Students may request waivers for the specific courses STAT 201A, STAT 201B, and CS61A. In all cases of waivers, the student must take alternative courses in related areas so as to have six additional courses, as described above. For waiving out of STAT 201A/B, students can demonstrate they have completed the equivalent by passing a proctored assessment exam on Campus. For waiving out CS61A, the Head Graduate Advisor will evaluate student’s previous coursework based on the previous course’s syllabus and other course materials to determine equivalency.

Electives: Of the three electives, students are required to choose one course in each of the two following cluster areas:

Cluster A (Biological Science): These courses are defined as those for which the learning goals are primarily related to biology. This includes courses covering topics in molecular biology, genetics, evolution, environmental science, experimental methods, and human health. This category may also cover courses whose focus is on learning how to use bioinformatic tools to understand experimental data.
Cluster B (Computational Sciences): These courses are defined as those for which the learning goals involve computing, inference, or mathematical modeling, broadly defined. This includes courses on algorithms, computing languages or structures, mathematical or probabilistic concepts, and statistics. This category would include courses whose focus is on biological applications of such topics.

In the below link we give some relevant such courses, but students can take courses beyond this list; for courses not on this list, the Head Graduate Advisor will determine to which cluster a course can be credited. For classes that have significant overlap between these two clusters, the department which offers the course may influence the decision of the HGA as to whether the course should be assigned to cluster A or B.

See below for some suggested courses in these categories:

Suggested Coursework Options (link is external)

Second Year & Beyond

At the beginning of the fall of the second year, students begin full-time dissertation research in earnest under the supervision of their Dissertation advisor. It is anticipated that it will take students three (up to four) semesters to complete the 6 course requirement. Students are required to continue to participate annually in the computational biology seminar series.

Qualifying Examination

Students are expected to take and pass an oral Qualifying Examination (QE) by the end of the spring semester (June 15th) of their second year of graduate study. Students must present a written dissertation proposal to the QE committee no fewer than four weeks prior to the oral QE. The write-up should follow the format of an NIH-style grant proposal (i.e., it should include an abstract, background and significance, specific aims to be addressed (~3), and a research plan for addressing the aims) and must thoroughly discuss plans for research to be conducted in the dissertation lab.

Click here for more details on the guidelines and format for the QE.

Advancement to Candidacy

After successfully completing the QE, students will Advance to Candidacy. At this time, students select the members of their dissertation committee and submit this committee for approval to the Graduate Division. Students should endeavor to include a member whose research represents a complementary yet distinct area from that of the dissertation advisor (ie, biological vs computational, experimental vs theoretical) and that will be integrated in the student’s dissertation research.

Click here to view the rules for the composition of the committee and the form for declaring your committee.

Meetings with the Dissertation Committee

After Advancing to Candidacy, students are expected to meet with their Dissertation Committee at least once each year.

Teaching Requirements

Computational Biology PhD students are required to teach at least two semesters (starting with Fall 2019 class), but may teach more. The requirement can be modified if the student has funding that does not allow teaching. Starting with the Fall 2019 class: At least one of those courses should require that you teach a section. Berkeley Connect or CMPBIO 293 can count towards one of the required semesters.

The Dissertation

Dissertation projects will represent scholarly, independent and novel research that contributes new knowledge to Computational Biology by integrating knowledge and methodologies from both the biological and computational sciences. Students must submit their dissertation by the May Graduate Division filing deadline (see Graduate Division for date) of their fifth–and final–year.

Special Requirements

Students will be required to present their research either orally or via a poster at the annual retreat beginning in their second year.

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A scientific polymath paves her own path to intellectual freedom

September 12, 2024

By Matt Wood

Assistant Director of Communications, Biological Sciences Division

A scientist’s career can take many forms. Most commonly, researchers focus on a very specific system, like the interactions between tuberculosis-causing bacteria and the immune system , or a single natural phenomenon, like the climate change-driven spread of invasive species . Others master a core process, like genetic modification, and partner with other scientists to apply their knowledge to a variety of problems.

Stephanie Palmer, PhD , sees herself in a different mold. “Digging into one system or one question for your career is a completely wonderful way to do science,” she said. “It's just not how I do science.”

Palmer’s work sits at the intersection of biology, physics, mathematics, and computer science. When pressed to define her research in a single sentence, she says it mostly focuses on how animals’ visual systems help them make predictions about what’s happening next in their environment. That starting point has led her down many paths, from studying how salamanders anticipate movements of their prey to circadian rhythms, cephalopod camouflage, and color vision in butterflies. If she had to give herself a label, she might call herself a theoretical neuroscientist, but now she has a more appropriate description: polymath.

