relevance of literature review in educational research

• Library databases
• Library website

Education Literature Review: Education Literature Review

What does this guide cover.

Writing the literature review is a long, complex process that requires you to use many different tools, resources, and skills.

This page provides links to the guides, tutorials, and webinars that can help you with all aspects of completing your literature review.

The Basic Process

These resources provide overviews of the entire literature review process. Start here if you are new to the literature review process.

• Literature Reviews Overview : Writing Center
• How to do a Literature Review : Library
• Video: Common Errors Made When Conducting a Lit Review (YouTube)  

The Role of the Literature Review

Your literature review gives your readers an understanding of the evolution of scholarly research on your topic.

In your literature review you will:

• survey the scholarly landscape
• provide a synthesis of the issues, trends, and concepts
• possibly provide some historical background

Review the literature in two ways:

• Section 1: reviews the literature for the Problem
• Section 3: reviews the literature for the Project

The literature review is NOT an annotated bibliography. Nor should it simply summarize the articles you've read. Literature reviews are organized thematically and demonstrate synthesis of the literature.

For more information, view the Library's short video on searching by themes:

Short Video: Research for the Literature Review

(4 min 10 sec) Recorded August 2019 Transcript 

Search for Literature

The iterative process of research:

• Find an article.
• Read the article and build new searches using keywords and names from the article.
• Mine the bibliography for other works.
• Use “cited by” searches to find more recent works that reference the article.
• Repeat steps 2-4 with the new articles you find.

These are the main skills and resources you will need in order to effectively search for literature on your topic:

• Subject Research: Education by Jon Allinder Last Updated Aug 7, 2023 5866 views this year
• Keyword Searching: Finding Articles on Your Topic by Lynn VanLeer Last Updated Aug 12, 2024 27474 views this year
• Google Scholar by Jon Allinder Last Updated Aug 16, 2023 17926 views this year
• Quick Answer: How do I find books and articles that cite an article I already have?
• Quick Answer: How do I find a measurement, test, survey or instrument?

Video: Education Databases and Doctoral Research Resources

(6 min 04 sec) Recorded April 2019 Transcript 

Staying Organized

The literature review requires organizing a variety of information. The following resources will help you develop the organizational systems you'll need to be successful.

• Organize your research
• Citation Management Software

You can make your search log as simple or complex as you would like.  It can be a table in a word document or an excel spread sheet.  Here are two examples.  The word document is a basic table where you can keep track of databases, search terms, limiters, results and comments.  The Excel sheet is more complex and has additional sheets for notes, Google Scholar log; Journal Log, and Questions to ask the Librarian.  

• Search Log Example Sample search log in Excel
• Search Log Example Sample search log set up as a table in a word document.
• Literature Review Matrix with color coding Sample template for organizing and synthesizing your research

Writing the Literature Review

The following resources created by the Writing Center and the Academic Skills Center support the writing process for the dissertation/project study. 

• Critical Reading
• What is Synthesis 
• Walden Templates
• Quick Answer: How do I find Walden EdD (Doctor of Education) studies?
• Quick Answer: How do I find Walden PhD dissertations?

Beyond the Literature Review

The literature review isn't the only portion of a dissertation/project study that requires searching. The following resources can help you identify and utilize a theory, methodology, measurement instruments, or statistics.

• Education Theory by Jon Allinder Last Updated Aug 5, 2024 706 views this year
• Tests & Measures in Education by Kimberly Burton Last Updated Nov 18, 2021 55 views this year
• Education Statistics by Jon Allinder Last Updated Feb 22, 2022 68 views this year
• Office of Research and Doctoral Services

Books and Articles about the Lit Review

The following articles and books outline the purpose of the literature review and offer advice for successfully completing one.

• Chen, D. T. V., Wang, Y. M., & Lee, W. C. (2016). Challenges confronting beginning researchers in conducting literature reviews. Studies in Continuing Education, 38(1), 47-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2015.1030335 Proposes a framework to conceptualize four types of challenges students face: linguistic, methodological, conceptual, and ontological.
• Randolph, J.J. (2009). A guide to writing the dissertation literature review. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 14(13), 1-13. Provides advice for writing a quantitative or qualitative literature review, by a Walden faculty member.
• Torraco, R. J. (2016). Writing integrative literature reviews: Using the past and present to explore the future. Human Resource Development Review, 15(4), 404–428. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484316671606 This article presents the integrative review of literature as a distinctive form of research that uses existing literature to create new knowledge.
• Wee, B. V., & Banister, D. (2016). How to write a literature review paper?. Transport Reviews, 36(2), 278-288. http://doi.org/10.1080/01441647.2015.1065456 Discusses how to write a literature review with a focus on adding value rather and suggests structural and contextual aspects found in outstanding literature reviews.
• Winchester, C. L., & Salji, M. (2016). Writing a literature review. Journal of Clinical Urology, 9(5), 308-312. https://doi.org/10.1177/2051415816650133 Reviews the use of different document types to add structure and enrich your literature review and the skill sets needed in writing the literature review.
• Xiao, Y., & Watson, M. (2017). Guidance on conducting a systematic literature review. Journal of Planning Education and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739456X17723971 Examines different types of literature reviews and the steps necessary to produce a systematic review in educational research.

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• v.21(3); Fall 2022

Literature Reviews, Theoretical Frameworks, and Conceptual Frameworks: An Introduction for New Biology Education Researchers

Julie a. luft.

† Department of Mathematics, Social Studies, and Science Education, Mary Frances Early College of Education, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-7124

Sophia Jeong

‡ Department of Teaching & Learning, College of Education & Human Ecology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

Robert Idsardi

§ Department of Biology, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA 99004

Grant Gardner

∥ Department of Biology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132

Associated Data

To frame their work, biology education researchers need to consider the role of literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks as critical elements of the research and writing process. However, these elements can be confusing for scholars new to education research. This Research Methods article is designed to provide an overview of each of these elements and delineate the purpose of each in the educational research process. We describe what biology education researchers should consider as they conduct literature reviews, identify theoretical frameworks, and construct conceptual frameworks. Clarifying these different components of educational research studies can be helpful to new biology education researchers and the biology education research community at large in situating their work in the broader scholarly literature.

INTRODUCTION

Discipline-based education research (DBER) involves the purposeful and situated study of teaching and learning in specific disciplinary areas ( Singer et al. , 2012 ). Studies in DBER are guided by research questions that reflect disciplines’ priorities and worldviews. Researchers can use quantitative data, qualitative data, or both to answer these research questions through a variety of methodological traditions. Across all methodologies, there are different methods associated with planning and conducting educational research studies that include the use of surveys, interviews, observations, artifacts, or instruments. Ensuring the coherence of these elements to the discipline’s perspective also involves situating the work in the broader scholarly literature. The tools for doing this include literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks. However, the purpose and function of each of these elements is often confusing to new education researchers. The goal of this article is to introduce new biology education researchers to these three important elements important in DBER scholarship and the broader educational literature.

The first element we discuss is a review of research (literature reviews), which highlights the need for a specific research question, study problem, or topic of investigation. Literature reviews situate the relevance of the study within a topic and a field. The process may seem familiar to science researchers entering DBER fields, but new researchers may still struggle in conducting the review. Booth et al. (2016b) highlight some of the challenges novice education researchers face when conducting a review of literature. They point out that novice researchers struggle in deciding how to focus the review, determining the scope of articles needed in the review, and knowing how to be critical of the articles in the review. Overcoming these challenges (and others) can help novice researchers construct a sound literature review that can inform the design of the study and help ensure the work makes a contribution to the field.

The second and third highlighted elements are theoretical and conceptual frameworks. These guide biology education research (BER) studies, and may be less familiar to science researchers. These elements are important in shaping the construction of new knowledge. Theoretical frameworks offer a way to explain and interpret the studied phenomenon, while conceptual frameworks clarify assumptions about the studied phenomenon. Despite the importance of these constructs in educational research, biology educational researchers have noted the limited use of theoretical or conceptual frameworks in published work ( DeHaan, 2011 ; Dirks, 2011 ; Lo et al. , 2019 ). In reviewing articles published in CBE—Life Sciences Education ( LSE ) between 2015 and 2019, we found that fewer than 25% of the research articles had a theoretical or conceptual framework (see the Supplemental Information), and at times there was an inconsistent use of theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Clearly, these frameworks are challenging for published biology education researchers, which suggests the importance of providing some initial guidance to new biology education researchers.

Fortunately, educational researchers have increased their explicit use of these frameworks over time, and this is influencing educational research in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. For instance, a quick search for theoretical or conceptual frameworks in the abstracts of articles in Educational Research Complete (a common database for educational research) in STEM fields demonstrates a dramatic change over the last 20 years: from only 778 articles published between 2000 and 2010 to 5703 articles published between 2010 and 2020, a more than sevenfold increase. Greater recognition of the importance of these frameworks is contributing to DBER authors being more explicit about such frameworks in their studies.

Collectively, literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks work to guide methodological decisions and the elucidation of important findings. Each offers a different perspective on the problem of study and is an essential element in all forms of educational research. As new researchers seek to learn about these elements, they will find different resources, a variety of perspectives, and many suggestions about the construction and use of these elements. The wide range of available information can overwhelm the new researcher who just wants to learn the distinction between these elements or how to craft them adequately.

Our goal in writing this paper is not to offer specific advice about how to write these sections in scholarly work. Instead, we wanted to introduce these elements to those who are new to BER and who are interested in better distinguishing one from the other. In this paper, we share the purpose of each element in BER scholarship, along with important points on its construction. We also provide references for additional resources that may be beneficial to better understanding each element. Table 1 summarizes the key distinctions among these elements.

Comparison of literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual reviews

This article is written for the new biology education researcher who is just learning about these different elements or for scientists looking to become more involved in BER. It is a result of our own work as science education and biology education researchers, whether as graduate students and postdoctoral scholars or newly hired and established faculty members. This is the article we wish had been available as we started to learn about these elements or discussed them with new educational researchers in biology.

LITERATURE REVIEWS

Purpose of a literature review.

A literature review is foundational to any research study in education or science. In education, a well-conceptualized and well-executed review provides a summary of the research that has already been done on a specific topic and identifies questions that remain to be answered, thus illustrating the current research project’s potential contribution to the field and the reasoning behind the methodological approach selected for the study ( Maxwell, 2012 ). BER is an evolving disciplinary area that is redefining areas of conceptual emphasis as well as orientations toward teaching and learning (e.g., Labov et al. , 2010 ; American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2011 ; Nehm, 2019 ). As a result, building comprehensive, critical, purposeful, and concise literature reviews can be a challenge for new biology education researchers.

Building Literature Reviews

There are different ways to approach and construct a literature review. Booth et al. (2016a) provide an overview that includes, for example, scoping reviews, which are focused only on notable studies and use a basic method of analysis, and integrative reviews, which are the result of exhaustive literature searches across different genres. Underlying each of these different review processes are attention to the s earch process, a ppraisa l of articles, s ynthesis of the literature, and a nalysis: SALSA ( Booth et al. , 2016a ). This useful acronym can help the researcher focus on the process while building a specific type of review.

However, new educational researchers often have questions about literature reviews that are foundational to SALSA or other approaches. Common questions concern determining which literature pertains to the topic of study or the role of the literature review in the design of the study. This section addresses such questions broadly while providing general guidance for writing a narrative literature review that evaluates the most pertinent studies.

The literature review process should begin before the research is conducted. As Boote and Beile (2005 , p. 3) suggested, researchers should be “scholars before researchers.” They point out that having a good working knowledge of the proposed topic helps illuminate avenues of study. Some subject areas have a deep body of work to read and reflect upon, providing a strong foundation for developing the research question(s). For instance, the teaching and learning of evolution is an area of long-standing interest in the BER community, generating many studies (e.g., Perry et al. , 2008 ; Barnes and Brownell, 2016 ) and reviews of research (e.g., Sickel and Friedrichsen, 2013 ; Ziadie and Andrews, 2018 ). Emerging areas of BER include the affective domain, issues of transfer, and metacognition ( Singer et al. , 2012 ). Many studies in these areas are transdisciplinary and not always specific to biology education (e.g., Rodrigo-Peiris et al. , 2018 ; Kolpikova et al. , 2019 ). These newer areas may require reading outside BER; fortunately, summaries of some of these topics can be found in the Current Insights section of the LSE website.

In focusing on a specific problem within a broader research strand, a new researcher will likely need to examine research outside BER. Depending upon the area of study, the expanded reading list might involve a mix of BER, DBER, and educational research studies. Determining the scope of the reading is not always straightforward. A simple way to focus one’s reading is to create a “summary phrase” or “research nugget,” which is a very brief descriptive statement about the study. It should focus on the essence of the study, for example, “first-year nonmajor students’ understanding of evolution,” “metacognitive prompts to enhance learning during biochemistry,” or “instructors’ inquiry-based instructional practices after professional development programming.” This type of phrase should help a new researcher identify two or more areas to review that pertain to the study. Focusing on recent research in the last 5 years is a good first step. Additional studies can be identified by reading relevant works referenced in those articles. It is also important to read seminal studies that are more than 5 years old. Reading a range of studies should give the researcher the necessary command of the subject in order to suggest a research question.

Given that the research question(s) arise from the literature review, the review should also substantiate the selected methodological approach. The review and research question(s) guide the researcher in determining how to collect and analyze data. Often the methodological approach used in a study is selected to contribute knowledge that expands upon what has been published previously about the topic (see Institute of Education Sciences and National Science Foundation, 2013 ). An emerging topic of study may need an exploratory approach that allows for a description of the phenomenon and development of a potential theory. This could, but not necessarily, require a methodological approach that uses interviews, observations, surveys, or other instruments. An extensively studied topic may call for the additional understanding of specific factors or variables; this type of study would be well suited to a verification or a causal research design. These could entail a methodological approach that uses valid and reliable instruments, observations, or interviews to determine an effect in the studied event. In either of these examples, the researcher(s) may use a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods methodological approach.

Even with a good research question, there is still more reading to be done. The complexity and focus of the research question dictates the depth and breadth of the literature to be examined. Questions that connect multiple topics can require broad literature reviews. For instance, a study that explores the impact of a biology faculty learning community on the inquiry instruction of faculty could have the following review areas: learning communities among biology faculty, inquiry instruction among biology faculty, and inquiry instruction among biology faculty as a result of professional learning. Biology education researchers need to consider whether their literature review requires studies from different disciplines within or outside DBER. For the example given, it would be fruitful to look at research focused on learning communities with faculty in STEM fields or in general education fields that result in instructional change. It is important not to be too narrow or too broad when reading. When the conclusions of articles start to sound similar or no new insights are gained, the researcher likely has a good foundation for a literature review. This level of reading should allow the researcher to demonstrate a mastery in understanding the researched topic, explain the suitability of the proposed research approach, and point to the need for the refined research question(s).

The literature review should include the researcher’s evaluation and critique of the selected studies. A researcher may have a large collection of studies, but not all of the studies will follow standards important in the reporting of empirical work in the social sciences. The American Educational Research Association ( Duran et al. , 2006 ), for example, offers a general discussion about standards for such work: an adequate review of research informing the study, the existence of sound and appropriate data collection and analysis methods, and appropriate conclusions that do not overstep or underexplore the analyzed data. The Institute of Education Sciences and National Science Foundation (2013) also offer Common Guidelines for Education Research and Development that can be used to evaluate collected studies.

Because not all journals adhere to such standards, it is important that a researcher review each study to determine the quality of published research, per the guidelines suggested earlier. In some instances, the research may be fatally flawed. Examples of such flaws include data that do not pertain to the question, a lack of discussion about the data collection, poorly constructed instruments, or an inadequate analysis. These types of errors result in studies that are incomplete, error-laden, or inaccurate and should be excluded from the review. Most studies have limitations, and the author(s) often make them explicit. For instance, there may be an instructor effect, recognized bias in the analysis, or issues with the sample population. Limitations are usually addressed by the research team in some way to ensure a sound and acceptable research process. Occasionally, the limitations associated with the study can be significant and not addressed adequately, which leaves a consequential decision in the hands of the researcher. Providing critiques of studies in the literature review process gives the reader confidence that the researcher has carefully examined relevant work in preparation for the study and, ultimately, the manuscript.

A solid literature review clearly anchors the proposed study in the field and connects the research question(s), the methodological approach, and the discussion. Reviewing extant research leads to research questions that will contribute to what is known in the field. By summarizing what is known, the literature review points to what needs to be known, which in turn guides decisions about methodology. Finally, notable findings of the new study are discussed in reference to those described in the literature review.

Within published BER studies, literature reviews can be placed in different locations in an article. When included in the introductory section of the study, the first few paragraphs of the manuscript set the stage, with the literature review following the opening paragraphs. Cooper et al. (2019) illustrate this approach in their study of course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs). An introduction discussing the potential of CURES is followed by an analysis of the existing literature relevant to the design of CUREs that allows for novel student discoveries. Within this review, the authors point out contradictory findings among research on novel student discoveries. This clarifies the need for their study, which is described and highlighted through specific research aims.

A literature reviews can also make up a separate section in a paper. For example, the introduction to Todd et al. (2019) illustrates the need for their research topic by highlighting the potential of learning progressions (LPs) and suggesting that LPs may help mitigate learning loss in genetics. At the end of the introduction, the authors state their specific research questions. The review of literature following this opening section comprises two subsections. One focuses on learning loss in general and examines a variety of studies and meta-analyses from the disciplines of medical education, mathematics, and reading. The second section focuses specifically on LPs in genetics and highlights student learning in the midst of LPs. These separate reviews provide insights into the stated research question.

