do i write out numbers in an essay

When Should I Spell Out Numbers?

It is generally best to write out numbers from zero to one hundred in nontechnical writing. In scientific and technical writing, the prevailing style is to write out numbers under ten. While there are exceptions to these rules, your predominant concern should be expressing numbers consistently.

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Numbers can disrupt readability in a paragraph, so for most writing purposes, it is best to flex those fingers and type out numbers less than 101 as fully spelled words.

Sophie said there are ninety-nine reasons why she adores Justin Bieber, not nine.

According to census records, there were 53,364 people over the age of one hundred in the US in 2010.

When writing out numbers between forty and forty-nine, be sure to remember that forty has no u in it ( this is a common spelling error ).

The rules demonstrated in the examples above are simply rules of thumb and there are exceptions to them. For example, round numbers such as hundreds, thousands, or hundred thousands should be written out in full. Numbers that are not conveniently round will read better written as numerals.

It was said that there were five loaves and two fish to feed five thousand men.

This year’s parade brought in 123,675 attendees.

When a number begins a sentence, that number should always be spelled out. That said, writers often choose to restructure their sentences when the numbers become cumbersome for the reader.

5 finalists will qualify for the next round of the competition.

Five finalists will qualify for the next round of the competition.

Seventeen seventy-six was the year America became a nation.

In 1776, America became a nation.

Spelling out numbers in technical, scientific, and complex writing

Scientific and technical journals, and even news reports, often adhere to the rule that only numbers less than ten should be written out in full, except when fractions or decimals are involved. This can be a sensible approach to ensuring the readability of texts that refer to numbers and figures frequently.

The color blue was preferred by five out of eleven experiment participants.

Did you know the average snail moves at 0.029 miles per hour?

Fractional quantities of larger numbers, such as those in the millions and billions, are most easily read when abbreviated as decimals in combination with the word “million” or “billion” where possible. Whole millions and billions (and in American usage, trillions) can be expressed as a whole number plus the word “million,” “billion,” etc.

The Milky Way is approximately 13.6 billion years old.

Canada has a population of nearly 36 million.

When using abbreviations for units of measurement in your writing, always express numbers as numerals. Similarly, when writing about money, use numerals in connection with the dollar sign or other currency symbols. Infrequent references to money read best when written out as spelled-out numbers plus the word for the currency involved.

One inch is equal to 2.54 cm.

The weight of an average hippopotamus is 1,500 kg.

Patients expressed a desire to take the medication occasionally, but were hesitant to pay the fifty-dollar fee.

The actual cost of the medication to patients is $51.75.

Deciding whether to write out numbers in full can be tricky, but the key is to use the correct style for your audience and to use it consistently.

When to Spell Out Numbers in Writing: Guide and Examples

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The Rules for Writing Numbers in English 

You may have noticed a theme when it comes to the English language: most rules are not standardized. This (somewhat frustrating) fact is especially true when it comes to spelling out numbers. Should you write them out in words or leave them as numerals? To write numbers properly, you will also need to identify potential differences between major style guides (such as MLA , APA , and Chicago , to name a few) because these guides often outline different rules for using numbers in writing.

To make it easier, let's use an example. Say you're working on a paper evaluating the importance of the local public library in your community. The document will make use of small numbers, large numbers, decades, and statistics. Each type of number may follow a different rule.

Thankfully, when using numbers in writing, you can count on a few conventions that apply to most situations; just be sure to consult your specific style guide if one has been assigned. If you don't have time to review each number yourself, a professional editor or proofreader can ensure that your numbers are written correctly.

Writing Small and Large Numbers

A simple rule for using numbers in writing is that small numbers ranging from one to ten (or one to nine, depending on the style guide) should generally be spelled out. Larger numbers (i.e., above ten) are written as numerals.

For example, instead of writing "It cost ten-thousand four-hundred and sixteen dollars to renovate the local library," you would write, "It cost $10,416 to renovate the local library."

The reason for this is relatively intuitive. Writing out large numbers not only wastes space but could also be a major distraction to your readers.

Beginning a Sentence with a Number

Here is a rule that you can truly rely on: always spell out numbers when they begin a sentence, no matter how large or small they may be.

Incorrect: 15 new fiction novels were on display.

Correct: Fifteen new fiction novels were on display.

If the number is large and you want to avoid writing it all out, rearrange the sentence so that the number no longer comes first.

Revised: There were 15 new fiction novels on display.

Whole Numbers vs. Decimals

Another important factor to consider is whether you are working with a whole number or a decimal. Decimals are always written as numerals for clarity and accuracy.

To revisit our library example, perhaps circulation statistics improved in 2015. If a number falls in the range of one to ten and is not a whole number, it should be written as a numeral.

Incorrect: The circulation of library materials increased by four point five percent in 2015.

Correct: The circulation of library materials increased by 4.5% in 2015.

Paired Numbers (Two Numbers in a Row)

When two numbers come next to each other in a sentence, be sure to spell out one of these numbers. The main purpose of this rule is to avoid confusing the reader.

Incorrect: There were 12 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were 12 four-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were twelve 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Decades and Centuries

Decades or centuries are usually spelled out, especially if the writing is formal.

Incorrect: The library was built in the '50s.

Correct: The library was built in the fifties.

If you are referring to a specific year (e.g., 1955), use the numeral.

Consistency Is Key When Using Numbers in Your Writing

Always strive for consistency, even if it overrides a previous rule. For example, if your document uses numbers frequently, it is more appropriate for all numbers to remain as numerals to ensure that usage is uniform throughout. Similarly, if a single sentence combines small and large numbers, make sure that all the numbers are either spelled out or written as numerals.

Incorrect: The library acquired five new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Correct: The library acquired 5 new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Style Guides May Have Slightly Different Rules for Writing Numbers in Words

Let's complicate things a bit, shall we?

If your work must follow the rules of a specific style guide, understand that various guides all have rules for spelling out numbers that may differ slightly from the rules listed above. For example, MLA style indicates that writers may spell out numbers if they are not used too frequently in the document and can be represented with one or two words (e.g., twenty-four, one hundred, three thousand ). APA style advises that common fractions (e.g., two-thirds ) be expressed as words. A number of specific rules for spelling out numbers are outlined in Section 9.1 of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Your ultimate authority will always be a style guide, but in the absence of one, following the rules outlined above will help you stay consistent in your use of numbers in writing.

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APA Style Guidelines for Numbers | Words or Numerals?

Published on August 7, 2015 by Sarah Vinz . Revised on July 23, 2023.

Numbers can be written either as words (e.g., one hundred) or numerals (e.g., 100). In this article we follow the guidelines of APA Style , one of the most common style guides used in academic writing .

In general, words should be used for numbers from zero through nine, and numerals should be used from 10 onwards. This is true for both cardinal numbers (e.g., two, 11) and ordinal numbers (e.g., second, 11 th ). However, there are some important exceptions to this rule.

Note that other style guides, such as Chicago Style,  address numbers differently (for example, in Chicago, you use words for numbers up to 100). Regardless of what style guide you follow, the most important thing is to be consistent in how you treat numbers throughout your document.

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Table of contents

Writing percentages, reporting statistical results that include numbers, writing numbers that are accompanied by measurements, writing long numbers, consistency may not be obvious, other interesting articles.

Use numerals for numbers from zero to nine that are followed by a precise unit of measurement.

The samples measured 7 cm in diameter. (“cm” is a unit of measurement)

But: These three samples were subjected to further testing.

Use words for any number that is used to start a sentence, with the exception of years.

Seventy-two thousand ink cartridges are sold every day.

Nineteenth-century novels often feature complicated plot lines.

But: 2008 saw record olive crops throughout the Mediterranean.

Use words for common fractions and set expressions.

According to the survey, two thirds of the employees are dissatisfied.

Understanding the Five Pillars of Islam is a critical first step.

The Fourth of July is traditionally marked by a firework display.

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With percentages, the standard is to use numerals and “%” (not “percent”).

According to the report, 45% of the workforce is employed in the service sector. Only 6% currently work in agriculture.

The main exception is if you are using a percentage to begin a sentence. In this case, use words to express the entire percentage.

Thirteen percent of the patients reported that their symptoms improved after taking the experimental drug.

If your paper includes quantitative research, you probably have data to report. Statistics, mathematical functions, ratios, and percentages are all written using numerals. This is true regardless of whether they are included within a table or as part of the actual text. Keep the following guidelines in mind:

• Report most statistics to two decimal places (such as M = 5.44).
• Report statistics that could never exceed 1.0 to three decimal places (such as p < .001).
• If a value has the potential to exceed 1.0, use the leading zero. If a value can never exceed 1.0, do not use the leading zero.
• Italicize values that are not Greek letters (such as M , SD , p , and F ).
• Include spaces before and after =, >, and <.

The average IQ of the participants was relatively high ( M = 137.33, SD = 4.54).

The results of the second test were statistically significant, t (12) = 4.11, p < .05.

There are further detailed guidelines about reporting statistics in APA .

If a number comes immediately before a unit of measurement, use numerals.

Each patient received  5 mg  of the experimental drug.

The tallest participant was 2.03 m .

Also use numerals for precise ages, times, dates, scores, points on a scale, and amounts of money.

The final score of Ghana 2, Brazil 1 did not represent a decisive victory.

Children under 8 years receive a $50 discount.

But: Most girls start reading when they are about five years old. (“about” makes the number imprecise)

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Longer numbers follow specific rules:

• Use a period to indicate a decimal point.
• Starting with 1,000, use commas to separate every three digits.

The region has an average of 43.75 doctors for every 10,000 people.

Some predict that the number of users will reach 2 billion by 2020.

One of the main reasons why writing numbers is complicated is that consistently applying the rules may lead to a text that actually seems very in consistent. Consider the following paragraphs:

At about the age of seven , the girl’s height was 1.47 m. This placed her in the fifth percentile, although her weight placed her in the top 7% of her class. By the time she was 9 years old, she was taller than half of the boys in her year. Five years later, she was still ranked 15 th .

Thirteen thousand viewers watched the performance of Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night from the park, while another 2,000 watched from the surrounding buildings and 1.2 million watched it on television. As one  out of every 11 residents saw at least part of the play, this one event can definitely be considered a success.

These texts may look awkward because so many different number formats have been used, but don’t be deceived – the above guidelines have all been followed.

If you are not required to strictly follow a particular style (such as APA format ), you may have some flexibility to modify the guidelines presented in this article. Just be sure to apply any modifications you make throughout your entire document.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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Writing Numbers

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Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for numbers that are three or more words long. Note: If you are using a specific citation style, such as MLA or APA , consult the style manual for specific formatting instructions.

Here are some examples of specific situations:

Days and Years

Time of Day

Identification Numbers

Page and Division of Books and Plays

Decimals and Percentages

Large Round Numbers

Notes on Usage

Repeat numbers in commercial writing.

Use numerals in legal writing.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.

Write out numbers beginning sentences.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear.

When to Write Out Numbers: What Chicago, APA, and MLA Say About Numerals

by Kaelyn Barron | 14 comments

Wondering whether or not you should spell out the numbers in your school report, novel, or blog?

It can be difficult to keep the rules straight, especially when we see different styles used all across the internet or in our casual correspondences. But we’ve broken down the rules for you with this simplified guide so you never have to wonder again!