Palmer was recently named one of six new awardees of the Schmidt Science Polymath Program , which supports creative, recently tenured professors with multidisciplinary track records and research ideas that cross field boundaries. Each awardee receives up to $2.5 million over five years to support research groups by funding students and postdocs or acquiring equipment and resources.

Schmidt Sciences is a nonprofit organization founded in 2024 by Eric and Wendy Schmidt that works to advance science and technology that deepens human understanding of the natural world and develops solutions to global issues. The Polymath Program is intended to help awardees to pursue risky, novel theories that would otherwise be difficult to fund through traditional federal sources — exactly the kind of work Palmer likes to do.

“Of all the grants and fellowships I could have applied for, I feel like this call was written for me,” she said. “To me, polymath means that you are versed in many different fields, and that is how I organize my thinking. I love a constant unmooring from things that I know to work on something new.”

Unexplored territory and the pioneer spirit

Palmer can trace her broad interests to her parents, two “delightfully odd ducks” who modeled two very different kinds of careers. Her mother was a high school English teacher who read voraciously and wrote poetry in her spare time; her father, an aerospace engineer. At times, Palmer was drafted as the intra-parent translator, a skill that came in handy later as she made friends and explored a wide range of interests.

As an undergraduate at Michigan State University, she started out on a pre-med track, but quickly realized she enjoyed chemistry and physics through a research assistantship. After graduating with a degree in chemical physics, she won a Rhodes Scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford University, where she pursued a DPhil (the Oxford and Cambridge equivalent to a PhD) in theoretical physics. It was there in the graduate hall of residence at Oxford, where students from all fields of study lived together, that she employed her social skills to start building a multidisciplinary network of future colleagues.

“I learned from this incubator how to talk about different fields and also about the range of questions good scholarship can address, from law and classics to math and neuroscience,” she wrote in her application for the Schmidt Polymath program. “I have carried that experience and those relationships with me throughout my career.”

Palmer’s time at Oxford could have built the foundation for a successful career as a theoretical physicist; while there, she discovered the configuration state of a peculiar magnetic crystal, now named the Palmer-Chalker state after her and her advisor John Chalker. But while talking to friends who worked in a neuroscience lab, she was compelled to make another career shift. Her physics work was interesting, but the path felt well-worn. By contrast, in neuroscience, “the sheer number of open questions appealed to me, as did the pioneer spirit of breaking off into largely unexplored territory,” she wrote.

Palmer next took a postdoctoral research position at the University of California, San Francisco that was specifically designed to bring theoretical physicists and mathematicians into neuroscience. The transition was exciting but daunting. She threw herself headlong into learning everything she could about the brain and nervous system, from attending more graduate courses to shadowing a friend doing autopsies for their pathology internship. She spent three years doing nitty gritty experimental work to record brain activity from songbirds while they learned and refined their songs. After this work ended in frustrating, largely negative results, she changed course again to tackle the visual system in the retina, moving to another postdoctoral fellowship at Princeton University for her last stop before coming to UChicago in 2012, where she is now an Associate Professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy.

‘Bringing intuition into equation land’

At UChicago, Palmer continued her work on the retina, but true to form, it wasn’t just about that very specific set of cells at the back of an eyeball. Instead, she used it as an entry point into understanding how the brain makes calculations that guide behavior in complex, ever-changing environments.

Some of the most important calculations are predictions about objects moving in the field of vision. Animals like salamanders track prey, like insects buzzing nearby, to calculate their flight path and pick just the right time to lunge forward and snatch a meal. This might seem like pure reflex, but it involves a lot of computations in both the retina and the brain.

In a series of publications, Palmer and her team showed they could capture how animals like the salamander encoded the optimal calculations for making these predictions first in the retina, and that they can be described by a few simple, biologically plausible rules . They also showed how animals filter the information overload of a natural environment to select the most important inputs for making decisions, and how they can use this information for complex behaviors like escaping predators and capturing prey .

Palmer says her physics background lends itself well to this kind of work, offering insight into the structural properties and physical constraints of things like the networks of neurons needed to calculate visual predictions. That training also helps fold in the more abstract world of mathematics — the equations needed to parse data and make sense of the natural world.

“I think theoretical physicists are good at bringing intuition into equation land. It’s the intellectual way you work, or the way you think, that is the most portable thing from physics into biology for me,” she said.

This way of thinking provided more opportunities for Palmer in 2023, when the National Science Foundation (NSF) launched two major initiatives based at UChicago. The first, called the Center for Living Systems , is one of four Physics Frontier Centers the NSF launched that year. Its goal is establishing a new field of physics that focuses on how living matter can store, retrieve, and process information. Palmer is one of the major activity co-leaders for the center, lending her expertise on the origins of adaptive mechanisms and computation in complex mechanisms.