Suggestions and Advice

A well-conceptualized, comprehensive, and critical literature review reveals the understanding of the topic that the researcher brings to the study. Literature reviews should not be so big that there is no clear area of focus; nor should they be so narrow that no real research question arises. The task for a researcher is to craft an efficient literature review that offers a critical analysis of published work, articulates the need for the study, guides the methodological approach to the topic of study, and provides an adequate foundation for the discussion of the findings.

In our own writing of literature reviews, there are often many drafts. An early draft may seem well suited to the study because the need for and approach to the study are well described. However, as the results of the study are analyzed and findings begin to emerge, the existing literature review may be inadequate and need revision. The need for an expanded discussion about the research area can result in the inclusion of new studies that support the explanation of a potential finding. The literature review may also prove to be too broad. Refocusing on a specific area allows for more contemplation of a finding.

It should be noted that there are different types of literature reviews, and many books and articles have been written about the different ways to embark on these types of reviews. Among these different resources, the following may be helpful in considering how to refine the review process for scholarly journals:

• Booth, A., Sutton, A., & Papaioannou, D. (2016a). Systemic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book addresses different types of literature reviews and offers important suggestions pertaining to defining the scope of the literature review and assessing extant studies.
• Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., Williams, J. M., Bizup, J., & Fitzgerald, W. T. (2016b). The craft of research (4th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. This book can help the novice consider how to make the case for an area of study. While this book is not specifically about literature reviews, it offers suggestions about making the case for your study.
• Galvan, J. L., & Galvan, M. C. (2017). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Routledge. This book offers guidance on writing different types of literature reviews. For the novice researcher, there are useful suggestions for creating coherent literature reviews.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

Purpose of theoretical frameworks.

As new education researchers may be less familiar with theoretical frameworks than with literature reviews, this discussion begins with an analogy. Envision a biologist, chemist, and physicist examining together the dramatic effect of a fog tsunami over the ocean. A biologist gazing at this phenomenon may be concerned with the effect of fog on various species. A chemist may be interested in the chemical composition of the fog as water vapor condenses around bits of salt. A physicist may be focused on the refraction of light to make fog appear to be “sitting” above the ocean. While observing the same “objective event,” the scientists are operating under different theoretical frameworks that provide a particular perspective or “lens” for the interpretation of the phenomenon. Each of these scientists brings specialized knowledge, experiences, and values to this phenomenon, and these influence the interpretation of the phenomenon. The scientists’ theoretical frameworks influence how they design and carry out their studies and interpret their data.

Within an educational study, a theoretical framework helps to explain a phenomenon through a particular lens and challenges and extends existing knowledge within the limitations of that lens. Theoretical frameworks are explicitly stated by an educational researcher in the paper’s framework, theory, or relevant literature section. The framework shapes the types of questions asked, guides the method by which data are collected and analyzed, and informs the discussion of the results of the study. It also reveals the researcher’s subjectivities, for example, values, social experience, and viewpoint ( Allen, 2017 ). It is essential that a novice researcher learn to explicitly state a theoretical framework, because all research questions are being asked from the researcher’s implicit or explicit assumptions of a phenomenon of interest ( Schwandt, 2000 ).

Selecting Theoretical Frameworks

Theoretical frameworks are one of the most contemplated elements in our work in educational research. In this section, we share three important considerations for new scholars selecting a theoretical framework.

The first step in identifying a theoretical framework involves reflecting on the phenomenon within the study and the assumptions aligned with the phenomenon. The phenomenon involves the studied event. There are many possibilities, for example, student learning, instructional approach, or group organization. A researcher holds assumptions about how the phenomenon will be effected, influenced, changed, or portrayed. It is ultimately the researcher’s assumption(s) about the phenomenon that aligns with a theoretical framework. An example can help illustrate how a researcher’s reflection on the phenomenon and acknowledgment of assumptions can result in the identification of a theoretical framework.

In our example, a biology education researcher may be interested in exploring how students’ learning of difficult biological concepts can be supported by the interactions of group members. The phenomenon of interest is the interactions among the peers, and the researcher assumes that more knowledgeable students are important in supporting the learning of the group. As a result, the researcher may draw on Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of learning and development that is focused on the phenomenon of student learning in a social setting. This theory posits the critical nature of interactions among students and between students and teachers in the process of building knowledge. A researcher drawing upon this framework holds the assumption that learning is a dynamic social process involving questions and explanations among students in the classroom and that more knowledgeable peers play an important part in the process of building conceptual knowledge.

It is important to state at this point that there are many different theoretical frameworks. Some frameworks focus on learning and knowing, while other theoretical frameworks focus on equity, empowerment, or discourse. Some frameworks are well articulated, and others are still being refined. For a new researcher, it can be challenging to find a theoretical framework. Two of the best ways to look for theoretical frameworks is through published works that highlight different frameworks.

When a theoretical framework is selected, it should clearly connect to all parts of the study. The framework should augment the study by adding a perspective that provides greater insights into the phenomenon. It should clearly align with the studies described in the literature review. For instance, a framework focused on learning would correspond to research that reported different learning outcomes for similar studies. The methods for data collection and analysis should also correspond to the framework. For instance, a study about instructional interventions could use a theoretical framework concerned with learning and could collect data about the effect of the intervention on what is learned. When the data are analyzed, the theoretical framework should provide added meaning to the findings, and the findings should align with the theoretical framework.

A study by Jensen and Lawson (2011) provides an example of how a theoretical framework connects different parts of the study. They compared undergraduate biology students in heterogeneous and homogeneous groups over the course of a semester. Jensen and Lawson (2011) assumed that learning involved collaboration and more knowledgeable peers, which made Vygotsky’s (1978) theory a good fit for their study. They predicted that students in heterogeneous groups would experience greater improvement in their reasoning abilities and science achievements with much of the learning guided by the more knowledgeable peers.

In the enactment of the study, they collected data about the instruction in traditional and inquiry-oriented classes, while the students worked in homogeneous or heterogeneous groups. To determine the effect of working in groups, the authors also measured students’ reasoning abilities and achievement. Each data-collection and analysis decision connected to understanding the influence of collaborative work.

Their findings highlighted aspects of Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of learning. One finding, for instance, posited that inquiry instruction, as a whole, resulted in reasoning and achievement gains. This links to Vygotsky (1978) , because inquiry instruction involves interactions among group members. A more nuanced finding was that group composition had a conditional effect. Heterogeneous groups performed better with more traditional and didactic instruction, regardless of the reasoning ability of the group members. Homogeneous groups worked better during interaction-rich activities for students with low reasoning ability. The authors attributed the variation to the different types of helping behaviors of students. High-performing students provided the answers, while students with low reasoning ability had to work collectively through the material. In terms of Vygotsky (1978) , this finding provided new insights into the learning context in which productive interactions can occur for students.

Another consideration in the selection and use of a theoretical framework pertains to its orientation to the study. This can result in the theoretical framework prioritizing individuals, institutions, and/or policies ( Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). Frameworks that connect to individuals, for instance, could contribute to understanding their actions, learning, or knowledge. Institutional frameworks, on the other hand, offer insights into how institutions, organizations, or groups can influence individuals or materials. Policy theories provide ways to understand how national or local policies can dictate an emphasis on outcomes or instructional design. These different types of frameworks highlight different aspects in an educational setting, which influences the design of the study and the collection of data. In addition, these different frameworks offer a way to make sense of the data. Aligning the data collection and analysis with the framework ensures that a study is coherent and can contribute to the field.

New understandings emerge when different theoretical frameworks are used. For instance, Ebert-May et al. (2015) prioritized the individual level within conceptual change theory (see Posner et al. , 1982 ). In this theory, an individual’s knowledge changes when it no longer fits the phenomenon. Ebert-May et al. (2015) designed a professional development program challenging biology postdoctoral scholars’ existing conceptions of teaching. The authors reported that the biology postdoctoral scholars’ teaching practices became more student-centered as they were challenged to explain their instructional decision making. According to the theory, the biology postdoctoral scholars’ dissatisfaction in their descriptions of teaching and learning initiated change in their knowledge and instruction. These results reveal how conceptual change theory can explain the learning of participants and guide the design of professional development programming.

The communities of practice (CoP) theoretical framework ( Lave, 1988 ; Wenger, 1998 ) prioritizes the institutional level , suggesting that learning occurs when individuals learn from and contribute to the communities in which they reside. Grounded in the assumption of community learning, the literature on CoP suggests that, as individuals interact regularly with the other members of their group, they learn about the rules, roles, and goals of the community ( Allee, 2000 ). A study conducted by Gehrke and Kezar (2017) used the CoP framework to understand organizational change by examining the involvement of individual faculty engaged in a cross-institutional CoP focused on changing the instructional practice of faculty at each institution. In the CoP, faculty members were involved in enhancing instructional materials within their department, which aligned with an overarching goal of instituting instruction that embraced active learning. Not surprisingly, Gehrke and Kezar (2017) revealed that faculty who perceived the community culture as important in their work cultivated institutional change. Furthermore, they found that institutional change was sustained when key leaders served as mentors and provided support for faculty, and as faculty themselves developed into leaders. This study reveals the complexity of individual roles in a COP in order to support institutional instructional change.

It is important to explicitly state the theoretical framework used in a study, but elucidating a theoretical framework can be challenging for a new educational researcher. The literature review can help to identify an applicable theoretical framework. Focal areas of the review or central terms often connect to assumptions and assertions associated with the framework that pertain to the phenomenon of interest. Another way to identify a theoretical framework is self-reflection by the researcher on personal beliefs and understandings about the nature of knowledge the researcher brings to the study ( Lysaght, 2011 ). In stating one’s beliefs and understandings related to the study (e.g., students construct their knowledge, instructional materials support learning), an orientation becomes evident that will suggest a particular theoretical framework. Theoretical frameworks are not arbitrary , but purposefully selected.

With experience, a researcher may find expanded roles for theoretical frameworks. Researchers may revise an existing framework that has limited explanatory power, or they may decide there is a need to develop a new theoretical framework. These frameworks can emerge from a current study or the need to explain a phenomenon in a new way. Researchers may also find that multiple theoretical frameworks are necessary to frame and explore a problem, as different frameworks can provide different insights into a problem.

Finally, it is important to recognize that choosing “x” theoretical framework does not necessarily mean a researcher chooses “y” methodology and so on, nor is there a clear-cut, linear process in selecting a theoretical framework for one’s study. In part, the nonlinear process of identifying a theoretical framework is what makes understanding and using theoretical frameworks challenging. For the novice scholar, contemplating and understanding theoretical frameworks is essential. Fortunately, there are articles and books that can help:

• Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book provides an overview of theoretical frameworks in general educational research.
• Ding, L. (2019). Theoretical perspectives of quantitative physics education research. Physical Review Physics Education Research , 15 (2), 020101-1–020101-13. This paper illustrates how a DBER field can use theoretical frameworks.
• Nehm, R. (2019). Biology education research: Building integrative frameworks for teaching and learning about living systems. Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research , 1 , ar15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0017-6 . This paper articulates the need for studies in BER to explicitly state theoretical frameworks and provides examples of potential studies.
• Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice . Sage. This book also provides an overview of theoretical frameworks, but for both research and evaluation.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Purpose of a conceptual framework.

A conceptual framework is a description of the way a researcher understands the factors and/or variables that are involved in the study and their relationships to one another. The purpose of a conceptual framework is to articulate the concepts under study using relevant literature ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ) and to clarify the presumed relationships among those concepts ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ; Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). Conceptual frameworks are different from theoretical frameworks in both their breadth and grounding in established findings. Whereas a theoretical framework articulates the lens through which a researcher views the work, the conceptual framework is often more mechanistic and malleable.

Conceptual frameworks are broader, encompassing both established theories (i.e., theoretical frameworks) and the researchers’ own emergent ideas. Emergent ideas, for example, may be rooted in informal and/or unpublished observations from experience. These emergent ideas would not be considered a “theory” if they are not yet tested, supported by systematically collected evidence, and peer reviewed. However, they do still play an important role in the way researchers approach their studies. The conceptual framework allows authors to clearly describe their emergent ideas so that connections among ideas in the study and the significance of the study are apparent to readers.

Constructing Conceptual Frameworks

Including a conceptual framework in a research study is important, but researchers often opt to include either a conceptual or a theoretical framework. Either may be adequate, but both provide greater insight into the research approach. For instance, a research team plans to test a novel component of an existing theory. In their study, they describe the existing theoretical framework that informs their work and then present their own conceptual framework. Within this conceptual framework, specific topics portray emergent ideas that are related to the theory. Describing both frameworks allows readers to better understand the researchers’ assumptions, orientations, and understanding of concepts being investigated. For example, Connolly et al. (2018) included a conceptual framework that described how they applied a theoretical framework of social cognitive career theory (SCCT) to their study on teaching programs for doctoral students. In their conceptual framework, the authors described SCCT, explained how it applied to the investigation, and drew upon results from previous studies to justify the proposed connections between the theory and their emergent ideas.

In some cases, authors may be able to sufficiently describe their conceptualization of the phenomenon under study in an introduction alone, without a separate conceptual framework section. However, incomplete descriptions of how the researchers conceptualize the components of the study may limit the significance of the study by making the research less intelligible to readers. This is especially problematic when studying topics in which researchers use the same terms for different constructs or different terms for similar and overlapping constructs (e.g., inquiry, teacher beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, or active learning). Authors must describe their conceptualization of a construct if the research is to be understandable and useful.

There are some key areas to consider regarding the inclusion of a conceptual framework in a study. To begin with, it is important to recognize that conceptual frameworks are constructed by the researchers conducting the study ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ; Maxwell, 2012 ). This is different from theoretical frameworks that are often taken from established literature. Researchers should bring together ideas from the literature, but they may be influenced by their own experiences as a student and/or instructor, the shared experiences of others, or thought experiments as they construct a description, model, or representation of their understanding of the phenomenon under study. This is an exercise in intellectual organization and clarity that often considers what is learned, known, and experienced. The conceptual framework makes these constructs explicitly visible to readers, who may have different understandings of the phenomenon based on their prior knowledge and experience. There is no single method to go about this intellectual work.

Reeves et al. (2016) is an example of an article that proposed a conceptual framework about graduate teaching assistant professional development evaluation and research. The authors used existing literature to create a novel framework that filled a gap in current research and practice related to the training of graduate teaching assistants. This conceptual framework can guide the systematic collection of data by other researchers because the framework describes the relationships among various factors that influence teaching and learning. The Reeves et al. (2016) conceptual framework may be modified as additional data are collected and analyzed by other researchers. This is not uncommon, as conceptual frameworks can serve as catalysts for concerted research efforts that systematically explore a phenomenon (e.g., Reynolds et al. , 2012 ; Brownell and Kloser, 2015 ).

Sabel et al. (2017) used a conceptual framework in their exploration of how scaffolds, an external factor, interact with internal factors to support student learning. Their conceptual framework integrated principles from two theoretical frameworks, self-regulated learning and metacognition, to illustrate how the research team conceptualized students’ use of scaffolds in their learning ( Figure 1 ). Sabel et al. (2017) created this model using their interpretations of these two frameworks in the context of their teaching.

Conceptual framework from Sabel et al. (2017) .

A conceptual framework should describe the relationship among components of the investigation ( Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). These relationships should guide the researcher’s methods of approaching the study ( Miles et al. , 2014 ) and inform both the data to be collected and how those data should be analyzed. Explicitly describing the connections among the ideas allows the researcher to justify the importance of the study and the rigor of the research design. Just as importantly, these frameworks help readers understand why certain components of a system were not explored in the study. This is a challenge in education research, which is rooted in complex environments with many variables that are difficult to control.

For example, Sabel et al. (2017) stated: “Scaffolds, such as enhanced answer keys and reflection questions, can help students and instructors bridge the external and internal factors and support learning” (p. 3). They connected the scaffolds in the study to the three dimensions of metacognition and the eventual transformation of existing ideas into new or revised ideas. Their framework provides a rationale for focusing on how students use two different scaffolds, and not on other factors that may influence a student’s success (self-efficacy, use of active learning, exam format, etc.).

In constructing conceptual frameworks, researchers should address needed areas of study and/or contradictions discovered in literature reviews. By attending to these areas, researchers can strengthen their arguments for the importance of a study. For instance, conceptual frameworks can address how the current study will fill gaps in the research, resolve contradictions in existing literature, or suggest a new area of study. While a literature review describes what is known and not known about the phenomenon, the conceptual framework leverages these gaps in describing the current study ( Maxwell, 2012 ). In the example of Sabel et al. (2017) , the authors indicated there was a gap in the literature regarding how scaffolds engage students in metacognition to promote learning in large classes. Their study helps fill that gap by describing how scaffolds can support students in the three dimensions of metacognition: intelligibility, plausibility, and wide applicability. In another example, Lane (2016) integrated research from science identity, the ethic of care, the sense of belonging, and an expertise model of student success to form a conceptual framework that addressed the critiques of other frameworks. In a more recent example, Sbeglia et al. (2021) illustrated how a conceptual framework influences the methodological choices and inferences in studies by educational researchers.

Sometimes researchers draw upon the conceptual frameworks of other researchers. When a researcher’s conceptual framework closely aligns with an existing framework, the discussion may be brief. For example, Ghee et al. (2016) referred to portions of SCCT as their conceptual framework to explain the significance of their work on students’ self-efficacy and career interests. Because the authors’ conceptualization of this phenomenon aligned with a previously described framework, they briefly mentioned the conceptual framework and provided additional citations that provided more detail for the readers.

Within both the BER and the broader DBER communities, conceptual frameworks have been used to describe different constructs. For example, some researchers have used the term “conceptual framework” to describe students’ conceptual understandings of a biological phenomenon. This is distinct from a researcher’s conceptual framework of the educational phenomenon under investigation, which may also need to be explicitly described in the article. Other studies have presented a research logic model or flowchart of the research design as a conceptual framework. These constructions can be quite valuable in helping readers understand the data-collection and analysis process. However, a model depicting the study design does not serve the same role as a conceptual framework. Researchers need to avoid conflating these constructs by differentiating the researchers’ conceptual framework that guides the study from the research design, when applicable.