Spelling Out Numbers: The General Rule

The most generally accepted rules for writing out numbers in non-scientific and non-technical contexts are as follows:

• Spell out all numbers between zero and ten.
• When numbers are used to start a sentence , they should always be spelled out .

Twenty-four thousand applications were submitted in 2018.

When dealing with technical or scientific writing , numerals can be used for all numbers above ten. 

( Numerals are symbols that are used to denote numbers, such as 1, 2, 11, 23… )

However, the most important thing to remember in any kind of writing is consistency. Even if your chosen style differs from this general rule, what matters is that you stick with that style throughout your writing.

Style Guides

Some style guides offer their own specific rules for spelling out numbers. If you have a designated style guide, be sure to always reference that when in doubt.

Chicago Manual of Style

The Chicago Manual of Style lays out the following rules for spelling out numbers:

• Spell out numbers zero through one hundred
• Use numerals for numbers over one hundred
• Spell out certain round numerals , specifically: whole numbers one through one hundred followed by hundred , thousand , or hundred thousand ), except in monetary amounts or percents
• Seventy-two
• One thousand
• Two hundred thousand
• Seventy thousand
• Two hundred

Additionally, when two numbers need to be placed next to each other, it’s best to spell out one of them (usually the smaller amount).

• 10 nine-inch boards
• three 12-foot waves

APA Style Manual

The APA Style Manual lays out the following rules for spelling out numbers:

• Spell out numbers below 10
• Use numerals for numbers 10 and greater

MLA Style Manual

The MLA Style Manual lays out the following rules for spelling out numbers:

• Spell out numbers that can be written with one or two words
• Use numerals for all other numbers

Numbers in Blogs

If you write blog posts, your company might have a preferred style for you to use. But if it’s up to you to decide, the following suggestions might help:

• Spell out numbers from zero to nine
• Use numerals for numbers ten and greater
• Don’t start sentences with numerals
• Headlines that start with numerals (such as “7 Tips…”) tend to generate more social shares and engagement

When to Hyphenate Numbers

If you do need to spell out larger numbers, a hyphen might be necessary. See the following rules:

• Always hyphenate compound numbers between twenty-one and ninety-nine (this does not include numbers ending with 0)
• If you need to write out numbers higher than ninety-nine, do not use a hyphen; use “and” instead
• Sally is thirty-three years old.
• Forty-seven candidates were accepted last year.
• Three hundred and forty-two dogs were rescued.

Numbers or Numerals?

To keep your writing clear and consistent, it’s important to know when to spell out numbers and when to use numerals.

When in doubt, always refer to your designated style guide for the most clear details and rules.

Did you find this article helpful? Let us know in the comments below!

If you enjoyed this post, then you might also like:

• How to Use Dashes: Your Guide to The Em Dash, En Dash, and Hyphen
• 9 Ways to Use a Colon: A No-Fear Guide to Correct Colon Usage
• How to Use Quotation Marks: Rules and Examples
• How to Proofread: Tips for a Cleaner Draft

As a blog writer for TCK Publishing, Kaelyn loves crafting fun and helpful content for writers, readers, and creative minds alike. She has a degree in International Affairs with a minor in Italian Studies, but her true passion has always been writing. Working remotely allows her to do even more of the things she loves, like traveling, cooking, and spending time with her family.

14 Comments

My former coworker started the following practice: When using a number ten and below, write the number out and then include the number in parentheses – for example, “there are ten (10) instances…”. If the number is greater than ten, use the number alone – for example, “there are 20 instances…”. Is this practice used by others?

I was hoping for an answer to Ms. Gregory’s question as well. Ms. Barron could you please reply soon as this comment was quite recent 06.30.2023.

I’m a writer and I’m thinking it might be kind of nice to see both as shown in Ms. Gregory’s comment. Maybe something I’ll have to start using.

I believe that genealogical journals use the Chicago style regarding spelling out numbers. Is that correct? Thanks.

For Chicago Style, “over 1200 reports.” Should there be a coma between the thousandth and hundredth place, 1,200?

Hi. For CMS, I would like to ask when to use “million” and “000,000,000”? Thank you.

How does one write a percentage? Example: .02.4%

Hi James! which style guide do you use? For example, Chicago requires you to use numerals and the word “percent” (as in 2 percent”), whereas for AP it would be 2%.

Thank you. The information with numbers was very helpful.

You’re very welcome, so glad you found it helpful! :)

When numbers both greater and less than 10 are used in a series, should they all be either spelled or numerals? For example “…seven bird and eleven mammal species” or “…7 bird and 11 mammal species” rather than “…seven bird and 11 mammal species”?

How do I report results from a table included in a scientific paper? For example, can I write “males accounted for 21 (70%) of respondents, and females accounted for 9 (30%)”? Thank you.

Hi Manon, yes, you can write the numbers and percentages that way for a scientific report. To be more thorough, you might write “for 21 (70%) of the 30 respondents”

Outstanding, Ms. Barron! Clear, concise… easy to understand. Thank you for including the different styles. Thank you for your article!

Thanks Marcus, I’m so glad you enjoyed the article! :)

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When To Spell Out Numbers In Writing: Guide And Examples For Writers

• April 19, 2024
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What are the rules for spelling out numbers, 7 rules for writing numbers in apa style, 4 rules for spelling out numbers in mla style, how to spell out numbers in ap style, 5 rules for spelling out numbers in chicago style, how to write numbers on checks, faqs on when to spell out numbers in writing, we also recommend.

When it comes to writing, one of the most common questions that often arises is when to spell out numbers and when to use numerical figures. Should you write “three” or “3”? The answer may not always be clear-cut, but understanding the rules and guidelines can help ensure consistency and clarity in your writing.

Numbers play a significant role in our everyday communication, whether it’s in academic papers, business reports, or creative writing. However, knowing when to spell out numbers can be tricky, especially with differing style guides and conventions.

It is usually best to write out numbers from zero to one hundred in nontechnical writing. In scientific and technical writing, the most suited style is to write out numbers under ten. While there are exceptions to these rules, your predominant concern should be expressing numbers consistently.

Different editorial-style manuals have different rules for when to spell out numbers instead of using numerals. Keep reading to find out when to spell out numbers and use numerals in different writing styles.

Each editorial style manual—including AP, APA, MLA, and Chicago Manual of Style—has different rules for spelling out numbers in the text. Numerical representations of amounts are employed in some contexts, whereas words are used in others. Numbers that start a sentence are usually always written out. It’s crucial to remember that there are exceptions to any writing style’s standards, particularly when working with whole numbers, fractions, and greater quantities.

READ ALSO: When to Use “Nor”: Clear Examples to Get It Right As a Writer

The American Psychological Association (or APA) style manual focuses on scientific writing but can be used in online editorials. To spell out numbers correctly using the APA style, here are general rules to follow:

• Spell out numbers below 10 . Numerals should be used for numbers 10 and above, numbers below 10 should be spelled out.
• Spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence . A number that begins a sentence must be spelled out not written as a numeral, even if the number is below 10.
• Spell out common fractions or phrases with numbers . Write out numbers when they are part of common phrases or fractions. For example, you spell out the number in “The Twelve Days of Christmas” rather than using the numeral. If you’re using a common fraction or percentage like “one in fifteen people,” you also should spell out your numbers.
• Use numerals for measurements . If a number comes before a measurement (5 cm, 7g), use the numeral form rather than spelling it out.
• Use numerals for fractions, ratios, and percentages . Any number used for data and statistics (75%, 6:1) must come in a numeral form rather than the word spelling.
• Use numerals for sums of money, dates, ages, and time . If you’re discussing numbers like dollar amounts (3 dollars) or somebody’s age (7 years old), use numerals rather than spelling.
• Numbers in a series . When you’re referring to a number in a series—like Grade 7, or District 4—you have to use the numeral and capitalize the noun that comes before it.

READ ALSO: Extravert vs Extrovert: How to Choose the Right Word as a Writer

Here are a few formatting tips for following the Modern Language Association (or MLA) Style Guide for numbers.

• Write the numbers at the beginning of a sentence in words . If a number starts a sentence it should be spelled out rather than written as a numeral.
• Spell out simple numbers . If a number can be written with one or two words (fourteen, ninety-nine), it is spelled out. Numerals should be used in all other instances.
• Hyphenate compound numbers . Hyphens should be used for numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine.
• Use symbols and abbreviations . Writers should pair numerals with their right symbols, such as “$” or “%” when necessary.

The Associated Press style also comes with its own set of rules for styling numbers, listed below.

• Spell out numbers one through nine . Use numerals for numbers 10 and greater. Ordinal numbers (i.e., third, 12th), follow the same known rule.
• Spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence . If a number begins a sentence it should be spelled out.
• Use numerals for money . Except for cents or amounts over one million, all money should be expressed in number figures and not alphabets.
• Avoid starting sentences with numerals . If a sentence precedes a number (“Seven people arrived at the station”), it should be spelled out, unless that number is a year, in which case it can appear at the beginning of the sentence in numeral form: “1865 brought about a year of tremendous change.”
• The time of day can be expressed as a single number . Rather than typing out “10:00 p.m.,” time of day should be expressed as an abbreviated numeral (“10 p.m.”).

SEE ALSO: How To Write Dates Correctly In English, Spanish, MLA Format, Formal Letter

The Chicago Style Manual details its own guidelines for including numbers within a text.

• Spell out numbers zero through one hundred . Use numeral figures to represent numbers above one hundred, but spell out whole numbers like three hundred or one thousand. Use numerals to represent non-whole numbers, such as 1,239 or 603.
• Spell out cents for amounts less than one dollar . For amounts less than a dollar, avoid using a dollar sign or decimal point, and instead spell out the type of change. For example, “Soda only used to cost 25 cents.”
• Spell out numbers at the beginning of a sentence . If a number begins a sentence, it should be spelled out rather than noted as a numeral.
• Spell out large rounded numbers . Large whole numbers over 100 that are followed by hundred, thousand, hundred thousand, or million, should be spelled out unless they refer to amounts of money.
• Use numerals for fractions . Use numerals to represent your common fractions (8 ½, 4 ¾) unless they begin a sentence, in which case you would use words to spell them out (Eight and one-half, four, and three-fourths).

There is a unique pattern that applies when you write a cheque that will be used to draw money from a bank account or credit card cash advance. In this instance, the amount must be entered numerically in the space provided next to the dollar sign. You’ll then have to express it clearly. Since it takes 100 cents to make a dollar, you have the option of expressing the cents as a fraction out of 100 or using words for the dollars and cents. Remember to put the word “and” in between the pennies and the dollars.

• When writing a check for $1,044.12, the full text should be written as  one thousand forty-four dollars and 12/100.
• If you are writing a check for $182.40, you could write  one hundred eighty-two dollars and fifty cents  or  one hundred eighty-two dollars and 50/100 .
• If you are writing a check for $79.00 even, the text could say  seventy-nine dollars and 00/100 ,  seventy-nine dollars and no cents,  or  seventy-nine dollars  only.

If a number starts a sentence it should be spelled out rather than written as a numeral.

If a number comes before a measurement (5 cm, 7g), use the numeral form rather than spelling it out.

There are no universal rules when writing numbers unless you’re following a specific style guide or handbook or, in a professional context, working with an in-house style guide.

There is no hard and fast rule around when to spell out numbers and when to use numerals in your writing. It’s all dependent on the writing style guide or context and in-house writing style.