The second opportunity, announced just two days later, is the National Institute for Theory and Mathematics in Biology (NITMB), a joint effort between UChicago and Northwestern University supported by the NSF and the Simons Foundation. The institute, which is the first of its kind in the US, will build a nationwide research community to uncover the “rules of life” through new mathematical theories, data models, and computational and statistical tools. Palmer is the is associate director of training for the NITMB, tasked with creating new ways to teach and share mathematical concepts with the public, by linking them to familiar biological and natural phenomena we experience every day.

Michael Coates, PhD , Chair of the Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy at UChicago, said Palmer brings a new dimension of integrative biology to an already very outward-looking department. “Her creative approach fits remarkably well within a community of biologists exploring innovation and diversity,” he said. “The quality of Stephanie’s research speaks for itself, both in the attention it gains and the collaborative links it generates.

In addition to her research, Coates says Palmer is also a very generous and gifted educator. Her introduction to research class for graduate students in the department creates a shared forum for paleontologists, neurobiologists, biomechanists, and developmental biologists, and the theoretical, mathematical thread she adds to the discussion is “a quintessentially ‘Palmeresque’ touch,” Coates said.

Turning to bigger research questions

The Schmidt Polymath Program seems perfectly designed for someone with Palmer’s varied interests, but it does come with stipulations. Any projects supported by the award can’t be the type of research that could be funded through traditional federal sources, like the NSF or National Institutes of Health. She says that won’t be a problem. “I like having a project you work on for about eight months, publish the result, and then look for a new thing to do.”

She doesn’t intend to leave her work on computation behind, but instead expand it to bigger questions about how organisms evolved the ability to perform those calculations — discovering not just how the salamander tracks a fly, but how its environment drove the adaptations that let it figure out where the fly is going next.

Her first proposed project will examine the evolution of neural computation in color vision for butterflies. Palmer’s team will work with Marcus Kronforst, PhD , who has extensively studied the genetic basis of wing patterns and mimicry in butterflies and how mate preferences evolve in response. They hope to uncover how mate selection preferences in male butterflies are changed by modifications to their visual system, and if these changes expand or limit how the butterfly can identify preferred wing patterns of potential mates.

“Working with Stephanie has been incredible. I owe a huge debt of gratitude to her for her adventurous spirit in taking on this project and for her incredibly broad knowledge base,” said Kronforst, who is a Professor of Ecology & Evolution at UChicago. “She’s a major resource to students and researchers across the biological sciences at UChicago who study neuroscience, vision, movement, and color. Her knowledge, enthusiasm, and generosity in discussing and studying these topics is really quite remarkable.”

Palmer’s next proposed project will explore a more elemental system — the circadian rhythms of bacteria, to see how their environment shapes computation and the ability to migrate to new habitats. All organisms have internal clocks that synchronize with signals from their environment, like daylight during a 24-hour period. Some of Palmer’s early research shows that bacteria use external light signals to shape the rhythms of their internal clocks, like when to crank up or turn down their metabolism. She wants to work with other experts on this phenomenon, including Michael Rust, PhD , Professor of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, to collect data and develop new frameworks for how circadian rhythms change with the environment over time.

Intellectual freedom and joy of learning

Palmer says that at certain points in her career, different mentors have advised against indulging in such a wide range of interests. Stick to one topic, build up a body of published work, and then maybe branch out once you’ve achieved tenure and job security. But she also remembered what Bill Bialek, her postdoc advisor at Princeton, told her. “He reminded me that I've always been like this, and it's a selling point. He basically said, ‘it makes you different.’”

After nearly 12 years at UChicago, she doesn’t regret her choices.

“So far, it works. I’ve had some success. My postdocs have been able to get jobs. So, I feel good that my taste has been solid,” she said. “When you have good math skills, you can make a living doing a lot of things. But this is why I wanted this job, for the intellectual freedom and the joy of learning and doing new things.”

Explore the Biological Sciences Division

September 2024

The Dynamic Lives of Intrinsically Disordered Proteins

Shapeshifting proteins challenge a long-standing maxim in biology..

Collection of green and blue proteins with different conformations on a black background.

Danielle is an Assistant Editor at The Scientist. She has a background in neuroscience and molecular psychiatry. She has previously written for BioTechniques News, The Scientist, and Drug Discovery News.

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ABOVE: Intrinsically disordered proteins lack a stable conformation. Instead, they exist as an ensemble of conformations. Anna Ida Trolle, Giulio Tesei; CC-BY 4.0

I n Greek mythology, Proteus, son of Poseidon and prophetic shepherd of sea-beasts, could foretell the future. The elusive sea god was difficult to capture as he assumed many forms—a lion, a serpent, water, or a tree—to avoid his pursuers. However, if someone could sneak up on Proteus during his midday nap and wrangle the shapeshifter, he would reveal the truth his pursuer was after.