Explicitly describing conceptual frameworks is essential in depicting the focus of the study. We have found that being explicit in a conceptual framework means using accepted terminology, referencing prior work, and clearly noting connections between terms. This description can also highlight gaps in the literature or suggest potential contributions to the field of study. A well-elucidated conceptual framework can suggest additional studies that may be warranted. This can also spur other researchers to consider how they would approach the examination of a phenomenon and could result in a revised conceptual framework.

It can be challenging to create conceptual frameworks, but they are important. Below are two resources that could be helpful in constructing and presenting conceptual frameworks in educational research:

• Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Chapter 3 in this book describes how to construct conceptual frameworks.
• Ravitch, S. M., & Riggan, M. (2016). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide research . Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book explains how conceptual frameworks guide the research questions, data collection, data analyses, and interpretation of results.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks are all important in DBER and BER. Robust literature reviews reinforce the importance of a study. Theoretical frameworks connect the study to the base of knowledge in educational theory and specify the researcher’s assumptions. Conceptual frameworks allow researchers to explicitly describe their conceptualization of the relationships among the components of the phenomenon under study. Table 1 provides a general overview of these components in order to assist biology education researchers in thinking about these elements.

It is important to emphasize that these different elements are intertwined. When these elements are aligned and complement one another, the study is coherent, and the study findings contribute to knowledge in the field. When literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks are disconnected from one another, the study suffers. The point of the study is lost, suggested findings are unsupported, or important conclusions are invisible to the researcher. In addition, this misalignment may be costly in terms of time and money.

Conducting a literature review, selecting a theoretical framework, and building a conceptual framework are some of the most difficult elements of a research study. It takes time to understand the relevant research, identify a theoretical framework that provides important insights into the study, and formulate a conceptual framework that organizes the finding. In the research process, there is often a constant back and forth among these elements as the study evolves. With an ongoing refinement of the review of literature, clarification of the theoretical framework, and articulation of a conceptual framework, a sound study can emerge that makes a contribution to the field. This is the goal of BER and education research.

Supplementary Material

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A Guide to Literature Reviews

Importance of a good literature review.

• Conducting the Literature Review
• Structure and Writing Style
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Citation Management Software This link opens in a new window
• Acknowledgements

A literature review is not only a summary of key sources, but  has an organizational pattern which combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:

• Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
• Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
• Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or relevant research, or
• Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem has been researched to date.

The purpose of a literature review is to:

• Place each work in the context of its contribution to understanding the research problem being studied.
• Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research.
• Reveal any gaps that exist in the literature.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies.
• Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important].
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Literature reviews, what is a literature review, learning more about how to do a literature review.

• Planning the Review
• The Research Question
• Choosing Where to Search
• Organizing the Review
• Writing the Review

A literature review is a review and synthesis of existing research on a topic or research question. A literature review is meant to analyze the scholarly literature, make connections across writings and identify strengths, weaknesses, trends, and missing conversations. A literature review should address different aspects of a topic as it relates to your research question. A literature review goes beyond a description or summary of the literature you have read. 

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• Getting Started
• Literature Review Research
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Literature Review

• What is a Literature Review?
• What is NOT a Literature Review?
• Purposes of a Literature Review
• Types of Literature Reviews
• Literature Reviews vs. Systematic Reviews
• Systematic vs. Meta-Analysis

Literature Review  is a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works.

Also, we can define a literature review as the collected body of scholarly works related to a topic:

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic
• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information
• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed methodology or theoretical approaches.
• Indicates potential directions for future research.

All content in this section is from Literature Review Research from Old Dominion University 

Keep in mind the following, a literature review is NOT:

Not an essay 

Not an annotated bibliography  in which you summarize each article that you have reviewed.  A literature review goes beyond basic summarizing to focus on the critical analysis of the reviewed works and their relationship to your research question.

Not a research paper   where you select resources to support one side of an issue versus another.  A lit review should explain and consider all sides of an argument in order to avoid bias, and areas of agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

A literature review serves several purposes. For example, it

• provides thorough knowledge of previous studies; introduces seminal works.
• helps focus one’s own research topic.
• identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems; indicates potential directions for future research.
• suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and qualitative strategies.
• identifies gaps in previous studies; identifies flawed methodologies and/or theoretical approaches; avoids replication of mistakes.
• helps the researcher avoid repetition of earlier research.
• suggests unexplored populations.
• determines whether past studies agree or disagree; identifies controversy in the literature.
• tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature."  Educational Researcher  36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content in this section is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

Robinson, P. and Lowe, J. (2015),  Literature reviews vs systematic reviews.  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 39: 103-103. doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12393

What's in the name? The difference between a Systematic Review and a Literature Review, and why it matters . By Lynn Kysh from University of Southern California

Systematic review or meta-analysis?

A  systematic review  answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria.

A  meta-analysis  is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of these studies.

Systematic reviews, just like other research articles, can be of varying quality. They are a significant piece of work (the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination at York estimates that a team will take 9-24 months), and to be useful to other researchers and practitioners they should have:

• clearly stated objectives with pre-defined eligibility criteria for studies
• explicit, reproducible methodology
• a systematic search that attempts to identify all studies
• assessment of the validity of the findings of the included studies (e.g. risk of bias)
• systematic presentation, and synthesis, of the characteristics and findings of the included studies

Not all systematic reviews contain meta-analysis. 

Meta-analysis is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analysis can provide more precise estimates of the effects of health care than those derived from the individual studies included within a review.  More information on meta-analyses can be found in  Cochrane Handbook, Chapter 9 .

A meta-analysis goes beyond critique and integration and conducts secondary statistical analysis on the outcomes of similar studies.  It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and summarize the results.

An advantage of a meta-analysis is the ability to be completely objective in evaluating research findings.  Not all topics, however, have sufficient research evidence to allow a meta-analysis to be conducted.  In that case, an integrative review is an appropriate strategy. 

Some of the content in this section is from Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: step by step guide created by Kate McAllister.

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Learning objectives.

At the conclusion of this chapter, you will be able to:

• Identify the purpose of the literature review in  the research process
• Distinguish between different types of literature reviews

1.1 What is a Literature Review?

Pick up nearly any book on research methods and you will find a description of a literature review.  At a basic level, the term implies a survey of factual or nonfiction books, articles, and other documents published on a particular subject.  Definitions may be similar across the disciplines, with new types and definitions continuing to emerge.  Generally speaking, a literature review is a:

• “comprehensive background of the literature within the interested topic area…” ( O’Gorman & MacIntosh, 2015, p. 31 ).
• “critical component of the research process that provides an in-depth analysis of recently published research findings in specifically identified areas of interest.” ( House, 2018, p. 109 ).
• “written document that presents a logically argued case founded on a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge about a topic of study” ( Machi & McEvoy,  2012, p. 4 ).

As a foundation for knowledge advancement in every discipline, it is an important element of any research project.  At the graduate or doctoral level, the literature review is an essential feature of thesis and dissertation, as well as grant proposal writing.  That is to say, “A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough, sophisticated research…A researcher cannot perform significant research without first understanding the literature in the field.” ( Boote & Beile, 2005, p. 3 ).  It is by this means, that a researcher demonstrates familiarity with a body of knowledge and thereby establishes credibility with a reader.  An advanced-level literature review shows how prior research is linked to a new project, summarizing and synthesizing what is known while identifying gaps in the knowledge base, facilitating theory development, closing areas where enough research already exists, and uncovering areas where more research is needed. ( Webster & Watson, 2002, p. xiii )

A graduate-level literature review is a compilation of the most significant previously published research on your topic. Unlike an annotated bibliography or a research paper you may have written as an undergraduate, your literature review will outline, evaluate and synthesize relevant research and relate those sources to your own thesis or research question. It is much more than a summary of all the related literature.

It is a type of writing that demonstrate the importance of your research by defining the main ideas and the relationship between them. A good literature review lays the foundation for the importance of your stated problem and research question.

Literature reviews:

• define a concept
• map the research terrain or scope
• systemize relationships between concepts
• identify gaps in the literature ( Rocco & Plathotnik, 2009, p. 128 )

The purpose of a literature review is to demonstrate that your research question  is meaningful. Additionally, you may review the literature of different disciplines to find deeper meaning and understanding of your topic. It is especially important to consider other disciplines when you do not find much on your topic in one discipline. You will need to search the cognate literature before claiming there is “little previous research” on your topic.

Well developed literature reviews involve numerous steps and activities. The literature review is an iterative process because you will do at least two of them: a preliminary search to learn what has been published in your area and whether there is sufficient support in the literature for moving ahead with your subject. After this first exploration, you will conduct a deeper dive into the literature to learn everything you can about the topic and its related issues.

Literature Review Tutorial

1.2 Literature Review Basics

An effective literature review must:

• Methodologically analyze and synthesize quality literature on a topic
• Provide a firm foundation to a topic or research area
• Provide a firm foundation for the selection of a research methodology
• Demonstrate that the proposed research contributes something new to the overall body of knowledge of advances the research field’s knowledge base. ( Levy & Ellis, 2006 ).

All literature reviews, whether they are qualitative, quantitative or both, will at some point:

• Introduce the topic and define its key terms
• Establish the importance of the topic
• Provide an overview of the amount of available literature and its types (for example: theoretical, statistical, speculative)
• Identify gaps in the literature
• Point out consistent finding across studies
• Arrive at a synthesis that organizes what is known about a topic
• Discusses possible implications and directions for future research

1.3 Types of Literature Reviews

There are many different types of literature reviews, however there are some shared characteristics or features.  Remember a comprehensive literature review is, at its most fundamental level, an original work based on an extensive critical examination and synthesis of the relevant literature on a topic. As a study of the research on a particular topic, it is arranged by key themes or findings, which may lead up to or link to the  research question.  In some cases, the research question will drive the type of literature review that is undertaken.

The following section includes brief descriptions of the terms used to describe different literature review types with examples of each.   The included citations are open access, Creative Commons licensed or copyright-restricted.

1.3.1 Types of Review

1.3.1.1 conceptual.

Guided by an understanding of basic issues rather than a research methodology. You are looking for key factors, concepts or variables and the presumed relationship between them. The goal of the conceptual literature review is to categorize and describe concepts relevant to your study or topic and outline a relationship between them. You will include relevant theory and empirical research.

Examples of a Conceptual Review:

• Education : The formality of learning science in everyday life: A conceptual literature review. ( Dohn, 2010 ).
• Education : Are we asking the right questions? A conceptual review of the educational development literature in higher education. ( Amundsen & Wilson, 2012 ).

1.3.1.2 Empirical

An empirical literature review collects, creates, arranges, and analyzes numeric data reflecting the frequency of themes, topics, authors and/or methods found in existing literature. Empirical literature reviews present their summaries in quantifiable terms using descriptive and inferential statistics.

Examples of an Empirical Review:

• Nursing : False-positive findings in Cochrane meta-analyses with and without application of trial sequential analysis: An empirical review. ( Imberger, Thorlund, Gluud, & Wettersley, 2016 ).
• Education : Impediments of e-learning adoption in higher learning institutions of Tanzania: An empirical review ( Mwakyusa & Mwalyagile, 2016 ).

1.3.1.3 Exploratory

Unlike a synoptic literature review, the purpose here is to provide a broad approach to the topic area. The aim is breadth rather than depth and to get a general feel for the size of the topic area. A graduate student might do an exploratory review of the literature before beginning a synoptic, or more comprehensive one.

Examples of an Exploratory Review:

• Education : University research management: An exploratory literature review. ( Schuetzenmeister, 2010 ).
• Education : An exploratory review of design principles in constructivist gaming learning environments. ( Rosario & Widmeyer, 2009 ).

1.3.1.4 Focused

A type of literature review limited to a single aspect of previous research, such as methodology. A focused literature review generally will describe the implications of choosing a particular element of past research, such as methodology in terms of data collection, analysis and interpretation.

Examples of a Focused Review:

• Nursing : Clinical inertia in the management of type 2 diabetes mellitus: A focused literature review. ( Khunti, Davies, & Khunti, 2015 ).
• Education : Language awareness: Genre awareness-a focused review of the literature. ( Stainton, 1992 ).

1.3.1.5 Integrative

Critiques past research and draws overall conclusions from the body of literature at a specified point in time. Reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way. Most integrative reviews are intended to address mature topics or  emerging topics. May require the author to adopt a guiding theory, a set of competing models, or a point of view about a topic.  For more description of integrative reviews, see Whittemore & Knafl (2005).

Examples of an Integrative Review:

• Nursing : Interprofessional teamwork and collaboration between community health workers and healthcare teams: An integrative review. ( Franklin,  Bernhardt, Lopez, Long-Middleton, & Davis, 2015 ).
• Education : Exploring the gap between teacher certification and permanent employment in Ontario: An integrative literature review. ( Brock & Ryan, 2016 ).

1.3.1.6 Meta-analysis

A subset of a  systematic review, that takes findings from several studies on the same subject and analyzes them using standardized statistical procedures to pool together data. Integrates findings from a large body of quantitative findings to enhance understanding, draw conclusions, and detect patterns and relationships. Gather data from many different, independent studies that look at the same research question and assess similar outcome measures. Data is combined and re-analyzed, providing a greater statistical power than any single study alone. It’s important to note that not every systematic review includes a meta-analysis but a meta-analysis can’t exist without a systematic review of the literature.

Examples of a Meta-Analysis:

• Education : Efficacy of the cooperative learning method on mathematics achievement and attitude: A meta-analysis research. ( Capar & Tarim, 2015 ).
• Nursing : A meta-analysis of the effects of non-traditional teaching methods on the critical thinking abilities of nursing students. ( Lee, Lee, Gong, Bae, & Choi, 2016 ).
• Education : Gender differences in student attitudes toward science: A meta-analysis of the literature from 1970 to 1991. ( Weinburgh, 1995 ).

1.3.1.7 Narrative/Traditional

An overview of research on a particular topic that critiques and summarizes a body of literature. Typically broad in focus. Relevant past research is selected and synthesized into a coherent discussion. Methodologies, findings and limits of the existing body of knowledge are discussed in narrative form. Sometimes also referred to as a traditional literature review. Requires a sufficiently focused research question. The process may be subject to bias that supports the researcher’s own work.

Examples of a Narrative/Traditional Review:

• Nursing : Family carers providing support to a person dying in the home setting: A narrative literature review. ( Morris, King, Turner, & Payne, 2015 ).
• Education : Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that make a lasting difference. ( Hattie, Marsh, Neill, & Richards, 1997 ).
• Education : Good quality discussion is necessary but not sufficient in asynchronous tuition: A brief narrative review of the literature. ( Fear & Erikson-Brown, 2014 ).
• Nursing : Outcomes of physician job satisfaction: A narrative review, implications, and directions for future research. ( Williams & Skinner, 2003 ).

1.3.1.8 Realist

Aspecific type of literature review that is theory-driven and interpretative and is intended to explain the outcomes of a complex intervention program(s).

Examples of a Realist Review:

• Nursing : Lean thinking in healthcare: A realist review of the literature. ( Mazzacato, Savage, Brommels, 2010 ).
• Education : Unravelling quality culture in higher education: A realist review. ( Bendermacher, Egbrink, Wolfhagen, & Dolmans, 2017 ).

1.3.1.9 Scoping

Tend to be non-systematic and focus on breadth of coverage conducted on a topic rather than depth. Utilize a wide range of materials; may not evaluate the quality of the studies as much as count the number. One means of understanding existing literature. Aims to identify nature and extent of research; preliminary assessment of size and scope of available research on topic. May include research in progress.

Examples of a Scoping Review:

• Nursing : Organizational interventions improving access to community-based primary health care for vulnerable populations: A scoping review. ( Khanassov, Pluye, Descoteaux, Haggerty,  Russell, Gunn, & Levesque, 2016 ).
• Education : Interdisciplinary doctoral research supervision: A scoping review. ( Vanstone, Hibbert, Kinsella, McKenzie, Pitman, & Lingard, 2013 ).
• Nursing : A scoping review of the literature on the abolition of user fees in health care services in Africa. ( Ridde, & Morestin, 2011 ).

1.3.1.10 Synoptic

Unlike an exploratory review, the purpose is to provide a concise but accurate overview of all material that appears to be relevant to a chosen topic. Both content and methodological material is included. The review should aim to be both descriptive and evaluative. Summarizes previous studies while also showing how the body of literature could be extended and improved in terms of content and method by identifying gaps.

Examples of a Synoptic Review:

• Education : Theoretical framework for educational assessment: A synoptic review. ( Ghaicha, 2016 ).
• Education : School effects research: A synoptic review of past efforts and some suggestions for the future. ( Cuttance, 1981 ).

1.3.1.11 Systematic Review

A rigorous review that follows a strict methodology designed with a presupposed selection of literature reviewed.  Undertaken to clarify the state of existing research, the evidence, and possible implications that can be drawn from that.  Using comprehensive and exhaustive searching of the published and unpublished literature, searching various databases, reports, and grey literature.  Transparent and reproducible in reporting details of time frame, search and methods to minimize bias.  Must include a team of at least 2-3 and includes the critical appraisal of the literature.  For more description of systematic reviews, including links to protocols, checklists, workflow processes, and structure see “ A Young Researcher’s Guide to a Systematic Review “.

Examples of a Systematic Review:

• Education : The potentials of using cloud computing in schools: A systematic literature review ( Hartmann, Braae, Pedersen, & Khalid, 2017 )
• Nursing : Is butter back? A systematic review and meta-analysis of butter consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and total mortality. ( Pimpin, Wu, Haskelberg, Del Gobbo, & Mozaffarian, 2016 ).
• Education : The use of research to improve professional practice: a systematic review of the literature. ( Hemsley-Brown & Sharp, 2003 ).
• Nursing : Using computers to self-manage type 2 diabetes. ( Pal, Eastwood, Michie, Farmer, Barnard, Peacock, Wood, Inniss, & Murray, 2013 ).