• grammarly.com – When Should I Spell Out Numbers?
• yourdictionary.com – Rules for Writing Numbers: Know When To Spell Them Out
• When to Use ‘Whomever’: Navigating the Maze
• “Over” vs “More Than”: How to Use Both Correctly as a Writer
• When to Use ‘Its’ and ‘It’s’: Cracking the Code
• When to Use There and Their: Unlocking the Mystery of ‘There’ and ‘Their’
• When to Use ‘Have’ or ‘Has’: Solving the Verb Puzzle

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Essay Papers Writing Online

Simple and clear rules for writing numbers in an essay that will impress any reader.

When it comes to showcasing numerical information within an essay or any other form of written content, it is essential to master the art of effectively conveying numerical data. Numbers, whether they represent statistical figures, percentages, monetary values, or quantities, require a unique approach in order to engage the reader and provide a clear understanding of the information being presented.

In the realm of written expression, numbers can often appear mundane and monotonous, dulling the impact of the overall message. However, through the use of creative and thoughtful techniques, one can transform these numerical figures into engaging storytelling tools that enhance the flow and impact of the written work.

Emphasizing numerical data can be achieved through various methods , starting with the careful selection of appropriate linguistic devices. Utilizing vivid and descriptive language, such as powerful adjectives and adverbs, can bring numbers to life and create a visual representation in the reader’s mind. For example, instead of simply stating that the company’s profit increased by 20%, one could say that the profit skyrocketed or surged by an astounding 20%. This not only adds excitement and energy to the writing but also captures the reader’s attention and encourages them to delve deeper into the information being presented.

Rules for Writing Numbers in an Essay

When it comes to writing numbers in an essay, there are certain rules and guidelines that should be followed. These rules ensure clarity and consistency throughout the essay, making it easier for readers to understand the information being presented. By adhering to these rules, writers can effectively communicate numerical information in a way that is both accurate and professional.

1. Spell out numbers from zero to nine. Numbers that are spelled out from zero to nine should be written as words in an essay. For example, “two apples,” “sixty-three percent,” or “nine thousand.” This helps to maintain consistency and readability in the text.

2. Use numerals for numbers 10 and above. Numbers that are 10 or greater should be written using numerals in an essay. For example, “14 fish,” “85 participants,” or “101 pages.” This makes it easier for readers to quickly comprehend the numerical information without any confusion.

3. Follow specific style guides for exceptions. In some cases, specific style guides may have exceptions to the general rules for writing numbers. For example, certain style guides may require the use of numerals for numbers that are greater than 100. Make sure to consult the appropriate style guide for any exceptions that may apply to your writing.

4. Use numerals for dates, times, and measurements. When writing dates, times, and measurements, it is generally preferred to use numerals rather than spelling them out. For example, “On July 4, 2023,” “at 12:30 p.m.,” or “3 meters long.” This helps to convey the exactness and precision of the information being presented.

5. Be consistent. Consistency is key when it comes to writing numbers in an essay. Choose a specific style and stick to it throughout the entire essay. Whether you choose to spell out numbers from zero to nine or use numerals for all numbers, make sure to apply the same formatting consistently.

By following these rules for writing numbers in an essay, writers can ensure that their numerical information is presented accurately and professionally. This enhances the overall clarity and comprehension of the essay, making it easier for readers to engage with the content.

Learn the basic guidelines for writing numbers in academic essays

Gain a solid understanding of the fundamental principles for expressing numerical values in your academic essays. Properly presenting numbers is essential for maintaining clarity and consistency in your writing. By adhering to these basic guidelines, you can ensure that your essays adhere to standard formatting conventions and effectively convey information to your readers.

1. Spell out small whole numbers: In general, numbers from one to nine are spelled out in academic essays. For example, instead of writing “2 cats,” you would write “two cats.” This practice helps to maintain a smooth flow of reading and prevents numerical symbols from disrupting the text.

2. Use numerals for large numbers and numbers with decimal points: When dealing with numbers greater than nine or numbers that involve decimal points, it is appropriate to use numerals. For instance, you would write “17 participants,” “6.5 percent,” or “2,500 words.” Numerals are especially useful for conveying exact values and facilitating comparisons.

3. Express common measurements with symbols: When discussing well-known units of measurement, it is acceptable to use their symbols without spelling them out. For example, “3 km” instead of “three kilometers” or “5 kg” instead of “five kilograms.” This approach saves space and is widely understood in academic writing.

4. Be consistent in expressing numerical ranges: When indicating a range of values, use the appropriate punctuation for clarity. For instance, you would write “between 5 and 10 books,” “from 200 to 300 participants,” or “in the years 1990-2000.” Consistency within a range helps the reader easily grasp the scope of the given information.

5. Follow specific style guides: Different style guides may have their own rules for writing numbers. For example, APA style may differ from MLA style. It is important to consult the style guide specified by your academic institution or instructor to ensure accurate and consistent presentation of numbers in your essays.

By following these basic guidelines, you can effectively incorporate numbers into your academic essays and enhance the overall clarity and professionalism of your writing.

The Role of Consistency in Writing Numbers

Consistency plays a crucial role when it comes to writing numbers in various contexts. Maintaining a consistent style throughout an essay or any written piece not only enhances readability but also ensures clarity and professionalism. Consistency in writing numbers refers to using the same format and style when expressing numerical values, whether they are written in digits or spelled out in words. Consistency helps to avoid confusion and allows readers to understand and interpret the numbers accurately.

One aspect of consistency in writing numbers involves deciding whether to use numerals or words. It is important to establish a set of guidelines and follow them consistently. For example, in scientific or technical writing, it is common to use numerals for measurements, percentages, statistics, and mathematical expressions. On the other hand, when writing literary or journalistic pieces, it is often preferred to spell out numbers up to ten and use numerals for larger values. By consistently applying these guidelines, writers can ensure that their numerical references are not only stylistically appropriate but also coherent within the context of their work.

Another aspect of consistency in writing numbers is ensuring that the same format is used throughout the entire essay or document. This includes deciding whether to use commas or spaces for thousands separators, the placement of decimal points, the use of currency symbols, and the format for dates and times. Consistency in these formatting choices helps readers to quickly and accurately interpret the numbers presented. It also helps to establish a professional and organized appearance in the written piece.

In addition to maintaining consistency within a single piece of writing, it is also important to be consistent across different documents or sources. This is particularly relevant when referencing numbers or data from external sources, such as research studies or statistical reports. By using consistent formats and styles, writers can provide a clear and cohesive presentation of numerical information, making it easier for readers to compare and understand the data across different sources.

Understand why consistency is important when writing numbers in an essay

Consistency plays a vital role when it comes to writing numbers in an essay. It ensures uniformity and clarity in conveying numerical information to the readers. By maintaining consistency in the representation of numbers, writers can effectively communicate their ideas and avoid confusion or misinterpretation. This section will delve into the importance of consistency and how it helps in enhancing the overall quality of an essay.

Consistency eliminates ambiguity: When writing numbers, inconsistency can lead to ambiguity, making it difficult for readers to comprehend the intended meaning. By following consistent formatting rules, such as using numerals for larger numbers or spelling out numbers for general descriptions, writers can ensure clarity and eliminate any confusion that arises from inconsistent presentation.

Consistency enhances readability: Readers easily navigate through an essay when it follows a consistent style and structure, including the representation of numbers. Consistent use of numerals or spelled-out numbers within the same context creates a visual rhythm, making the text more readable and engaging. It also helps readers to quickly identify relevant information and grasp the intended message without any distractions.

Consistency promotes professionalism: In academic and professional writing, consistency is valued as it reflects a meticulous approach to communication. By consistently using the appropriate conventions for writing numbers, writers demonstrate attention to detail and adherence to established standards. This conveys professionalism and enhances the credibility of the essay, making it more persuasive and impactful.

Consistency ensures accuracy: Writing numbers inconsistently can lead to inaccuracies and errors, especially when dealing with statistical or technical information. By maintaining consistency, writers can avoid potential mistakes and convey accurate data to support their arguments. Whether it is using consistent formatting for decimal places, percentages, or measurements, consistency ensures the precision and reliability of the information presented.

Consistency fosters a cohesive narrative: Writing an essay involves presenting ideas and arguments in a logical and coherent manner. By employing consistent styles and conventions for numbers, writers create a cohesive narrative that flows smoothly throughout the text. This consistency not only aids in the readability of the essay but also contributes to the overall coherence and structure of the piece, allowing the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought effortlessly.

In conclusion, consistency in writing numbers is essential as it eliminates ambiguity, enhances readability, promotes professionalism, ensures accuracy, and fosters a cohesive narrative. By applying consistent formatting and following established rules, writers can effectively communicate numerical information in an essay, making it more accessible, impactful, and engaging for the readers.

When to Spell Out Numbers in an Essay

Choosing whether to write a number as a numeral or spell it out can be a matter of style and convention. There are certain guidelines that can help determine when it is appropriate to spell out numbers in an essay.

When considering whether to use numerals or words to represent numbers, it is important to consider the context and purpose of the writing. In academic or formal writing, it is generally recommended to spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words, and to use numerals for numbers greater than nine or when emphasizing a specific quantity. However, in more informal or creative writing, it is often acceptable to use numerals for any number, as long as it is consistent throughout the essay.

Another factor to consider is the specific style guide or formatting guidelines being used. Different style guides, such as APA, MLA, and Chicago, have their own rules for when to spell out numbers and when to use numerals. It is important to consult the appropriate style guide for the specific requirements of the essay or writing assignment.

Additionally, when writing about percentages, currencies, and measurements, it is generally recommended to use numerals instead of spelling them out. This helps to ensure clarity and consistency in the representation of these specific types of numbers.

Ultimately, the decision to spell out numbers or use numerals in an essay may vary depending on the style, context, and guidelines being followed. It is important to consider the specific requirements and expectations of the writing situation to determine the most appropriate approach for representing numbers in the essay.

Discover the instances when numbers should be spelled out in your essay

One of the key elements in writing a well-crafted essay is effectively using numbers. While it may be tempting to use numerals for convenience and brevity, there are instances when it is important to spell out numbers. By doing so, you can enhance readability, maintain consistency, and adhere to established writing conventions.

When it comes to writing numbers, it is important to consider the context and purpose of your essay. In some cases, it is best to spell out numbers to provide clarity and avoid confusion. For instance, when expressing exact quantities, such as counting individuals or items, it is generally preferred to spell out numbers from one to nine. This helps to maintain flow and avoid disruption in the text.

Furthermore, when writing about statistics or data that are not precise measures, it is often recommended to spell out the numbers. This can help to convey a sense of importance and avoid the appearance of unnecessary precision. For example, instead of writing “5.3 million people,” you could write “over five million people” to capture the magnitude of the statistic without an excessive level of detail.

In addition, spelling out numbers can be particularly important when discussing percentages or ratios. This allows you to emphasize the proportion or relationship being described without the distraction of numerals. For example, instead of writing “25% of the population,” you could write “a quarter of the population” to convey the same information in a more engaging and understandable way.

Another instance where spelling out numbers is important is when they are used at the beginning of a sentence. It is considered more appropriate and aesthetically pleasing to spell out numbers in these cases to maintain consistency and avoid starting sentences with numerals. This can help to create a smoother reading experience for your audience.