Today, scientists are hunting down a different kind of shape-shifting entity in search of answers about the inner workings of cellular life: intrinsically disordered proteins. Unlike their well-known, folded counterparts, intrinsically disordered proteins lack a single, stable three-dimensional structure. Instead, like Proteus, they take on many different conformations. 1

These dynamic, ever-changing proteins have long fallen through the cracks of conventional structural biology methods and have been excluded or ignored for their staunch defiance of a central tenet in protein science: structure defines function. However, a growing body of evidence found that these are not rare proteins performing odd jobs in the underbelly of our cells nor are they evolutionary junk hoarded in the proteome. They are well-known entities that are deeply entrenched in regulatory biology . 2 Yet, scientists still know very little about the dynamic and disordered lives of these proteins that help keep the lights on in our cells.

As soon as I heard about them, I fell in love. They were these weird little molecules, and they were just so funky, and they challenged a lot of my ideas about biochemistry. —Gabriella Heller, University College London

“As soon as I heard about them, I fell in love,” said Gabriella Heller , a biochemist at University College London. “They were these weird little molecules, and they were just so funky, and they challenged a lot of my ideas about biochemistry.” Over the last two decades, scientists like Heller have been marrying computational biology and experimental biophysics approaches to capture these proteins. Along the way, scientists have had to think outside of the (structured) box to study disorder. “I fell into this rabbit hole and haven’t left,” said Heller.

Multifunctional Intrinsically Disordered Proteins Give Cells an Advantage

Proteins drive essential biological processes in the body. From the enzymes that fuel chemical reactions to the antibodies enlisted by the immune system, these tiny molecular machines receive, integrate, and transmit cellular information. In the postgenomic era, scientists are working tirelessly to decipher the functions of the protein sequences encoded in the genome. Fueling these efforts is a central philosophy in biology that an amino acid sequence begets structure begets function; like a hammer’s head is designed to hit nails while its claw perfectly clasps onto nails to remove them, a protein’s three-dimensional structure is designed to interact with specific components in the cell to perform a specialized function. But what if a protein lacks a fixed structure?

Flipping through a textbook, one might think that all proteins are perfectly folded, rigid structures that click together like Lego blocks. But beyond the two-dimensional page, proteins come to life, moving around cells like wet spaghetti monsters with no fixed structure.

Rather than pigeonholing proteins into either ordered and structured or disordered and unstructured, disorder is better viewed as a continuum. Some proteins have well defined structures with tiny, flexible disordered tails while others are entirely disordered, wiggly strands of amino acids. In a sequence, intrinsically disordered regions (IDR) range anywhere from short (five to 10 residue) snippets to long (1,000 or more) stretches of amino acids. 2 A single protein can display several distinct IDR. It is estimated that around 30 to 40 percent of eukaryotic proteins harbor some degree of disorder. 3,4

Proteins with disorder aren’t relegated to the sidelines of cellular activity. On the contrary, disordered proteins are stalwarts of cellular communication. “They have so many different functions. It’s incredible,” said Heller. Their conformational freedom facilitates a kind of functional promiscuity that provides cells with multiplexed and flexible recognition and response systems. 5,6 In line with this, these malleable machines are often hubs for essential cellular processes, including gene regulation , cell division, molecular recognition, and cell signaling. 2,7 “In all of those cases, you need something sensitive to its environment [that] needs to know when to switch on [and] when to switch off,” said Heller.

Protein disorder is everywhere. On a cell’s borders, many cell signaling receptors have structured domains that are embedded into the outer membrane and linked to extracellular and intracellular disordered linkers and tails. For example, many G-protein coupled receptors have disordered regions that link the seven structured transmembrane domains. 8 These disordered stretches contain sites for post-translational modifications that could tune downstream signaling. Elsewhere in the cell, RNA binding proteins , histone tails , transcription factors , and nuclear transport receptors are all enriched with disorder. 9-12

Disordered proteins are also social butterflies of the protein world. “Disordered proteins will typically have hundreds of partners,” said Heller. For example, the hepatitis C nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) has dozens of binding partners . 13 It is not that intrinsically disordered proteins never take on structure but rather that they interconvert between many different conformations to adapt to the changing tides. 2 “The same chemistry that drives proteins to fold is still present in disordered regions or disordered proteins, it’s just there in different amounts and in different ways,” said Alex Holehouse , a computational biophysicist at Washington University in St. Louis. Folded proteins are not exactly frozen statues either; they are also wiggling and moving around the cell. “For disordered regions, that wiggling is just much more pronounced and there is no single reference state that is convenient to talk about or think about,” said Holehouse. He added that a more accurate framework for ordered and disordered proteins alike is a sequence-ensemble-function paradigm where ensemble denotes the collection of states that a protein exists in. 14

