thesis abstract phrases

24 popular academic phrases to write your abstract (+ real examples)

A helpful strategy to write an academic abstract is to incorporate key academic phrases commonly used in abstracts of published papers. This way, you can learn from real examples and improve your abstract writing skills.

The different components of academic abstracts

Abstracts are brief summaries of conducted studies or research that are used in academic papers, theses, and dissertations. They tend to be around 100-300 words long, and are usually positioned right under the research title and before the introduction.

A straightforward process can be followed when writing an abstract since abstracts are generally structured similarly and address several key components.

Abstracts can be written in a structured or an unstructured format. Structured abstracts provide clear headings to organize the content, such demonstrated in the following example:

Even though unstructured abstracts do not use headings, they still adhere to a specific structure and address all key components that should be included.

Academic key phrases to highlight a research gap in an abstract

Existing studies have failed to address…, yet, it remains unknown how….

Example: “ Yet, it remains unknown how findings from aeolian landscapes translate to aquatic systems and how young clonally expanding plants in hydrodynamically exposed conditions overcome these establishment thresholds by optimizing shoot placement. “ ( Van de Ven, 2022 et al., p. 1339 )

There is, however, still little research on…

Academic key phrases to highlight the relevance of a study in an abstract, the topic gained considerable attention in the academic literature in….

Example: “ The relationship between BITs and FDI gained considerable attention in the academic literature in the last two decades .” ( Amendolagine and Prota, 2021, p. 173 )

New approaches are needed to address…

The proposed framework overcomes…., understanding… is critical to….

Example: “ Understanding changes in infectiousness during SARS-COV-2 infections is critical to assess the effectiveness of public health measures such as contact tracing. ” ( Hart et al., 2020, p. 1 )

Academic key phrases to explain the research aim or objectives in an abstract

The objective of this study is to…, the aim is to shed light on…, this study aims to answer the following research question:.

Example: “ This study aims to answer the following research question: how is the resilience of firms defined in the business and management field? ” ( Conz and Magnani, 2020, p. 400 )

In this study, we develop…

This research examines…, academic key phrases to describe the research methodology in an abstract, we assess… through using….

Example: “ Exploiting bilateral data on asylum seeking applications for 157 countries over the period 2006–2015, we assess the determinants of refugee flows using a  gravity model  which accounts for endogenous selection in order to examine the causal link between climate, conflict and forced migration.” ( Abel et al., 2019, p. 239 )

Hypotheses were tested through…

By exploiting a unique sample of…, we develop a novel approach….

Example: “ Here, we develop a novel mechanistic approach to infer the infectiousness profile of SARS-COV-2-infected individuals using data from known infector–infectee pairs .” ( Hart et al., 2020, p. 1 )

Academic key phrases to summarize the results in an abstract

The conducted experiments demonstrate…, the analysis revealed that…, the findings shed new light on….

Example: “These findings shed new light on how plant traits interact with their environment to shape the landscape and pave the way for improved restoration designs by mimicking the natural shoot organization of establishing vegetation. ” ( Van de Ven, 2022 et al., p. 1339 )

Our results indicate that…

Academic key phrases to present research conclusions in an abstract, this research offers significant and timely insight…, the findings support the use of….

Example: “The findings support the use of legal referral pathways that can limit the negative impacts of carceral system involvement while highlighting the need for better strategies to engage and retain RVIP clients who have no court involvement.” ( Evans et al. 2022, p. 1 )

Further research is needed…

Example: “ Further research is needed to evaluate the positive, neutral, and sometimes negative impact of patient–provider concordance. ” ( Otte, 2022, p. 1 )

We conclude by…

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Dissertation Chapters

• Dissertation Abstract
• Dissertation Introduction
• Dissertation Literature Review
• Dissertation Methodology
• Dissertation Results
• Dissertation Discussion
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Useful Phrases when Writing a Dissertation Abstract

A dissertation abstract is an important component of this complex type of academic paper. Taking the spot in the beginning of the research, the abstract is basically the first description of your work read by the target audience. In other words, a dissertation abstract is your opportunity to set the right word flow and accurate expectations.

Your task in the abstract is to summarize the whole thesis in few sentences, as well as present the major elements of the work being discussed after it. Together with the title of the dissertation, the abstract stands in the form of an announcement of a particular research or examination, aiming to give the reader an idea as to what they should expect from the remaining of your paper.

But, do not see the abstract as an introduction – there is an actual introduction that follows after it. Your abstract is a preamble or preface that prepares the reader for the entire paper, not just its body paragraphs or research.

Writing a Dissertation Abstract Chapter

Generally speaking, the dissertation abstract consists of one or more sentences that summarize the paper's chapters. For example, if you have five or seven chapters, you should create few sentences assigned to each of them.

What should a dissertation abstract look like?

In order to create a good abstract, you should implement the following tips:

• Specify your research questions clearly
• Locate the research questions in the beginning of the abstract
• Present one to three questions only
• Use the last parts of the abstract to summarize and interpret the results of the research
• Use proper phrases to make the content concise and academic-like

How a Professional Dissertation Writer Writes a Dissertation Abstract

For most PhD candidates, the dissertation abstract is the most challenging thing that they ever had to write. It's a big challenge. This paper should be brief, but inspiring and insightful at the same time.

When you know how professional dissertation writers approach it, you may get into the right mindset. This is what makes our professional writers different:

• Writing is their profession. Just like a lab technician is paid to conduct tests in the lab, a professional writer with a degree in chemistry is paid to write dissertations in their niche. They approach the process with all seriousness. Like any other professional, they want to make career progress, and they do that by doing an awesome job.
• A professional writer has experience in completing dissertation abstracts. It's not their first time. They've written their own abstract and completed a dissertation to earn their degree. They have helped several other candidates to cope with their projects. They know what the mentor and the committee members want to see in an abstract.
• Our professional writers are trained to implement the rules of various citation styles. This is the point that gets most students challenged. They don't know how to format a project of this level. Our professional writers have those skills.

When you want to complete your own dissertation abstract, you should get into the mindset of a pro writer. Imagine that this is your job and your paycheck depends on it. Learn everything that you need to learn before you start writing.

Phrases to Use in Your Dissertation Abstract

Study background.

This dissertation/ This research…

• examines the purpose/ the role of
• strives to illuminate/ aims to distinguish between
• tests the idea of/ developed an idea about
• investigates the purpose/ effects of

I / I have…

• outlined the how's and when's of
• investigated the role of/ purpose of
• introduced the concept/ idea of
• examined the relationship between X and Y
• identified the following
• extended prior work on
• evaluated these X by doing Y

In addition to these samples for starting a sentence, you could also use the following ideas to start your abstract:

• Lead with your research question/s

Use sentences such as: 'This dissertation is motivated by the following research questions', or '[Research question] is the core of the X.

• Lead with the hypotheses

If you do not want to start with the research question right away, you can start with sentences such as 'This dissertation offers the following hypotheses', or 'I hypothesize that'.

• Start off with a literature component

To spice things up and show your interest in the topic, you can always lead with some literature components. For example, you can use sentences such as 'Previous research indicates/ has shown that', or 'Literature on the specific area has focused on'.

• Lead with the goals and aims of the dissertation

Set the goals of your research right away to start your abstract in an interesting way. You can use sentences such as 'This dissertation has x goals' or 'The purpose and main aims of the dissertation include'.