Overall, understanding the instances when numbers should be spelled out in your essay can greatly enhance the quality of your writing. By being mindful of the context, purpose, and conventions of your essay, you can effectively utilize numbers to enhance clarity and readability. So, whether you are discussing exact quantities, statistics, percentages, or starting a sentence, remember to consider when it is best to spell out the numbers rather than using numerals.

Using Numerals in Academic Writing

Utilizing digits and numbers effectively is a fundamental aspect of academic writing. The correct presentation of numerical data can enhance the clarity, precision, and professionalism of your writing. Whether you are discussing statistics, presenting results, or referencing research findings, understanding how to use numerals properly is essential.

In academic writing, it is common practice to use numerals for numbers greater than nine. This helps to ensure consistency, readability, and ease of comprehension for your readers. Additionally, using numerals can also help to create a concise and efficient writing style.

When discussing percentages, decimal numbers, or fractions, it is generally best to use numerals. For example, “The study found that 75% of participants reported an improvement in their overall well-being.” Similarly, numerical measurements such as distances, weights, and temperatures should also be expressed using digits, such as “The experiment was conducted at a temperature of -20°C.”

However, there are exceptions to the use of numerals in academic writing. For example, when beginning a sentence, it is recommended to spell out numbers instead of using digits. For instance, “Fifty participants were selected for the study.” Additionally, when referring to approximate or rounded numbers, it is often best to use words. For example, “The population of the city is approximately one million people.”

In some cases, the choice to use numerals or words may be a matter of style or preference, and it is important to follow the guidelines set by your academic institution or discipline. Paying attention to these details can help to ensure the accuracy and professionalism of your writing.

Overall, the appropriate use of numerals in academic writing can significantly enhance the clarity and impact of your work. By adhering to the conventions of using numerals for numbers greater than nine, using digits for percentages and measurements, and applying exceptions for certain situations, you can ensure that your writing is accurate, consistent, and engaging.

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Daily Writing Tips

10 rules for writing numbers and numerals.

How do you express numbers in your writing? When do you use figures (digits) and when do you write out the number in words (letters)? That is, when do you write 9 and when do you write nine ?

1. Number versus numeral . First things first, what is the difference between a number and a numeral? A number is an abstract concept while a numeral is a symbol used to express that number. “Three,” “3” and “III” are all symbols used to express the same number (or the concept of “threeness”). One could say that the difference between a number and its numerals is like the difference between a person and her name.

2. Spell small numbers out . The small numbers, such as whole numbers smaller than ten, should be spelled out. That’s one rule you can count on. If you don’t spell numbers out it will look like you’re sending an instant message, and you want to be more formal than that in your writing.

3. No other standard rule : Experts don’t always agree on other rules. Some experts say that any one-word number should be written out. Two-word numbers should be expressed in figures. That is, they say you should write out twelve or twenty . But not 24 .

4. Using the comma . In English, the comma is used as a thousands separator (and the period as a decimal separator), to make large numbers easier to read. So write the size of Alaska as 571,951 square miles instead of 571951 square miles. In Continental Europe the opposite is true, periods are used to separate large numbers and the comma is used for decimals. Finally, the International Systems of Units (SI) recommends that a space should be used to separate groups of three digits, and both the comma and the period should be used only to denote decimals, like $13 200,50 (the comma part is a mess… I know).

5. Don’t start a sentence with a numeral . Make it “Fourscore and seven years ago,” not “4 score and 7 years ago.” That means you might have to rewrite some sentences: “Fans bought 400,000 copies the first day” instead of “400,000 copies were sold the first day.”

6. Centuries and decades should be spelled out . Use the Eighties or nineteenth century .

7. Percentages and recipes . With everyday writing and recipes you can use digits, like “4% of the children” or “Add 2 cups of brown rice.” In formal writing, however, you should spell the percentage out like “12 percent of the players” (or “twelve percent of the players,” depending on your preference as explained in point three).

8. If the number is rounded or estimated, spell it out . Rounded numbers over a million are written as a numeral plus a word. Use “About 400 million people speak Spanish natively,” instead of “About 400,000,000 people speak Spanish natively .” If you’re using the exact number, you’d write it out, of course.

9. Two numbers next to each other . It can be confusing if you write “7 13-year-olds”, so write one of them as a numeral, like “seven 13-year-olds”. Pick the number that has the fewest letters.

10. Ordinal numbers and consistency . Don’t say “He was my 1st true love,” but rather “He was my first true love.” Be consistent within the same sentence. If my teacher has 23 beginning students, she also has 18 advanced students, not eighteen advanced students.

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210 thoughts on “10 Rules for Writing Numbers and Numerals”

Most of these are correct. But, concerning 7, the percentage symbol should not be used in everyday writing. The percentage symbol is for business use, such as visual presentation. In other forms the word “percent” should be used. Also, your example in 10, concerning the students, is correct because the numbers are related. But, if the numbers aren’t related, then the “rule of ten” applies. Here’s an example: Sadly, there were only eight computers available to the 23 students.

As always, the tips provided here are valuable for many. That’s why I keep coming back “daily.”

Jay, good point on number seven. I think you should use digits for everyday writing and spell the percentage out in formal writing (like a newspaper article). I added this remark.

I believe there is a rule on using numbers with age as well, right? As in “always use figures to represent the age of a person.”

I was not aware of those of these rules, cool.

Is the comma used as a thousand separator everywhere English is spoken, or is that just an American rule?

Berto, that is the English standard, so it should apply both to UK and US.

Notice, however, that some places around the world use the dot as a separator and the comma to denote decimals.

To add confusion, the International System of Units recommends to use spaces to the sets of three digits, and use the comma or period just for the decimal.

I just added this info to the post, thanks for asking.

#2 is one that I always have a dilemma with. I know with AP style writing you’re suppose to write numbers you’ve stated in #2. In MLA style, you write one, five, twenty-one, one hundred, eighteen hundred, but write 5½, 101, 3,810. I actually like the AP style better with writing out one through nine and ten on, writing it as 10, 11, 12, etc.

I am curious though, your #2 you said “The small numbers, such as whole numbers smaller than ten, should be spelled out.” Why have you not wrote 10 as “10” since only numbers smaller than 10 should be spelled out?

Oops, that would make sense. But see rule #3!

Deron, point two says that all whole numbers smaller than ten should be spelled out. It does not say anything about number equal or greater than ten. In fact, if you then read point 3 you will see that there is no standard rule for those numbers, some authors like to write them in digits, others still prefer to spell them out.

Heh, now I feel bad for naming my blog 60 in 3. Oh well, thank you as always for the great tips.

Firstly: 1. Number versus numeral. First things first, what is the difference between a number and a numeral? A number is an abstract concept while a numeral is a symbol used to express that number.

Then: 5. Don’t start a sentence with a number. Make it “Fourscore and seven years ago,” not “4 score and 7 years ago.”

Shouldn’t that be: 5. Don’t start a sentence with a NUMERAL.

Last time I checked, “four” and “4” where both numbers…

van, number 5 is fixed, thanks for the heads up.

Then, “four” and “4” are both numerals used to express the concept of “fourness,” they are not numbers themselves, they are symbols.

It is quite confusing I know, and probably not useful for the average writer. The other rules do apply though.

I suppose it depends what grammar book you want to fall back on, but it would easy to argue that you’re flat-out wrong about when to spell out numbers.

Use numerals before anything that can be measured: 3 decades, 3 years, 3 GB but not 3 children.

Use numerals when using a single digit number and a number composed of two or more digits in the same sentence. “Bob ate 3 cows and 12 pigs,” not “Bob are three cows and 12 pigs.”

One more for your list: Spell out any number used in a quote: “…four score..” and not “…4 score..”

Michael, 3 years you say? Well, here is a quote from the NY Times:

“Dobbs’s correspondents said there had been 7,000 cases of leprosy in this country over the previous three years, far more than in the past.”

“the difference between a number and its numerals is like the difference between a person and its name”

..a person and his name or ..a person and her name but never ..a person and its name

Bill, fixed that. I was thinking about an object and its name 🙂 , like the words that define it.

What I think it boils down to is: try writing the numerals in words; chances are that’s the right way. If words are obviously more confusing than digits, use digits. For example: “the second chapter”; “she’ll be eleven years old in two days”; “it’s the third road down the right”. These are all correct. But “seventeen point twelve percent of the data applies to all of our six hundred and forty two units and the rest only concerns the items that are stored in area three seven two” is confusing, and the numbers here should be written in digits. It’s more flexible than the rules above, but it follows the same spirit.

The comma is an English rule, so it must apply in the US as well. (NOT the other way about)

#4: The UK is in Europe. We do not use a comma as you describe. Thanks anyway.

Also whilst we’re talking about international numbering, isn’t it about time that the USA moved on from imperial measurements to metric like the rest of the world?

Good point Emmanuel, common sense should help here as usual.

I didn’t know about all the rules. I visited this for the first time but I liked it. I will visit it regularly. Keep it up. Thanks

Hey Daniel, thanks for pointing that out. My mistake on misreading what was there. 🙂

With that said, since there is not standard rule, what is your own personal preference?

I’ve been reading quite a bit about typography lately, which has impressed on me another rule that you should add to your list:

In the flow of a typical sentence (i.e. for ‘inline’ numbers), you should use “lower case” numbers.

Yes, you can have lower case numbers!

@James And about time the UK used kg instead of stone to denote body weight

James, enjoy 2.5 dl of tea

You can write it out when it is two words or less. Twenty is acceptable. Twenty-four is acceptable. If it requires more than two words, you should use the numbers.

So you say to spell out twelve, but then you say “12 percent”? Shouldn’t it be “twelve percent”?

Nitro, we are not saying you should spell out twelve. The only standard rule, as stated in point one, is to spell out whole numbers smaller than ten.

Other than that it is up to the author and his preference for the specific situation.

Personally I like use digits above the number te because it makes the text more clear, like “15 percent.” For smaller numbers you can spell them out though, like “five percent” or “two percent.”

These standards are good for English, but why not broaden the standard to multiple languages?

Why not just remove spelling out of numerals completely and standardize on using Arabic numbers? Then the numbers would never have to be translated except to traditional less used numbering systems. Then people who read the articles in foreign languages like French, Spanish, Hindi, Chinese, Russian, and a plethora more could understand without mentally having to translating from the English naming convention into their own numerical naming convention.

gr commenent Pascal-its g 2 c read comments from ppl with g sense of humours. ur a *!

Out of interest how would write operators?

PS you need a subscribe to comments option

Everton, it is on the “to do” list 🙂 .

Thank you very much for providing this very valuable lesson in writing skills I’ve always wanted to acquire.

Good tips. I’m enjoying this website quite a bit. 🙂

One more point I’d add, though, is using numerals for lists. It helps one remember the number itself more easily than if you had spelt it out, and aids quick comparison. E.g.,

3 eggs 4 cartons of milk 1 roast duck 2 oranges

Don’t you think the title should have been Ten Rules for… instead of 10 Rules for … considering your own guidelines?

Mike, usually titles have different rules, as far as typography goes at least (we should have covered that perhaps).

Like titles usually have all the words starting with capital letters, you don’t write that way normally.

That said, even if you consider our guidelines the “10 Rules” is congruent with points two and three. They state that numbers smaller than ten should be spelled out, and after that it is preference of the author.

