qualitative and quantitative research methods in sociology

Sociological Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

Research methods and analysis of sociology dealt with techniques to obtain information in a vivid form.

Sociologists Redman and Mory explained research work as a systematic way to earn new knowledge or say angle towards anything. For example, after a research work, various developments can be seen.

Research methods are categorized into Qualitative and Quantitative methods .

Quantitative methods included data structures, mathematical formulas, postulates, analysis by pie charts, graphical representations, Co-relation, Regression, etc. The methods used in Quantitative research will be studied in detail below.

Positivists majorly depend upon this method because they think it is the most convenient and efficient way to see society and its problems.  For example, the rate of sex ratio or the number of rape happening in a particular area makes sociologists see the present scenario of the society.

Durkheim observed the basis of division of labour and Weber tried to link the relation between capitalist and exploited countries. This method is still used by many sociologists for letting the world know about differences. For example, Michael Mann compared how every country differs when it comes to power and dominance. Devine showed the condition of workers in different time periods.

Qualitative Methods are those methods which depend on the theories of Interactionism Theories. For example people way of talking under different circumstances studied by a researcher. The result will be completely based on the way the researcher perceives everything. The various methods of a Qualitative method are studied below.

It can be seen as a modification of Field methods as this method involves the researcher too. The researcher has to keep a mindset as an observant which will decrease the chances of a biased opinion as the perception will not be compressed. The field researchers, data or any theory is studied comprehensively as a researcher and participant point of view.

TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is mainly stored in two ways, primary resources , and secondary resources .

MORE METHODS OF QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS:-

It has been proved for a long time that observation helps in collecting data as well as result in accurate analysis. Observation contains two major functions viz. causes and effects. The observation is categorized in two ways viz. controlled and uncontrolled, active and passive.

Inactive observation, the researcher is also a part of an analysis. For example, he will take part in a game and will play fairly at his part.

Controlled observations are those matter of solicitation in which things can be brought under control anytime. For example, knowing that someone is observing me I can easily change my reactions.

Uncontrolled observations are those observations in which neither researcher nor the people under observation stop the process of analysis. They are being adaptive to any situation no matter what results can be obtained.

This method involves a panel of interviewers and applicants. For example, in any placement drive, a panel is set up and they took a massive amount of information about the applicants by asking them many questions. Much information about their personality, IQ, confidence, abilities is judged in a matter of some minutes. The interviews can be of many types viz. formal, informal, solo or group.

A questionnaire is a set of questions designed in a format which can be solved by only those who can read and write. Thus the biggest disadvantage of this method is that it cannot be fulfilled by everybody. The sole purpose of this method is storing answers and due to same questions, best answers manage to secure the position.

The schedule is entirely based on the way an interviewer seek things. The questionnaire set is solved by a person in front of the researchers. Thus the question does not affect much, but the perspective of the researcher does. There are many types of schedule:-

Continue Reading → Variable,Sampling,Hypothesis,Reliability & Validity

Research Methods

Table of Contents

Last Updated on October 13, 2023 by Karl Thompson

Sociologists use a range of quantitative and qualitative, primary and secondary social research methods to collect data about society.

The main types of research method are:

Research Methods at a Glance – Key Concepts  

Research Methods Top Ten Key Concepts – start here if you’re all at sea – includes simple explanations of terms such as validity, reliability, representativeness, Positivism and Interpretivism .

Research Methods A-Z Glossary – a more comprehensive index of the key terms you need to know for AS and A Level Sociology .

An Introduction to Research Methods

Without research methods there is no sociology!

Research Methods in Sociology – An Introduction  – d etailed class notes covering the basic types of research method available to sociologists such as social surveys, interviews, experiments, and observations

Positivism and Interpretivism – Positivists generally prefer quantitative methods, Interpretivists prefer qualitative methods – this post consists of brief summary revision notes and revision diagrams outlining the difference between positivist and interpretivist approaches to social research. 

Outline and explain two practical problems which might affect social research (10) –  A model answer to this exam question, which could appear on either paper 7191 (1) or 7191 (3). 

Good Resources for Teaching and Learning Research Method s –  simply links (with brief descriptions) which take you to a range of text books and web sites which focus on various aspects of quantitative and qualitative research methods. NB this post is very much a work in progress, being updated constantly. 

Primary Quantitative Research Methods

  social surveys.

The advantages and disadvantages of social surveys in social research  –  detailed class notes covering the theoretical, practical and ethical strengths and limitations of social surveys. Generally, surveys are preferred by positivists and good for simple topics, but not so good for more complex topics which require a ‘human touch’ .

Experiments

Laboratory Experiments in Sociology   – detailed class notes on the strengths and limitations of laboratory experiments. Sociologists don’t generally use lab experiments, but examiners seem to ask questions about them more than other methods – one hypothesis for why is that sociology examiners have a burning hatred of teenagers. 

Longitudinal Studies

Longitudinal Studies – These are interval studies designed to explore changes over a long period of time. Researchers start with a sample and keep going back to that same sample periodically – say every year, or every two years, to explore how and why changes occur.

What Makes a Good Life ? – Lessons from a Longitudinal Study – This is one of the longest running Longitudinal studies in the world – the respondents were in their 20s when it started, now those who are still alive are in their 80s.

Primary Qualitative Research Methods

Primary qualitative research methods tend to be favoured by Interpretivists as they allow respondents to speak for themselves, and should thus yield valid data. However, because qualitative methods tend to involve the researcher getting more involved with the respondents, there is a risk that the subjective views of the researcher could interfere with the results, which could compromise both the validity and reliability of such methods.