1.3.1.12 Umbrella/Overview of Reviews

Compiles evidence from multiple systematic reviews into one document. Focuses on broad condition or problem for which there are competing interventions and highlights reviews that address those interventions and their effects. Often used in recommendations for practice.

Examples of an Umbrella/Overview Review:

• Education : Reflective practice in healthcare education: An umbrella review. ( Fragknos, 2016 ).
• Nursing : Systematic reviews of psychosocial interventions for autism: an umbrella review. ( Seida, Ospina, Karkhaneh, Hartling, Smith, & Clark, 2009 ).

For a brief discussion see “ Not all literature reviews are the same ” (Thomson, 2013).

1.4 Why do a Literature Review?

The purpose of the literature review is the same regardless of the topic or research method. It tests your own research question against what is already known about the subject.

1.4.1 First – It’s part of the whole. Omission of a literature review chapter or section in a graduate-level project represents a serious void or absence of critical element in the research process.

The outcome of your review is expected to demonstrate that you:

• can systematically explore the research in your topic area
• can read and critically analyze the literature in your discipline and then use it appropriately to advance your own work
• have sufficient knowledge in the topic to undertake further investigation

1.4.2 Second – It’s good for you!

• You improve your skills as a researcher
• You become familiar with the discourse of your discipline and learn how to be a scholar in your field
• You learn through writing your ideas and finding your voice in your subject area
• You define, redefine and clarify your research question for yourself in the process

1.4.3 Third – It’s good for your reader. Your reader expects you to have done the hard work of gathering, evaluating and synthesizes the literature.  When you do a literature review you:

• Set the context for the topic and present its significance
• Identify what’s important to know about your topic – including individual material, prior research, publications, organizations and authors.
• Demonstrate relationships among prior research
• Establish limitations of existing knowledge
• Analyze trends in the topic’s treatment and gaps in the literature

1.4.4 Why do a literature review?

• To locate gaps in the literature of your discipline
• To avoid reinventing the wheel
• To carry on where others have already been
• To identify other people working in the same field
• To increase your breadth of knowledge in your subject area
• To find the seminal works in your field
• To provide intellectual context for your own work
• To acknowledge opposing viewpoints
• To put your work in perspective
• To demonstrate you can discover and retrieve previous work in the area

1.5 Common Literature Review Errors

Graduate-level literature reviews are more than a summary of the publications you find on a topic.  As you have seen in this brief introduction, literature reviews are a very specific type of research, analysis, and writing.  We will explore these topics more in the next chapters.  Some things to keep in mind as you begin your own research and writing are ways to avoid the most common errors seen in the first attempt at a literature review.  For a quick review of some of the pitfalls and challenges a new researcher faces when he/she begins work, see “ Get Ready: Academic Writing, General Pitfalls and (oh yes) Getting Started! ”.

As you begin your own graduate-level literature review, try to avoid these common mistakes:

• Accepts another researcher’s finding as valid without evaluating methodology and data
• Contrary findings and alternative interpretations are not considered or mentioned
• Findings are not clearly related to one’s own study, or findings are too general
• Insufficient time allowed to define best search strategies and writing
• Isolated statistical results are simply reported rather than synthesizing the results
• Problems with selecting and using most relevant keywords, subject headings and descriptors
• Relies too heavily on secondary sources
• Search methods are not recorded or reported for transparency
• Summarizes rather than synthesizes articles

In conclusion, the purpose of a literature review is three-fold:

• to survey the current state of knowledge or evidence in the area of inquiry,
• to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and
• to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area.

A literature review is commonly done today using computerized keyword searches in online databases, often working with a trained librarian or information expert. Keywords can be combined using the Boolean operators, “and”, “or” and sometimes “not”  to narrow down or expand the search results. Once a list of articles is generated from the keyword and subject heading search, the researcher must then manually browse through each title and abstract, to determine the suitability of that article before a full-text article is obtained for the research question.

Literature reviews should be reasonably complete, and not restricted to a few journals, a few years, or a specific methodology or research design. Reviewed articles may be summarized in the form of tables, and can be further structured using organizing frameworks such as a concept matrix.

A well-conducted literature review should indicate whether the initial research questions have already been addressed in the literature, whether there are newer or more interesting research questions available, and whether the original research questions should be modified or changed in light of findings of the literature review.

The review can also provide some intuitions or potential answers to the questions of interest and/or help identify theories that have previously been used to address similar questions and may provide evidence to inform policy or decision-making. ( Bhattacherjee, 2012 ).

Read Abstract 1.  Refer to Types of Literature Reviews.  What type of literature review do you think this study is and why?  See the Answer Key for the correct response.

Nursing : To describe evidence of international literature on the safe care of the hospitalised child after the World Alliance for Patient Safety and list contributions of the general theoretical framework of patient safety for paediatric nursing.

An integrative literature review between 2004 and 2015 using the databases PubMed, Cumulative Index of Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Scopus, Web of Science and Wiley Online Library, and the descriptors Safety or Patient safety, Hospitalised child, Paediatric nursing, and Nursing care.

Thirty-two articles were analysed, most of which were from North American, with a descriptive approach. The quality of the recorded information in the medical records, the use of checklists, and the training of health workers contribute to safe care in paediatric nursing and improve the medication process and partnerships with parents.

General information available on patient safety should be incorporated in paediatric nursing care. ( Wegner, Silva, Peres, Bandeira, Frantz, Botene, & Predebon, 2017 ).

Read Abstract 2.  Refer to Types of Literature Reviews.  What type of lit review do you think this study is and why?  See the Answer Key for the correct response.

Education : The focus of this paper centers around timing associated with early childhood education programs and interventions using meta-analytic methods. At any given assessment age, a child’s current age equals starting age, plus duration of program, plus years since program ended. Variability in assessment ages across the studies should enable everyone to identify the separate effects of all three time-related components. The project is a meta-analysis of evaluation studies of early childhood education programs conducted in the United States and its territories between 1960 and 2007. The population of interest is children enrolled in early childhood education programs between the ages of 0 and 5 and their control-group counterparts. Since the data come from a meta-analysis, the population for this study is drawn from many different studies with diverse samples. Given the preliminary nature of their analysis, the authors cannot offer conclusions at this point. ( Duncan, Leak, Li, Magnuson, Schindler, & Yoshikawa, 2011 ).

Test Yourself

See Answer Key for the correct responses.

The purpose of a graduate-level literature review is to summarize in as many words as possible everything that is known about my topic.

A literature review is significant because in the process of doing one, the researcher learns to read and critically assess the literature of a discipline and then uses it appropriately to advance his/her own research.

Read the following abstract and choose the correct type of literature review it represents.

Nursing: E-cigarette use has become increasingly popular, especially among the young. Its long-term influence upon health is unknown. Aim of this review has been to present the current state of knowledge about the impact of e-cigarette use on health, with an emphasis on Central and Eastern Europe. During the preparation of this narrative review, the literature on e-cigarettes available within the network PubMed was retrieved and examined. In the final review, 64 research papers were included. We specifically assessed the construction and operation of the e-cigarette as well as the chemical composition of the e-liquid; the impact that vapor arising from the use of e-cigarette explored in experimental models in vitro; and short-term effects of use of e-cigarettes on users’ health. Among the substances inhaled by the e-smoker, there are several harmful products, such as: formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, acroleine, propanal, nicotine, acetone, o-methyl-benzaldehyde, carcinogenic nitrosamines. Results from experimental animal studies indicate the negative impact of e-cigarette exposure on test models, such as ascytotoxicity, oxidative stress, inflammation, airway hyper reactivity, airway remodeling, mucin production, apoptosis, and emphysematous changes. The short-term impact of e-cigarettes on human health has been studied mostly in experimental setting. Available evidence shows that the use of e-cigarettes may result in acute lung function responses (e.g., increase in impedance, peripheral airway flow resistance) and induce oxidative stress. Based on the current available evidence, e-cigarette use is associated with harmful biologic responses, although it may be less harmful than traditional cigarettes. (J ankowski, Brożek, Lawson, Skoczyński, & Zejda, 2017 ).

• Meta-analysis
• Exploratory

Education: In this review, Mary Vorsino writes that she is interested in keeping the potential influences of women pragmatists of Dewey’s day in mind while presenting modern feminist re readings of Dewey. She wishes to construct a narrowly-focused and succinct literature review of thinkers who have donned a feminist lens to analyze Dewey’s approaches to education, learning, and democracy and to employ Dewey’s works in theorizing on gender and education and on gender in society. This article first explores Dewey as both an ally and a problematic figure in feminist literature and then investigates the broader sphere of feminist pragmatism and two central themes within it: (1) valuing diversity, and diverse experiences; and (2) problematizing fixed truths. ( Vorsino, 2015 ).

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There are eight general steps in conducting an education literature review. Please follow the eight numbered boxes, starting below.

Please note that the general framework for this guide is derived from the work of Joyce P. Gall, M.D. Gall, and Walter R. Borg in Applying Educational Research: a Practical Guide (5th ed., 2005). Also, much of the information on framing the research question comes from Emily Grimm's Selected Reference Sources for Graduate Students in Education and Education Related Areas (1995).

Step 1: Frame Your Research Question(s)

Basic Questions

• What do I want to know?  For what purpose? Consider subject terms, synonyms, related concepts and approaches.
• What do I know already?
• Who else might have performed similar research and why? Consider individuals, institutions, governmental agencies and other groups.
• What summarizing or descriptive information is already available? Consider the secondary sources found below.

Time Questions

• For which time span(s) do I need information?
• Would recurrent or temporal events in education affect my research?  For example: school terms, budget hearings, conference proceedings, legislative sessions, policy decisions, elections, administrative procedural changes.

Limitation(s) Questions

• Do I have other limitations?  For example:  language, age group, grade level, type of student, type of school, type of district, geography, curricular area, or style of teaching.

Aspect Questions

• What aspects of education interest me?  For example:  financial, administrative, teaching, legislative, gender, parental, theoretical, research, developmental, practical or other.

Subjective Aspect Questions

• What are my values, prejudices, biases, and areas of ignorance in regard to my research question(s)?
• Will I let these prejudices limit my research?
• Will I let these prejudices influence my note taking, choice of vocabulary and indexing terms, selection of data, evaluations of the work of other researchers, inclusion of conflicting theories, reporting of data, or my conclusions?

Step 2: Contact Experts to Get Answers or for Guidance to Relevant Publications

Consider consulting other educators, faculty or government officials who may specialize in your research area.

You may also want to consult the American Educational Research Association SIG (Special Interest Group) website for the names of groups and individuals who have expertise in different educational areas.  AERA provides the names, addresses, e-mail addresses, and phone numbers of individuals doing research in a variety of areas.

Step 3: Read Secondary Sources to Gain a Broad Overview of the Literature Related to Your Research Area

Use secondary sources to further define your research question and to expand your literature search.  Secondary sources include encyclopedias, handbooks, dictionaries, and thesauri. Secondary sources are resources that review research that others have done.  They provide a general overview, will give you ideas for key search terms, and often include useful bibliographies for further reading.

Here are some key secondary sources and books on doing educational research:

• Review of Educational Research The Review of Educational Research (RER) publishes critical, integrative reviews of research literature bearing on education, including conceptualizations, interpretations, and syntheses of literature and scholarly work in a field broadly relevant to education and educational research.

SAGE Research Methods is a research methods tool created to help researchers¸ faculty and students with their research projects. SAGE Research Methods links over 100¸000 pages of SAGE's book¸ journal and reference content with advanced search and discovery tools. Researchers can explore methods concepts to help them design research projects¸ understand particular methods or identify a new method¸ conduct their research¸ and write up their findings. Since SAGE Research Methods focuses on methodology rather than disciplines¸ it can be used across the social sciences¸ health sciences¸ and more.

• Educational Psychology Review Educational Psychology Review is an international forum for the publication of peer-reviewed integrative review articles, special thematic issues, reflections or comments on previous research or new research directions, interviews, and research-based advice for practitioners.
• Doing educational research : a guide to first-time researchers CECH Prof Ed LB1028 .D65 2004
• Effective action research: developing reflective thinking and practice Electronic (2011)
• Encyclopedia of Education Electronic and Langsam Library Reference, LB 15 .E47 2003
• Encyclopedia of Special Education [electronic resource] : a Reference for the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Disabilities and other Exceptional Individuals Electronic, 2007.
• Handbook of research on educational communications and technology CECH Library Reference, LB 1028.3 . H355 2008
• Handbook of research on multicultural education CECH Library Reference, LC 1099.3 .H35 2004
• Handbook of research on teaching CECH Library Reference, LB1028 .S39 2001
• How to design and evaluate research in education CECH Reserves LB1028 .F665 2012
• Methods in educational research: from theory to practice Electronic (2010)
• The Phi Delta Kappan [electronic resource] Electronic, Contains many articles that cite research and analyze practical implications.
• The Routledge International Encyclopedia of Education CECH Library Reference, LB 15 .R633 2008

Step 4: Select Preliminary Sources that Index Relevant Research Literature

Preliminary sources index primary research resources such as journal articles, conference proceeding papers, technical reports, government documents, dissertations and more.  The CECH Library has created several specialized library guides on topics such as special education, instructional design & technology, and teaching STEM related topics that list which resources are most helpful for doing research in these areas. See below for key databases in education:

Step 5: Identify Subject Terms, or Descriptors, and Use Them to Search Preliminary Sources

Choosing the most appropriate subject search terms, or descriptors, for searching indexes and catalogs can greatly influence your search results.  A good place to start is ERIC's thesaurus of descriptors:

Step 6: Read and Evaluate Primary Sources Discovered Through Indexes

For assistance in obtaining copies of primary sources, please consult your liaison librarian .

As you print out copies of articles, review copies of books or reports, remember to look in the sources for bibliographies, names of individuals or groups who have done research on the topic, and for additional subject terms to help you narrow or broaden your research.

Step 7: Classify the Publications You Have Reviewed into Meaningful Categories

As you review the sources you find, classify them into meaningful categories.  This will help you prioritize reading them and may indicate useful ways to synthesize what you discover.  You may want to create a simple code for the different categories.

Step 8: Prepare Your Literature Review Report

See the following resources for advice on preparing a literature review report:

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What is a Literature Review?

Basics of a literature review, types of literature reviews.

• Citing Your Information (Attribution)

A Literature Review is a systematic and comprehensive analysis of books, scholarly articles and other sources relevant to a specific topic providing a base of knowledge on a topic. Literature reviews are designed to identify and critique the existing literature on a topic to justify your research by exposing gaps in current research .  This investigation should provide a description, summary, and critical evaluation of works related to the research problem and should also add to the overall knowledge of the topic as well as demonstrating how your research will fit within a larger field of study.  A literature review should offer critical analysis of the current research on a topic and that analysis should direct your research objective. This should not be confused with a book review or an annotated bibliography both research tools but very different in purpose and scope.  A Literature Review can be a stand alone element or part of a larger end product, know your assignment.  Key to a good Literature Review is to document your process. For more information see:

Planning a Literature Review .

There are many different ways to organize your references in a literature review, but most reviews contain certain basic elements.

• Objective of the literature review - Clearly describe the purpose of the paper and state your objectives in completing the literature review.
•   Overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration – Give an overview of your research topic and what prompted it.
• Categorization of sources – Grouping your research either historic, chronologically or thematically
• Organization of Subtopics – Subtopics should be grouped and presented in a logical order starting with the most prominent or significant and moving to the least significant
• Discussion – Provide analysis of both the uniqueness of each source and its similarities with other source
• Conclusion   - Summary of your analysis and evaluation of the reviewed works and how it is related to its parent discipline, scientific endeavor or profession

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

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Education: Literature Reviews

• Handbooks, Encyclopedias, Dictionaries
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• Open Access
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• Research Methods
• How to Search Better
• Manage your Citations
• Journal Info / Metrics
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Getting Started on Literature Reviews

• "Reviewing the Literature" Project Planner SAGE Research Methods. Provides checklists and bullet points for the literature review process, with "Search for reources" links to relevant SAGE Research Methods fulltext books and book chapters.
• "Literature reviews" / Lawrence A. Machi & Brenda T. McEvoy Oxford Bibliographies : Education, 2016. An annotated bibliography identifying and describing books and articles on the theory of literature reviews, their variety, and how to write them.

Selected Books on Writing Literature Reviews

Search Databases for Literature Review Articles and Overview Publications

• ERIC (ProQuest) Filter search results for Document Type = 070 : Information Analyses and 130 : Reference Materials - Bibliographies. ERIC Digests, research syntheses produced by ERIC ceased after ERIC's reform that closed its research-monitoring clearinghouses in the early 2000s. The ERIC database continues to make available the 3,000+ ERIC Digest published in 1980-2003. They may be found in ERIC (ProQuest) using the search filter for Document type = 073
• APA PsycInfo PsycINFO has a Methodology limit, with values of Literature review, Systematic Review, or Meta-analysis.
• Web of Science (WOS) Don't be misled by "science" in the title. WOS also covers the humanities and social sciences. On the left, under Refine Results, Select REVIEWS under Document Types. This is a limit for literature reviews or overview articles. THis may not get all lit reviews. Consider also searching the TS field (Title, Abstract, Author Keyword, Keywords Plus®) with meta-analysis, metaanalysis, synthesis, overview.
• Scopus Do a search in Scopus for a keyword. Then refine the results by selected under "Document type" - review.
• PubMed Perform a search, then under Article Type on the right, see Reviews or Systematic Reviews.
• ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global‎: Full Collection Dissertations can sometimes be useful for review-type surveys of the literature on a specific field. Most often authors begin their study with a review of the literature in order to offer context for their contribution.