• Present the significance of the study

Finally, you can start of by showing the reader why the study is worth reading in the first place. You can achieve this by using sentences such as 'The most important contribution of the study is', 'The study presents our understanding of', or 'I developed theory to explain'.

Research Strategy Components

I conducted…

• A field study/ a research /an experiment to test out my hypotheses
• A case study/ an inductive study of X

I/ We employed…

• Various/ multiple methods to test
• Several methods to evaluate/ differentiate
• X case analysis
• Samples and data of x sources
• Data analysis from
• [company name or type]'s ideas and previous case studies

The research findings…

• Address the belief that
• Confirm/ reject a controversial belief
• Illustrate how and why
• Show the impact of X on Y
• Illustrate the consequences and reasons why
• Suggests the possible effects/ results of

As we predicted…

Contrary to our expectations…

Conclusions

• Theoretical contributions
• Managerial implications of all findings
• Discussion of future research
• The findings

In such case, you can always start with phrases and sentences such as:

The findings…

• Provide support for the prediction / the key arguments
• Supports the set model
• Offers a solution
• Offers an insight into
• Prompts re-thinking of

We conclude that…/ In conclusion/ Finally…

These phrases should make the writing process much easier for you. Just go through the list and pick the one you find most suitable for your particular research. If you do this right, you are about to write the best dissertation there is!

Stress Does Not Do You Well. Remember: There's Always a Solution

Sometimes getting tips is not enough.

You can use all the useful phrases in your dissertation abstract and still get stuck. Academic writing is not about the generic phrases that you should use. It's about the essence in between those phrases. We can get you inspired with our tips regarding the writing process, but you're responsible to beef up that outline.

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Writing an Abstract for Your Research Paper

Definition and Purpose of Abstracts

An abstract is a short summary of your (published or unpublished) research paper, usually about a paragraph (c. 6-7 sentences, 150-250 words) long. A well-written abstract serves multiple purposes:

• an abstract lets readers get the gist or essence of your paper or article quickly, in order to decide whether to read the full paper;
• an abstract prepares readers to follow the detailed information, analyses, and arguments in your full paper;
• and, later, an abstract helps readers remember key points from your paper.

It’s also worth remembering that search engines and bibliographic databases use abstracts, as well as the title, to identify key terms for indexing your published paper. So what you include in your abstract and in your title are crucial for helping other researchers find your paper or article.

If you are writing an abstract for a course paper, your professor may give you specific guidelines for what to include and how to organize your abstract. Similarly, academic journals often have specific requirements for abstracts. So in addition to following the advice on this page, you should be sure to look for and follow any guidelines from the course or journal you’re writing for.

The Contents of an Abstract

Abstracts contain most of the following kinds of information in brief form. The body of your paper will, of course, develop and explain these ideas much more fully. As you will see in the samples below, the proportion of your abstract that you devote to each kind of information—and the sequence of that information—will vary, depending on the nature and genre of the paper that you are summarizing in your abstract. And in some cases, some of this information is implied, rather than stated explicitly. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association , which is widely used in the social sciences, gives specific guidelines for what to include in the abstract for different kinds of papers—for empirical studies, literature reviews or meta-analyses, theoretical papers, methodological papers, and case studies.

Here are the typical kinds of information found in most abstracts:

• the context or background information for your research; the general topic under study; the specific topic of your research
• the central questions or statement of the problem your research addresses
• what’s already known about this question, what previous research has done or shown
• the main reason(s) , the exigency, the rationale , the goals for your research—Why is it important to address these questions? Are you, for example, examining a new topic? Why is that topic worth examining? Are you filling a gap in previous research? Applying new methods to take a fresh look at existing ideas or data? Resolving a dispute within the literature in your field? . . .
• your research and/or analytical methods
• your main findings , results , or arguments
• the significance or implications of your findings or arguments.

Your abstract should be intelligible on its own, without a reader’s having to read your entire paper. And in an abstract, you usually do not cite references—most of your abstract will describe what you have studied in your research and what you have found and what you argue in your paper. In the body of your paper, you will cite the specific literature that informs your research.

When to Write Your Abstract

Although you might be tempted to write your abstract first because it will appear as the very first part of your paper, it’s a good idea to wait to write your abstract until after you’ve drafted your full paper, so that you know what you’re summarizing.

What follows are some sample abstracts in published papers or articles, all written by faculty at UW-Madison who come from a variety of disciplines. We have annotated these samples to help you see the work that these authors are doing within their abstracts.

Choosing Verb Tenses within Your Abstract

The social science sample (Sample 1) below uses the present tense to describe general facts and interpretations that have been and are currently true, including the prevailing explanation for the social phenomenon under study. That abstract also uses the present tense to describe the methods, the findings, the arguments, and the implications of the findings from their new research study. The authors use the past tense to describe previous research.

The humanities sample (Sample 2) below uses the past tense to describe completed events in the past (the texts created in the pulp fiction industry in the 1970s and 80s) and uses the present tense to describe what is happening in those texts, to explain the significance or meaning of those texts, and to describe the arguments presented in the article.

The science samples (Samples 3 and 4) below use the past tense to describe what previous research studies have done and the research the authors have conducted, the methods they have followed, and what they have found. In their rationale or justification for their research (what remains to be done), they use the present tense. They also use the present tense to introduce their study (in Sample 3, “Here we report . . .”) and to explain the significance of their study (In Sample 3, This reprogramming . . . “provides a scalable cell source for. . .”).

Sample Abstract 1

From the social sciences.

Reporting new findings about the reasons for increasing economic homogamy among spouses

Gonalons-Pons, Pilar, and Christine R. Schwartz. “Trends in Economic Homogamy: Changes in Assortative Mating or the Division of Labor in Marriage?” Demography , vol. 54, no. 3, 2017, pp. 985-1005.

Sample Abstract 2

From the humanities.

Analyzing underground pulp fiction publications in Tanzania, this article makes an argument about the cultural significance of those publications

Emily Callaci. “Street Textuality: Socialism, Masculinity, and Urban Belonging in Tanzania’s Pulp Fiction Publishing Industry, 1975-1985.” Comparative Studies in Society and History , vol. 59, no. 1, 2017, pp. 183-210.

Sample Abstract/Summary 3

From the sciences.

Reporting a new method for reprogramming adult mouse fibroblasts into induced cardiac progenitor cells

Lalit, Pratik A., Max R. Salick, Daryl O. Nelson, Jayne M. Squirrell, Christina M. Shafer, Neel G. Patel, Imaan Saeed, Eric G. Schmuck, Yogananda S. Markandeya, Rachel Wong, Martin R. Lea, Kevin W. Eliceiri, Timothy A. Hacker, Wendy C. Crone, Michael Kyba, Daniel J. Garry, Ron Stewart, James A. Thomson, Karen M. Downs, Gary E. Lyons, and Timothy J. Kamp. “Lineage Reprogramming of Fibroblasts into Proliferative Induced Cardiac Progenitor Cells by Defined Factors.” Cell Stem Cell , vol. 18, 2016, pp. 354-367.