Participant Observation

The strengths and limitations of covert participant observation – sociologists don’t generally use covert participant observation because of the ethical problem of deception means they can’t get funding. This methods is more commonly used by journalists doing investigative reporting, or you could even say undercover police officers use it, and you can use these examples to illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of this method.

Interviews in Social Research  –  This post consists of detailed class notes focusing strengths and limitations of mainly unstructured interviews, which are like a guided conversation that allow respondents the freedom to speak for themselves.

Secondary Research Methods

Official statistics.

Cross National Comparisons – Comparing data across countries using official statistics can provide insight into the causes of social problems such as poverty, and war and conflict. This post looks at how you might go about doing this and the strengths and limitations of this kind of research.

Secondary Qualitative Data

Content Analysis of the Media in Social Research  –  class notes covering formal content (quantitative) analysis and semiology .

Autobiographies in social research – Autobiographies are popular with the British public, but how useful are they as sources of data for the social researcher?

Sociology, Science and Value Freedom (Part of A2 Theory and Methods)

Sociology and Value Freedom  – Detailed class notes .

Methods in Context – Research Methods Applied to Education

Non-Participant Observation in Education  –  focusing on OFSTED inspections, as these are probably the most commonly used of all methods in education .

Focus on the AS and A Level Exams

Research Methods Practice Questions for A-level Sociology – you will get a 10 mark question on both papers SCLY1 and SCLY3 most likely asking you to ‘outline and explain’ the strengths and limitations of any of the main research methods. This post outlines some of the many variations.

Methods in Context Essay Template  – a suggested gap fill essay plan on how to answer these challenging ‘applied research methods’ questions.

Using Participant Observation to research pupils with behavourial difficulties (20) – a model answer for this methods in context style of essay.

Other Relevant Posts

How old are twitter users? – applied sociology – illustrates some of the problems us using social media to uncover social trends.

Theory and Methods A Level Sociology Revision Bundle 

If you like this sort of thing, then you might like my Theory and Methods Revision Bundle – specifically designed to get students through the theory and methods sections of  A level sociology papers 1 and 3.

For better value I’ve bundled all of the above topics into six revision bundles , containing revision notes, mind maps, and exam question and answers, available for between £4.99 and £5.99 on Sellfy .

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Principles of Sociological Inquiry: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

Table of contents, licensing information, chapter 1: introduction.

• How Do We Know What We Know?
• Science, Social Science, and Sociology
• Why Should We Care?
• Design and Goals of This Text

Chapter 2: Linking Methods With Theory

• Micro, Meso, and Macro Approaches
• Paradigms, Theories, and How They Shape a Researcher’s Approach
• Inductive or Deductive? Two Different Approaches
• Revisiting an Earlier Question

Chapter 3: Research Ethics

• Research on Humans
• Specific Ethical Issues to Consider
• Ethics at Micro, Meso, and Macro Levels
• The Practice of Science Versus the Uses of Science

Chapter 4: Beginning a Research Project

• Starting Where You Already Are
• Is It Empirical?
• Is It Sociological?
• Is It a Question?

Chapter 5: Research Design

• Goals of the Research Project
• Qualitative or Quantitative? Some Specific Considerations
• Triangulation
• Components of a Research Project

Chapter 6: Defining and Measuring Concepts

• Measurement
• Conceptualization
• Operationalization
• Measurement Quality
• Complexities in Measurement

Chapter 7: Sampling

• Populations Versus Samples
• Sampling in Qualitative Research
• Sampling in Quantitative Research
• A Word of Caution: Questions to Ask About Samples

Chapter 8: Survey Research: A Quantitative Technique

• Chapter Introduction
• Survey Research: What Is It and When Should It Be Used?
• Pros and Cons of Survey Research
• Types of Surveys
• Designing Effective Questions and Questionnaires
• Analysis of Survey Data

Chapter 9: Interviews: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

• Interview Research: What Is It and When Should It Be Used?
• Qualitative Interview Techniques and Considerations
• Quantitative Interview Techniques and Considerations
• Issues to Consider for All Interview Types

Chapter 10: Field Research: A Qualitative Technique

• Field Research: What Is It and When to Use It?
• Pros and Cons of Field Research
• Field Notes
• Analysis of Field Research Data

Chapter 11: Unobtrusive Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

• Unobtrusive Research: What Is It and When to Use It?
• Pros and Cons of Unobtrusive Research
• Unobtrusive Data Collected by You
• Analyzing Others’ Data
• Reliability in Unobtrusive Research

Chapter 12: Other Methods of Data Collection and Analysis

• Focus Groups
• Experiments
• Ethnomethodology and Conversation Analysis

Chapter 13: Sharing Your Work

• Deciding What to Share and With Whom to Share It
• Presenting Your Research
• Writing Up Research Results
• Disseminating Findings

Chapter 14: Reading and Understanding Social Research

• Reading Reports of Sociological Research
• Being a Responsible Consumer of Research
• Media Reports of Sociological Research
• Sociological Research: It’s Everywhere

Chapter 15: Research Methods in the Real World

• Doing Research for a Living
• Doing Research for a Cause
• Public Sociology
• Revisiting an Earlier Question: Why Should We Care?

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Book Review: Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

William Lawrence Neuman, editor. Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. 2014. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. 594 p. ISBN: 978-1-292-02023-5.

“The Art and Science of Asking Questions is the Source of All Knowledge”—Thomas Berger

In an endeavor to bridge the gap between knowledge and applicability, Neuman ( 2014 ) presents a meticulous and comprehensive amalgamation of concepts and theories, defining qualitative and quantitative research methods in his book “Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches.” A professor of sociology at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater, William Lawrence Neuman has gained immense experience and has worked rigorously in his subject matter. He has authored seven books, numerous book chapters, and articles in the field of social sciences.