Advances in biophysics techniques over the last two decades have helped scientists identify disordered regions within a protein’s amino acid sequence; however, predicting every possible conformation of an intrinsically disordered protein ensemble and their resulting functions has been tricky to pin down. “A lot of the methods for helping us understand this have been really optimized for structured proteins, but it’s very different when you’re working with a disordered protein that’s so dynamic,” said Heller. The usual experimental and computational tools, including X-ray crystallography, cryogenic electron microscopy, and, more recently, AlphaFold , fail to capture these elusive and rebellious regions, leading scientists to develop new approaches to predict and measure disorder. “A lot of the things [that] we’re learning about disordered proteins are making us revisit and rethink assumptions we had about folded things,” said Holehouse.

What are intrinsically disordered proteins?

Intrinsically disordered proteins are proteins that do not have a single, stable three-dimensional structure. Instead, they exist as a dynamic ensemble of conformations. Intrinsically disordered proteins are multifunctional proteins that can bind multiple partners, making them ideal hubs for complex biological processes, including cell signaling, gene regulation, and molecular recognition.

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins Defy Dogma

In the late 1950s, John Kendrew , a biochemist at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology, obtained the first ever crystal structure of a protein. Kendrew’s revelation of the globular sperm whale myoglobin structure prompted a structural revolution. 15 Thanks to X-ray crystallography, scientists could examine the folded states of proteins, effectively providing snapshots of their 3D shapes, leading to an explosion in the number of published atomic protein structures. More recently, cryogenic electron microscopy has become a popular technique for determining the 3D structure of molecules.

However, these go-to methods for determining structure require stability. In contrast to their folded counterparts, intrinsically disordered proteins and protein regions are extremely dynamic, rapidly interconverting between many shapes. The conformations adopted by disordered proteins are highly sensitive to subtle shifts in their environment, including temperature, pH, and the presence of binding partners. 16 This conformational flexibility facilitates multifunctionality; however, it means that they elude several structural determination methods. For example, these unruly regions never crystallize, so biochemists chop them out when possible to get X-ray crystallography crystals that better characterize the folded regions.

Photo of Gabriella Heller standing on a ladder next to a nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer.

The bioinformatics boom around the turn of the century finally brought recognition for disordered regions amongst some protein biologists. Early in this period, Keith Dunker , now a biophysicist at Indiana University, looked into the literature from the previous 20 years and found examples of disordered regions in proteins that acquired structure, or order, after binding with another substrate, suggesting that a stable structure was not a prerequisite for initiating biological activity. 17 Dunker and his colleagues noted in their paper, “Evidently the many particular examples of important disorder-to-order transitions have failed to register within the molecular biology community as an important generality.”

To survey disorder at scale, Dunker and his colleagues developed neural network predictors to explore the relationship between protein amino acid sequence and regions flagged as disordered. Using this tool, they predicted that 15,000 proteins had disordered regions of at least 40 amino acids in length, evidence they used to bolster their argument that disordered regions should be recognized as a category of protein structure. Dunker was not alone in his efforts. Similar calls to reassess the structure-function paradigm started cropping up. 18

Around this time, Kresten Lindorff-Larsen was a graduate student at the University of Cambridge studying protein folding dynamics. He had been working in the realm of wet lab experimental biochemistry when he decided to traverse the dryer lands of computational research. Lindorff-Larsen describes himself as, “a protein chemist who happens to use computers.”

Specifically, he was interested in understanding the rules that proteins use to fold as they exit a cell’s translational machinery as long, wiggly strings of amino acids. Lindorff-Larsen ran computer simulations on experimental data collected on this protein folding process. 19 From these data he generated ensembles of conformations taken by the protein in solution and identified interactions between different regions of the protein as it folded. He realized that he could use a similar approach to explore the dynamic properties of proteins, including those that appeared to defy the rules of protein folding by remaining unfolded. When he applied similar molecular simulations to experimental data collected on the intrinsically disordered protein α-synuclein , which is implicated in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease, he demonstrated that, in its native state, the protein has a broad distribution of conformations. 20

Lindorff-Larsen wanted to develop an efficient approach to characterize all the conformational ensembles of disordered proteins without having to run individual experiments to study them one-by-one. “That turns out to be very difficult to do,” said Lindorff-Larsen. “We put it to the side because we just didn’t have the right tools to tackle the problem.” Although he developed an algorithm to learn the conformational preferences of disordered proteins, he soon realized that he needed more data to make his mathematical models broadly applicable. 21 However, this data was neither quick nor easy to collect.