Thanks Daniel. As you mentioned that titles have different rules. I feel the title should start with a word. It looks more aesthetically pleasing. Not sure whether anyone agrees with me.

Mike, I agree with you 🙂 . Maybe starting the title with a word is more pleasant, I will research about it and even experiment with it in the future.

You shouldn’t write “percent” ever. It’s wrong like “etcetera” is wrong. Put the space between the words: “per cent”.

Very well written list. Now if we could teach all newscasters and advertisers how to SAY numbers I would be in heaven. Seems they all got stupid in the year two thousand AND one.

It is funny when people come and say: “hey, you should not say that, ever!” or “you are dead wrong here!”

Just make a quick search on the net before posting such strong statements.

Per cent is the preferred British form, and percent is the American usage. Open the NY Times or the Wall Street Journal and you will find “percent” everywhere.

Thanks for the comment though, it served the purpose of clarifying this point.

Good post! There were many points, which I havent known until I read this article. But seems some of these rules are not practicable special ‘dot’ and ‘comma’ rule. -Nish

I never really new there was a difference. Thanks for the post. Very informative!

What is correct: “It’s my 13th birthday” or “It’s my thirteenth birthday”?

I like to know how to write the number seven hundred two thousand, three

as i am the first visitor of this web site so i have no comment writs now .

what about: 24-7 (VS) twenty-four seven ??

How would you write 1.5 to 2 acre lots?

Sir My Need IELTS book and DVD

Send my Address

Abdullah Al Masud C/O Md.Azizur Rahman Block # C , Road # 37 House # 33 Uposhohar , Sylhet Bangladesh

Which is correct?

We celebrated our ninth birthday party together. We celebrated our ninth birthday partys together.

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Writing academically: Numbers

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When using numbers in academic writing you need to decide if it’s more appropriate to use a numeral (e.g. 9) or to write the number in words (e.g. nine). It’s worth checking to see if your department has specific advice on this matter, because individual approaches do vary. In the absence of specific advice, here is some general guidance on the matter:

Basic numbers

• Numbers  up to nine  should always be written in  words,  anything higher than nine can be written in numerals. Alternatively, some guides suggest that if you can write the number in two words or fewer then use words rather than numerals. If you are going to take this approach then you should include a hyphen when writing numbers with two words, e.g. twenty-seven.
• For larger numbers, it is acceptable to use either numerals or words depending on context (e.g. a thousand people/1,000 people), but you should always use numerals in technical writing, e.g. 200,000 km. For less precise larger numbers, the written form is better (e.g. several thousand).

Measurements and decimals/fractions

• Use numerals for units of measurement or time, e.g. 500 km, 10 minutes.
• Always use numerals for decimals and fractions (e.g. 0.5 cm) unless the figures are vague (e.g. around half of the population).
• Units of measurement that modify a noun should be hyphenated, e.g. a 3-year-old child.

Percentages

• If you have expressed the number in words then follow the number by the word 'percent'. e.g. six percent.
• If you have expressed the number as a numeral then follow the number with the symbol '%'. e.g. 24%.

Dates, money and time

• Always use numerals for dates, e.g Monday 4 April, 2016.
• Use numerals for money (e.g. His pocket money was exactly £1.00 per week) unless the amounts are vague (e.g. He earned well over a million last year).
• Use numerals for indicating the precise time (e.g. 08:00), or words if the times indicated are vague (e.g. around eight o’clock). 

Combining numbers

• If you need to combine two numbers that run together then use words for the shorter number and numerals for the longer number, e.g. a tower of 1000 ten-pence pieces. 

Starting sentences with numbers

• Avoid starting a sentence with a numeral. Either write the number in words or rearrange your sentence. For example, “Three hundred and sixty-five days make one year” could become “There are 365 days in a year”. If you start a sentence with a year, write “The year” first e.g. “The year 1066 saw one of the most famous battles in English history”.
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The Barker Underground

Writing advice from the harvard college writing center tutors, one hundred percent or 100% tips for writing numbers..

by Raymond DeLuca, English Grammar and Language Tutor

Students bring all sorts of different essays to the Writing Center, and each discipline has its own conventions when it comes to writing numbers. People are always surprised to learn that, yes, there are good and not so good ways to write numbers in English. So, this information will save you a headache. After all, it is not the best use of your time when writing an essay (especially when it’s due in a few hours) to get stuck thinking, well, is it “3” or “three”?

Just as there are different citation styles for citing sources in different academic fields, there are also different conventions for writing numbers. Each of the most common citation styles—MLA, APA, and Chicago– offers slightly different rules for writing numbers. You should always make sure you know what style and citation guidelines you should be following for a specific assignment. If you are writing a non-technical paper and can choose your style, I recommend following the MLA guidelines, which make a lot of sense and are commonly used in cases where you’re not using a lot of numbers.

Rule #1: When should you write out numbers and when should you use the number?

For papers in the humanities and in some social sciences, you will often use either the MLA or Chicago citation styles. In those styles, when you are writing a non-technical paper, you should write out numbers less than one hundred, using a dash for two-digit numbers: eight, fifteen, forty-five, sixty-two, eighty-seven, etc., etc.  And, for numbers over one hundred: 1,435; 2,870; 5,740; 11,480. Someone here is bound to ask: “Well, does that mean one trillion should be written as 1,000,000,000,000?” No, of course not. If the number (even if it’s above one hundred) can be easily expressed in words, then keep it in words: four hundred, eight thousand, three billion, nine quintillion, etc.

If you’re using APA style, you should generally only write out numbers 1-9 and use numerals for everything else. But there is an exception: If you are using a number at the beginning of the sentence, you should write it out.

Rule #2 What about percentages?

Just like with regular numbers, different style guides express different preferences for percentages.  I like the MLA style, which advises that for a percentage less than one hundred, you should write it in words: two percent, seventy-six percent, ninety-nine percent, but, for a percentage greater than one hundred, write it in numerals: 110 percent, 500 percent, 999 percent. Besides that, as you can see, in non-technical writing, it is better to use the word “percent” rather than the percent sign, “%.” It’s ugly.

In this case, Chicago and APA style both call for using use numbers in percentages.

Rule #3: What about years?

MLA, Chicago, and APA style all say that years are better written in numerals, not words: 1967, not “nineteen sixty-seven.” (Sometimes students write out the years to pad their paper’s word count; it’s not a good look! Everyone can see what you’re doing.) It’s also considered poor style to start a sentence with a year, i.e., “2020 has been a bad year.” You could rephrase that, writing instead: “Many people thought 2020 would be a better year.”

Rule #4: What about decades?

If you’re talking about a series of events that occurred in a certain decade, say, from 1980 – 1989, you can refer to that period in three different ways: the eighties, the ‘80s, or the 1980s. But stay clear of the “nineteen eighties.”

Rule #5: If you ever find yourself writing about a score or a court decision or a ratio, you should stick with numerals (even if said numbers are less than one hundred). For example, “The Red Sox were up 4-2 before losing 6-4,” or “The contentious 5-4 Supreme Court ruling says…”

These are obviously not the only situations you will encounter when you need to write a number, but these rules will help clear up some of the most common issues I’ve seen in student writing. Numbers can be as easy as one, two, three. If you find yourself writing a science or an econometrics paper, you may have to use way more numbers than you would otherwise, and you will need to make sure you are following the guidelines in your field. Generally, though, these five suggestions are good to keep in mind.

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Writing numbers When to use words and when to use numerals

It can be difficult to know how to write numbers in academic writing (e.g. five or 5 , 1 million or 1,000,000 ). This section gives some guidelines on when to use words to write numbers, and when to use numerals . There are also some exceptions to the rule which are considered, i.e. times when you might expect to use words but should instead use numerals. There is also a checklist at the end, that you can use to check the use of numbers in your own writing.

When to use words

In general, words should be used for zero to ten , and numerals used from 11 onwards. The same rule should be applied to ordinal numbers, i.e. use words for first, second up to tenth, and numbers plus 'th' (or 'st') from 11th onwards. However, it is always best to check what the accepted practice is at your university (or in your department/on your course), and remember that some common referencing systems have their own, different requirements, as follows.

• MLA . Use words if the number can be written using one or two words (e.g. three , twenty-seven ).
• APA . Use words for numbers zero to nine.
• Chicago . Use words for numbers zero to one hundred.

Before looking at when to use numerals (which is almost all other situations, see next), it is useful to look at important exceptions.

(1) When the number begins a sentence , you should use words , whatever the size of the number (though if possible, rewrite the sentence so the number is not at the beginning).

• Fifty respondents agreed with the statement.
• There were 50 respondents who agreed with the statement. [ rewritten sentence ]
• 50 respondents agreed with the statement.

(2) When expressing part of a very large round number , e.g. million, billion, you should use words for that large number part (it is common to use abbreviations m for million and bn billion ).

• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7 billion people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7bn people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7,000,000,000 people.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70 million.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70,000,000.

Conversely, numerals should be used rather than words, whatever the size of the number, when large and small numbers are combined , since this makes comparisons easier.

• There were 2 respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.
• There were two respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.

When to use numerals

Numerals are used for almost all other situations. These include the following.

• Measurements (e.g. 6 kg, 3 cm, 10 min, 2 hr, 3 days, 6 years, 5 decades )
• Currency (e.g. $10, £50, £60 billion )
• Statistical data , including survey data (e.g. A survey of participants revealed that 4 out of 5 students worked. )
• Mathematical functions (e.g. v 2 = u 2 + 2as )
• Decimals (e.g. 2.5, 4.54 )
• Percentages (e.g. 75% )
• Ratios (e.g. 3:1 )
• Percentiles/quartiles (e.g. the 95th percentile, the 1st quartile )
• Times (e.g. 12.30 a.m., 6 p.m., 16:00 )
• Dates (e.g. Wednesday 25 December 2019 )
• Scores/points on a scale (e.g. This item scored 5 on a 9-point scale )

Other important points

The following are a few other points to remember when using numbers.

• Consistency. You should be consistent in how you write numbers; for example, if write a figure like 7bn in one place, do not write a figure like 5 billion in another.
• Use of commas. When giving numerals of 1,000 or larger, use commas for each thousand, e.g. 5,500, 8,326,500 .
• Use of hyphens. When displaying a range, use a hyphen, with no space, e.g. 30%–50%
• Expressing fractions. Fractions can be written either as numerals e.g. 2/3 or words e.g. two-thirds . If using words, use a hyphen.

American Psychological Association (2019a) Numbers Expressed in Words . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/words (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

American Psychological Association (2019b) Numbers Expressed in Numerals . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/numerals (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

Harvard Wiki (2019) Numbers . Available at: https://wiki.harvard.edu/confluence/display/HSG/Numbers . (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Bristol (2015) Using numbers . Available at: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_33.htm (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of New England (nd) Numbers in academic writing . Available at: https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/miscellaneous/numbers/ (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Oxford (2015) Style Guide . Available at: https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/media_wysiwyg/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide.pdf (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

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Below is a checklist for using numbers in academic writing. Use it to check your writing, or as a peer to help.

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Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 16 January 2022.

Sheldon Smith is the founder and editor of EAPFoundation.com. He has been teaching English for Academic Purposes since 2004. Find out more about him in the about section and connect with him on Twitter , Facebook and LinkedIn .

Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).

Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.

Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).

Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

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One, 2, III: Using Numbers in Academic Writing

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• 28th December 2015

No matter what you’re studying, at some point in your academic career you’ll find yourself using numbers in your written work .

This might not seem too problematic, but there are important differences between using numbers in formal academic writing and in everyday life.

Numerals or Words?

The biggest question when it comes to numbers in academic writing is whether to use numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) or words (one, two, three, four, etc.). The general guideline is to write smaller numbers up to ten as words, with numerals saved for larger numbers.

Annoyingly, there is no consensus on this. For instance, the APA Style Guide recommends using numerals for ten and up (or “10 and up,” if we’re doing this the APA way). But the Chicago Manual of Style suggests spelling out all numbers up to one hundred.

The important thing is to check your school’s style guide and use a consistent system throughout each paper you write.

Roman Numerals

You may also need to understand Roman numerals . These aren’t so common these days, but you do see them in things like copyright dates (MCMLXXXVI = 1986) and the names of monarchs (Queen Elizabeth II).

Big Numbers

Despite the above rule, some bigger numbers are expressed either as words or as a combination of words and figures. For example, it is to say:

The Earth is 4.542 billion years old.

But writing this out in numerals is a bit confusing, as there are many zeroes:

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The Earth is 4,542,000,000 years old.

Commas and Hyphens

Punctuating numbers correctly is also important. When expressing a number over one thousand, for example, it’s common to separate the thousands with a comma:

One thousand = 1,000

One hundred thousand = 100,000

One million = 1,000,000

Hyphens, meanwhile, should be used either when expressing a number with more than one word (e.g., twenty-two) or when as part of an adjectival phrase modifying a noun (e.g., “I’m holding a seven-year-old grudge”).

Dates, Years and Centuries

Dates (e.g., 06/12/2013 or 6 December 2013) and years (e.g., 1948, 300-250 BCE) are usually written using numerals. Centuries, however, should be written out in full (i.e., “eighteenth century” rather than “18 th century”).

Technical Numbers

In technical writing, such as in the sciences and math, it’s more common to use numerals than words. This is especially true when a number is followed by a unit of measurement. So, for instance, the weight “four grams” could be expressed as “4 g” or “4 grams.”

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In an essay, when do you spell out numbers and when do you use numerals?

According to APA Style, you should normally use numerals for the numbers 10 and above. You should use words to express numbers below 10 (one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, and nine).

Note, however, that APA lists a wide variety of exceptions. For instance, numbers that appear right before a unit of measurement should be expressed as numerals, regardless of where they fall, before or after 10. Example: Give him 5 cups of soup.

The APA also addresses this question directly in this webpage .

The sections in APA that address numbers are 6.32-6.39 in the 7th edition of the Publication Manual.

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Rules for Writing out Numbers

Reviewing the Rules

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Why do so many people find it difficult to remember the rules for using numbers in formal writing ? Probably because the rules seem a little fuzzy sometimes.

So what can you do? It's no mystery: as with anything, read and study the rules several times, and it will all seem natural, eventually.

Writing Numbers One through Ten

Spell out numbers one through ten, as in this example:

• My little brother ate four apples before dinner and became ill.
• Why do parents always check to see if babies have ten toes?

Writing Numbers Above Ten

Spell out numbers above ten, unless writing the number would involve using more than two words. For example:

• I have sixty-three dead bugs in my collection.
• My cousin has 207 bugs in his.
• This site has given me a thousand helpful hints for my homework.
• My grandmother is seventy-two today.
• My little sister had about 4,763 measles on her face.

Always Spell Out Numbers that Begin Sentences

It would look odd to begin a sentence with a numeral.

• Four hundred fifty people attended the birthday party.

However, you should try to avoid using long, clunky numbers at the beginning of a sentence. Instead of writing that four hundred and fifty people attended a party, you could re-write:

• There were 450 people at the party.

Dates, Phone Numbers, and Time

Use numbers for dates:

• My birthday is on March 16.
• He was born on Valentines Day, 1975.

And use numbers for phone numbers:

• The phone number for the school is 800-555-6262
• The international code for England is 44.

And use numbers for telling time if using a.m. or p.m.:

• The alarm will sound at 7 p.m.
• I make my bed at 7 a.m. each morning.

But spell out times when using "o'clock" or when the a.m. or p.m. are omitted:

• The alarm will sound at seven o'clock.
• I make my bed at seven each morning.
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• Using Numbers

Using Numbers in an Essay

Spell out numbers that can be expressed in either one or two words.  

•   one million
•   ninety-nine
•   one hundred
•   fifteen hundred

Always spell out the number if a sentence begins with a number.

Example: Two thousand twelve was an election year in the United States.

When Should I Use Numerals?

Use numerals if you are writing an essay about a scientific subject or an essay that includes frequent use of numbers, like statistical findings. 

Always use numerals:

•  in front of units of measurements. Example : 5 millimeters
•  with abbreviations such as 6 lbs., 4:20 p.m., $9, 2”, 4%.
•  in dates: Example: April 1, 2014
•  in decimal fractions: Example: 9.2

Exceptions:  

• For large numbers, you may use a combination of numerals and words. Example: 4.5 million
• In general use numerals with % signs, however, you may spell out percentages or amounts of money if you can do so in three words or less. Example: five dollars, forty-five percent, sixty-eight cents.
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Watch CBS News

Hackers may have stolen your Social Security number in a massive breach. Here's what to know.

By Aimee Picchi

Edited By Anne Marie Lee

Updated on: August 19, 2024 / 9:51 AM EDT / CBS News

A new lawsuit is claiming hackers have gained access to the personal information of "billions of individuals," including their Social Security numbers, current and past addresses and the names of siblings and parents — personal data that could allow fraudsters to infiltrate financial accounts or take out loans in their names. 

The allegation arose in a lawsuit filed earlier this month by Christopher Hofmann, a California resident who claims his identity theft protection service alerted him that his personal information had been leaked to the dark web by the "nationalpublicdata.com" breach. The lawsuit was earlier reported by Bloomberg Law.

The breach allegedly occurred around April 2024, with a hacker group called USDoD exfiltrating the unencrypted personal information of billions of individuals from a company called National Public Data (NPD), a background check company, according to the lawsuit. Earlier this month, a hacker leaked a version of the stolen NPD data for free on a hacking forum, tech site Bleeping Computer reported . 

That hacker claimed the stolen files include 2.7 billion records, with each listing a person's full name, address, date of birth, Social Security number and phone number, Bleeping Computer said. While it's unclear how many people that includes, it's likely "that everyone with a Social Security number was impacted," said Cliff Steinhauer, director of information security and engagement at The National Cybersecurity Alliance, a nonprofit that promotes online safety.

"It's a reminder of the importance of protecting yourself, because clearly companies and the government aren't doing it for us," Steinhauer told CBS MoneyWatch.

In a statement posted to its website, NPD said the breach involved a "third-party bad actor that was trying to hack into data in late December 2023, with potential leaks of certain data in April 2024 and summer 2024."

The company added that it is working with law enforcement and government investigators. NPD said it "will try to notify you if there are further significant developments applicable to you."

Here's what to know about the alleged hack. 

What is National Public Data? 

National Public Data is a data company based in Coral Springs, Florida, that provides background checks for employers, investigators and other businesses that want to check people's backgrounds. Its searches include criminal records, vital records, SSN traces and more information, its website says.

There are many similar companies that scrape public data to create files on consumers, which they then sell to other businesses, Steinhauer said.

"They are data brokers that collect and sell data about people, sometimes for background check purposes," he said. "It's because there's no national privacy law in the U.S. — there is no law against them collecting this data against our consent."

What happened with the USDoD hack?

According to the new lawsuit, USDoD on April 8 posted a database called "National Public Data" on the dark web, claiming to have records for about 2.9 billion individuals. It was asking for a purchase price of $3.5 million, the lawsuit claims. 

However, Bleeping Computer reported that the file was later leaked for free on a hacker forum, as noted above. 

How many people have been impacted?

The number of people impacted by the breach is unclear. Although the lawsuit claims "billions of individuals" had their data stolen, the total population of the U.S. stands at about 330 million. The lawsuit also alleges that the data includes personal information of deceased individuals.

Bleeping Computer reports that the hacked data involves 2.7 billion records, with individuals having multiple records in the database. In other words, one individual could have separate records for each address where they've lived, which means the number of impacted people may be far lower than the lawsuit claims, the site noted.

The data may reach back at least three decades, according to law firm Schubert Jonckheer & Kolbe, which said on Monday it is investigating the breach.

Did NPD alert individuals about the hack? 

It's unclear, although the lawsuit claims that NPD "has still not provided any notice or warning" to Hoffman or other people affected by the breach. 

"In fact, upon information and belief, the vast majority of Class Members were unaware that their sensitive [personal information] had been compromised, and that they were, and continue to be, at significant risk of identity theft and various other forms of personal, social, and financial harm," the lawsuit claims. 

Information security company McAfee reported that it hasn't found any filings with state attorneys general. Some states require companies that have experienced data breaches to file reports with their AG offices. 

However, NPD posted an alert about the breach on its website, stating that it believes the information breached includes names, email addresses, phone numbers, Social Security numbers and mailing addresses.

Can you find out if your data was part of the hack?

There are tools available that will monitor what information about you is available on the dark web, noted Michael Blair, managing director of cybersecurity firm NukuDo. Commonly breached data includes your personal addresses, passwords and email, he added.

One such service is how Hofmann, who filed the lawsuit, found out that his information has been leaked as part of NPD breach.

"Make sure to use reputable companies to look that up," Blair said. 

What should I do to protect my information?

Security experts recommend that consumers put freezes on their credit files at the three big credit bureaus, Experian, Equifax and TransUnion. Freezing your credit is free, and will stop bad actors from taking out loans or opening credit cards in your name. 

"The biggest thing is to freeze your credit report, so it can't be used to open new accounts in your name and commit other fraud in your name," Steinhauer said. 

In its statement, NPD also urged people to put free fraud alerts on their accounts, which "tells creditors to contact you before they open any new accounts or change your existing accounts," it said. You'll have to contact just one of the three credit bureaus to create a fraud alert, and that agency will alert the others.

Steinhauer recommends consumers take several additional steps to protect their data and finances:

• Make sure your passwords are at least 16 characters in length, and are complex. 
• Use a password manager to save those long, complex passwords.
• Enable multifactor authentication, which Steinhauer calls "critical," because simply using a single password to access your accounts isn't enough protection against hackers. 
• Be on alert for phishing and other scams. One red flag is that the scammers will try to create a sense of urgency to manipulate their victims.
• Keep your security software updated on your computer and other devices. For instance, make sure you download the latest security updates from Microsoft or Apple onto your apps and devices. 

You can also get a tracking service that will alert you if your data appears on the dark web. 

"You should assume you have been compromised and act accordingly," Steinhauer said. 

• Data Breach
• Social Security

Aimee Picchi is the associate managing editor for CBS MoneyWatch, where she covers business and personal finance. She previously worked at Bloomberg News and has written for national news outlets including USA Today and Consumer Reports.