The book reviewed at present is the seventh edition of the “Social research methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches,” which was published by Pearson Education Limited in 2014. The book was written to help aspiring researchers gain an in-depth understanding of research and its purpose while stressing the essentials and theoretical considerations of conducting research. With a total of 15 chapters, the book elucidates various research methods, balancing between qualitative and quantitative approaches with an aim to emphasize the conceptual framework, applications, strategies, and the pros and cons of each approach, along with highlighting the benefits of using a combination of the two approaches.

The current edition is divided into five parts—foundations of research; planning and preparation for research; quantitative research methods—collection and analysis of data; qualitative research—methods of collecting data and analysis; and lastly “communicating the results of research with others.”

Part one of the book consists of five chapters, shedding light on the basics to provide an understanding of the and how of research and its importance; types of research; theoretical conceptualizations; methodology; and conducting a literature review and ethics in research. For example, in chapter one, the author explains the need to learn how to conduct research, followed by explaining the use, scope, and target audience for research in chapter two. Furthermore, in chapter four, in the most beautifully structured manner, the author has elaborated on the philosophical foundations and paradigms of research.

Part two describes the basics of the process of conducting research. Divided into three chapters explaining qualitative and quantitative research in terms of—research designs and its various strategies; measurement of data; and sampling. Research design issues, reliability and validity, and the types of scales and inventories used are also discussed in this section, providing an integrative and inclusive view of the research process.

In the third part, the types of research and their processes are elaborated for collection of data and analysis in quantitative research. Spread across four chapters, the topics covered under this section include experimental research; survey research; non-reactive research and secondary analysis; and quantitative analysis of data. Whereas, the fourth part is dedicated to qualitative research. Described in two chapters, this section focuses on field and focus group research and analyzing qualitative data.

Parts three and four of the book do justice to the concepts by providing thorough information about the procedure and methods of research. It covers the history, advantages, disadvantages, uses, requirements, as well as gives details about the types of variables and statistical and non-statistical techniques that can be applied. Each chapter is enriched with figures, diagrams, and maps which aid in enhancing conceptual clarity. For example, chapter ten includes information about the latest technological advances such as online surveys and computer-assisted data collection and chapter 14 includes detailed figures depicting qualitative data analysis techniques, with a figure for each like narrative analysis.

The last part of the book and the final chapter provides detailed information on writing and publishing research reports as well as talks about the politics in social research. This part covers everything from why a research report is required, to understanding the writing process, formulating a research proposal, to discussing the ethics, limitations, advantages, and difficulties faced in conducting and publishing research.

In terms of the structure of the book, each chapter begins with the title and key pointers of the topics to be discussed, along with a quote or a small paragraph, which in a theoretical yet poetic style serves as a brief introduction to the topic. Needless to say, each topic mentioned is covered scrupulously and thoroughly in a holistic manner and is explained in-depth, clearly divided point-wise and under sub-categories. This helps in reducing the burden of information overload and aids in maintaining the readers interest.

The most noteworthy and distinguishing part of the book is the use of alternate means of representing and expressing information. Each topic is supported with various realistic examples, enriched with numerous figures, maps, diagrams, and is summarized in organized and structured tables for comparison and ease of understanding. The author has also included dialogue boxes in each chapter with short definitions of the topics in discussion. This is advantageous from a learning perspective as it provides a quick glimpse, simplifying the comprehension of concepts. It is these features that give the book an edge over other books of research.

The book also incorporates empirical evidence and statistical data in supporting its content and illustrations, making it more credible. The language used is simple and straightforward yet catchy in terms of grasping the reader's attention, making even complex theories and perspectives intelligible. At the end of each chapter, a list of key terms is provided, followed by a set of review questions. These questions are beneficial as a means of assessing conceptual clarity in addition to encouraging the reader to ruminate and indulge in lateral thinking over the subject matter.

Overall, the book is a valuable asset for the field of research. The confluence of theoretical concepts with realistic examples makes the book highly applicable and significant not just for students, but for anyone keen to venture into the realm of social research. Just like a building cannot withstand without a strong foundation, a researcher cannot exist without building and maintaining their repositories of knowledge. In conclusion, the book is a quintessential means of grasping and gaining mastery over research knowledge.

Author Contributions

The author confirms being the sole contributor of this work and has approved it for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

• Neuman W. L. (2014). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 7th Edn . United Kingdom: Pearson Education Limited. [ Google Scholar ]

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Quantitative Methods in Sociological Research

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Quantitative Methods in Sociological Research by Erin Leahey LAST REVIEWED: 27 July 2011 LAST MODIFIED: 27 July 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756384-0044

Sociology develops, adopts, and adapts a wide variety of methods for understanding the social world. Realizing that this embarrassment of riches can bewilder the newcomer, this entry is intended to guide scholars through some of the main methods used by quantitative social scientists and some of the key resources for learning such methods. Because many sociologists in the United States receive foundational training in multivariate linear regression, this entry focuses on developments that go beyond this topic, including categorical data analysis, structural equation modeling, multilevel modeling, longitudinal data analysis, causal inference, and even network analysis. The recent wave of interest in mixed methods also merits inclusion. A section on critical reflections aims to encourage researchers to be reflective and thoughtful about the approach(es) they choose.

A number of professional associations are open to quantitative methodologists and researchers, including the two ASAs ( American Sociological Association and American Statistical Association ), the Population Association of American (PAA) , for demographers broadly defined, and the American Association for Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) for survey researchers and methodologists.