Twisting Proteins to Work Out Disorder

For decades, an air of skepticism has lingered around intrinsically disordered proteins. “I have collaborators that still doubt whether these things exist,” said Heller. Bioinformatic approaches helped identify the pervasiveness of disorder, but many remained unconvinced that these proteins lacked a stable structure or whether they had any functional relevance. Afterall, their existence defied a century of dogma, so scientists wanted more convincing evidence.

To capture the ensembles of conformations adopted by disordered proteins, researchers needed a method that was better suited to their twists and turns. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy allows scientists to probe an intrinsically disordered protein’s structure and dynamics as it wiggles around in solution. NMR spectrometers use strong magnetic fields—far stronger than Earth’s—to probe properties of hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen nuclei in a protein. By applying radiofrequency pulses to manipulate nuclear spins and watching how spins return to their equilibrium state, researchers can learn about the chemical environments and dynamics of proteins. “We can play games with our proteins to better understand them,” said Heller. A special probe inside the NMR spectrometer detects radiofrequency signals emitted by the nuclei as they relax back to their equilibrium states. By doing this, researchers like Heller can collect information about the molecular structures and dynamics of intrinsically disordered proteins. Heller combines atomistic information provided by NMR experiments with computer simulations to create a “movie” of the disordered protein’s movements. “For nearly every single atom within our protein, we can learn something,” said Heller.

A lot of the things [that] we’re learning about disordered proteins are making us revisit and rethink assumptions we had about folded things. —Alex Holehouse, Washington University in St. Louis

As early as the 2000s, researchers began applying NMR spectroscopy to meticulously study individual disordered proteins as they fold upon interacting with binding partners. In one early study, researchers used NMR to reveal how the transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) molded itself into the binding pocket of one of its protein partners. 22

NMR has also been useful for studying the unruliest of proteins: those that never fold. In budding yeast, the intrinsically disordered signaling protein substrate inhibitor of cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (Sic1) blocks premature cell division. 23 Only after Sic1 gets phosphorylated at six different sites along its amino acid sequence can it bind to its protein partner cell division control protein 4 (Cdc4), which then sweeps Sic1 to the cell’s “trash bin,” ungating cell division. How Cdc4, with its single phosphate binding pocket, bound the six Sic1 phosphate groups eluded scientists. By combining experimental NMR data with computer modeling, a team of scientists concluded that Sic1 and Cdc4 perform a kind of molecular square dance whereby each phosphorylated site rapidly interacts with Cdc4. 24 This dance results in Sic1 picking up a chemical signature that tags it for degradation. These findings further hacked away at the structure-function paradigm by demonstrating how a protein could remain disordered in both its bound and unbound states. As experimental data on disordered proteins accumulated, so did their recognition and acceptance.

New Tools for Exploring Protein Disorder Take Shape

For the last decade, Lindorff-Larsen has been biding his time, waiting to transform his idea for a large-scale, ensemble prediction tool into a reality. Alongside others, he built simulations and collected experimental data on intrinsically disordered proteins. With more data available to feed his models—and even faster computers to facilitate this extensive training program—he picked the project back up.

The piecemeal approach taken by Lindorff-Larsen and others over the years to study the conformational ensembles of intrinsically disordered proteins was grueling, but necessary. To build a tool that could analyze disordered regions at scale, Lindorff-Larsen and his team dove into the literature, emailing researchers for raw experimental data on more than 50 disordered proteins. They used this information to teach their simulation model the parameters that dictate ensemble states and then tested the model’s ability to predict conformational ensembles of an intrinsically disordered protein region in the absence of experimental data. 25

Around the same time, others in the protein folding field were busy building the revolutionary artificial intelligence (AI) system, AlphaFold . 26 Now, scientists can predict a protein’s structure from its sequence with speed and accuracy while bypassing the need to run time-consuming experiments. AlphaFold has been nothing less than transformative in structural biology—for folded regions. “The AlphaFold approach is simply not feasible at the moment for disordered proteins,” said Lindorff-Larsen.