Sample Abstract 4, a Structured Abstract

Reporting results about the effectiveness of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis, from a rigorously controlled study

Note: This journal requires authors to organize their abstract into four specific sections, with strict word limits. Because the headings for this structured abstract are self-explanatory, we have chosen not to add annotations to this sample abstract.

Wald, Ellen R., David Nash, and Jens Eickhoff. “Effectiveness of Amoxicillin/Clavulanate Potassium in the Treatment of Acute Bacterial Sinusitis in Children.” Pediatrics , vol. 124, no. 1, 2009, pp. 9-15.

“OBJECTIVE: The role of antibiotic therapy in managing acute bacterial sinusitis (ABS) in children is controversial. The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of high-dose amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate in the treatment of children diagnosed with ABS.

METHODS : This was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Children 1 to 10 years of age with a clinical presentation compatible with ABS were eligible for participation. Patients were stratified according to age (<6 or ≥6 years) and clinical severity and randomly assigned to receive either amoxicillin (90 mg/kg) with potassium clavulanate (6.4 mg/kg) or placebo. A symptom survey was performed on days 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 10, 20, and 30. Patients were examined on day 14. Children’s conditions were rated as cured, improved, or failed according to scoring rules.

RESULTS: Two thousand one hundred thirty-five children with respiratory complaints were screened for enrollment; 139 (6.5%) had ABS. Fifty-eight patients were enrolled, and 56 were randomly assigned. The mean age was 6630 months. Fifty (89%) patients presented with persistent symptoms, and 6 (11%) presented with nonpersistent symptoms. In 24 (43%) children, the illness was classified as mild, whereas in the remaining 32 (57%) children it was severe. Of the 28 children who received the antibiotic, 14 (50%) were cured, 4 (14%) were improved, 4(14%) experienced treatment failure, and 6 (21%) withdrew. Of the 28children who received placebo, 4 (14%) were cured, 5 (18%) improved, and 19 (68%) experienced treatment failure. Children receiving the antibiotic were more likely to be cured (50% vs 14%) and less likely to have treatment failure (14% vs 68%) than children receiving the placebo.

CONCLUSIONS : ABS is a common complication of viral upper respiratory infections. Amoxicillin/potassium clavulanate results in significantly more cures and fewer failures than placebo, according to parental report of time to resolution.” (9)

Some Excellent Advice about Writing Abstracts for Basic Science Research Papers, by Professor Adriano Aguzzi from the Institute of Neuropathology at the University of Zurich:

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How to Write an Abstract for a Dissertation

Published by Owen Ingram at August 11th, 2021 , Revised On September 20, 2023

Dissertation Abstract – Definition

The abstract is regarded as the foremost component of a dissertation. It will be your first chance to set precise expectations for the supervisor, examiner or graduate committee members. An abstract for a dissertation is the first real significant narrative of your work and is placed at the beginning of the dissertation paper.

Presented in a shortened form, an abstract is a very brief overview of your research .

In this article, we will uncover every piece of information you need to know to write an abstract.  

According to the online archives of Simon Fraser University research database, “an abstract is not merely an introduction in the sense of a preface, preamble, or advance organizer that prepares the reader for the thesis. In addition to that function, it must be capable of substituting for the whole thesis when there are insufficient time and space for the full text. ”

Do I Need to Write an Abstract?

You will be required to include an abstract at the beginning of your paper if you are working on your thesis, dissertation, research paper, or publishing a paper in any academic journal.

Even though the abstract appears right at the start of a dissertation paper, it is generally written at last. For it is only after you have compiled all the evidence and data, interpreted every piece of finding, backed your interpretation(s) with enough theoretical evidence and answered your research questions, that you can sum it all up in 150-200 words. The general length of an abstract.

 The table of contents is the section that immediately follows an abstract. Here is a guide on how to create a table of contents for the dissertation .

Your abstract should be an  entirely autonomous and independent text and never be an extract taken from within the paper’s original content. This also implies, indirectly, that it is unethical in research contexts to copy-paste chunks from within your own research in an abstract.

In particular, an abstract aims to provide an overview of research aim and objectives, methods of research employed, results obtained, findings, most salient interpretation(s), the conclusion and implication(s) of your research. Readers should be able to completely understand all aspects of your research work just by reading your abstract.

Also Read : How to Write Dissertation Discussion Chapter , How to Write a Remarkable Dissertation?

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How to Write a Dissertation Abstract

A dissertation abstract serves as a deal maker or breaker when it comes to making a strong impression on your readers. Your dissertation abstract can either motivate your readers to continue reading or discourage them from  moving on to the next chapters .

The abstract of a dissertation needs to be conspicuous, meaningful, interesting and of course, informative. It should contain brief but relevant information from all chapters of your dissertation to provide a brief overview of the research that has been conducted. This would mean its:

• What (topic statement of your research)
• Who (the sample)
• Why (the significance/objectives/aims/questions/hypothesis of your research)
• Where (the background/setting of your research)
• And how (the research design/tools/methods/methodologies etc. of your research)

 Here, we have put together some guidelines for students to understand how to write an abstract for a dissertation to make a great first impression on readers.

Key Components of a Dissertation Abstract

The  key elements of a dissertation abstract are as follows:

• Background statement/problem statement/thesis statement
• Information regarding research sample
• Methods of research employed
• A brief description of the results obtained and their interpretation (only the most important one(s))
• A summary of conclusion, limitations and future recommendations/implications (only the most salient ones)

1. Background/Problem Statement/Aims and Objectives

The first couple of sentences of your dissertation abstract should provide a summary of the purpose of your research. This can be expressed as follows:

• Background statement – Provide a brief perspective on the theoretical and practical significance of your work.
• The problem statement clearly communicates to the readers why there was a need to research the chosen topic.
• Present an overview of the research’s aim and objectives to establish what your research intended to achieve.
• Thesis statement – what is the main idea of your dissertation paper? What are your claims in reference to the established research questions?

Avoid writing this part of the abstract in future tense because it refers to concluded actions.

• This study will investigate the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.
• This study investigates the relationship between coffee consumption and productivity.

Also read: How to Get Dissertation Deadline Extension – Some Practical Methods.

This one-to-two lined section will give information about who the sample in your study was; where they are located/residing, etc. The reasons for selecting that group of participants, for instance, is not relevant for mention in an abstract.

3. Research Methods

Briefly specify your  dissertation research methodology immediately after stating the purpose and sample of your dissertation paper. Here, you will be expected to summarise how you straightforwardly conducted your research.

Like the first section, a description of research  methods should also be written in the simple past tense. There is absolutely  no need to highlight the limitations and/or validity  of your research methods here.

The goal is to take the readers through the overall approach and process quickly.

4. Research Findings

Provide a brief overview of the major  findings of your dissertation study . If you think you undiscovered multiple major findings, only mention the ones that directly answer a research question or two that was/were part of your study to begin with. For instance, if you studied the relation between two variables and your findings indicate it’s a positive correlation, you simply state that finding, not the other, minor ones related to this specific one.

This section is the crux of your abstract, so make sure you demonstrate how your research addressed the research objectives.

Furthermore, due to the word limit (150-200) of the abstract and the complexity of your research, you might not be able to include all results here. If that is the case, have only the most significant results.

This portion should be written in the past simple or present tense. Here is an example:

• Analysis of the responses has shown that there is a strong correlation between consumption and productivity.
• Analysis of the responses shows there is a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.
• Analysis of the responses showed there was a strong correlation between coffee consumption and productivity.