Selected Journals with Review Articles

• Review of Educational Research (RER) SAGE, for American Educational Research Association (AERA), 1931- . Publishes critical, integrative reviews of research literature bearing on education, including conceptualizations, interpretations, and syntheses of literature and scholarly work in a field broadly relevant to education and educational research.
• Review of Research in Education (RRE) SAGE, for AERA, 1973- . Each RRE annual volume is devoted to a single topic, with research syntheses and literature reviews.
• Educational Research Review Elsevier, for European Association for Research on Learning and Instruction (EARLI), 2006- .
• Campbell Systematic Reviews Wiley, for Campbell Collaboration, 2004- . CSR publishes finalized systematic reviews developed through the Campbell Collaboration. Subjects include education and child welfare.
• Educational Psychology Review An international forum for the publication of peer-reviewed integrative review articles, special thematic issues, reflections or comments on previous research or new research directions, interviews, and research-based advice for practitioners - all pertaining to the field of educational psychology.
• Annual Reviews AnnRev publishes literature-review journals in physical, life and social sciences. Includes anthropology, economics, linguistics, public health, psychology, and sociology. Education topics may be found in many of these discipline-specific journals.
• Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science SAGE, for AAPSS, 1890- . Penn's house journal for the social sciences, and one of the oldest US scholarly journals. Each issue presents research syntheses on a specific topic, with one issue per year focusing on education or child welfare.
• Emerging Trends in the Social and Behavioral sciences Wiley, 2015-201?. Review articles on new research fronts. Includes a recurring section on "Educational Institutions" .

Systematic Review Databases

• Systematic Review Data Repository (SRDR) U.S. Department of Health and Human Services - open and searchable archive of systematic reviews and their data.
• Campbell Collaboration - Library of Systematic Reviews Systematic reviews in areas such as education, criminal justice, social policy and social care. (The Campbell Collaboration was formally established at a meeting at the University of Pennsylvania on 24-25 February 2000.)
• EPPI-Centre The Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre (EPPI-Centre) is part of the Social Science Research Unit at the Institute of Education, University of London. EPPI develops systematic reviews and developing review methods in social science and public policy.
• Cochrane Collaboration Cochrane Reviews are systematic reviews of primary research in human health care and health policy. Since 2011, Cochrane has an official partnership with the WHO.
• What Works Clearinghouse - U.S. Department of Education
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Why is it important to do a literature review in research?

The importance of scientific communication in the healthcare industry

The Importance and Role of Biostatistics in Clinical Research

 “A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough, sophisticated research”. Boote and Baile 2005

Authors of manuscripts treat writing a literature review as a routine work or a mere formality. But a seasoned one knows the purpose and importance of a well-written literature review.  Since it is one of the basic needs for researches at any level, they have to be done vigilantly. Only then the reader will know that the basics of research have not been neglected.

The aim of any literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of existing knowledge in a particular field without adding any new contributions.   Being built on existing knowledge they help the researcher to even turn the wheels of the topic of research.  It is possible only with profound knowledge of what is wrong in the existing findings in detail to overpower them.  For other researches, the literature review gives the direction to be headed for its success. 

The common perception of literature review and reality:

As per the common belief, literature reviews are only a summary of the sources related to the research. And many authors of scientific manuscripts believe that they are only surveys of what are the researches are done on the chosen topic.  But on the contrary, it uses published information from pertinent and relevant sources like

• Scholarly books
• Scientific papers
• Latest studies in the field
• Established school of thoughts
• Relevant articles from renowned scientific journals

and many more for a field of study or theory or a particular problem to do the following:

• Summarize into a brief account of all information
• Synthesize the information by restructuring and reorganizing
• Critical evaluation of a concept or a school of thought or ideas
• Familiarize the authors to the extent of knowledge in the particular field
• Encapsulate
• Compare & contrast

By doing the above on the relevant information, it provides the reader of the scientific manuscript with the following for a better understanding of it:

• It establishes the authors’  in-depth understanding and knowledge of their field subject
• It gives the background of the research
• Portrays the scientific manuscript plan of examining the research result
• Illuminates on how the knowledge has changed within the field
• Highlights what has already been done in a particular field
• Information of the generally accepted facts, emerging and current state of the topic of research
• Identifies the research gap that is still unexplored or under-researched fields
• Demonstrates how the research fits within a larger field of study
• Provides an overview of the sources explored during the research of a particular topic

Importance of literature review in research:

The importance of literature review in scientific manuscripts can be condensed into an analytical feature to enable the multifold reach of its significance.  It adds value to the legitimacy of the research in many ways:

• Provides the interpretation of existing literature in light of updated developments in the field to help in establishing the consistency in knowledge and relevancy of existing materials
• It helps in calculating the impact of the latest information in the field by mapping their progress of knowledge.
• It brings out the dialects of contradictions between various thoughts within the field to establish facts
• The research gaps scrutinized initially are further explored to establish the latest facts of theories to add value to the field
• Indicates the current research place in the schema of a particular field
• Provides information for relevancy and coherency to check the research
• Apart from elucidating the continuance of knowledge, it also points out areas that require further investigation and thus aid as a starting point of any future research
• Justifies the research and sets up the research question
• Sets up a theoretical framework comprising the concepts and theories of the research upon which its success can be judged
• Helps to adopt a more appropriate methodology for the research by examining the strengths and weaknesses of existing research in the same field
• Increases the significance of the results by comparing it with the existing literature
• Provides a point of reference by writing the findings in the scientific manuscript
• Helps to get the due credit from the audience for having done the fact-finding and fact-checking mission in the scientific manuscripts
• The more the reference of relevant sources of it could increase more of its trustworthiness with the readers
• Helps to prevent plagiarism by tailoring and uniquely tweaking the scientific manuscript not to repeat other’s original idea
• By preventing plagiarism , it saves the scientific manuscript from rejection and thus also saves a lot of time and money
• Helps to evaluate, condense and synthesize gist in the author’s own words to sharpen the research focus
• Helps to compare and contrast to  show the originality and uniqueness of the research than that of the existing other researches
• Rationalizes the need for conducting the particular research in a specified field
• Helps to collect data accurately for allowing any new methodology of research than the existing ones
• Enables the readers of the manuscript to answer the following questions of its readers for its better chances for publication
• What do the researchers know?
• What do they not know?
• Is the scientific manuscript reliable and trustworthy?
• What are the knowledge gaps of the researcher?

22. It helps the readers to identify the following for further reading of the scientific manuscript:

• What has been already established, discredited and accepted in the particular field of research
• Areas of controversy and conflicts among different schools of thought
• Unsolved problems and issues in the connected field of research
• The emerging trends and approaches
• How the research extends, builds upon and leaves behind from the previous research

A profound literature review with many relevant sources of reference will enhance the chances of the scientific manuscript publication in renowned and reputed scientific journals .

References:

http://www.math.montana.edu/jobo/phdprep/phd6.pdf

journal Publishing services  |  Scientific Editing Services  |  Medical Writing Services  |  scientific research writing service  |  Scientific communication services

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Students' views of inclusive education: A scoping literature review

Corresponding Author

Mirva Poikola

• [email protected]
• orcid.org/0000-0003-3883-0854

School of Educational Studies and Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland

Correspondence

Mirva Poikola, School of Educational Studies and Psychology, University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 2, 80100 Joensuu, PL 111, 80101 Joensuu, Finland.

Email: [email protected]

Suvianna Hakalehto

Law School, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu, Finland

This review focuses on studies on students' views of inclusive education in the field of educational research. The studies reviewed in this study focused on research conducted in inclusive comprehensive schools. A total of 62 studies published between 2006 and 2022 were included, in which both qualitative and quantitative research methods were employed, with questionnaires and interviews being the most commonly used data collection methods. In addition, the connection was examined between the study's theoretical foundation and students' rights through the analysis of citations related to the UN Conventions (CRPD or CRC) or the Salamanca Statement. The results of this review are divided into three themes: attitudes towards inclusive education, academic inclusion, and social inclusion, and further into subthemes examining the differences in attitudes between students with and without special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), and elements promoting and inhibiting aspects of both academic and social inclusion.

1 INTRODUCTION

The concept of inclusive education is still seen as rather ambiguous in the field of educational research (see, e.g., Kohout-Diaz,  2023 ; Magnússon,  2019 ; Nilholm & Göransson,  2017 ). Nevertheless, inclusive education can be approached from a human rights perspective, especially based on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD 2006 , later CRPD) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC 1989 , later CRC). In 2006, CRPD Article 24 formally recognized the right of persons with disabilities to education and ensured an inclusive education system at all levels. Furthermore, according to the CRC, the right of the child to education (Article 28) is a paramount right and as stated in Article 29 education shall be directed to the “ development of the child's personality, talents and mental and physical abilities to their fullest potential” (see also Tobin & Courtis,  2019 ). Additionally, the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO 1994 ) has laid down principles of inclusive education for representative governments and organizations, though not as a legally binding document. However, with the Salamanca Statement, the representative governments and organizations called for the need for “schools for all,” responding to individual needs, support for learning, and inclusion for everyone in relation to the EFA agenda (UNESCO, 1990 ).

According to CRC Article 12, all children have the right to express their views freely in all matters affecting them, and these views being given due weight according to the age and maturity of the child. Furthermore, students' views are identified as a key element in promoting inclusive education (Allan,  2021 ; Messiou & Ainscow,  2020 ; Sandoval & Messiou,  2022 ). For example, Messiou and Ainscow ( 2020 , see also Sandoval & Messiou,  2022 ) emphasize the need to understand student diversity and find ways to address it in education. In other words, students must participate in research and policymaking to identify barriers to education and develop inclusive practices. Messiou ( 2006 ) describes this engagement of students' views in school as a manifestation of the school's commitment to inclusion. Consequently, it is crucial to regularly monitor the realization of these children's rights in education. This article, in particular, focuses on students' views of inclusive education.

In this review, our approach encompassed a broad understanding of inclusive education (CRPD/GC4, Sections 8–12; Kiuppis,  2014 ; Thomas, 2013 ; UNESCO,  2009 , p. 8). Notably, the focus of inclusion is all students instead of only those with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND), and the backgrounds of children can be versatile in different countries, for example children from families with financial difficulties, homeless children, and ethnic minorities (see Ratnam,  2023 ; Sene,  2023 ). However, according to Bossaert et al. ( 2013 ), the inclusion of students with SEND is particularly a concern due to the reported difficult experiences in participating fully in regular education. The focus has been a matter of discussion in the research literature (see, e.g., Florian,  2019 ; Kiuppis,  2014 ; Magnússon et al.,  2019 ) and acknowledged by the CRPD and CRC Committees (CRPD/GC4, Section 68; CRC/GC9, Section 19).

In the light of the human rights approach, the implementation of inclusive education calls for modifications to content, teaching methods, approaches, and strategies in education, shifting the focus from individual students to the school system as a whole and its capability to adjust to all learners (CRPD/GC4, Section 11; CRC/GC9, Sections 66–67). The aim is in the identification of educational barriers, such as physical, communicational, social, and attitudinal barriers, and factors removing the barriers (CRPD/GC4, Section 13; CRC/GC9, Section 65). A key element to support the implementation of both CRPD and CRC, but also inclusive education, is to collect appropriate research data that guide policies, plans, and programmes (CRPD Article 31, see also CRPD/GC4, Section 68; CRC/GC9, Section 19). Hence, the focus of this review is on students' views of barriers and facilitators of inclusive education based on the human rights approach. Students' views are used in this study as a term that encompassed terms such as perspectives, attitudes, experiences, perceptions, and voices that are present in inclusive education research focusing on students' points of view (see, e.g., Bossaert et al.,  2013 ; De Vroey et al.,  2016 ; Messiou,  2017 ).

1.1 Weighing the views of students in inclusive education

“ In general it is adults who write about and debate the issue of rights for children ” writes Anne Sinclair Taylor ( 2000 , p. 21), highlighting the subordinate roles that children often have in society. She notes that children's views are often addressed superficially, without considering the diversity and complexity of individuals, particularly those in vulnerable groups. Given that children come from different family backgrounds and communities, it is especially important to safeguard the rights of those in greatest need, as Peleg and Tobin ( 2019 ) also argue. As education providers have a legal obligation to ensure that all children can fully enjoy their right to education, it is their responsibility to actively identify groups of vulnerable students and take effective measures to support them. Overall, this review highlights the crucial role of students' views in shaping inclusive education practices and policies.

Students' views in inclusive education have been studied with growing interest in recent years. This can be seen as a positive trend, since Messiou ( 2019 ) has criticized that the voices of students are often neglected when it comes to inclusion research, especially in terms of attitudes and perceptions towards inclusion. Often the needs of children are argued by adults and professionals, without including the children and young people in the conversation. The importance of children's participation in inclusive education arises especially from educational research (e.g. Messiou,  2017 , 2019 ) and the human rights perspective provided by the CRPD and CRC. These conventions have created legal obligations for their member states in relation to equality, participation, and (inclusive) education.

Some recent systematic reviews have explored students' views on inclusive and mainstream education. However, the articles included in these reviews differ from each other in many ways (see Table  1 ). First, there is variation in the reviews regarding whether the human rights perspective provided by the CRPD and CRC or the Salamanca Statement have been acknowledged. Second, the students in the studies included in these reviews are either those with learning needs, special educational needs (SEN), disabilities, or students without SEN and disabilities. Third, the reviews focused on various topics on inclusive education, such as students' general experiences and academic outcomes (Dell'Anna et al.,  2021 ; Kart & Kart,  2021 ; Subban et al.,  2022 ; Szumski et al.,  2017 ), social inclusion (Edwards et al.,  2019 ; Kart & Kart,  2021 ; Koller & Stoddart,  2021 ; Woodgate et al.,  2020 ), students' attitudes towards peers with disabilities (de Boer et al.,  2012 ), and the inclusion of peers with disabilities in physical education (Wilhelmsen & Sørensen,  2017 ).

As presented in Table  1 , previous reviews have variation in whether the human rights approach and the Salamanca Statement have been included to their theoretical foundation, whether they have included participants with or without SEND, and whether they have focused on more general or specific topics regarding inclusive education. In comparison, the aim of our review is to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the students' views on inclusive education by exploring whether the theoretical foundation of the included studies is connected to students' rights, specifically by analysing citations related to the UN Conventions (CRPD or CRC) or the Salamanca Statement, by including articles with students with and without SEND, and by including studies on students' views on academic and/or social aspects of inclusion in general, and on more specific topics such as students' views on the role of teaching assistants in inclusive education. Based on the above-mentioned premises of our review, the research question is as follows: how do students with and without SEND view inclusion based on the human rights approach to inclusive education?

The aim of this scoping review is to map the current research within pre-set criteria. In a scoping study, the goal is to map relevant research studies within a chosen research area and provide a coverage of available literature (Arksey & O'Malley,  2005 ; Munn et al.,  2018 ; Peters et al.,  2015 ). A scoping study was suitable for this topic, as there has been a growing trend in research related to students' views on inclusive education in recent years, and because the concept of inclusive education has been seen as rather ambiguous in educational research (see Munn et al.,  2018 ; Peters et al.,  2015 ). For example, theoretical frameworks can be complex with different conceptualizations and approaches to inclusive education (see, e.g., Magnússon et al.,  2019 ), but also participant groups heterogeneous (see Tables  1 and 2 ; see also Kiuppis,  2014 ).

In this review, we utilized the five stages for conducting a scoping study by Arksey and O'Malley ( 2005 ): (1) identification of the research question, (2) identification of relevant studies, (3) selection of studies, (4) charting of data, and (5) collation, summarization, and report of the results.

2.1 Identification of relevant studies

The search strategy of this study included research items from chosen electronic databases. To be included in this review, the research study had to be an original empirical study published in an academic journal. The study needed to contain a description of the methods and empirical data, be peer-reviewed, and written in English. Due to our limited time and budget resources, some limitative parameters were decided. We excluded literature reviews, concept papers, reports, and commentaries. To be included in the analysis, the full text had to be available in EBSCOhost or the author's institution databases, although the initial search was conducted without a full-text requirement. Full text was required to capture the full scope of the article for our analysis. Limited budget prevented us from purchasing paid online access to full-text articles. Retrospective studies were excluded. Mainstream education was considered equivalent to inclusive education, but studies that focused on integration were excluded. The context of the studies was related to special education, with the aim of exploring the role of special education in promoting inclusion. Some studies may have focused on specific aspects or practices of inclusive education, such as physical education, rather than inclusive education as a whole.

In addition, the article had to be published between December 2006 and December 2022. The starting point for the inclusion of the articles from 2006 was based on the adoption of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities that introduced the right to inclusive education. The context of the study was comprehensive schools, covering grades 1 to 9 and inclusive education. It should be noted that while comprehensive schools include both primary and lower secondary levels, these levels may differ across countries, and thus, the ages of the students ranged from 5 to 19 years.

2.1.1 Search procedure

The search mode was Boolean and read as follows: TI(pupil* or student* or child* or youth or adolescent*) AND TI(view* or perspective* or experience* or attitude* or voice* or perception*) AND TI(inclusion or inclusive education or inclusive classroom or inclusive school or mainstream*). The terms pupil, student, child, youth, and adolescent were chosen due to the age group and interest as a research subject. As the previous research had multiple ways of addressing the students' views, such as perspectives, experiences, perceptions, attitudes, or voices, those terms were included as search terms. We conducted test searches to determine feasible search parameters given our limited resources. For instance, using the same search terms with abstract search resulted in over 20,000 items, and thus, we limited the parameters to title search. The search was conducted on 30 March 2023.