The intrinsically disordered protein Synapsin-1

AlphaFold’s prediction system is fueled by protein sequences and multiple sequence alignment data across species, which identifies evolutionary relationships and shared features between genes. “Essentially everything we as a scientific community have done to understand protein function from sequence has, at some level, rested on evolutionary principles,” said Holehouse. Across closely related eukaryotes, the folded bits of the proteome look very similar. In contrast, the amino acid residues in disordered regions in a protein move around a lot, changing their address across species. This means that although scientists have access to disordered protein sequences, they cannot use similar tools for aligning them across species. 27

With an improved version of their model, which Lindorff-Larsen and his team called CALVADOS, the researchers set their eyes on a bigger prize. 28 “After we had the tool in hand and validated that it worked pretty accurately, we said, ‘Why don’t we just scale it up to look at all human disordered proteins?’” said Lindorff-Larsen. To select their disordered regions they turned to AlphaFold2—as it turns out, the system’s low confidence score is a good indicator that a sequence is disordered. 29 After identifying more than 28,000 disordered regions (corresponding to around 35 percent of the residues in the human proteome) the researchers ran them through CALVADOS to perform molecular simulations and predict conformational ensembles. 30

Holehouse has also been developing computational tools for predicting the average properties of the conformational ensembles that might take shape from the disordered protein sequence. Around the same time that Lindorff-Larsen was working on CALVADOS, Holehouse and his team were developing a similar tool for large-scale exploration of the sequence to ensemble relationship, which they called ALBATROSS . 31 This deep-learning model predicts conformational properties of disordered proteins directly from sequence. “It really gives people a way to start thinking biophysically about their disordered regions, whereas if you’re not a biophysicist that has historically been very difficult to do,” said Holehouse.

Lindorff-Larsen and Holehouse hope that their prediction tools will facilitate efforts to link conformational ensembles with protein sequence, function, evolutionary conservation, and disease variants and drive hypothesis generation. However, additional experimental data is still needed to improve the models.

Textbooks often depict proteins as nicely folded three-dimensional structures, but many proteins are far from it.

, , , ; designed by erin lemieux

(1) The lock-and-key model of protein interactions has dominated biology for more than a century, shaping how scientists study molecular communication and approach the development
of novel therapeutics.

(2) However, over the last two decades, scientists have come to appreciate that protein structure is a spectrum.

(3) While some proteins exist in a structured or ordered state, others have ordered domains with disordered regions, and some are even fully disordered.

(4) Unlike folded proteins, intrinsically disordered proteins lack a stable, three-dimensional structure. Instead, they exhibit conformational heterogeneity and interconvert between different states.

(5) Because of their shapeshifting capabilities, scientists struggled to capture intrinsically disordered proteins using conventional approaches for determining protein structure. Over the last two decades, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and new bioinformatics tools have allowed researchers to explore the conformational properties of intrinsically disordered proteins.

(6) The field is now witnessing a paradigm shift in how scientists think about protein interactions whereby an intrinsically disordered protein has an ensemble of possible conformations that allows the protein to respond to the environment and drive different functions accordingly. By dissecting and decoding the biophysical principles that dictate the sequence-ensemble-function relationship, scientists hope to shed light on the role of intrinsically disordered proteins in human health and disease.

Intrinsically Disordered Proteins: The Undruggables

Years ago, while Heller was attending a conference on disordered proteins, a colleague’s remark stuck with her. “Someone said that [disordered proteins] would never be druggable and I was like, ‘Well, why not?’” said Heller, who took on the challenge. For the last decade, she has explored ways of targeting disorder with the hopes that her efforts will unlock an enormous therapeutic opportunity.

The AlphaFold approach is simply not feasible at the moment for disordered proteins. —Kresten Lindorff-Larsen, University of Copenhagen

There are few small molecules known to interact with intrinsically disordered proteins and even fewer tools to study these interactions. Therefore, Heller’s team uses an interdisciplinary approach that combines molecular simulations with experimental approaches to explore what happens to an intrinsically disordered protein when it binds a small molecule. Part of Heller’s research portfolio has focused on the amyloid-β peptide, well-known for its association with the onset of Alzheimer’s disease. In its monomeric form, amyloid-β begins as an intrinsically disordered protein; however, it can assemble into long insoluble fibrils, which can clump together to create problematic plaques characteristic of the disease. Heller and her team found a small molecule that interacts with the disordered protein and affects its aggregation behavior. 32 When they tracked amyloid plaque formation using a dye, the researchers found that their small molecule could reduce fibril formation. To study these interactions in more detail, Heller turned to NMR.

NMR is a gold-standard method for determining how and where a drug binds to a protein. 33 However, Heller ran into a few problems when she used the technique to measure small molecule binding to a disordered protein. NMR is highly sensitive to picking up changes in folded proteins upon their interactions with drugs. Certain regions of folded proteins are buried in hydrophobic cores, while other regions of folded proteins, such as those on the surface of biomolecules, are more solvent-exposed. “This results in distinct signals in our spectra, like a chemical fingerprint,” said Heller. When the experiment is repeated in the presence of a small molecule, Heller said that the fingerprint clearly changes. She continued, “We can map those changes in the fingerprint back onto the protein to see how the protein changes when it binds.” However, with disordered proteins, most regions are solvent-exposed, resulting in an overlap of signals. “It can get difficult to see what’s happening,” she added. Also, as disordered proteins often remain extremely dynamic in their bound form, Heller struggled to detect changes in the NMR chemical fingerprint, which reports on average conformations for all proteins within a sample.