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Journal Article References

This page contains reference examples for journal articles, including the following:

• Journal article
• Journal article with an article number
• Journal article with missing information
• Retracted journal article
• Retraction notice for a journal article
• Abstract of a journal article from an abstract indexing database
• Monograph as part of a journal issue
• Online-only supplemental material to a journal article

1. Journal article

Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019). Emotions in storybooks: A comparison of storybooks that represent ethnic and racial groups in the United States. Psychology of Popular Media Culture , 8 (3), 207–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000185

• Parenthetical citation : (Grady et al., 2019)
• Narrative citation : Grady et al. (2019)
• If a journal article has a DOI, include the DOI in the reference.
• Always include the issue number for a journal article.
• If the journal article does not have a DOI and is from an academic research database, end the reference after the page range (for an explanation of why, see the database information page ). The reference in this case is the same as for a print journal article.
• Do not include database information in the reference unless the journal article comes from a database that publishes works of limited circulation or original, proprietary content, such as UpToDate .
• If the journal article does not have a DOI but does have a URL that will resolve for readers (e.g., it is from an online journal that is not part of a database), include the URL of the article at the end of the reference.

2. Journal article with an article number

Jerrentrup, A., Mueller, T., Glowalla, U., Herder, M., Henrichs, N., Neubauer, A., & Schaefer, J. R. (2018). Teaching medicine with the help of “Dr. House.” PLoS ONE , 13 (3), Article e0193972. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0193972

• Parenthetical citation : (Jerrentrup et al., 2018)
• Narrative citation : Jerrentrup et al. (2018)
• If the journal article has an article number instead of a page range, include the word “Article” and then the article number instead of the page range.

3. Journal article with missing information

Missing volume number.

Lipscomb, A. Y. (2021, Winter). Addressing trauma in the college essay writing process. The Journal of College Admission , (249), 30–33. https://www.catholiccollegesonline.org/pdf/national_ccaa_in_the_news_-_nacac_journal_of_college_admission_winter_2021.pdf

Missing issue number

Sanchiz, M., Chevalier, A., & Amadieu, F. (2017). How do older and young adults start searching for information? Impact of age, domain knowledge and problem complexity on the different steps of information searching. Computers in Human Behavior , 72 , 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.038

Missing page or article number

Butler, J. (2017). Where access meets multimodality: The case of ASL music videos. Kairos: A Journal of Rhetoric, Technology, and Pedagogy , 21 (1). http://technorhetoric.net/21.1/topoi/butler/index.html

• Parenthetical citations : (Butler, 2017; Lipscomb, 2021; Sanchiz et al., 2017)
• Narrative citations : Butler (2017), Lipscomb (2021), and Sanchiz et al. (2017)
• If the journal does not use volume, issue, and/or article or page numbers, omit the missing element(s) from the reference.
• If the journal is published quarterly and the month or season (Fall, Winter, Spring, Summer) is noted, include that with the date element; see the Lipscomb example.
• If the volume, issue, and/or article or page numbers have simply not yet been assigned, use the format for an advance online publication (see Example 7 in the Publication Manual ) or an in-press article (see Example 8 in the Publication Manual ).

4. Retracted journal article

Joly, J. F., Stapel, D. A., & Lindenberg, S. M. (2008). Silence and table manners: When environments activate norms. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin , 34 (8), 1047–1056. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208318401 (Retraction published 2012, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38 [10], 1378)

• Parenthetical citation : (Joly et al., 2008)
• Narrative citation : Joly et al. (2008)
• Use this format to cite the retracted article itself, for example, to discuss the contents of the retracted article.
• First provide publication details of the original article. Then provide information about the retraction in parentheses, including its year, journal, volume, issue, and page number(s).

5. Retraction notice for a journal article

de la Fuente, R., Bernad, A., Garcia-Castro, J., Martin, M. C., & Cigudosa, J. C. (2010). Retraction: Spontaneous human adult stem cell transformation. Cancer Research , 70 (16), 6682. https://doi.org/10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-10-2451

The Editors of the Lancet. (2010). Retraction—Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children. The Lancet , 375 (9713), 445. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60175-4

• Parenthetical citations : (de la Fuente et al., 2010; The Editors of the Lancet, 2010)
• Narrative citations : de la Fuente et al. (2010) and The Editors of the Lancet (2010)
• Use this format to cite a retraction notice rather than a retracted article, for example, to provide information on why an article was retracted.
• The author of the retraction notice may be an editor, editorial board, or some or all authors of the article. Examine the retraction notice to determine who to credit as the author.
• Reproduce the title of the retraction notice as shown on the work. Note that the title may include the words “retraction,” “retraction notice,” or “retraction note” as well as the title of the original article.

6. Abstract of a journal article from an abstract indexing database

Hare, L. R., & O'Neill, K. (2000). Effectiveness and efficiency in small academic peer groups: A case study (Accession No. 200010185) [Abstract from Sociological Abstracts]. Small Group Research , 31 (1), 24–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/104649640003100102

• Parenthetical citation : (Hare & O’Neill, 2000)
• Narrative citation : Hare and O’Neill (2000)
• Although it is preferable to cite the whole article, the abstract can be cited if that is your only available source.
• The foundation of the reference is the same as for a journal article.
• If the abstract has a database accession number, place it in parentheses after the title.
• Note that you retrieved only the abstract by putting the words “Abstract from” and then the name of the abstract indexing database in square brackets. Place this bracketed description after the title and any accession number.
• Accession numbers are sometimes referred to as unique identifiers or as publication numbers (e.g., as PubMed IDs); use the term provided by the database in your reference.

7. Monograph as part of a journal issue

Ganster, D. C., Schaubroeck, J., Sime, W. E., & Mayes, B. T. (1991). The nomological validity of the Type A personality among employed adults [Monograph]. Journal of Applied Psychology , 76 (1), 143–168. http://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.76.1.143

• Parenthetical citation : (Ganster et al., 1991)
• Narrative citation : Ganster et al. (1991)
• For a monograph with an issue (or whole) number, include the issue number in parentheses followed by the serial number, for example, 58 (1, Serial No. 231).
• For a monograph bound separately as a supplement to a journal, give the issue number and supplement or part number in parentheses after the volume number, for example, 80 (3, Pt. 2).

8. Online-only supplemental material to a journal article

Freeberg, T. M. (2019). From simple rules of individual proximity, complex and coordinated collective movement [Supplemental material]. Journal of Comparative Psychology , 133 (2), 141–142. https://doi.org/10.1037/com0000181

• Parenthetical citation : (Freeberg, 2019)
• Narrative citation : Freeberg (2019)
• Include the description “[Supplemental material]” in square brackets after the article title.
• If you cite both the main article and the supplemental material, provide only a reference for the article.

Journal article references are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 10.1 and the Concise Guide Section 10.1

Samantha Putterman, PolitiFact Samantha Putterman, PolitiFact

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• Copy URL https://www.pbs.org/newshour/politics/fact-checking-warnings-from-democrats-about-project-2025-and-donald-trump

Fact-checking warnings from Democrats about Project 2025 and Donald Trump

This fact check originally appeared on PolitiFact .

Project 2025 has a starring role in this week’s Democratic National Convention.

And it was front and center on Night 1.

WATCH: Hauling large copy of Project 2025, Michigan state Sen. McMorrow speaks at 2024 DNC

“This is Project 2025,” Michigan state Sen. Mallory McMorrow, D-Royal Oak, said as she laid a hardbound copy of the 900-page document on the lectern. “Over the next four nights, you are going to hear a lot about what is in this 900-page document. Why? Because this is the Republican blueprint for a second Trump term.”

Vice President Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, has warned Americans about “Trump’s Project 2025” agenda — even though former President Donald Trump doesn’t claim the conservative presidential transition document.

“Donald Trump wants to take our country backward,” Harris said July 23 in Milwaukee. “He and his extreme Project 2025 agenda will weaken the middle class. Like, we know we got to take this seriously, and can you believe they put that thing in writing?”

Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz, Harris’ running mate, has joined in on the talking point.

“Don’t believe (Trump) when he’s playing dumb about this Project 2025. He knows exactly what it’ll do,” Walz said Aug. 9 in Glendale, Arizona.

Trump’s campaign has worked to build distance from the project, which the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, led with contributions from dozens of conservative groups.

Much of the plan calls for extensive executive-branch overhauls and draws on both long-standing conservative principles, such as tax cuts, and more recent culture war issues. It lays out recommendations for disbanding the Commerce and Education departments, eliminating certain climate protections and consolidating more power to the president.

Project 2025 offers a sweeping vision for a Republican-led executive branch, and some of its policies mirror Trump’s 2024 agenda, But Harris and her presidential campaign have at times gone too far in describing what the project calls for and how closely the plans overlap with Trump’s campaign.

PolitiFact researched Harris’ warnings about how the plan would affect reproductive rights, federal entitlement programs and education, just as we did for President Joe Biden’s Project 2025 rhetoric. Here’s what the project does and doesn’t call for, and how it squares with Trump’s positions.

Are Trump and Project 2025 connected?

To distance himself from Project 2025 amid the Democratic attacks, Trump wrote on Truth Social that he “knows nothing” about it and has “no idea” who is in charge of it. (CNN identified at least 140 former advisers from the Trump administration who have been involved.)

The Heritage Foundation sought contributions from more than 100 conservative organizations for its policy vision for the next Republican presidency, which was published in 2023.

Project 2025 is now winding down some of its policy operations, and director Paul Dans, a former Trump administration official, is stepping down, The Washington Post reported July 30. Trump campaign managers Susie Wiles and Chris LaCivita denounced the document.

WATCH: A look at the Project 2025 plan to reshape government and Trump’s links to its authors

However, Project 2025 contributors include a number of high-ranking officials from Trump’s first administration, including former White House adviser Peter Navarro and former Housing and Urban Development Secretary Ben Carson.

A recently released recording of Russell Vought, a Project 2025 author and the former director of Trump’s Office of Management and Budget, showed Vought saying Trump’s “very supportive of what we do.” He said Trump was only distancing himself because Democrats were making a bogeyman out of the document.

Project 2025 wouldn’t ban abortion outright, but would curtail access

The Harris campaign shared a graphic on X that claimed “Trump’s Project 2025 plan for workers” would “go after birth control and ban abortion nationwide.”

The plan doesn’t call to ban abortion nationwide, though its recommendations could curtail some contraceptives and limit abortion access.

What’s known about Trump’s abortion agenda neither lines up with Harris’ description nor Project 2025’s wish list.

Project 2025 says the Department of Health and Human Services Department should “return to being known as the Department of Life by explicitly rejecting the notion that abortion is health care.”

It recommends that the Food and Drug Administration reverse its 2000 approval of mifepristone, the first pill taken in a two-drug regimen for a medication abortion. Medication is the most common form of abortion in the U.S. — accounting for around 63 percent in 2023.

If mifepristone were to remain approved, Project 2025 recommends new rules, such as cutting its use from 10 weeks into pregnancy to seven. It would have to be provided to patients in person — part of the group’s efforts to limit access to the drug by mail. In June, the U.S. Supreme Court rejected a legal challenge to mifepristone’s FDA approval over procedural grounds.

WATCH: Trump’s plans for health care and reproductive rights if he returns to White House The manual also calls for the Justice Department to enforce the 1873 Comstock Act on mifepristone, which bans the mailing of “obscene” materials. Abortion access supporters fear that a strict interpretation of the law could go further to ban mailing the materials used in procedural abortions, such as surgical instruments and equipment.