5. Conclusion and Recommendation/Implication

Lastly, the  abstract of a dissertation  should  conclude your dissertation research . The conclusion should clearly report how your study addressed the research problem.

Use this part of the abstract to convince people how your research proved the argument or theory your research was built on and started off with.

Provide recommendations for practical implementation to clearly understand your audience how your work will solve the problem at hand.

Finally, do not forget to mention important research limitations briefly. For example, selecting a smaller sample size due to some constraints would be a limitation worth mentioning. This will add more weight and credibility to your research.

Make use of the present simple test when writing the conclusion.

Some institutions, however, dictate that you write one or two lines about the long- or short-term implications your research might have. This component would be the last one in an abstract, preceded by the conclusive statement.

Abstract keywords/phrases 

You might be asked to include important key terms and phrases at the end of the abstract, especially if your paper has been selected for publication in an academic journal.

These keywords help potential readers find your paper in search engines during their  desk-based research .

However, it should be noted that some academic journals have their own specific formatting requirements for keywords. It’s recommended that you read the requirements about keywords in their publication manuals to avoid any misunderstanding.

More on Abstract keywords

According to Hartley and Kostoff (2003), following are some different methods for supplying keywords for an abstract:

Researchers “supply them with no restrictions on the numbers allowed; supply up to a fixed number (e.g. six); supply key words as appropriate from a specified list; editors supplement/amend authors’ key words; editors supply key words; editors supply key words from a specified list; referees supply key words from a specified list; keywords are allocated according to the ‘house-rules’ applied to all journals; distributed by a specific publisher; keywords are determined by computer program at proof stage”.

Format of a Dissertation Abstract

The typical size of an abstract for a masters’ dissertation is 300-400 words whereas abstracts for undergraduate dissertation papers are 150-200 words in size.

Since their findings are generally more in number, abstracts for PhD-level dissertation papers are assigned 300-350 words. The dissertation abstract structure should be such that there are one or two sentences assigned to each chapter of the dissertation.

For example, if your dissertation paper has 5 chapters, there should be a minimum of 8-10 sentences in the abstract to provide a reflective summary of each chapter’s information.

As is the case  with the dissertation introduction chapter , you will be expected to specify the research questions clearly.

You might need to rearrange them and/or reduce the word count without missing out on any important element, considering there is room for only two to three research questions generally placed at the beginning of the abstract.

  Poor dissertation abstracts don’t present the findings of the research. It is important to recognize that the readers of your dissertation paper will be more interested in what findings you came up with as a result of your research and not merely what you did. Use at least 2 to 3 sentences for summarising the results and their interpretation.

Look for the formatting requirements in your dissertation handbook or writing guidelines provided by your school. Make sure to stay within the permissible word limit.  An abstract too long or too short will not serve the purpose.

Tips on How to Write the Abstract for Dissertation

Condensing your entire dissertation into just a few sentences can be a daunting task, especially if it’s your first time writing a dissertation abstract.

It is important to get your dissertation abstract right because this part of the dissertation paper is the first real piece of written description that your audience will read. You can even recall some of your own experiences where, due to shortage of time or many deadlines looming above your head, you had to skim and scam the abstract of a research article or journal paper you stumbled across. It probably gave you a good enough idea whether it was worth it to bookmark that paper to read fully later now, didn’t it?

That’s exactly the kind of effect your own abstract should have on its readers, too. It’s meant to give a holistic view of the entire research.

Here are some tips for you to make sure you write this part to the highest possible academic quality:

Also Read: Different Research Methods for Dissertation?

Tip #1: Avoid Citing Publications

Student researchers often get carried away with the research of professional researchers when writing an abstract. Avoid focusing on others’ work and demonstrate how your own research will substantially contribute to your area of study.

Depending on the allowable word limit for the abstract, you might be able to squeeze in a sentence or two about the scholarly background of the research problem you wish to address. Still, there is no need to cite any publications.

Tip #2: Be Concise and to-the-point

Your dissertation abstract should be attention-grabbing, even though you will have only a few hundred words to work with. So. it is crucial to communicate your research work in the most concise manner.  Never stuff your dissertation abstract with needless words and avoid vague verbiage that might put your readers off-track.

 Need help with writing a killer dissertation abstract? Our writers can write an abstract for a dissertation following your school’s guidelines. Or get help from our expert academics  with any part of your dissertation.

Tip # 3: Read Sample Abstracts

Learn the art of writing great dissertation abstract by reading abstract dissertation samples. It would make sense to look at how other people in your academic subject have written their abstracts.

If you have already conducted your  dissertation literature review , you might have already read many research paper abstracts – which you could use to get useful insights into how to format your dissertation abstract. Here is an abstract dissertation example to help you get started.

Tip #4: Coverage and Presentation

Remember, an abstract is one single paragraph. There are no breaks in it. It continues as a single body. Furthermore, it is written in a separate page. No other chapter or sub-headings etc. come before or after the abstract on the same page. There are also no headings – such as the topic of your research – above the title ‘Abstract’ on the abstract page. Simply give the heading of ‘Abstract’ and start it off from there. And last but not the least, another important thing to keep in mind is that abstract (pretty much like the rest of your thesis) will be double-spaced.

Tip #5: Language

Other researchers will look for key terms specific to your research field to figure out the purpose and nature of your dissertation paper. Make sure to include relevant terminology necessary for understanding your abstract and thereby determining what the research was about.

Tip #6: Shortening a Lengthy Abstract

It’s natural to sometimes get carried away while writing…even in academic writing. As Trochim and other writers state in their book, Research Methods: The Essential Knowledge Base , “In order to shorten your abstract, you should eliminate nonessential information wherever possible—this includes transitions phrases (e.g., ‘the results demonstrate . . .’).”

Can I use an excerpt from the paper as an abstract?

No, you should not. It is important for an abstract to be an entirely autonomous and independent text and never be an extract taken from within the paper’s original content. Write it in your own words, 

What is the purpose of an abstract?

The abstract of your dissertation provides a brief overview of the research conducted and the results obtained.

What should a dissertation abstract contain?

The abstract of your dissertation must give background information, mention the problem statement , research aims , and objectives, sample information, methods of research , the findings , conclusion and recommendations/implications.

Can I cite a reference in the abstract?

No, you must never cite any reference in the abstract.

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How to Write an Abstract for a Dissertation or Thesis: Guide & Examples

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A dissertation abstract is a brief summary of a dissertation, typically between 150-300 words. It is a standalone piece of writing that gives the reader an overview of the main ideas and findings of the dissertation.

Generally, this section should include:

• Research problem and questions
• Research methodology
• Key findings and results
• Original contribution
• Practical or theoretical implications.

You need to write an excellent abstract for a dissertation or thesis, since it's the first thing a comitteee will review. Continue reading through to learn how to write a dissertation abstract. In this article, we will discuss its purpose, length, structure and writing steps. Moreover, for reference purposes, this article will include abstract examples for a dissertation and thesis and offer extra guidance on top of that.

In case you are in a hurry, feel free to buy dissertation from our professional writers. Our experts are qualified and have solid experience in writing Ph.D. academic works.

What Is a Dissertation Abstract?