Heller knew from her previous experiments that this small molecule was interacting with the monomeric, disordered form of amyloid-β, so she and her colleagues turned to computer simulations . 34 By modeling the protein, the ligand, and the solvent at the atomistic level, they observed that in the presence of the small molecule, disordered amyloid-β adopted less hydrophobic conformations, which could also explain their previous results showing less peptide aggregation following treatment with the ligand.

Heller and her colleagues’ simulations agreed with the NMR data to show that the disordered protein was not folding upon binding the small molecule. In fact, the ligand allowed the protein to explore new states. “Our data and those of other labs suggest that this is not traditional “lock-and-key” binding,” said Heller. “It’s almost as if the disordered protein is dancing with the small molecule. It’s totally different from what we’ve been taught in Biochemistry 101,” said Heller.

In a recent paper, Heller and her colleagues demonstrated that dynamic NMR methods , instead of chemical fingerprints, are more sensitive to detecting binding between small molecules and disordered proteins. 35 Their approach combined dynamic NMR methods with fluorine detection. While many NMR approaches measure binding changes on small molecules using hydrogen, fluorine offers some advantages: It is more sensitive to its chemical environment and does not suffer from overlapping background signals coming from the solvent or proteins. “Suddenly, we could measure beautiful binding curves, even though the chemical fingerprint approach suggested that there was no binding at all,” said Heller.

“For a long time, and even still today, people are using this gold-standard chemical fingerprint experiment to look for binders, and they’re not seeing big changes. They’ve been taught that that means there’s no binding,” Heller added. “We really need to go and revisit some conclusions that we’ve made about small molecule binding to disordered proteins because we are starting to have better tools.”

Drugs targeting disordered proteins or regions could be a game changer for treating disease, but they would also provide researchers with new tools to probe protein function, much like what is already available to study folded proteins. However, their multifunctional persona complicates things. “For these disordered regions, specificity is a trickier beast,” said Holehouse. If a disordered protein has 10 binding regions, Holehouse said it could be difficult to design a small molecule that tightly binds to just one of the regions but not the others.

A Bright, Disordered Future

Reflecting on the last decade of research into disordered proteins, Holehouse said that just 10 years ago, scientists working on disordered proteins were sometimes the only people at their institution who had heard of these molecules. “We’d come together at meetings, and it’d be cathartic because you don’t have to justify your existence to everyone,” Holehouse joked. “There was a tendency of some, perhaps old school structural biologists, to think that this idea of disorder is in competition with structure. That’s simply not the case.”

It’s almost as if the disordered protein is dancing with the small molecule. It’s totally different from what we’ve been taught in Biochemistry 101. —Gabriella Heller, University College London

Scientists are far from understanding disorder-based biology, but they hope that a growing awareness of their prevalence and importance alongside new tools will help uncover how disordered regions mediate cellular function and contribute to disease. These efforts have catapulted disordered proteins from a niche curiosity of biophysicists to entities that are increasingly accepted and appreciated for their regulatory roles in cellular function.

Although some might feel overwhelmed by all the moving parts (literally) with disordered proteins, Holehouse embraces the chaos. “That makes it exciting in that there are so many quite fundamental questions that we don’t really have answers to—or at least convincing answers to—yet,” he said.

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Interview expectations from field to field differ, but this is how I best prepared for applications to biology and biomedical graduate programs.

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PhD Interview Questions and Answers

Let's get you PhD ready

Interview questions about you

#1 Tell us about yourself…

#2 What made you choose to do a PhD?

#3 What do you plan to do after you complete your PhD?

#4 What are your strengths and weaknesses?

#5 Are there any training needs you can identify ahead of your PhD?

Interview questions about your PhD project

#6 Why this project?

#7 What makes you the right candidate for this PhD?

#8 What difficulties do you expect to encounter during this project?

#9 What would you like the impact of this project to be?

#10 How will you fund this project?

Interview questions about your choice of university

#11 Why have you chosen to study a PhD at this university?

#12 What can you bring to this research group?

What to ask in a PhD interview

What will the supervision arrangements be for the project?

What kind of training and skills sessions are offered as part of the PhD programme?

Will I have opportunities to teach / present / publish?

How many other PhD students has this supervisor seen to completion?

Are there likely to be any changes to the funding arrangements for the project?

Is the university or department likely to run any events or other associated projects during the period of my PhD?