The plan proposes withholding federal money from states that don’t report to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention how many abortions take place within their borders. The plan also would prohibit abortion providers, such as Planned Parenthood, from receiving Medicaid funds. It also calls for the Department of Health and Human Services to ensure that the training of medical professionals, including doctors and nurses, omits abortion training.

The document says some forms of emergency contraception — particularly Ella, a pill that can be taken within five days of unprotected sex to prevent pregnancy — should be excluded from no-cost coverage. The Affordable Care Act requires most private health insurers to cover recommended preventive services, which involves a range of birth control methods, including emergency contraception.

Trump has recently said states should decide abortion regulations and that he wouldn’t block access to contraceptives. Trump said during his June 27 debate with Biden that he wouldn’t ban mifepristone after the Supreme Court “approved” it. But the court rejected the lawsuit based on standing, not the case’s merits. He has not weighed in on the Comstock Act or said whether he supports it being used to block abortion medication, or other kinds of abortions.

Project 2025 doesn’t call for cutting Social Security, but proposes some changes to Medicare

“When you read (Project 2025),” Harris told a crowd July 23 in Wisconsin, “you will see, Donald Trump intends to cut Social Security and Medicare.”

The Project 2025 document does not call for Social Security cuts. None of its 10 references to Social Security addresses plans for cutting the program.

Harris also misleads about Trump’s Social Security views.

In his earlier campaigns and before he was a politician, Trump said about a half-dozen times that he’s open to major overhauls of Social Security, including cuts and privatization. More recently, in a March 2024 CNBC interview, Trump said of entitlement programs such as Social Security, “There’s a lot you can do in terms of entitlements, in terms of cutting.” However, he quickly walked that statement back, and his CNBC comment stands at odds with essentially everything else Trump has said during the 2024 presidential campaign.

Trump’s campaign website says that not “a single penny” should be cut from Social Security. We rated Harris’ claim that Trump intends to cut Social Security Mostly False.

Project 2025 does propose changes to Medicare, including making Medicare Advantage, the private insurance offering in Medicare, the “default” enrollment option. Unlike Original Medicare, Medicare Advantage plans have provider networks and can also require prior authorization, meaning that the plan can approve or deny certain services. Original Medicare plans don’t have prior authorization requirements.

The manual also calls for repealing health policies enacted under Biden, such as the Inflation Reduction Act. The law enabled Medicare to negotiate with drugmakers for the first time in history, and recently resulted in an agreement with drug companies to lower the prices of 10 expensive prescriptions for Medicare enrollees.

Trump, however, has said repeatedly during the 2024 presidential campaign that he will not cut Medicare.

Project 2025 would eliminate the Education Department, which Trump supports

The Harris campaign said Project 2025 would “eliminate the U.S. Department of Education” — and that’s accurate. Project 2025 says federal education policy “should be limited and, ultimately, the federal Department of Education should be eliminated.” The plan scales back the federal government’s role in education policy and devolves the functions that remain to other agencies.

Aside from eliminating the department, the project also proposes scrapping the Biden administration’s Title IX revision, which prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity. It also would let states opt out of federal education programs and calls for passing a federal parents’ bill of rights similar to ones passed in some Republican-led state legislatures.

Republicans, including Trump, have pledged to close the department, which gained its status in 1979 within Democratic President Jimmy Carter’s presidential Cabinet.

In one of his Agenda 47 policy videos, Trump promised to close the department and “to send all education work and needs back to the states.” Eliminating the department would have to go through Congress.

What Project 2025, Trump would do on overtime pay

In the graphic, the Harris campaign says Project 2025 allows “employers to stop paying workers for overtime work.”

The plan doesn’t call for banning overtime wages. It recommends changes to some Occupational Safety and Health Administration, or OSHA, regulations and to overtime rules. Some changes, if enacted, could result in some people losing overtime protections, experts told us.

The document proposes that the Labor Department maintain an overtime threshold “that does not punish businesses in lower-cost regions (e.g., the southeast United States).” This threshold is the amount of money executive, administrative or professional employees need to make for an employer to exempt them from overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards Act.

In 2019, the Trump’s administration finalized a rule that expanded overtime pay eligibility to most salaried workers earning less than about $35,568, which it said made about 1.3 million more workers eligible for overtime pay. The Trump-era threshold is high enough to cover most line workers in lower-cost regions, Project 2025 said.

The Biden administration raised that threshold to $43,888 beginning July 1, and that will rise to $58,656 on Jan. 1, 2025. That would grant overtime eligibility to about 4 million workers, the Labor Department said.

It’s unclear how many workers Project 2025’s proposal to return to the Trump-era overtime threshold in some parts of the country would affect, but experts said some would presumably lose the right to overtime wages.

Other overtime proposals in Project 2025’s plan include allowing some workers to choose to accumulate paid time off instead of overtime pay, or to work more hours in one week and fewer in the next, rather than receive overtime.

Trump’s past with overtime pay is complicated. In 2016, the Obama administration said it would raise the overtime to salaried workers earning less than $47,476 a year, about double the exemption level set in 2004 of $23,660 a year.

But when a judge blocked the Obama rule, the Trump administration didn’t challenge the court ruling. Instead it set its own overtime threshold, which raised the amount, but by less than Obama.

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What to Know About the Latest Social Security Number Breach

Hackers may have gained access to the private information of millions of people from a background check company called National Public Data. Should you be worried? We have some advice.

By Ron Lieber

Ron Lieber covered the 2017 Equifax breach while fleeing from a hurricane .

The details are murky. In April, Hackmanac, a cybersecurity company, posted on X that about 2.9 billion records of personal data were for sale, from people in the United States, Canada and Britain. The data was supposedly stolen from National Public Data , a company that does background checks.

That company became the target of a class-action suit, which Bloomberg Law recently reported, contending that thieves got Social Security numbers in the breach. Bleeping Computer, a technology and security publication, rounded up reports of hackers leaking batches of the data.

We may never know the extent of the breach and the subsequent leak. But I’m not sure the details matter much.

Security breaches happen all the time. Thieves frequently find vulnerabilities in large systems and exploit them.

Our lack of data privacy and security is intensely hateful, but in the short and medium term, the only thing we can do is lock ourselves down as best we can.

Here are some reminders about how to do it.

Control Anxiety

Remember, some thieves steal simply because they can. If they don’t try to use stolen information, you don’t have a problem.

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Australians will soon have the right to disconnect after hours, but it may not shift an 'excessive' work culture

By Annika Burgess

Topic: Work

From next week, employees will have the legal "right to disconnect" and refuse to respond to work communications after hours.  ( Unsplash: ConvertKit )

From next week, Australians will have the legal right to ignore all work communications out of working hours. 

The laws follow similar policies in other countries, but there are questions over how much they will change Australia's culture of working "excessive" hours. 

What's next?

Experts say the "right to disconnect" laws are a positive step but employers need to lead by example. 

Australia was once a pioneer of setting work limits. 

In 1856, Victorian stonemasons won a world-first fight, demanding they work no more than eight hours a day. 

But these days, Australians are putting in "extreme and excessive" working hours, experts say.

New digital tools and flexible working models have created a culture where it Is the norm to be constantly contactable.

Research shows many Australians are at "high risk" of work addiction, and our work-life balance is worse than that of many other countries.

But new laws that come into effect next week aim to set work boundaries in an increasingly hyper-connected world. 

Similar "right to disconnect" policies have been largely successful in other countries. 

But will they be enough to break Australia's workaholic habits?

Laws show promise globally 

From August 26, "right to disconnect" laws will apply to businesses with 15 or more employees.

The law will not restrict managers from contacting employees whenever they wish.

But it does give employees the right to refuse to monitor, read or respond to contact from their employer outside work hours unless that refusal is deemed unreasonable.

John Hopkins from Swinburne University's school of business, law and entrepreneurship, said similar laws had been adopted in up to 25 countries.

And so far, there is evidence they have been largely successful in helping to protect the health and wellbeing of workers in the digital age.

"This is a step in the right direction," Professor Hopkins said.

"This is the first attempt to address burnout and mental health issues associated with overwork."

Experts say flexible work models have led to over-time hours creeping up on us.  ( Supplied: Melinda Bannister )

France set the agenda in 2017, becoming the first country to require companies to negotiate agreements with staff over their rights to ignore after-hours communication.

Fines for companies that breach the laws have been rare, but they do happen.

In an extreme case, the French wing of a British pest control business was ordered to pay a former employee 60,000 euros ($99,000) after forcing him to permanently leave his telephone on to respond to work requests.

A nation of 'excessive' workers

Research by the European Union agency Eurofound showed improved wellbeing and work satisfaction in companies with right-to-disconnect policies. 

Eurofound gathered insights from about 1,600 employee surveys across companies in Belgium, France, Italy and Spain.

More than 70 per cent of workers in companies with the regulations considered the impacts to be positive.

And 92 per cent of the workers reported very high levels of job satisfaction.

But Eurofound also determined that a right-to-disconnect policy on its own was "insufficient" to bring about cultural change in the workplace.

Lisa Heap, senior researcher at the Centre for Future Work, said Australia had created a culture that encouraged working long hours. 

"We have people who are in full-time employment doing extreme and excessive working hours," she told the ABC.

"And we've got employers who are increasingly expecting people to be available without limitation on that."

A 2023 study by the Centre for Future Work at the Australia Institute estimated Australian workers were on average doing an extra 5.4 hours a week.

That amounts to about 280 hours of unpaid time each year, at a cost of $130 billion in annual lost incomes.

Ms Heap said Australia was taking a "strong step".

"There's been a kind of erosion of rights in relation to employment in Australia," she said.

"This law is trying to recreate the idea of what is the 'norm'."

However, Rachael Potter from the Centre for Workplace Excellence at the University of South Australia, said if there was nothing stopping managers from contacting employees, it would be "very difficult" to shift behaviours. 

"It's a very positive step forward, but it will still be quite challenging to ignore a manager if they contact you out of hours," she told the ABC.

"We need a culture that doesn't encourage and reward sending late-night emails, and it's up to an employer to set the tone."

Rachael Potter says preliminary results indicated 30 per cent of Australian workers showed "high risk" of work addiction. ( ABC News: Evelyn Manfield )

Australians can 'send a message'

Expectations to put in extra hours exist across all industries and levels within a workforce.

And more employees were feeling pressure to work overtime due to fears about job security and the increased cost of living, Dr Potter said.

Dr Potter has been involved in global research that shows Australians are among the most at risk of work addiction and are increasingly unable to switch off.

But Professor Hopkins believes Australia should not be any different to other countries that have adopted the laws.

Although the impacts might be "subtle", he said they should lead to important discussions. 

"It's not going to eliminate contact at all," Professor Hopkins said. 

"Hopefully we'll reduce it, and encourage those conversations about who is getting contacted outside of work hours."

Ms Heap said the laws would send a signal, and give employees the assurance it was OK to say no. 

"Even if employees don't do anything about it right now, because they don't necessarily have the confidence to raise that concern, they know that's not what's supposed to happen," she said. 

The European Union study recommended that policies should be accompanied by awareness raising and effective measures to limit out-of-hours connection.

Dr Potter said employees could start by simply switching off. 

"Individuals need to set their own boundaries by turning off notifications and taking work emails off their phones," she said.

"People are needing recovery time … these laws send a message that we need to disconnect more, but whether that's enforced or not we'll have to see."