American Association of Public Opinion Research (AAPOR) .

Founded in 1947, AAPOR is an association of individuals who share an interest in survey research, qualitative and quantitative research methods, and public opinion data. Members come from academia, media, government, the nonprofit sector, and private industry. Meetings are held in even-numbered years.

American Sociological Association (ASA) .

The national professional association for sociologists, ASA serves as a reference for professional, ethical, and pedagogical topics; sponsors nine journals; and hosts an annual meeting.

American Statistical Association (ASA) .

ASA is the world’s largest community of statisticians and the second-oldest professional society in the United States. For 170 years, ASA has supported excellence in the development and dissemination of statistical science. Its members serve in industry, government, and academia, advancing research and promoting sound statistical practice to inform public policy and improve human welfare.

Population Association of America (PAA) .

PAA is a nonprofit organization that promotes research on population issues such as fertility, migration, health, and mortality. PAA sponsors the journal Demography .

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Qualitative Research

What is Qualitative Research?

Qualitative research is characterised by its aims, which relate to understanding some aspect of social life, and its methods which (in general) generate words, rather than numbers, as data for analysis.

For researchers more familiar with quantitative methods, which aim to measure something (such as the percentage of people with a particular disease in a community, or the number of households owning a bed net), the aims and methods of qualitative research can seem imprecise. Common criticisms include:

• samples are small and not necessarily representative of the broader population, so it is difficult to know how far we can generalise the results;
• the findings lack rigour;
• it is difficult to tell how far the findings are biased by the researcher’s own opinions.

Qualitative methods generally aim to understand the experiences and attitudes of patients, the community or health care worker. These methods aim to answer questions about the ‘what’, ‘how’ or ‘why’ of a phenomenon rather than ‘how many’ or ‘how much’, which are answered by quantitative methods.

Source: www.alnap.org/pool/files/ qualitative - research - method ology.pdf

Ethnography

The ethnographic approach to qualitative research comes largely from the field of anthropology. The emphasis in ethnography is on studying an entire culture. Originally, the idea of a culture was tied to the notion of ethnicity and geographic location (e.g., the culture of the Trobriand Islands), but it has been broadened to include virtually any group or organization. That is, we can study the "culture" of a business or defined group (e.g., a Rotary club).

Source: http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/qualapp.php

Methods of Qualitative Research

Qualitative researchers findings are collected through a variety of methods, and often, a researcher will use at least two or several of the following while conducting a qualitative study.

Direct observation: With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about their daily lives without participating or interfering.

In-depth interviews: Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to evolve based on how the participant responds.

Ethnographic observation: Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and in-depth observational method.

Open-ended surveys: While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of qualitative data.

Oral History

UCLA Library Center for Oral History Research - https://oralhistory.library.ucla.edu/

The UCLA Center for Oral History Research (COHR) conducts in-depth, multi-session oral history interviews with individuals who have been a part of the history of Los Angeles and its many communities. COHR has particularly strong collections in the history of social movements, communities of color, the arts, Los Angeles politics and government, and the history of UCLA.

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Quantitative and Qualitative Methods in sociology

Quantitative and qualitative methods are two primary research approaches used in sociology. The purpose of quantitative research is to understand patterns, correlations, and causality in social phenomena by gathering and analysing numerical data using statistical methods. Statistical analysis of large datasets and surveys are some examples of quantitative methods used in sociology.

The goal of qualitative research, however, is to gain an understanding of social phenomena through the collection and analysis of nonnumerical data, such as interview transcripts, observations, and texts. Examples of qualitative methods used in sociology include ethnography, content analysis, and grounded theory. In order to choose a research method, it is important to consider the research question, the type of data required, and the approach to the research. Some researchers also use mixed methods to get the data according to the requirements.

Primary research methods

Quantitative methods.

Surveys − This method involves the use of questionnaires to gather data from a large group of people. The surveys can be administered face-to-face, through email or online platforms.

Experiments − Researchers manipulate the independent variable in controlled laboratory settings to observe the effect on the dependent variable.

Observational Studies − This method involves observing and recording the behaviour of people in their natural environment. The researcher can use either structured or unstructured observations.

Content Analysis − This method involves the analysis of text, audio, or visual media to identify themes, patterns, or trends in the data.

Qualitative Methods

Interviews − This method involves face-to-face conversations between the researcher and participants to gather data on their experiences, perceptions, and attitudes.

Focus Groups − This method involves a group discussion with a moderator to gather data on a specific topic or issue.

Ethnography − This method involves the immersion of the researcher in the culture or group being studied to understand their experiences, values, and beliefs.

Case Studies − This method involves an in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event to understand their experiences, motivations, and behaviours.

Ethnography

Ethnography is a qualitative research method used to understand social phenomena within a particular culture or community. The method involves the observation of people's behaviour in their natural environment and the recording of their experiences. Clifford Geertz is known for his contribution to the development of ethnography as a research method in sociology. In his book, "The Interpretation of Cultures," Geertz emphasised the importance of understanding the symbolic meaning of social behaviour within a cultural context.

Survey Method

Data is collected from a large number of people using surveys in quantitative research methods. A questionnaire or interview is used to gather information about people's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours. Surveys are often used in sociology to measure social phenomena such as social inequality, prejudice, and discrimination. Surveys can provide a representative sample of the population being studied and can be used to generalise findings to the larger population.

Historical Method

The historical method is a qualitative research method used to understand social phenomena within a historical context. The method involves the analysis of historical documents and other artefacts to reconstruct the social, political, and economic conditions of a particular time period. The historical method is often used in sociology to study social movements, political revolutions, and other significant events that have shaped society.