2.2 Study selection

Our search was conducted in three multidisciplinary educational databases (Academic Search Premier, APA PsycInfo, and ERIC) and yielded 1,172 articles. The identification process of these articles is illustrated in Figure  1 . After exact duplicates ( N  = 319) were removed, a total of 853 articles resulted. The next phase, screening of the articles, resulted in removing 684 items, leaving 169 articles. Multiple removed items focused on either teacher, teacher student, or parental perspectives on inclusion, higher education, or non-school settings. An abstract assessment of the remaining 169 articles led to the exclusion of 79 items. The exclusion criteria for this phase included studies with only one participant, a focus on immigrant or refugee students, and other groups with no SEN or disability status, for example. Studies focusing on tools to measure inclusion or not gathering data directly from students were also excluded. In addition, six inaccessible articles were removed at this stage. At this point, a total of 84 items were left for full-text assessment. This phase resulted in the exclusion of 22 items, for example due to the age of the participants (i.e., participants were in early childhood education or at upper secondary level), the studies were retrospective, they focused another perspective in addition to students' views (i.e., teachers or parents' views), or relevant eligibility criteria (i.e., age of the participants) were missing.

Finally, 62 articles were included in this scoping study. The approach for the study selection was the assessment of each item by one reviewer (Author 1), but the process was supervised by another reviewer (Author 2) (see Page et al.,  2021 ).

2.3 Charting of the data

With a scoping study, our aim is to present an overview of the included research literature through data charting, without evaluating the quality of the studies or synthesizing them (Arksey & O'Malley,  2005 ; Munn et al.,  2018 ; Peters et al.,  2015 ; see also Ritchie & Spencer,  1994 ). During this data charting process, descriptive information and the results of the studies were examined. Descriptive information such as participants, school level, methodology, and the foci of the studies is charted in Table  2 . The results of the studies were explored and analysed using thematic analysis with the goal of organizing the research into thematic categories (Arksey & O'Malley,  2005 ; Braun & Clarke,  2006 , 2017 ). This approach was a combination of theory-based knowledge derived from previous studies and data-driven in such a way that ultimately, the data shaped the themes of the study.

The analysis of the data was conducted by Author 1 using the six steps of thematic analysis outlined by Braun and Clarke ( 2006 ). The first step, familiarization with the data, involved reading the research articles. The second step, generation of initial codes, overlapped with the first step as initial codes were constructed while reading the articles. The third step, searching for themes, was conducted with a list of all initial codes and resulted in a list of themes that described the data. In this study, the constructed themes were related to inclusion, SEND, attitudes, social inclusion, and academic inclusion. The fourth step, reviewing themes, included reading the coded data extracts while reflecting on the suitability of the codes to the data extracts and the appropriateness of the themes to the entire dataset. The fifth step, defining and naming themes, involved reading the articles a second time and reflecting on the chosen themes and their names. This step combined theory-based knowledge with data-driven analysis of the themes. The sixth step resulted in the final report, relating the analysis to the research question and theory.

After conducting the manual thematic analysis, the data were coded using AI in the Atlas.ti program to crosscheck emerging themes from the studies, with the aim of improving reliability and reducing human error in the analysis. The AI-coded themes were in line with the manual coding from Author 1. However, it should be noted that the AI coding of the Atlas.ti program is still in its beta phase, and AI in this review was only used for crosschecking the themes of the studies.

As a result of the thematic analysis, the results of the studies were charted into three main themes and two consequent subthemes: (1) attitudes , (2) academic inclusion , and (3) social inclusion . The first, ‘attitudes’ theme included the subthemes of attitudes of students with and without SEND towards inclusive education. The second, ‘academic inclusion’ theme included the subthemes of elements promoting and inhibiting academic inclusion. The third, ‘social inclusion’ theme included the subthemes of elements promoting and inhibiting social inclusion.

This review gathered multiple and various views of students in comprehensive inclusive education. The number of participants varied greatly, ranging from two to 10,199 students. The age and/or grade of the participants varied from five to nineteen years of age, or grades 3 to 9, as the school levels varied from elementary to secondary schools. The studies reviewed here were geographically diverse, but with the majority conducted in Europe.

The studies included in this review utilized both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Out of the 62 studies included, 24 were qualitative, 30 were quantitative, and eight used both methods. In the quantitative studies, data were collected with questionnaires and surveys. The qualitative studies primarily used interviews for data collection, but also utilized other methods such as focus group discussions, observation, poetic transcription, photovoice, student diaries, drawings, and field notes.

The analysis of the publication years in the reviewed studies reveals a positive trend throughout the 2010s. Among the 62 articles examined, 27 (43%) were published in or after 2020, indicating a noteworthy increase. In the preceding decade (2010–2019), 29 (47%) studies were published, while a smaller proportion, only six (10%) studies, emerged between 2006 and 2009.

Moreover, among all the studies, the CRC or CRPD was referenced in 21 articles, with each Convention cited 11 times individually and once together in a single article. The Salamanca Statement was mentioned in 16 articles, and either the Conventions or the Salamanca Statement was cited in 33 articles.

In this review, we use the concept of special educational needs and disabilities (SEND) when we refer to the participants of the study under review in general (see, e.g., Hyatt & Hornby,  2017 ). However, when we refer to a specific article, we use the term used in the original study, for example students with intellectual disabilities (Siperstein et al.,  2007 ) or students with ASD (Istuany & Wood,  2020 ).

3.1 Attitudes of students with and without SEND towards inclusive education

The results of this review indicate that the attitudes of students with SEND towards their peers without SEND is a less investigated area in educational research than vice versa. The majority of the studies focused on the attitudes of students without SEND towards their peers. Additionally, it should be noted that often the proportion of students with SEND was lower in the studies, resulting, for example, in lower effect sizes.

3.1.1 Attitudes of students without SEND towards inclusion

Pavlović's ( 2016 ) survey found that students without special needs showed negative attitudes towards inclusive education. The majority of students without special needs reported insufficient information on inclusion, with over 50% believing that it hindered development for students with special needs. Additionally, nearly 50% agreed that students with special needs should be educated in special schools rather than regular schools. In contrast, the study by Loreman et al. ( 2009 ) found little difference in the views towards inclusion between students with and without exceptionality. Siperstein et al. ( 2007 ) observed that increased competence positively influenced students' attitudes towards including those with intellectual disabilities (ID), but students expressed mixed opinions on the impacts of inclusive education and showed a reluctance to engage in social interaction with peers with ID.

Zanobini and Viterbori ( 2022 ) identified three profiles of inclusiveness among students and found that the most and moderately inclusive groups had more negative attitudes towards students with behavioural problems compared to those with cognitive or sensorial disabilities. The less inclusive group demonstrated generally less inclusive attitudes towards students with special educational needs and disabilities (SEND). Importantly, the study highlighted a positive correlation between students' inclusive attitudes towards disability and higher levels of well-being, emphasizing the significance of fostering inclusivity for overall student well-being in educational settings. Similarly, Litvack et al. ( 2011 ) found differences in students' attitudes towards various types of SEND, with more negative attitudes towards students with learning disabilities, behavioural issues, or severe developmental disorders compared to those with intellectual impairments. Additionally, Szumski et al. ( 2020 ) found that students with well-developed moral identities tended to hold fewer negative attitudes towards disabilities.

Additionally, previous contact and experience with students with SEN affected attitudes. Dias et al. ( 2022 ) explored elements affecting student attitudes towards peers with SEN. Positive attitudes were most strongly predicted by perceived social support from family and teachers, along with having a friend or family member with SEN. Similarly, in a study by Dias et al. ( 2020 ), the findings indicated that more favourable attitudes were observed in girls, younger participants, and those with lower educational achievement. However, Wong ( 2008 ) found no significant differences in attitudes between students who studied in classrooms with SEND students and those who did not, and Hassani et al. ( 2022 ) identified a significant negative relationship between friends' hyperactivity and students' attitudes, particularly when hyperactivity was defined as the highest level within the friendship group.

Loeper et al. ( 2022 ) studied attitudes towards students with non-compliant behaviour and found that previous contact experiences could explain those attitudes. Freitag and Dunsmuir ( 2015 ) reported that students' attitudes, social pressure, and behaviour control significantly predicted their intentions to befriend a peer with ASD. Furthermore, Tonnsen and Hahn ( 2016 ) discovered that exposure to autism spectrum disorder (ASD), age, and gender influenced students' attitudes towards a fictional peer with ASD named Charlie. Additionally, Bebetsos et al. ( 2013 ) found that attitudes of non-disabled students significantly influenced their behaviour towards peers with disabilities in physical education, and similarly, Reina et al. ( 2019 ) discovered that students' beliefs about their abilities significantly predicted attitudes towards including peers with disabilities.

Inclusion programmes appeared to have a positive impact on the attitudes of students without SEND towards inclusive physical education. Townsend and Hassall ( 2007 ) observed positive attitudes towards unified sports with students with and without SEN, with younger and female students being more positive. Furthermore, the Paralympic School Day Program, examined by McKay et al. ( 2015 , 2021 ), resulted in more positive attitudes towards inclusive education. A disability awareness programme also promoted more positive attitudes, although the effect size was small (Reina et al.,  2021 ).

3.1.2 Inclusion attitudes of students with SEND

On the aspect of general inclusion attitudes, for example, Tsang ( 2013 ) found positive attitudes from both students with and without SEN towards studying together in the same campus. Results on the perceived impact of studying together were more positive for students with SEN compared to the students without SEN.

Litvack et al. ( 2011 ) examined attitudes towards disability, revealing that students with disabilities held more negative views than their non-disabled peers. Despite overall positive attitudes towards disability among all students, the effect sizes were small, even when statistically significant. Pisula and Łukowska ( 2012 ) found that students with ASD had negative attitudes towards their peers, perceived poor attitudes from their peers, and received less social support. Conversely, Spörer et al. ( 2020 ) found no difference in self-perceived peer relations between students with and without SEN. However, students with self-perceived difficulties scored lower, and both groups expressed positive attitudes towards instructional adaptations for students with learning disabilities. The study also revealed that positive changes in peer relations over time were predicted by students' attitudes towards instructional adaptations for behavioural difficulties.

3.2 Exploring views on academic inclusion among students with and without SEND

The aspect of academic inclusion frequently emerged in the studies. These results are presented with two perspectives: elements promoting and inhibiting inclusive education. Elements promoting inclusive education covered academic inclusive practices, learning environments, and positive experiences of academic inclusion. Conversely, inhibiting elements were presented in relation to academic inclusive practices, learning environments, and negative experiences of academic inclusion.

3.2.1 Students' views on elements promoting academic inclusive education

Shogren et al. ( 2015 ) identified academic inclusive practices , including individualized support, feedback, and technology use, as impactful elements in inclusive education. Students with ASD also noted the importance of individualized learning practices (Istuany & Wood,  2020 ) and adaptations to common ways of working and interacting (Humphrey & Lewis,  2008 ) for promoting their inclusion. In Dare and Nowicki's ( 2018 ) study, strategies for inclusive education with grade-accelerating students were identified, including inviting them to join social/group activities, avoiding singling them out, and structuring inclusive activities for building connections. Similarly, students in Chevallier-Rodrigues et al.'s ( 2022 ) study expressed a desire to blend into the community with uniform rules, highlighting the importance of differentiated materials and accessibility.

Numerous studies explored support in inclusive schools, particularly focusing on teacher support. Shogren et al. ( 2015 ) identified co-teaching and re-teaching as ways to enhance inclusive education. Teachers were also emphasized as guardians of fairness (Kleeberg-Niepage et al.,  2022 ). However, Wang ( 2019 ) found that a lack of teacher support hindered inclusion for most students. In Rose and Shevlin's ( 2017 ) study, students expressed positivity towards educational support from both teachers and support staff, including out-of-class assistance from paraprofessionals.

Pinkard ( 2021 ) focused on students with SEN and their perspectives on teaching assistant support. The findings revealed that students found teaching assistants helpful but felt a sense of separation from teachers, which was similar to results in Asbjørnslett et al. ( 2015 ), where teaching assistants sometimes offered excessive assistance. Köpfer & Böing's (Köpfer & Böing,  2020 ) study highlighted the importance of school assistants for positive support in inclusive settings, though students acknowledged the need to accept being treated differently.

Kleeberg-Niepage et al. ( 2022 ) explored elements contributing to positive learning environments in inclusive schools, emphasizing community, justice, and the school as a liveable place. Conversely, Haug ( 2020 ) found that students in special education or facing school difficulties experienced lower-quality learning environments compared to their peers.

Some studies reported students' positive experiences of academic inclusion . The Perception of Inclusion Questionnaire was utilized in various studies (Alnahdi & Schwab,  2021 ; Knickenberg et al.,  2020 ; Zdoupas & Laubenstein,  2022 ; subscale used in Hoffmann et al.,  2021 ), revealing high scores for social inclusion, school well-being, and academic self-concept among students with and without SEN from Germany and Saudi Arabia (Alnahdi & Schwab,  2021 ). However, students with learning disabilities reported lower academic self-concept scores compared to their peers. Knickenberg et al. ( 2020 ) found that students with learning disabilities in inclusive classes scored lower on the academic self-concept measure compared to those in special classes. Similarly, Zdoupas and Laubenstein ( 2022 ) found that students with behavioural and emotional difficulties had better self-concept scores in special education than in inclusive education. Additionally, students with internalizing problems had lower social inclusion and academic self-concept scores compared to those with externalizing problems.

3.2.2 Students' views on elements inhibiting academic inclusive education

Related to academic inclusive practices , Mukuna and Maizere ( 2022 ) reported a lack of academic and emotional support for D/deaf and hard-of-hearing students. Students with visual impairments faced delays in receiving specialized technology and lacked instructional and classroom support in inclusive settings (Brydges & Mkandawire,  2017 ). Studies by Olsson et al. ( 2018 ) and Andersson and Adams ( 2022 ) explored the views of D/deaf and hard-of-hearing students on special schools and inclusive education. Olsson et al. ( 2018 ) found better well-being for D/deaf and hard-of-hearing students with additional disabilities in special schools compared to mainstream schools. Andersson and Adams ( 2022 ) revealed negative encounters in mainstream schools, with positive transformations upon transitioning to a Deaf school, attributed to feelings of belonging, equality, and unrestricted communication.

Transitions between learning environments , for example between special education and inclusive education, were investigated in some studies. Webster and Blatchford ( 2015 ) found that students with behavioural, emotional, and social difficulties spent more than 25% of their time outside the mainstream classroom, often with teaching assistants, potentially impacting their interactions with teachers and peers. Andriana and Evans ( 2021 ) reported that students with ID experienced transitions based on academic performance, resulting in difficulties with friendships, negative feelings when retained, but also hard work and happiness when promoted to the next year. Furthermore, Aubineau and Blicharska ( 2020 ) and Istuany and Wood ( 2020 ) identified sensory issues as barriers for students with ASD in inclusive education.

Students' negative experiences of academic inclusion were reported in various studies. Findings from the study by Wong ( 2008 ) found competitiveness and achievement orientation negatively affected students' experiences of academic inclusion. Dare and Nowicki's ( 2018 ) study on the inclusion of grade-accelerating students raised concerns about potential pressure, learning gaps, separation from friends, and negative attitudes from older classmates. Wang ( 2019 ) found that self-efficacy influenced the inclusion of students with SEN in physical education, while feelings of being different can lead to depressive emotions. Gasson et al. ( 2015 ) explored the experiences of students with complex behavioural difficulties, revealing extreme isolation in time-out rooms, social relationship challenges, and boredom.

3.3 Exploring views on social inclusion among students with and without SEND

The aspect of social inclusion overlapped academic inclusion to some degree, but distinctive themes emerged from the studies as well. These themes were presented similarly with perspectives on elements promoting and inhibiting social inclusion. Elements promoting social inclusion included school experiences linked to participation, social relations, classroom climate, and social support practices. Elements inhibiting social inclusion were related to social relations and lack of social support.

3.3.1 Students' views on elements promoting social inclusion

Students with physical disabilities value social togetherness and participation in planning and decision-making for their education (Asbjørnslett et al.,  2015 ; Wang,  2019 ). Inclusive physical education, as highlighted by Spencer-Cavaliere and Watkinson ( 2010 ), emphasized the importance of acceptance, participation, and friendships for students with disabilities. Participation played a pivotal role in inclusion, and acceptance was associated with legitimacy in sports and activities, with friendships significantly contributing to a sense of inclusion. Additionally, Pereira et al. ( 2010 ) found positive participation by students with disabilities, linked to equal participation, special task involvement, onlooker participation, and non-participation. For example, Bowles and Frizelle ( 2016 ) found that students without SEND were positive about using Key Word Signing (KWS) for students with Down syndrome to support their communication but faced challenges in learning and using KWS themselves in various school situations. In Tetler and Baltzer's ( 2011 ) study, students expressed a desire for more participation and input in decisions about schoolwork, including homework. While many had positive experiences with participation, a substantial portion felt negatively about their level of influence and recognition of their ideas and successes. However, Falkmer et al. ( 2012 ) discovered that students with ASD experienced less participation than their peers, but interestingly, they did not necessarily desire greater participation. Vetoniemi and Kärnä's ( 2021 ) study emphasized that students with SEN perceived social participation as strongly linked to their learning environment. The results indicated the need to develop learning environments to preserve students' diversity and enhance social participation for inclusive education.

Social relations were investigated in several studies. Friendships, social interaction, and teamwork were found to promote inclusive education for students with ASD (Aubineau & Blicharska,  2020 ; Istuany & Wood,  2020 ). For example, Tonnsen and Hahn ( 2016 ) found that positive experiences with people with ASD can promote positive attitudes towards their inclusion. Grütter et al. ( 2017 ) explored cross-group friendships between students with and without SEN, finding that close friendships positively influenced attitudes towards inclusive education, especially for those anticipating more negative than positive emotions if a student with SEN was excluded. Furthermore, it was shown that TA had positive impacts on students' social inclusion (Pinkard,  2021 ). Adibsereshki and Salehpour ( 2014 ) revealed that the type of school significantly influenced peer acceptance of students with disabilities, with inclusive classrooms showing higher acceptance than non-inclusive classrooms.