Dissertation abstracts, by definition, are summaries of a thesis's content, usually between 200 and 300 words, used to inform readers about the contents of the study in a quick way. A thesis or dissertation abstract briefly overviews the entire thesis. Dissertation abstracts are found at the beginning of every study, providing the research recap, results, and conclusions. It usually goes right after your title page and before your dissertation table of contents . An abstract for a dissertation (alternatively called “précis” further in the article) should clearly state the main topic of your paper, its overall purpose, and any important research questions or findings. It should also contain any necessary keywords that direct readers to relevant information. In addition, it addresses any implications for further research that may stem from its field. Writing strong précis requires you to think carefully, as they are the critical components that attract readers to peruse your paper.

Purpose of a Dissertation or Thesis Abstract

The primary purpose of an abstract in a dissertation or thesis is to give readers a basic understanding of the completed work. Also, it should create an interest in the topic to motivate readers to read further. Writing an abstract for a dissertation is essential for many reasons: 

• Offers a summary and gives readers an overview of what they should expect from your study.
• Provides an opportunity to showcase the research done, highlighting its importance and impact.
• Identifies any unexplored research gaps to inform future studies and direct the current state of knowledge on the topic.

In general, an abstract of a thesis or a dissertation is a bridge between the research and potential readers.

What Makes a Good Abstract for a Dissertation?

Making a good dissertation abstract requires excellent organization and clarity of thought. Proper specimens must provide convincing arguments supporting your thesis. Writing an effective dissertation abstract requires students to be concise and write engagingly. Below is a list of things that makes it outstanding:

• Maintains clear and concise summary style
• Includes essential keywords for search engine optimization
• Accurately conveys the scope of the thesis
• Strictly adheres to the word count limit specified in your instructions
• Written from a third-person point of view
• Includes objectives, approach, and findings
• Uses simple language without jargon
• Avoids overgeneralized statements or vague claims.

How Long Should a Dissertation Abstract Be?

Abstracts should be long enough to convey the key points of every thesis, yet brief enough to capture readers' attention. A dissertation abstract length should typically be between 200-300 words, i.e., 1 page. But usually, length is indicated in the requirements. Remember that your primary goal here is to provide an engaging and informative thesis summary. Note that following the instructions and templates set forth by your university will ensure your thesis or dissertation abstract meets the writing criteria and adheres to all relevant standards.

Dissertation Abstract Structure

Dissertation abstracts can be organized in different ways and vary slightly depending on your work requirements. However, each abstract of a dissertation should incorporate elements like keywords, methods, results, and conclusions. The structure of a thesis or a dissertation abstract should account for the components included below:

• Title Accurately reflects the topic of your thesis.
• Introduction Provides an overview of your research, its purpose, and any relevant background information.
• Methods/ Approach Gives an outline of the methods used to conduct your research.
• Results Summarizes your findings.
• Conclusions Provides an overview of your research's accomplishments and implications.
• Keywords Includes keywords that accurately describe your thesis.

Below is an example that shows how a dissertation abstract looks, how to structure it and where each part is located. Use this template to organize your own summary. 

Things to Consider Before Writing a Dissertation Abstract

There are several things you should do beforehand in order to write a good abstract for a dissertation or thesis. They include:

• Reviewing set requirements and making sure you clearly understand the expectations
• Reading other research works to get an idea of what to include in yours
• Writing a few drafts before submitting your final version, which will ensure that it's in the best state possible.

Write an Abstract for a Dissertation Last

Remember, it's advisable to write an abstract for a thesis paper or dissertation last. Even though it’s always located in the beginning of the work, nevertheless, it should be written last. This way, your summary will be more accurate because the main argument and conclusions are already known when the work is mostly finished - it is incomparably easier to write a dissertation abstract after completing your thesis. Additionally, you should write it last because the contents and scope of the thesis may have changed during the writing process. So, create your dissertation abstract as a last step to help ensure that it precisely reflects the content of your project.

Carefully Read Requirements

Writing dissertation abstracts requires careful attention to details and adherence to writing requirements. Refer to the rubric or guidelines that you were presented with to identify aspects to keep in mind and important elements, such as correct length and writing style, and then make sure to comprehensively include them. Careful consideration of these requirements ensures that your writing meets every criterion and standard provided by your supervisor to increase the chances that your master's thesis is accepted and approved.   

Choose the Right Type of Dissertation Abstracts

Before starting to write a dissertation or thesis abstract you should choose the appropriate type. Several options are available, and it is essential to pick one that best suits your dissertation's subject. Depending on their purpose, there exist 3 types of dissertation abstracts: 

• Informative
• Descriptive

Informative one offers readers a concise overview of your research, its purpose, and any relevant background information. Additionally, this type includes brief summaries of all results and dissertation conclusions .  A descriptive abstract in a dissertation or thesis provides a quick overview of the research, but it doesn't incorporate any evaluation or analysis because it only offers a snapshot of the study and makes no claims.

Critical abstract gives readers an in-depth overview of the research and include an evaluative component. This means that this type also summarizes and analyzes research data, discusses implications, and makes claims about the achievements of your study. In addition, it examines the research data and recounts its implications. 

Choose the correct type of dissertation abstract to ensure that it meets your paper’s demands.

How to Write an Abstract for a Dissertation or Thesis?

Writing a good abstract for a dissertation or thesis is essential as it provides a brief overview of the completed research. So, how to write a dissertation abstract? First of all, the right approach is dictated by an institution's specific requirements. However, a basic structure should include the title, an introduction to your topic, research methodology, findings, and conclusions. Composing noteworthy precis allows you to flaunt your capabilities and grants readers a concise glimpse of the research. Doing this can make an immense impact on those reviewing your paper.

1. Identify the Purpose of Your Study

An abstract for thesis paper or dissertation is mainly dependent on the purpose of your study. Students need to identify all goals and objectives of their research before writing their précis - the reason being to ensure that the investigation’s progress and all its consequent findings are described simply and intelligibly. Additionally, one should provide some background information about their study. A short general description helps your reader acknowledge and connect with the research question. But don’t dive too deep into details, since more details are provided when writing a dissertation introduction . Scholars should write every dissertation abstract accurately and in a coherent way to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the area. This is the first section that potential readers will see, and it should serve as a precise overview of an entire document. Therefore, researchers writing abstracts of a thesis or dissertation should do it with great care and attention to details.

2. Discuss Methodology

A writer needs to elaborate on their methodological approach in an abstract of PhD dissertation since it acts as a brief summary of a whole research and should include an explanation of all methods used there. Dissertation and thesis abstracts discuss the research methodology by providing information sufficient enough to understand the underlying research question, data collection methods, and approach employed. Additionally, they should explain the analysis or interpretation of the data. This will help readers to gain a much better understanding of the research process and allow them to evaluate the data quality. Mention whether your methodology is quantitative or qualitative since this information is essential for readers to grasp your study's context and scope. Additionally, comment on the sources used and any other evidence collected. Furthermore, explain why you chose the method in the first place. All in all, addressing methodology is a crucial part of writing abstracts of a thesis or dissertation, as it will allow people to understand exactly how you arrived at your conclusions.