Comparative Method

The comparative method is a quantitative research method used to compare social phenomena across different societies or cultures. The method involves the collection of data from multiple sources and the analysis of similarities and differences between the data. Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim are known for their contributions to the development of the comparative method in sociology. Spencer believed that social phenomena could be explained by the evolution of societies, while Durkheim emphasised the importance of studying social facts and their relationships to one another.

In conclusion, quantitative and qualitative research methods are both essential to the study of social phenomena in sociology. Ethnography, surveys, the historical method, and the comparative method are just a few examples of research methods used in sociology. The method that is the most appropriate for the researchers' research question will vary based on the strengths and limitations of each method. By combining quantitative and qualitative methods, sociologists can develop theory and practice and gain a comprehensive understanding of social phenomena.

Q1. How do qualitative and quantitative research methods differ in sociology?

Ans. A qualitative research method focuses on interpreting human behaviour and interpreting non-numerical data, whereas a quantitative method focuses on collecting numerical data.

Q2. What are some of the limitations of the survey method in sociology?

Ans. The survey method may suffer from response bias, where respondents may provide socially desirable responses or may not be truthful. Additionally, the survey method may not be suitable for exploring complex social phenomena that require in-depth analysis.

Q3. What are the methods researchers can use to ensure that their research findings are valid and reliable?

Ans. Researchers can ensure the validity and reliability of their research findings by using a systematic and rigorous research design, selecting appropriate data collection methods, and analysing the data using reliable statistical and qualitative analysis techniques. Additionally, researchers should be transparent in their reporting and acknowledge the limitations of their research

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Social Sciences Research: Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

• What is Social Science?

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

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Focus Groups

Social science research, or social research as it is sometimes called, stems from the natural sciences, and similar to its precursory field, it uses empirical, measurable outcomes to arrive at a conclusion. While natural scientists use the scientific method, social scientists often use quantitative research to go about their method of discovery.

Quantitative research "is the systematic examination of social phenomena, using statistical models and mathematical theories to develop, accumulate, and refine the scientific knowledge base" (" Quantitative Research," 2008 ). Quantitative research also provides "generalizable" findings, and according to Marlow (1993), is "characterized by hypothesis testing, using large samples, standardized measures, a deductive approach, and rigorously structured data collection instruments" (cited in "Quantitative Research").

As an alternative to quantitative research, qualitative research is also employed in social science research and is contrasted with quantitative research as such:

• Insider rather than outsider
• Person-centered rather than variable-centered
• Holistic rather than particularistic
• Depth rather than breadth

(" Qualitative Research, " 2008)

Trochim (2006), however, warns that researchers should not become so caught up in the polarizing differences between qualitative and quantiative research. He writes, "All quantitative data is based upon qualitative judgments; and all qualitative data can be described and manipulated numerically" (para. 3).

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An Overview of Qualitative Research Methods

Direct Observation, Interviews, Participation, Immersion, Focus Groups

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Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help understand social life through the study of targeted populations or places.

People often frame it in opposition to quantitative research , which uses numerical data to identify large-scale trends and employs statistical operations to determine causal and correlative relationships between variables.

Within sociology, qualitative research is typically focused on the micro-level of social interaction that composes everyday life, whereas quantitative research typically focuses on macro-level trends and phenomena.

Key Takeaways

Methods of qualitative research include:

• observation and immersion
• open-ended surveys
• focus groups
• content analysis of visual and textual materials
• oral history

Qualitative research has a long history in sociology and has been used within it for as long as the field has existed.

This type of research has long appealed to social scientists because it allows the researchers to investigate the meanings people attribute to their behavior, actions, and interactions with others.

While quantitative research is useful for identifying relationships between variables, like, for example, the connection between poverty and racial hate, it is qualitative research that can illuminate why this connection exists by going directly to the source—the people themselves.

Qualitative research is designed to reveal the meaning that informs the action or outcomes that are typically measured by quantitative research. So qualitative researchers investigate meanings, interpretations, symbols, and the processes and relations of social life.

What this type of research produces is descriptive data that the researcher must then interpret using rigorous and systematic methods of transcribing, coding, and analysis of trends and themes.

Because its focus is everyday life and people's experiences, qualitative research lends itself well to creating new theories using the inductive method , which can then be tested with further research.

Qualitative researchers use their own eyes, ears, and intelligence to collect in-depth perceptions and descriptions of targeted populations, places, and events.

Their findings are collected through a variety of methods, and often a researcher will use at least two or several of the following while conducting a qualitative study:

• Direct observation : With direct observation, a researcher studies people as they go about their daily lives without participating or interfering. This type of research is often unknown to those under study, and as such, must be conducted in public settings where people do not have a reasonable expectation of privacy. For example, a researcher might observe the ways in which strangers interact in public as they gather to watch a street performer.
• Open-ended surveys : While many surveys are designed to generate quantitative data, many are also designed with open-ended questions that allow for the generation and analysis of qualitative data. For example, a survey might be used to investigate not just which political candidates voters chose, but why they chose them, in their own words.
• Focus group : In a focus group, a researcher engages a small group of participants in a conversation designed to generate data relevant to the research question. Focus groups can contain anywhere from 5 to 15 participants. Social scientists often use them in studies that examine an event or trend that occurs within a specific community. They are common in market research, too.
• In-depth interviews : Researchers conduct in-depth interviews by speaking with participants in a one-on-one setting. Sometimes a researcher approaches the interview with a predetermined list of questions or topics for discussion but allows the conversation to evolve based on how the participant responds. Other times, the researcher has identified certain topics of interest but does not have a formal guide for the conversation, but allows the participant to guide it.
• Oral history : The oral history method is used to create a historical account of an event, group, or community, and typically involves a series of in-depth interviews conducted with one or multiple participants over an extended period.
• Participant observation : This method is similar to observation, however with this one, the researcher also participates in the action or events to not only observe others but to gain the first-hand experience in the setting.
• Ethnographic observation : Ethnographic observation is the most intensive and in-depth observational method. Originating in anthropology, with this method, a researcher fully immerses themselves into the research setting and lives among the participants as one of them for anywhere from months to years. By doing this, the researcher attempts to experience day-to-day existence from the viewpoints of those studied to develop in-depth and long-term accounts of the community, events, or trends under observation.
• Content analysis : This method is used by sociologists to analyze social life by interpreting words and images from documents, film, art, music, and other cultural products and media. The researchers look at how the words and images are used, and the context in which they are used to draw inferences about the underlying culture. Content analysis of digital material, especially that generated by social media users, has become a popular technique within the social sciences.