The classroom climate was investigated in several studies. Xu et al. ( 2022 ) found that a positive classroom environment, characterized by good relationships and improved discipline, was associated with more positive attitudes towards inclusive education. Hoffmann et al. ( 2021 ) noted differences in perceptions of the classroom behavioural climate among students from different school tracks, with gender (male) and having a special educational need predicting the perception of safety. Schwab et al. ( 2018 ) developed a scale measuring the inclusive classroom climate and found it to be positive in their study with students without SEND. Teacher support and care were valued, with the inclusive climate perceived more positively by female students and those in lower grades.

Few studies specifically addressed social support practices . Lindsay et al. ( 2013 ) explored students' perceptions of social inclusion programmes, and Humphrey and Symes ( 2010 ) investigated social support from various sources. Lindsay et al. ( 2013 ) found that social inclusion programmes improved understanding of disabilities and social skills, which impacted perceptions of social inclusion and reduced social exclusion.

3.3.2 Students' views on elements inhibiting social inclusion

The most reported element which inhibited social inclusion were social relations . Adderley et al.'s ( 2015 ) study reported that while students were generally content with their school experience, challenges in social relationships with teachers and peers were linked to issues of unfairness, shouting, loneliness, and seating plans. De Leeuw et al. ( 2019 ) investigated students with behavioural, emotional, and social difficulties views on resolving social exclusion situations in classrooms, revealing mixed preferences for the teacher, themselves, peers, or everyone together as the preferred person to address such situations. Hassani et al. ( 2022 ) results suggested that students with hyperactivity face challenges forming friendships, have fewer friends in class, and are at risk of social exclusion. Having a friend with hyperactivity was not significantly associated with one's attitudes towards people with hyperactivity. Tonnsen and Hahn ( 2016 ) explored possible barriers to the social inclusion of students with ASD, finding that students might avoid a peer with ASD if they anticipate negative responses from classmates. Meanwhile, Humphrey and Lewis ( 2008 ) found that social relationships were both a barrier when students felt excluded and an enabler with positive experiences for students with ASD.

Bullying emerged as a significant hindrance to inclusion across multiple studies. Shogren et al. ( 2015 ) and Brydges and Mkandawire ( 2017 ) reported instances of bullying experienced by students with disabilities, often occurring in less structured environments like playgrounds and classrooms. Bullying was frequently linked to the student's disability. For example, Hovdal et al. ( 2021 ) revealed a paradox where students expressed concern about social exclusion but engaged in socially exclusive behaviour, such as not passing the ball in team activities. The researchers highlighted the vital role of physical education teachers in promoting social inclusion.

Humphrey and Symes's ( 2010 ) study revealed that students with ASD received less social support compared to students with dyslexia or those without special educational needs and experienced more bullying. However, there were no differences in social support received from teachers. Peer support was identified as the most effective way to reduce bullying frequency. Other studies also highlighted bullying as a barrier for inclusion, affecting students with ASD (Aubineau & Blicharska,  2020 ; Istuany & Wood,  2020 ) and D/deaf and hard-of-hearing students (Mukuna & Maizere,  2022 ). Overall, students expressed a lack of skills to handle bullying and called for proactive measures to prevent it (Shogren et al.,  2015 ; Tsang,  2013 ).

4 DISCUSSION

The importance of this topic stems from the UN Conventions (CRC and CRPD), as inclusive education is a fundamental human right for all learners and means committing to identifying and overcoming academic and social barriers in education to effectively include all students. Both the CRC and CRPD call for educational research data on the implementation of inclusive education; however, this does not explicitly specify the focus of the research (CRPD/GC/4, Sections 4 and 68; CRC/GC9, Section 19). In this review, our theoretical approach was constructed based on the human rights approach to inclusive education, especially related to the CRPD and CRC, with the impact of the non-binding Salamanca Statement. As presented in the results of this review, the CRPD, CRC, and/or the Salamanca Statement were cited in 33 articles, which indicates that researchers have acknowledged the importance of human rights as the basis for inclusive education, complementing the findings of Graham et al. ( 2020 ) in their CRPD citation analysis. On the other hand, some research types focusing on students appear to lack systematic approaches and a shared theoretical foundation regarding inclusive education. It is often justifiable to question whether the study settings are truly inclusive or merely integration, and how these concepts are defined within the study. Notably, these complexities can be attributed to the overall ambiguity surrounding the concept of inclusive education.

Furthermore, educational scholars such as Messiou ( 2017 , 2019 ) and Ainscow (see, e.g., Messiou & Ainscow,  2020 ) have emphasized the importance of involving children and young people in research that relates to them. According to this review, there is a growing interest in understanding students' views on inclusive education. In the future, it will be important to address the issues in the implementation of inclusive education with comprehensive research data (see, e.g., Kohout-Diaz,  2023 ; CRPD/GC4, Section 68; CRC/GC9, Section 19), including the views of students at all levels of education. According to this review, questionnaires and interviews were common methods for data collection for students' views, but more diverse and triangulated methods of exploring their perspectives could be beneficial, as they might offer students a more natural approach to participate in the study while strengthening the validity of the data. In practice, indirect methods such as drawings, photographs, diaries, and stories can be more natural ways to participate and can be combined with more direct methods such as interviews and questionnaires (Lewis & Lindsay,  2000 , pp. 193–194).

In the results of this review, we charted diverse student perspectives from both students with and without SEND on inclusive education based on the attitudinal, academic, and social barriers in education (CRPD/GC4, Section 13; CRC/GC9, Section 65). According to the findings, there is an emphasis on the inclusion attitudes of students without SEND compared to students with SEND. The results suggest that students with and without SEND both had somewhat mixed attitudes towards inclusive education and studying together. Previous contact with SEND was seen as positive in some of the studies, although not consistently across all research (see also Dell'Anna et al.,  2021 ; Kart & Kart,  2021 ). Several studies indicated that female and younger students displayed more positive attitudes towards inclusive physical education, although this finding was not conclusive (see also Arampatzi et al.,  2011 ; Dell'Anna et al.,  2021 ). On the other hand, negative attitudes were attributed to a lack of information and understanding regarding disabilities and inclusive education. Some studies revealed differences in the attitudes of students towards various groups of peers with SEND, similar to teacher attitudes (see, e.g., Avramidis & Kalyva,  2007 ; de Boer et al.,  2011 ; Monsen et al.,  2014 ). In a similar manner, review findings by Edwards et al. ( 2019 ) suggested that students without SEN avoided interaction with students with physical impairments and were less accepting and willing to befriend them. Future research could explore the elements that contribute to these differences in attitudes.

Multiple studies employed previously validated questionnaires such as PIQ, CAIPE-R, and CATCH, resulting in the increasing availability of comparable data from diverse cultural contexts and school settings. Furthermore, the psychometric quality of such scales is already examined and reported (e.g. Zurbriggen et al. ( 2017 ) on PIQ), thus increasing the quality of the studies. In the studies utilizing the Perception of Inclusion Questionnaire, the results showed differences in academic self-concept between students with LD in inclusive and special education settings (Knickenberg et al.,  2020 ; Zdoupas & Laubenstein,  2022 ), as the students in special education scored more highly, that is indicating a more positive academic self-concept. This raises the question of whether inclusive education is universally the best solution for all students and what kind of development is necessary to enhance the academic self-concept of students with SEND within inclusive education (see also Hyatt & Hornby,  2017 ).

The promotion of academic inclusion primarily relied on individualized and differentiated academic support provided by teachers and teaching assistants (see also De Silva,  2013 ). The results are similar to the review by Subban et al. ( 2022 ) where students reported positive teacher and school leader beliefs, supportive teaching practices, and accessibility as factors to support inclusive education. In contrast, they reported barriers to inclusion such as unsupportive school cultures and inappropriate learning support. Notably, these barriers were similar to this review, where elements inhibiting inclusive education were lack of instructions and support in the classroom and spending time outside the classroom with less teacher interaction. Furthermore, the review by Kart and Kart ( 2021 ) with students without disabilities indicated mostly positive or neutral effects of inclusive education on academic achievement.

Alongside academic support, social support played a crucial role, as the overall well-being and school experience of students were significantly linked to both their academic and social inclusion. Regarding social inclusion, several key elements were identified as promoting inclusive education, including participation, social relations, the classroom climate, and acceptance. In practice, promoting active participation and listening to the views of students with and without SEND in inclusive education settings will contribute to enhancing their overall well-being in school. In the review by Dell'Anna et al. ( 2021 ) peers showed good attitudes and certain level of social acceptance towards students with SEN but also, have worries regarding consequences of inclusion on their learning outcomes. According to this review, bullying and exclusion were identified as inhibiting elements for social inclusion. In a few studies, social inclusion interventions were tested, and their results were mostly positive. However, Koller and Stoddart ( 2021 ) noted that interventions promoting social inclusion for children with disabilities were aimed at ‘fixing’ the child to make them more socially competent. According to the CRPD, the aim should be at the school system; that is, social barriers to education should be identified and removed.

The findings of this scoping study strengthen those of previous research, but from a comprehensive perspective that includes all students, regardless of their special educational needs or disabilities, and dimensions of inclusive education related to attitudinal, academic, and social inclusion. In the future, a shared understanding of inclusive education settings and systematic research could integrate this somewhat scattered area of research to inform policies, plans, and programmes at both national and international level. A potential foundation for this integration lies in the human rights approach provided by the United Nations CRPD and CRC, along with their respective Committees.

5 CONCLUSIONS

It is essential for inclusive education to be implemented in a manner that supports both academic and social inclusion while considering the individual needs of students with and without SEND. Often the measurement for successful inclusive education is the academic outcomes of standardized tests such as OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (Pons,  2017 ), leaving little or very little emphasis on the social outcomes of education. It should be noted that the implementation of effective and individualized measures to support academic and social development aligns with the objective of achieving inclusion according to the CRPD Article 24. Finally, there is always a need for greater emphasis on the views of students, given that it is they who experience the realization of their fundamental rights within educational systems on a daily basis.

5.1 Limitations

This review acknowledges several limitations in the studies it incorporates, including small sample sizes in qualitative studies and low effect sizes in quantitative studies. Cultural differences between the studies conducted across various countries and continents should be considered. The use of a limited number of databases for the literature search might exclude relevant studies from other sources.

It is crucial to recognize that this review provides only a partial understanding of students' views on inclusion and cannot be generalized to describe the entire spectrum of perspectives, as it focuses on a specific subset of research involving students with and without special educational needs. Furthermore, the reliability of the results may be impacted as the data analysis was conducted by a single researcher and inter-rater reliability cannot be measured. However, the analysis was crosschecked with AI to improve reliability.

A further limitation is associated with the conceptualization of inclusive education, as the lack of a universally agreed definition results in different interpretations in the included studies. The review encompassed studies referring to inclusive education or mainstreaming without analysing how the concept was articulated in each study. However, some general overviews of inclusive education research are provided by Hernández-Torrano et al. ( 2022 ) and Van Mieghem et al. ( 2020 ).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by the Finnish Cultural Foundation under Grant 70211688.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Open Research

Data availability statement.

Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Understanding Ethical Challenges in Medical Education Research

Klitzman, Robert

Rapidly advancing biomedical and electronic technologies, ongoing health disparities, and new online educational modalities are all changing medicine and medical education. As medical training continues to evolve, research is increasingly critical to help improve it, but medical education research can pose unique ethical challenges. As research participants, medical trainees may face several risks and in many ways constitute a vulnerable group. In this commentary, the author examines several of the ethical challenges involved in medical education research, including confidentiality and the risk of stigma; the need for equity, diversity, and inclusion; genetic testing of students; clustered randomized trials of training programs; and questions about quality improvement activities. The author offers guidance for navigating these ethical challenges, including the importance of engaging with institutional review boards. Academic medical institutions should educate and work closely with faculty to ensure that all research adheres to appropriate ethical guidelines and regulations and should provide instruction about the ethics of medical education research to establish a strong foundation for the future of the field. Research on medical education will become increasingly important. Given the potential sensitivity of the data collected in such research, investigators must understand and address potential ethical challenges as carefully as possible.

• Medical ethics
• Hospital care

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Systematic literature review of gender equity and social inclusion in primary education for teachers in Tanzania: assessing status and future directions

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• Published: 13 August 2024
• Volume 3 , article number  122 , ( 2024 )

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• Henry Nkya 1 &
• Isack Kibona 2  

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Gender equity and social inclusion (GESI) are crucial for creating inclusive and equitable educational environments in primary schools. This systematic literature review aimed to interpret and synthesize the findings of previous studies on GESI interventions and programs in primary schools in Tanzania, identified gaps in the knowledge, and provided recommendations for policy and practice. A systematic literature review search identified 22 relevant studies that met the inclusion criteria. The studies conducted between 2010 and 2021, and the sample sizes of participants were above 50. More than 50% of the studies were conducted in rural areas and used a quasi-experimental design. The interventions evaluation included teacher training, community engagement, and curriculum reform. The systematic literature review employed statistical methods to measure effect sizes and employed traditional univariate systematic literature review to synthesize the results. A table summarizing the literature that met the inclusion criteria was created to ensure transparency and clarity in the data coding process. The systematic literature review found a positive effect of GESI interventions on various outcomes, including improved academic performance, reduced gender-based violence, and increased social inclusion. However, variations in effect sizes and study designs across the studies were noted. Several gaps were identified, such as the lack of long-term follow-up and the need for more rigorous study designs. The implications of the findings for policy and practice in promoting GESI in primary schools in Tanzania were discussed, and recommendations for future research were provided. This systematic literature review highlighted the importance of addressing GESI in primary school education in Tanzania and underscored the critical role of teachers in promoting these values. It calls for targeted interventions, policy enhancements, and further research to bridge the gaps identified in the literature.

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1 Introduction

GESI are critical components of education that ensure equitable access to education for all individuals, regardless of their gender, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, or other backgrounds. In Tanzania, GESI has become a significant concern, particularly in primary schools, where gender and social inequalities often lead to disparities in educational outcomes.

Research has shown that girls are more likely to face barriers in education than boys, including poverty, early marriages, and cultural bias that prioritize boys’ education over girls [ 28 ]. Furthermore, children from marginalized groups, such as children with disabilities, children from ethnic minority groups, and children from low-income families, often experience unequal access to quality education [ 38 ].

Addressing GESI issues in primary schools is crucial for ensuring that all children have access to quality education, which is essential for their personal development and future success. GESI initiatives can promote equity and inclusion in schools and create an environment where all children feel valued and supported [ 13 ].

Addressing gender stereotypes in teacher education programs can play a vital role in promoting GESI in primary schools [ 32 ]. Similarly, Okkolin et al. [ 27 ] suggest that interventions that address GESI can improve educational outcomes for girls and marginalized groups.

Overall, promoting GESI in primary schools is essential for creating a more equitable and inclusive education system that benefits all children [ 2 ]. It requires a concerted effort from policymakers, educators, parents, and communities to work together to create a learning environment that is supportive, respectful, and inclusive for all children.

1.1 Theoretical framework

This study is guided by the Social Justice Theory, which emphasizes the need for equitable treatment, opportunities, and outcomes for all individuals, particularly those from marginalized and disadvantaged backgrounds [ 10 ]. This framework is crucial in understanding the components of GESI and their impact on educational outcomes. The Social Justice Theory aligns with the goals of GESI by promoting fairness and the elimination of disparities in education [ 1 ].

1.1.1 Components of GESI

The key components of GESI in this study include [ 24 ]:

Gender equity: ensuring that girls and boys have equal access to education and opportunities.

Social inclusion: creating an inclusive environment where all students, regardless of their backgrounds, can participate and succeed.

Teacher training: educating teachers on gender-sensitive and inclusive teaching practices.

Community engagement: involving communities in promoting GESI.

Curricula reform: developing and implementing curricula that address GESI issues.

1.2 Justification for focusing on Tanzania

Tanzania provides a unique context for examining GESI due to its diverse population and the significant challenges it faces in achieving GESI in education [ 18 ]. Despite efforts to promote GESI, disparities persist, making it an important area of study to identify effective interventions and inform policy and practice.

1.3 Rationale for conducting a systematic literature review

A Systematic literature review is an essential tool for synthesizing research findings from different studies and summarizing the overall effect size of an intervention or variable of interest [ 34 ]. Conducting a systematic literature review on GESI in primary school education is critical for providing an overview of the existing research and identifying gaps that need to be addressed in future research. It also helps establish the overall effect of interventions aimed at promoting GESI in primary schools in Tanzania [ 9 ]. The results of the Systematic literature review can inform policies and practices aimed at promoting GESI in primary school education, thereby improving learning outcomes for all children, regardless of their gender, social, and economic backgrounds.

By addressing the GESI issues and synthesizing the existing literature, this systematic literature review aims to contribute to a more equitable and inclusive educational environment in Tanzania [ 22 ].

1.4 Research objectives

To identify the state of GESI in primary schools. This objective aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of how GESI issues manifest in primary schools, considering various social and educational contexts.

To number factors that contribute to gender GESI in primary schools. This shall allow informed decisions on the effort to contain the issues of GESI.

To synthesize the findings of previous studies on GESI in primary schools. This objective focuses on aggregating and interpreting the results of existing research to offer a clear and cohesive picture of what is known about GESI interventions and their effectiveness.

To identify gaps in the knowledge of GESI in primary schools. By evaluating the existing literature, this objective seeks to highlight areas where further research is needed, identifying shortcomings in study designs, populations, or intervention strategies.

To provide recommendations for improving GESI in primary schools. Based on the synthesis of previous studies and identified gaps, this objective aims to propose actionable strategies and policies to enhance GESI in primary education.