3. Describe the Key Results

Write your abstract for dissertation in a way that includes an overview of the research problem, your proposed solution, and any limitations or constraints you faced. Students need to briefly and clearly describe all key findings from the research. You must ensure that the results mentioned in an abstract of a thesis or dissertation are supported with evidence from body chapters.  Write about any crucial trends or patterns that emerged from the study. They should be discussed in detail, as this information can often provide valuable insight into your topic. Be sure to include any correlations or relationships found as a result of the study. Correlation, in this context, refers to any association between two or more variables.  Finally, write about any implications or conclusions drawn from your results: this is an essential element when writing an abstract for dissertation since it allows readers to firmly comprehend the study’s significance.

4. Summarize an Abstract for a Dissertation

Knowing how to write an abstract for dissertation is critical in conveying your work to a broad audience. Summarizing can be challenging (since precis is a summary in itself), but it is an essential part of any successful work. So, as a final step, conclude this section with a brief overview of the topic, outline the course of your research and its main results, and answer the paper’s central question.  Summarizing an abstract of your dissertation is done to give readers a succinct impression of the entire paper, making an accurate and concise overview of all its key points and consequent conclusions. In every PhD dissertation abstract , wrap up its summary by addressing any unanswered questions and discussing any potential implications of the research.

How to Format an Abstract in Dissertation

Format depends on the style (APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago), which varies according to your subject's discipline. Style to use is usually mentioned in the instructions, and students should follow them closely to ensure formatting accuracy. These styles have guidelines that inform you about the formatting of titles, headings and subheadings, margins, page numbers, abstracts, and tell what font size and family or line spacing are required. Using a consistent formatting style ensures proper readability and might even influence paper’s overall structure. Another formatting concern to consider when writing dissertation and thesis abstracts is their layout. Most commonly, your paper should have a one-inch margin on all sides with double spacing. Be sure to familiarize yourself with the right guidelines to get the correct information on how to write dissertation abstract in APA format and ensure that it meets formatting standards.

Keywords in a Dissertation Abstract

When writing thesis abstracts, it is essential to include keywords. Keywords are phrases or words that help readers identify main topics of your paper and make it easier for them to find any information they need. Keywords should usually be placed at the end of a dissertation abstract and written in italics. In addition, include keywords that represent your paper's primary research interests and topics. Lastly, use keywords throughout your thesis to ensure that your précis accurately reflect an entire paper's content.

Thesis and Dissertation Abstract Examples

When writing, checking out thesis and dissertation abstracts examples from experts can provide a valuable reference point for structuring and formatting your own précis. When searching for an excellent sample template, engaging the assistance of a professional writer can be highly beneficial. Their expertise and knowledge offer helpful insight into creating an exemplary document that exceeds all expectations. Examples of dissertation abstracts from different topics are commonly available in scholarly journals and websites. We also encourage you to go and search your university or other local library catalogue -  multiple useful samples can surely be found there. From our part, we will attach 2 free examples for inspiration.

Dissertation abstract example

Thesis abstract example

Need a custom summary or a whole work? Contact StudyCrumb and get proficient assistance with PhD writing or dissertation proposal help .

Extra Tips on Writing a Dissertation Abstract

Writing a dissertation or PhD thesis abstract is not an easy task. You must ensure that it accurately reflects your paper's content. In this context, we will provide top-class tips on how to write an abstract in a dissertation or thesis for you to succeed. Combined with an example of a dissertation abstract above, you can rest assured that you'll do everything correctly. Below are extra tips on how to write a thesis abstract:

• Keep it concise, not lengthy - around 300 words.
• Focus on the “what”, “why”, “how”, and “so what” of your research.
• Be specific and concrete: avoid generalization.
• Use simple language: précis should be easy to understand for readers unfamiliar with your topic.
• Provide enough relevant information so your readers can grasp a main idea without necessarily reading your paper in its entirety.
• Write and edit your abstract several times until every sentence is clear and concise.
• Verify accuracy: make sure that précis reflect your content precisely.

Bottom Line on How to Write a Dissertation or Thesis Abstract

The bottom line when it comes to how to write a dissertation abstract is that you basically need to mirror your study's essence on a much lower scale. Specifically, students should keep their précis concise, use simple language, include relevant information, and write several drafts. Don't forget to review your précis and make sure they are precise enough. In addition, make sure to include all keywords so readers can find your paper quickly. You are encouraged to examine several sample dissertation abstracts to understand how to write your own.

Are you still struggling with your abstract? Contact our dissertation writing service and our qualified writers will gladly help you with this uneasy task. They will make sure it is delivered strictly on time and meets all requirements!  

FAQ About Dissertation Abstract Writing

1. why is a dissertation abstract important.

Dissertation abstracts are important because they give readers a brief overview of your research. They succinctly introduce critical information and study’s key points to help readers decide if reading your thesis is worth their time. During indexing, an abstract allows categorizing and filtering papers through keyword searches. Consequently, this helps readers to easily find your paper when searching for information on a specific topic.

2. When should I write an abstract for a dissertation or thesis?

You are supposed to write a dissertation or thesis abstract after completing research and finishing work on your paper. This way, you can write précis that accurately reflects all necessary information without missing any important details. Writing your thesis précis last also lets you provide the right keywords to help readers find your dissertation.

3. What should a dissertation abstract include?

A dissertation abstract should include a research problem, goals and objectives, methods, results, and study implications. Ensure that you incorporate enough information so readers can get an idea of your thesis's content without reading it through. Use relevant keywords to ensure readers can easily find your paper when searching for information on a specific topic.

4. How to write a strong dissertation abstract?

To write a strong abstract for a dissertation, you should state your research problem, write in an active voice, use simple language, and provide relevant information. Additionally, write and edit your précis several times until it is clear and concise, and verify that it accurately mirrors your paper’s content. Reviewing several samples is also helpful for understanding how to write your own.

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

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What is a Thesis or Dissertation Abstract?

The Cambridge English Dictionary defines an abstract in academic writing as being “ a few sentences that give the main ideas in an article or a scientific paper ” and the Collins English Dictionary says “ an abstract of an article, document, or speech is a short piece of writing that gives the main points of it ”.

Whether you’re writing up your Master’s dissertation or PhD thesis, the abstract will be a key element of this document that you’ll want to make sure you give proper attention to.

What is the Purpose of an Abstract?

The aim of a thesis abstract is to give the reader a broad overview of what your research project was about and what you found that was novel, before he or she decides to read the entire thesis. The reality here though is that very few people will read the entire thesis, and not because they’re necessarily disinterested but because practically it’s too large a document for most people to have the time to read. The exception to this is your PhD examiner, however know that even they may not read the entire length of the document.

Some people may still skip to and read specific sections throughout your thesis such as the methodology, but the fact is that the abstract will be all that most read and will therefore be the section they base their opinions about your research on. In short, make sure you write a good, well-structured abstract.

How Long Should an Abstract Be?

If you’re a PhD student, having written your 100,000-word thesis, the abstract will be the 300 word summary included at the start of the thesis that succinctly explains the motivation for your study (i.e. why this research was needed), the main work you did (i.e. the focus of each chapter), what you found (the results) and concluding with how your research study contributed to new knowledge within your field.

Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President of the United States of America, once famously said:

The point here is that it’s easier to talk open-endedly about a subject that you know a lot about than it is to condense the key points into a 10-minute speech; the same applies for an abstract. Three hundred words is not a lot of words which makes it even more difficult to condense three (or more) years of research into a coherent, interesting story.