While much of the data generated by qualitative research is coded and analyzed using just the researcher's eyes and brain, the use of computer software to do these processes is increasingly popular within the social sciences.

Such software analysis works well when the data is too large for humans to handle, though the lack of a human interpreter is a common criticism of the use of computer software.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

• What's the Difference?
• Qualitative Research
• Quantitative Research

Research in Psychology is categorized into two general methods:

Non-numerical evidence, usually examined in its raw form

Used when a researcher wants to understand people's  opinions, idiosyncratic responses to an event, motivations, or underlying reasons for actions or decisions.

Learn about the Types of Qualitative Research Methods. link will open in a new window

Example: Interviewing the victims of a natural disaster to gather a range of emotional responses.

Numbers!  Collected as numerical data or converted into numerical data and examined using statistical methods of analysis.

Used to examine trends and compare populations.

Learn about the Types of Quantitative Research Methods. link will open in a new window

Example: Asking victims of a natural disaster to rank their feelings of anxiety using a pre-determined scale.

When to use them

Psychological research is best when it uses complementary quantitative and qualitative approaches together in the same study, a method called  triangulation.

Example:  Observing parent-child interactions while watching tv then comparing those observations to measured rates of social and cognitive development in the children who participated in the study.

The Research Continuum

The researchers record data by studying participants at a distance.   Researchers try not to influence the participants or their actions.

Types of observational studies include:  Naturalistic Observation link will open in a new window , Participant Observation link will open in a new window ,  or Ethnography. link will open in a new window

The researcher will collect and write detailed accounts of individual lives. A case study can combine a few research approaches, including interviews, observational data, and archival data.

Examples of Case Studies include Freud's history of Anna O link will open in a new window ., and the stories related in Oliver Sacks's best selling book  The Man Who Mistook his Wife for a Hat .

A researcher applies their own analytical model to data that has already been collected.  They attempt to answer a new question or discover a new trend by looking at old data.

Typical sources of archival data include:  census data link will open in a new window , court records will open in a new window , medical records,  and even  case files  from other researchers.

Participants are asked a standard set of questions.  These questions may be delivered in writing or through an interview format.

There are three main types of questionnaire methods:   Random Sampling link will open in a new window , Stratified Sampling link will open in a new window , and Convenience Sampling link will open in a new window .

Researchers are trying to find a solution to an immediate, practical problem.  Examples include reducing drug use or improving worker happiness. 

Field research is a type of applied research that is undertaken in a non-laboratory setting. These settings may include a hospital or workplace.

Research conducted in a controlled environment.  The results help scholars in the field to learn more about psychological processes such as cognition or emotional development.

Common Research Methods

Types of observational studies include:  Non-Participant Observation   window or   Participant Observation .

A classic example of Case Studies in sociology is Erving Goffman's classic  Asylums. link will open in a new window

Information is gathered one-on-one by asking questions orally.   Structured Interviews can sometimes be used to gather quantitative data, because the structure allows the interview to function like a questionnaire.  

More qualitative types of interviewing range from the  Unstructured Interview  which functions like a conversation based around a set list of topics, to the  In-Depth Interview  which may range widely with only a loose guide to direct it.  

In-depth studies of groups in their natural setting.  These studies utilize multiple type of research to create a multi-layered report.  In addition to Participant Observation, a researcher may use interviews, questionnaires, or analysis of secondary research related to the group.

Some good examples of ethnographies available through the Library's online resources include:  Recovery's Edge : An Ethnography of Mental Health Care and Moral Agency Link will open in a new window by Neely Laurenzo Meyers, Sex Work and the City Link will open in a new window by Ysmina Katsulis, and The breakup 2.0 : disconnecting over new media Link will open in a new window by Ilana Gershon.

Experimental Research Methods

What is Experimental Research?

Experimental Research is a sub-type of research in sociology.  It may utilize the same methods as other research, but it differs in that it attempts measure variables as precisely as possible.

Experimental Research starts with a hypothesis  and uses a variety of research methods to  test  that hypothesis.  Ususally involves testing  causal relationships.

Researchers study the cause and effect of variables in a natural setting , such as a classroom or workplace.

This allows the researcher to study participants or phenomena in their natural setting, so results might be more accurate . But they have less control over the variables, so results might not be as precise .

Research conducted in a controlled environment.  

Participants' reactions may be influenced by the unnatural setting, but researchers have more control over variables.

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Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

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Qualitative and quantitative methods

Relevance: Sociology: Paper I: Fundamentals of Socioloy: 3. Research Methods and Analysis: (a) Qualitative and quantitative methods.

Before analyzing methods, it is necessary to understand difference between ‘scientific method’ and ‘scientific methodology’.