2 Methodology

Having set the study objectives, the search-strategy for the study involved conducting a comprehensive literature review of studies on GESI in primary schools. The search was conducted using electronic databases such as Google Scholar, JSTOR, and EBSCOhost. The search terms used were “gender equity,” “social inclusion,” “primary schools,” “Tanzania,” and “teachers.” Additionally, hand searching was conducted by reviewing the reference lists of identified studies to identify any relevant studies that may have been missed during the initial search.

Inclusion criteria:

The study must be conducted in primary schools.

The study must focus on gender equity and/or social inclusion in education.

The study must involve teachers as the primary participants or focus on the teacher’s role in promoting GESI.

The study must be published in English between 2010 and 2022.

Exclusion criteria:

Studies conducted outside Tanzania.

Studies not related to gender equity and/or social inclusion in education.

Studies not involving teachers or not focusing on the teacher’s role in promoting GESI.

Studies published before 2010 or after 2022.

The search process was conducted by two independent reviewers to ensure the accuracy and completeness of the search results. The reviewers screened the titles and abstracts of the identified studies for relevance and then reviewed the full text of potentially relevant studies. Any discrepancies between the reviewers were resolved through discussion and consensus. Reviewers made necessary steps to ensure a justified systematic review. Overall, the Authors reviewed 22 papers considered to have met the set criteria.

2.1 Choice of the effect size measure and analytical methods

The effect size measure used in this study was generated by statistical tools, making it suitable for systematics review that synthesize findings across multiple studies. For similar research questions, the study employed traditional univariate meta-analysis. This method was chosen because it is suitable for synthesizing the results of multiple studies that investigate similar research questions. Traditional univariate meta-analysis allows for the calculation of an overall effect size, providing a comprehensive summary of the impact of GESI interventions across different studies.

2.2 Choice of software

We used R software, specifically the ‘metafor’ package, for our analysis. This software was selected due to its robustness and versatility in conducting analytical procedures. The ‘metafor’ package supports a wide range of meta-analytic models and methods, making it a comprehensive tool for this type of analysis.

2.3 Coding of effect sizes

Table 1 summarizes the literature included that meets the inclusion criteria. This table includes information such as study design, sample size, effect sizes, and any other relevant variables. This step ensures transparency and clarity in the data coding process.

3 Results and analysis

The layout of the manuscript has been organized accordingly, so that headings and subheadings clearly demarcates each step of the systematic literature review process.

3.1 Status of GESI in primary schools in Tanzania

3.1.1 persistent gender disparities.

One of the major findings in this study was that gender disparities in primary education persist in Tanzania. This was evident in the lower enrollment and completion rates for girls in primary schools compared to boys [ 36 ]. Girls are less likely to attend school than boys, with enrollment rates lower for girls at both the primary and secondary levels. Additionally, girls are more likely to drop out of school due to various reasons, including early marriage, household responsibilities, and financial constraints [ 5 ]. These disparities highlight the ongoing challenges faced by girls in accessing and completing primary education.

3.1.2 Cultural and societal beliefs

Several studies have identified cultural and societal beliefs as a major factor contributing to gender disparities in primary education. In many Tanzanian communities, girls are expected to prioritize domestic responsibilities over their education, which can lead to low enrollment rates and high drop-out rates [ 39 ]. Furthermore, gender-based violence and sexual harassment are prevalent in schools, with girls facing discrimination and harassment from both male students and teachers [ 4 ]. These issues underscore the need for targeted interventions to create a safer and more supportive educational environment for girls.

Furthermore, Losioki and Mdee [ 12 ] found that gender stereotypes perpetuated in teacher education programs in Tanzania, which can affect the ability of teachers to create a gender-equitable and socially inclusive classroom environment. Teachers may unconsciously reinforce gender stereotypes in the classroom, leading to further marginalization of girls and other vulnerable groups.

3.1.3 Underrepresented minorities

In addition, limited access to education for children with disabilities or those from low-income families and marginalized communities can perpetuate social inequalities in primary schools [ 30 ]. These students often face significant barriers, including inadequate school facilities, lack of appropriate learning materials, and insufficient support services, which hinder their educational progress.

3.2 Strategies addressing the challenge

Despite these challenges, there have been government efforts to improve GESI in primary schools. The government of Tanzania has committed to providing equal access to education for all children, regardless of gender, ethnicity, or socio-economic status. The government has implemented policies such as free primary education and affirmative action programs to promote equal access to education for all children, regardless of gender or social status [ 15 , 26 ]. These initiatives aim to reduce financial barriers to education and encourage the enrollment and retention of girls and children from marginalized groups. This includes initiatives such as the Tanzania Education Sector Development Plan (ESDP) and the Primary Education Development Program (PEDP) [ 6 , 16 ]. These programs aim to address systemic barriers in education and promote inclusive practices in schools. The government also is open to collaborate with external forces like international interventions, community development agencies and NGO to work toward enhancing GESI. Some Strategies Addressing GESI Challenges. For instance, projects that focus on community engagement and parental involvement have shown positive impacts in changing attitudes towards girls’ education and promoting inclusive practices [ 17 ].

3.2.1 International and community-based programs

In recent years, there have been an increase in programs and initiatives aimed at promoting GESI in primary education. For example, the “Let Girls Learn” program, launched by the US government in partnership with the Tanzanian government, aimed to increase access to education for girls and reduce gender disparities in education [ 7 ]. Similarly, the Tanzania Gender Networking Programme (TGNP) has been working to promote GESI in education through community mobilization, advocacy, and capacity building [ 14 ].

3.2.2 Interventions with recorded impact

Previous studies identified several approaches that have been successful in improving GESI in primary schools. Among others, at least two are discussed. One such approach is the use of gender-responsive pedagogy, which involves incorporating gender-sensitive teaching practices and materials into the classroom [ 17 ]. This method helps create a more inclusive learning environment that acknowledges and addresses the different needs of boys and girls. Another effective intervention is the provision of sanitary pads and menstrual hygiene education to girls, which has been shown to improve school attendance and reduce drop-out rates [ 35 ]. By addressing menstrual hygiene needs, schools can help ensure that girls do not miss out on education due to a lack of resources or stigma associated with menstruation.

3.2.3 Intervention recommendations

GESI are essential components of a quality education system, and there is a need to address the persistent gender disparities in primary education. While cultural and societal beliefs continue to be major barriers, efforts to improve GESI through government policies and initiatives, as well as community-based programs, showed promise. The use of gender-responsive pedagogy and the provision of menstrual hygiene education and supplies were promising approaches that showed positive results [ 21 ]. However, more research and investment are needed to ensure that all children have access to primary education. Continued collaboration between the government, NGOs, and communities is essential to sustain and expand these efforts, ensuring that all students can benefit from a supportive and equitable educational environment [ 29 ].

Overall, there is still much work to be done to ensure GESI in primary schools [ 33 ]. It will require continued efforts and collaboration from the government, educators, and communities to address cultural and traditional beliefs, promote teacher education that challenges gender stereotypes, and provide equal access to education for all children. Policymakers must prioritize the allocation of resources to support GESI initiatives and ensure that schools are equipped to meet the diverse needs of all students [ 3 ].

By addressing these systemic issues, Tanzania can make significant strides towards achieving an inclusive and equitable education system that benefits all children, irrespective of their gender or socioeconomic background. Continued research and monitoring are essential to evaluate the effectiveness of existing interventions and identify new strategies to overcome persistent challenges in promoting GESI in primary education [ 31 ].

3.2.4 Gaps in the knowledge about GESI in primary schools

While the literature have provided valuable insights into the state of GESI in primary schools in Tanzania, several gaps in the knowledge still need to be addressed.

One major gap is the lack of research on the experiences of marginalized groups, including children with disabilities and those from low-income households. Studies have shown that these groups face significant barriers to accessing education and are often excluded from educational opportunities. For example, a study by Mwaijande [ 20 ] found that children with disabilities faced challenges such as lack of access to assistive devices and negative attitudes from teachers and other students. Similarly, research by Pak et al. [ 30 ] and Thomas and Rugambwa [ 36 ] revealed that children from poor families often struggle to pay school fees and may not have access to basic learning materials.

Another gap in the Tanzanian knowledge is the lack of research on the experiences of female teachers in primary schools. While studies have examined gender stereotypes and biases among teacher education programs, Thomas and Rugambwa [ 36 ] stressed that there is limited research on the experiences of female teachers in the classroom. Research on female teachers could shed light on the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of marginalization, such as age and socioeconomic status.

Furthermore, there is a need for more research on effective interventions and strategies for promoting GESI in primary schools. While some studies have evaluated the impact of interventions such as teacher training programs [ 19 , 25 ] , more rigorous evaluations of these interventions are needed to determine their effectiveness and sustainability.

Additionally, there is a lack of longitudinal studies that follow the long-term impact of GESI interventions. Many studies focus on short-term outcomes, but understanding the lasting effects of interventions is crucial for developing sustainable policies and practices.

In summary, while previous research has provided valuable insights into GESI in primary schools, several gaps in the knowledge need to be addressed. Future research should focus on the experiences of marginalized groups, including children with disabilities and those from low-income households, as well as female teachers. Additionally, the study showed more need for more rigorous evaluations of interventions and strategies aimed at promoting GESI in primary schools. Longitudinal studies that assess the long-term impact of these interventions would also be beneficial.

3.3 Patterns observed across the studies

As observed in the study, there were some patterns and trends identified across the studies. Firstly, there was a consistent finding that gender disparities persist in primary schools, particularly in terms of access to education and academic achievement. Despite efforts to promote GESI, girls and marginalized groups continue to face significant barriers that hinder their educational progress.

Secondly, there was a growing recognition of the importance of addressing GESI in primary education, as evidenced by the increasing number of interventions and programs aimed at promoting these values. This trend indicates a positive shift towards acknowledging and addressing GESI issues within the education system.

Thirdly, the systematic literature review revealed that the role of teachers is critical in promoting GESI in primary schools. Teacher training and support are essential for equipping educators with the skills and knowledge needed to foster an inclusive and equitable learning environment. Studies consistently highlighted the need for gender-sensitive pedagogy and teacher professional development programs.

Finally, there were some gaps in the current knowledge base, particularly with regard to the long-term impact of interventions and the effectiveness of different approaches to promoting GESI in primary education. While some interventions showed promising results, more research was needed to determine their sustainability and broader applicability.

By addressing these gaps and building on the patterns observed across studies, future research could contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of GESI in primary schools and inform the development of policies and practices to promote equity and inclusion for all students.

To sum up, analysis revealed that GESI interventions have a positive effect on various outcomes such as academic performance, reduced gender-based violence, and increased social inclusion. However, variations in effect sizes and study designs were observed across the studies. The studies included in the systematic literature review used various designs, such as randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental designs, which contributed to the diversity in effect sizes.

4 Discussion

GESI is a critical components of a better-quality education system over otherwise. In Tanzania, primary education is the foundation for future academic and professional success [ 23 ], making it essential to ensure that all students, regardless of gender or social status, have access to an inclusive and equitable education. Previous studies explored the state of GESI in primary schools and identified areas for improvement.

The findings of the study highlighted the state of GESI in primary schools. The analysis of some 10 included studies revealed that significant disparities in access to education and academic performance among genders persist, with girls being more disadvantaged. Additionally, children from marginalized backgrounds, such as those from low-income families or those with disabilities, face substantial barriers to education.

To sum up, the study suggests a holistic approach involving teachers, schools, communities, and policymakers. Thus, multifaceted approach is necessary to create a more inclusive and equitable education system. Therefore, Recommendations include:

Providing comprehensive teacher training on gender-sensitive teaching methods.

Implementing community-based initiatives to address social and cultural barriers.

Developing policies and programs prioritizing marginalized students’ needs.

4.1 Implications of the study

Overall, the systematic literature review provided important insights into the state of GESI in primary schools. While progress has been made, significant challenges remain. Continued efforts and investments are necessary to promote a more equitable and inclusive education system. Future research should address the identified gaps and build on the promising interventions highlighted in this study. Based on the evidence synthesized, it is clear that targeted interventions are necessary to address the barriers that girls and other marginalized groups face in accessing and completing primary education. The study has the following recommendations on policy and practice and the areas for future research.

4.1.1 Addressing school issues related to GESI

Teacher training: policies should mandate comprehensive training for teachers on gender-sensitive teaching practices. Educators need to be equipped with the skills and knowledge to foster an inclusive classroom environment that supports both boys and girls. This includes understanding how to address and counteract gender stereotypes and biases.

Providing resources: schools should be equipped with resources to support girls’ education. This includes the provision of sanitary pads, access to clean and safe gender-segregated toilets, and gender-sensitive teaching materials. These resources are essential in reducing barriers to attendance and participation for girls.

Reviewing curricula: the school curriculum should be reviewed and revised to promote GESI. Curricula should reflect the diversity of Tanzanian society and challenge existing gender stereotypes. Including content that promotes GESI will help inculcate these values in students from a young age.

4.1.2 Addressing structural and socio-economic barriers

Financial support: there should be policies to provide financial support to families who cannot afford school fees. This can include scholarships, free school meals, and other financial incentives that alleviate the economic burden on families and keep girls in school.

Cultural norms and attitudes: interventions must focus on changing cultural norms and attitudes that limit girls’ access to education. Community engagement and awareness campaigns are crucial in shifting perceptions and promoting the value of girls’ education. Programs should aim to involve parents and community leaders in promoting gender equity.

Reducing gender-based violence: schools should implement strict policies against gender-based violence and harassment. Providing a safe and supportive environment is crucial for retaining girls in school. Support services for victims of violence and harassment should be readily available.

4.1.3 Promoting girls’ participation and leadership

Extracurricular activities: schools should create opportunities for girls to engage in extracurricular activities. Programs such as sports, arts, and clubs can enhance girls’ skills and confidence, providing a platform for them to express themselves and develop leadership qualities.

Leadership training: providing leadership training for girls to support their involvement in decision-making processes within schools and communities is essential. This training can empower girls to take active roles in their schools and communities, fostering a sense of agency and leadership.

4.1.4 Comprehensive and integrated approach

Involving multiple stakeholders: a comprehensive approach to promoting GESI should involve multiple stakeholders, including the government, civil society, and communities. Collaboration among these groups is essential for creating a supportive environment for GESI.

Evidence-based interventions: policies and practices should be guided by evidence-based interventions tailored to the specific needs and contexts of different regions and populations. Utilizing data and research to inform practices ensures that efforts are effective and impactful.

Monitoring and evaluation: continuous monitoring and evaluation of interventions are necessary to assess their effectiveness and make necessary adjustments. This helps in ensuring the sustainability and scalability of successful initiatives.

The study highlights the importance of a comprehensive and integrated approach to promoting GESI in primary schools. It underscores the need for targeted interventions, policy enhancements, and continued efforts to address the persistent barriers that girls and marginalized groups face. By implementing these recommendations, Tanzania can make significant strides towards achieving a more inclusive and equitable education system for all children.

4.2 Areas for future research

Future research and policy efforts should focus on sustaining and scaling successful interventions, ensuring that all children, regardless of gender or socio-economic background, have access to quality education. Future research should address these gaps:

Experiences of marginalized groups: more high-quality research is needed on the experiences of marginalized groups, including children with disabilities and those from low-income households.

Female teachers: investigate the experiences of female teachers in primary schools to understand how gender intersects with other forms of marginalization, such as age and socioeconomic status.

Effectiveness of interventions: conduct more rigorous evaluations of specific interventions and strategies for promoting GESI, including long-term impact studies.

Intersectionality: explore the intersectionality of factors such as gender, socioeconomic status, and ethnicity to provide a more comprehensive

5 Conclusion

GESI is crucial for improving access to education, ensuring equal opportunities, and promoting positive social outcomes. Teachers play a critical role in promoting these values and must receive appropriate training and support to create inclusive learning environments. Policymakers and education leaders must prioritize efforts to address GESI in primary schools, including investing in research to understand the factors contributing to gender and social equality and identifying effective strategies for promoting GESI.

The systematic literature review examined the state of GESI in primary schools and revealed significant challenges, particularly in terms of teacher training and the implementation of policies and programs. The review highlighted persistent gender disparities and the barriers faced by marginalized groups, such as children with disabilities and those from low-income families.

The findings suggest that targeted interventions are needed to address these barriers, recommended interventions include:

Increasing access to education: efforts to increase access to education for marginalized groups, such as scholarships and school feeding programs.

Policy development: implementing policies that address gender-based violence and discrimination.

Community engagement: involving multiple stakeholders, including government, civil society, and communities, in promoting GESI.

Develop and implement teacher training programs: focus on GESI principles, awareness of gender biases, strategies for promoting inclusivity, and the use of gender-sensitive teaching materials.

Develop and implement gender-sensitive curricula: address gender biases and stereotypes across all subject areas.

Strengthen policies and regulations: enforce policies that promote GESI in school governance, teacher recruitment, and student enrollment.

Increase participation of girls: provide incentives for girls to attend school, such as scholarships and school feeding programs, and improve school infrastructure.

The study provides crucial insights into the state of GESI in primary schools and underscores the need for coordinated and sustained efforts to address these challenges. By implementing the recommended strategies and involving all stakeholders, Tanzania can ensure that all children have access to quality primary education that promotes GESI.

Data availability

No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.

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Mbeya University of Science and Technology, Mbeya, Tanzania

Isack Kibona

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H.E was collecting the literatures and read and write major parts I.K was good on drafting conclusion and analysis part. But we work hand on hand together.

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Correspondence to Henry Nkya .

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Nkya, H., Kibona, I. Systematic literature review of gender equity and social inclusion in primary education for teachers in Tanzania: assessing status and future directions. Discov Educ 3 , 122 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-024-00221-8

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Received : 26 March 2024

Accepted : 02 August 2024

Published : 13 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s44217-024-00221-8

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