What Makes a Good PhD Thesis Abstract?

Whilst the abstract is one of the first sections in your PhD thesis, practically it’s probably the last aspect that you’ll ending up writing before sending the document to print. The reason being that you can’t write a summary about what you did, what you found and what it means until you’ve done the work.

A good abstract is one that can clearly explain to the reader in 300 words:

• What your research field actually is,
• What the gap in knowledge was in your field,
• The overarching aim and objectives of your PhD in response to these gaps,
• What methods you employed to achieve these,
• You key results and findings,
• How your work has added to further knowledge in your field of study.

Another way to think of this structure is:

• Introduction,
• Aims and objectives,
• Discussion,
• Conclusion.

Following this ‘formulaic’ approach to writing the abstract should hopefully make it a little easier to write but you can already see here that there’s a lot of information to convey in a very limited number of words.

How Do You Write a Good PhD Thesis Abstract?

The biggest challenge you’ll have is getting all the 6 points mentioned above across in your abstract within the limit of 300 words . Your particular university may give some leeway in going a few words over this but it’s good practice to keep within this; the art of succinctly getting your information across is an important skill for a researcher to have and one that you’ll be called on to use regularly as you write papers for peer review.

Keep It Concise

Every word in the abstract is important so make sure you focus on only the key elements of your research and the main outcomes and significance of your project that you want the reader to know about. You may have come across incidental findings during your research which could be interesting to discuss but this should not happen in the abstract as you simply don’t have enough words. Furthermore, make sure everything you talk about in your thesis is actually described in the main thesis.

Make a Unique Point Each Sentence

Keep the sentences short and to the point. Each sentence should give the reader new, useful information about your research so there’s no need to write out your project title again. Give yourself one or two sentences to introduce your subject area and set the context for your project. Then another sentence or two to explain the gap in the knowledge; there’s no need or expectation for you to include references in the abstract.

Explain Your Research

Some people prefer to write their overarching aim whilst others set out their research questions as they correspond to the structure of their thesis chapters; the approach you use is up to you, as long as the reader can understand what your dissertation or thesis had set out to achieve. Knowing this will help the reader better understand if your results help to answer the research questions or if further work is needed.

Keep It Factual

Keep the content of the abstract factual; that is to say that you should avoid bringing too much or any opinion into it, which inevitably can make the writing seem vague in the points you’re trying to get across and even lacking in structure.

Write, Edit and Then Rewrite

Spend suitable time editing your text, and if necessary, completely re-writing it. Show the abstract to others and ask them to explain what they understand about your research – are they able to explain back to you each of the 6 structure points, including why your project was needed, the research questions and results, and the impact it had on your research field? It’s important that you’re able to convey what new knowledge you contributed to your field but be mindful when writing your abstract that you don’t inadvertently overstate the conclusions, impact and significance of your work.

Thesis and Dissertation Abstract Examples

Perhaps the best way to understand how to write a thesis abstract is to look at examples of what makes a good and bad abstract.

Example of A Bad Abstract

Let’s start with an example of a bad thesis abstract:

In this project on “The Analysis of the Structural Integrity of 3D Printed Polymers for use in Aircraft”, my research looked at how 3D printing of materials can help the aviation industry in the manufacture of planes. Plane parts can be made at a lower cost using 3D printing and made lighter than traditional components. This project investigated the structural integrity of EBM manufactured components, which could revolutionise the aviation industry.

What Makes This a Bad Abstract

Hopefully you’ll have spotted some of the reasons this would be considered a poor abstract, not least because the author used up valuable words by repeating the lengthy title of the project in the abstract.

Working through our checklist of the 6 key points you want to convey to the reader:

• There has been an attempt to introduce the research area , albeit half-way through the abstract but it’s not clear if this is a materials science project about 3D printing or is it about aircraft design.
• There’s no explanation about where the gap in the knowledge is that this project attempted to address.
• We can see that this project was focussed on the topic of structural integrity of materials in aircraft but the actual research aims or objectives haven’t been defined.
• There’s no mention at all of what the author actually did to investigate structural integrity. For example was this an experimental study involving real aircraft, or something in the lab, computer simulations etc.
• The author also doesn’t tell us a single result of his research, let alone the key findings !
• There’s a bold claim in the last sentence of the abstract that this project could revolutionise the aviation industry, and this may well be the case, but based on the abstract alone there is no evidence to support this as it’s not even clear what the author did .

This is an extreme example but is a good way to illustrate just how unhelpful a poorly written abstract can be. At only 71 words long, it definitely hasn’t maximised the amount of information that could be presented and the what they have presented has lacked clarity and structure.

A final point to note is the use of the EBM acronym, which stands for Electron Beam Melting in the context of 3D printing; this is a niche acronym for the author to assume that the reader would know the meaning of. It’s best to avoid acronyms in your abstract all together even if it’s something that you might expect most people to know about, unless you specifically define the meaning first.

Example of A Good Abstract

Having seen an example of a bad thesis abstract, now lets look at an example of a good PhD thesis abstract written about the same (fictional) project:

Additive manufacturing (AM) of titanium alloys has the potential to enable cheaper and lighter components to be produced with customised designs for use in aircraft engines. Whilst the proof-of-concept of these have been promising, the structural integrity of AM engine parts in response to full thrust and temperature variations is not clear.

The primary aim of this project was to determine the fracture modes and mechanisms of AM components designed for use in Boeing 747 engines. To achieve this an explicit finite element (FE) model was developed to simulate the environment and parameters that the engine is exposed to during flight. The FE model was validated using experimental data replicating the environmental parameters in a laboratory setting using ten AM engine components provided by the industry sponsor. The validated FE model was then used to investigate the extent of crack initiation and propagation as the environment parameters were adjusted.

This project was the first to investigate fracture patterns in AM titanium components used in aircraft engines; the key finding was that the presence of cavities within the structures due to errors in the printing process, significantly increased the risk of fracture. Secondly, the simulations showed that cracks formed within AM parts were more likely to worsen and lead to component failure at subzero temperatures when compared to conventionally manufactured parts. This has demonstrated an important safety concern which needs to be addressed before AM parts can be used in commercial aircraft.

What Makes This a Good Abstract

Having read this ‘good abstract’ you should have a much better understand about what the subject area is about, where the gap in the knowledge was, the aim of the project, the methods that were used, key results and finally the significance of these results. To break these points down further, from this good abstract we now know that:

• The research area is around additive manufacturing (i.e. 3D printing) of materials for use in aircraft.
• The gap in knowledge was how these materials will behave structural when used in aircraft engines.
• The aim was specifically to investigate how the components can fracture.
• The methods used to investigate this were a combination of computational and lab based experimental modelling.
• The key findings were the increased risk of fracture of these components due to the way they are manufactured.
• The significance of these findings were that it showed a potential risk of component failure that could comprise the safety of passengers and crew on the aircraft.

The abstract text has a much clearer flow through these different points in how it’s written and has made much better use of the available word count. Acronyms have even been used twice in this good abstract but they were clearly defined the first time they were introduced in the text so that there was no confusion about their meaning.