Method is a tool or a technique used to collect data. It is a procedure for obtaining knowledge based on empirical observations and logical reasoning.

Methodology is logic of scientific investigation. Methodology means description, explanation and justification of methods and not the methods themselves.

When we talk of methodology of any social science , say of sociology, we refer to the method(s) used by sociologist, e.g. survey method, experimental method, case study method, statistical method and so on. The word ‘technique’ is also used in the contexts of inquiry of any science, e.g., techniques in a mass opinion, survey, for conducting interviews, for observation and so on. There is a right way and a wrong way or a good way and a bad way to do anything in science as in any other work. The techniques of a science are the ways of doing the work of that science. Methodology is concerned with techniques in this sense.

Methodology inquires into the potentialities and limitations of some technique or other. It is a plan and procedure for carrying out the research .  It refers to research techniques and strategies for obtaining valid information . It is an approach to understanding phenomenon . It is a procedure of empirical investigation .  It is not concerned with building knowledge but how knowledge is built,  i.e., how facts are collected, classified and analysed.

The approach of a social scientist is different from that of a natural scientist. A natural scientist does not participate in the phenomenon, he studies,

• does not interview elements,
• has a laboratory for conducting experiments,
• uses instruments and chemical and
• can control many variables, in his experiment.

Against this, a social scientist….

• participates in the phenomenon under study,
• interviews elements from whom collects data,
• has no laboratory,
• does not use any instruments for measuring etc., like barometers and so on,
• cannot control many variables.

Thus, the difference in the approach of two scientists is of methodology and not method. Methodology refers to philosophy on which research is based. This philosophy includes assumptions and values that serve as basis (rationale) for research and are used for interviewing data and reaching conclusions . It is said that the methodology used in natural sciences is more rigorous than that of social sciences.

Quantitative Method:

This research employs quantitative measurement and the use of statistical analysis.   For example, what percentage of medical, engineering, law, arts, science and commerce students takes drugs or uses alcohol? What percentage of prisoners rejects prison norms and internalizes norms of the inmate world? What percentage of women leading unhappy marital life takes initiative to divorce their husbands? What was the cost of poll violence (in cores) in Lok Sabha elections in last ten elections in India? How many mandays have been lost due to strikes and lockouts in industries in India in the last two decades?

This type of research is based on the methodological principles of positivism and adheres to the standards of strict sampling and research design.

Qualitative Method :

This research presents non-quantitative type of analysis. It describes reality as experienced by the groups, communities, individuals etc . For example, how does the structure and organisation of wall-less prisons (or minimum security jails) differ from that of the central or district jails (or maximum security jails) and contribute to the reformation and resocialisation of criminals? What has been the partywise stand on women’s reservation in Parliament and state assemblies?

Difference in Designing Quantitative and Qualitative Method

Quantitative researchers tend to be more prescriptive than qualitative researchers. The later operate with as few prescriptions as possible.

Some people hold that the  qualitative researchers  usually do not employ a design. They are more open and flexible and have greater freedom of choice. But this is not correct. Investigators engaged in qualitative research are equally concerned with how, what, where and when the data are to be collected. However, some differences in designing the two types of research (quantitative is described here as ‘former’ and qualitative as ‘later) may be pointed here (Sarantakos):

• In the former research, the problem is specific and precise in the later research, it is general and loosely structured .
• In the former, the hypotheses are formulated before the study ; i n the latter , hypotheses are propounded either during the study or after the study .
• In the former , concepts are operationalized ; in the latter concepts are only sensitized .
• In the former, in designing research, the design is prescriptive ; in the latter, the design is not prescriptive .
• In the former, sampling is planned before data collection; in the latter, it is planned during data collection.
• In the former , sampling is representative ; in the latter , it is not representative.
• In the former , all types of measurements/scales are employed; in the latter , mostly nominal scales are used.
• In the former, for data collection, generally investigators are employed in big researches ; in the latter , the researchers analyse data single-handed .
• In the former , in processing data, usually inductive generalization is made ; in the latter , usually analytical generalization are made.
• In reporting in the former research the finding are highly integrated; in the latter, the findings are mostly not integrated .

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Speaker 1: Hi, Dr. Eli Lee over here of DEDUCE. My training is as a quantitative psychologist and I've been working in the field for over 20 years. But over the last 15, I really dove into doing mixed methods research. We found out a long time ago that there really weren't any tools to help us do the kinds of work that we wanted to do when we were using methods from psychology, anthropology, sociology, marketing, research. So we came up with a tool. It's evolved over the last 10 years and now we're really happy to show you what DEDUCE can do for qualitative research and mixed methods research. So what are mixed methods? Well, most people are pretty familiar with quantitative research methods. Quantitative methods are great for learning about what kinds of things there are, what kinds of people are they, and how many. So we might ask questions about people's demographics, their gender, age, income level. We might get scores. We might have them rate on a 1 to 10 scale how important to you is education, religion, family. And we might have them fill out other kinds of scales like depression. How happy are you on a scale of 1 to 100 or a bunch of items that we fold together to make scale scores. And so what do we do with these things? We can analyze them as individual variables like age group, 1, 2, 3, how many, what percentage of our population sits in each of those categories. We can do bivariate relationships looking at age by sex, for example. So here's the age group here, but when we break it out by males and females, we see there's a different percentage in each of those groups. And we can do multivariate types of analysis as well. So here's an average rating of how important family is to you broken out by the age group and by sex. There's all kinds of great and powerful things that we can do with quantitative data analysis, and we're not here to talk about that. Qualitative methods seek to understand human behavior and the reasons for those behaviors. A lot of people are less familiar with qualitative research methods than they are with quantitative. But basically qualitative data and the methods that generate them are seeking answers for why people do the things that they do and how they do them. What motivates them? What feelings drive the kinds of decisions that people make? What values? What things about their cultural background are important in understanding why they act the way that they do? So as a simple illustration, let's say we're interested in understanding why people make certain decisions about hotels. We go out to the field and have people just tell us stories about their most recent hotel decision. Typical approach to these data from qualitative research perspective would be to go through those texts and look for the themes that people talk about in a consistent way. So let's say for example after we look at a whole bunch of these stories, we hear people talking about luxury, sophistication, and intimacy on a pretty regular basis. The next thing that we do is go through those stories looking for sections of text where people talk about one or more of these things. We can also apply a weighting system. Here we've got an example of a 1 to 10 weight scale based on how important it is. So let's say in this story here's a piece of text where they're talking about luxury and intimacy. So we'll say 1 and 3 are the codes and they really thought luxury was the most important factor. So we'll give that a weight of 10 and intimacy was moderately important, we'll give that a 7. So we continue going through those texts looking for all the sections where people talk about one or more of these texts. So here's another one. They're talking about sophistication. Sophistication they say, well you know people talk about that but it's really not that important to me. So we'll give that a weight of 2. Here's one more. They're talking about luxury and sophistication. Again sophistication is really low, luxury remains really high. But wouldn't it be cool if we could put all these methods together? Some famous researchers have talked about the fact that all research methods have flaws. So by mixing methods together we seek to capitalize on the strengths of each and avoid some of the weaknesses. Deduce is great just for qualitative data analysis but when people are trying to bring it all together in a true mixed method design that's where deduce really shines. That's why we built it and that's what it was designed to accomplish as efficiently as possible. These studies can be really complex and people are looking for answers as efficiently as they can. With today's technologies we were able to put together a tool that accomplishes all of this and gets you to your answers very quickly. So come check it out. Alright welcome to my computer. I'm going to just log in to deduce but remember as a web application anywhere I have a computer and internet access I can log in to my project. So here's our hotel project. Our resources are here. Here are the tags we've already created. Here's some excerpts that we've already created and tagged. Our descriptor data are over here. Here's the fields that we've defined and here are the data themselves. And right here on our dashboard we get a glimpse of the many data visualizations that deduce produces automatically. Most of them can be modified and all are dynamically linked to the qualitative data that they represent. So if we're interested in drilling down to those excerpts from the 50 plus age group that were tagged with cost, simply click on that bar, pulls those excerpts up and we can go ahead and exam them further. Also deduce is very transparent and allows you to move seamlessly throughout your database. So if we pull up excerpts that we're interested in and we want to drill in a little bit deeper simply clicking on that excerpt takes us to the excerpt itself in the context of its original source. So let's go back home. It's also important to point out that all the charts, graphs, list of excerpts, descriptor data can all be exported from deduce with a simple click to be popped right into presentations or imported into other software. So let me show you one of the other important set up activities, getting your documents or resources into deduce. I'm going to go ahead and just import a document, prompts me to find the resource on my computer. I'll go ahead and give it a title, submit that to the database. You can see that deduce supports images in virtually any language. So here's some example text from the hotel study. So I'm going to go ahead and just block a piece of text to create an excerpt. I'll right click, create excerpt. Now I can go ahead and attach tags to it. This person talks about sexiness factor but that's not particularly important for them. Also sophistication is reasonably important. We'll give that seven. Go ahead and create another excerpt here. Service is high on their list. Let's go ahead and create an excerpt there. Give service a ten. Another thing that we need to do when we put resources into a project is attach it to the appropriate individual so that it's linked to the descriptor data. Let's go ahead and attach that person here. Okay, so we can see that one descriptor has been attached now. Now the really fun part. Let's get over to the analysis center. There are a wide variety of charts, graphs, plots and tables in deduce. There's really too much to show in this brief introduction so let's go after answers to just a couple of questions. You see that there are lots of charts, tables and plots that are available in deduce. Let's go ahead and look at something based on our tagging activity. We'll look at tag co-occurrence for example. What we see here is code by code matrix. This shows where two tags have been used on the same excerpt. The numbers, the tagging activity and all the descriptor data expose the patterns in our data. The qualitative data that sits behind those images is what really gives us the richness in this mixed methods research. We see here that 13 times luxury and cost were used on the same excerpt. If it's meaningful to our research that people talk about cost and luxury at the same time, we might want to go and look at those excerpts. Here we can pull them up. We can explore them. Again we can jump back to the resource and export these as well. Let's go ahead and close that. In terms of exposing patterns, bubble plots are really illuminating. This plot gives us information about the average weights or importance or sentiments that were associated with our tagging activity. I'm going to go ahead and break things out by age group. Let's use the tags luxury, sophistication and intimacy. This plot actually gives us four dimensions to look at our data. The plots themselves can communicate a great deal, can be exported and popped into presentations. We can also learn a lot more about the pattern by drilling down into the excerpts themselves. This bubble here represents the age group 50 plus and this group was relatively low in the importance of luxury but relatively high in sophistication and intimacy in their hotel decisions. If we're putting together a marketing message, we want to come up with something that's really going to resonate with this particular subgroup. We go ahead and open up those excerpts and we can really get a feel for how people are talking about these things and understand the reasons for why they feel the particular characteristics are more or less important when they're making their decisions. There's so much more I'd love to show you about deduce but I think we're out of time. Thanks for checking in. We've got a number of other videos on our website that give you step-by-step instructions about how to set projects up and how to get the best out of deducing your work.