The abstract you write for your dissertation or thesis should succinctly explain to the reader why the work of your research was needed, what you did, what you found and what it means. Most people that come across your thesis, including any future employers, are likely to read only your abstract. Even just for this reason alone, it’s so important that you write the best abstract you can; this will not only convey your research effectively but also put you in the best light possible as a researcher.

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Dissertation abstract

Despite being just 150 to 350 words long (in most cases), the Abstract is arguably one of the most important parts of your dissertation. In this short space, the abstract must capture the essence of your dissertation. This includes the problem being tackled (and the motivation behind this), the significance of your research, the research strategy guiding it, as well as the major findings and conclusions. The perfect informative abstract is one where the reader could choose not to read on but would still understand the essence of your dissertation. At the same time, a poorly constructed dissertation abstract can mislead the reader into thinking the study is about something it is not, confusing them from the very start.

In most cases, you will be expected to use an informative , rather than descriptive style , when writing your dissertation abstract. However, since this is not always the case, we briefly explain the difference between the two abstract styles - descriptive and informative - in the section, Choosing between dissertation abstract styles: Descriptive or informative . With the abstract being one of the most important parts of your dissertation, we explain the need for good structure, internal consistency, effective weighting between sections, amongst other factors, in the section, What readers expect from a dissertation abstract . We also highlight what readers are not looking for.

Even though every dissertation is different, there is a fairly common way to effectively structure your dissertation abstract. In the section, How to structure your dissertation abstract , we take you through the important components that the abstract should address, including the problem being addressed, the significance of the study, components of your research strategy, results and conclusions. Finally, knowing what you want to say and how to express that on the page are two different things. In the section, Useful phrases when writing a dissertation abstract , we set out phrases that you can use and build on when writing your dissertation abstract.

• ABSTRACT STYLES: Choosing between dissertation abstract styles: Descriptive or informative
• EXPECTATIONS: What readers expect from a dissertation abstract
• STRUCTURE: How to structure a dissertation abstract
• USEFUL PHRASES: Useful phrases when writing a dissertation abstract

How to structure your abstract

The abstract is often considered one of the most challenging paper sections to write. it should be concise, but also give a complete summary of your work. but which parts of your work are abstract-worthy we analyzed 250,000 abstracts from our database of scientific texts to find out..

Our analysis

To determine what structure an abstract usually follows, we divided all 250,000 abstracts into four parts and extracted the most frequent four-word combinations from each. We filtered out phrases with too much overlap ( this study shows that and study shows that the ) or that were not meaningful for this analysis ( that there was a ).

Distribution of phrases

The figure on the sheet below shows the most frequently used phrases, and how these are distributed across the four parts of the abstract. This clearly shows us that phrases like in the present study and purpose of this study usually appear at the start of the abstract (in orange - part 1), while phrases like effectiveness of the proposed and these results suggest that tend to appear at the end (dark blue - part 4). Parts 2 and 3 overlap, covering phrases such as 95% confidence interval , in the control group , and between the two groups , indicating that the middle of the abstract usually covers the methods, analysis, and results.

Useful phrases for your abstract

Looking for words to use at the beginning, middle, or end of your abstract? The sheet below shows what pieces of information usually go into each part, with the most frequently used phrases for each. For more guidance, try Writefull’s Sentence Palette , which offers a set of sentences that you can directly paste into your own abstract!

About the author

Hilde is Chief Applied Linguist at Writefull .

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Academic Phrases for Writing Abstract Section of a Research Paper

Overview |   Abstract   | Introduction | Literature Review | Materials & Methods | Results & Discussion | Conclusion & Future Work | Acknowledgements & Appendix

An abstract is a self-contained and short synopsis that describes a larger work. The abstract is the only part of the paper that is published online and in most conference proceedings. Hence abstract constitutes a very important section of your paper.  Also, when you submit your paper to a journal, potential reviewers only see the abstract when invited by an editor to review the manuscript. The abstract should include one or two lines briefly describing the topic, scope, purpose, results, and conclusion of your work. The abstract is indexed by search engines, so make sure that it has all the right words that a fellow researcher in the same field will be using while searching for articles online. Also, make sure it is rich with data and numbers to demonstrate the scientific rigor of your article. Be very clear and confident about your findings. Keep it punchy and straight to the point.

 The abstract section of your research paper should include the following:

• Con tribution

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16 Comments

It is very useful.

I like it very much and very informative.. It will me in my research writing. Thanks

Very informative but it is good if you have some samples of abstracts here

How to get these vocabulary?

It is very useful for report writing. Thanks a lot.

I think the “Academic Phrases, Sentences & Vocabulary” are missing from this page 🙁

I need to read this report

VERY VERY HELPFUL MATERIAL

its good information about research paper writing

It is very useful.Thanks a lot.

Thank you so much for this precious information

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VERY USEFUL.

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Thank you so much. It is very useful.

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Writing A Dissertation Abstract

W riting a quality abstract is important as the abstract tells the reader what to expect in your thesis or dissertation, and it helps them to decide whether they should read the rest of your document. Over the years, we’ve reviewed thousands of abstracts . In this post, we’ll unpack five common mistakes we see and explain how you can avoid them when crafting your dissertation or thesis abstract.

Overview: 5 Abstract Mistakes

• Not understanding exactly what an abstract is (and does)
• Failing to cover the key aspects of your study
• Using body content verbatim instead of paraphrasing
• Having formatting and language -related issues
• Failing to include relevant keywords

1. Not understanding what an abstract is

A recurring issue we see is that students often don’t have a clear understanding of what an abstract is and the   purpose it serves . This naturally has a major knock-on effect. Simply put, an abstract is a   concise   summary of your research project , and it should include a bit of everything from your thesis or dissertation. The purpose of the abstract is to tell the reader   what to expect   in your document and entice   them to read   the full document (or at least the parts that are relevant to them).

A good abstract should summarize the key components of your study, which means that it should include a brief   introduction   to your study, a summary of the   key insights   from your literature review, a high-level overview of your   methodology , and a summary of the   key findings . Importantly, your abstract should summarise the body content,   not present new information . Never present any information in your abstract that is not presented in your main document.

When writing up your abstract, aim to do so as   concisely   as possible. You can think of your abstract as an elevator pitch – you want it to be   short, sweet and representative   of everything you want to get across. Less is more. Also, much like an elevator pitch, your abstract needs to tell a clear story on its own. So, it’s vital to create a   clear narrative   within your abstract that paints a vivid picture in the reader’s mind.

2. Not covering the key aspects of your study

Another common mistake we see students making is   not covering the key aspects   of their studies in the abstract. While you don’t have much space to work with, an abstract still needs to cover the main details of your study. So, when you’re crafting this section, try to allocate 2-3 sentences toward each of your chapters.

Importantly, your abstract needs to explain   what your study focuses on   (i.e., your   research aims and questions ) and how that is   unique   and   important . In other words, it needs to   justify your research . To do this, you can mention how your research connects to prior studies, and what differences justify the existence of your project. This should be rooted in the content presented in your   introduction   and literature review chapters.

The abstract should also provide insight regarding the   methodological approach . Remember, the abstract is a summary, so while it’s important to outline your research methodology, don’t try to detail the entire design here. You just need to cover the   high-level details , such as the methodological approach (e.g., qualitative),   sampling strategy , data collection and data analysis methods.

Finally, your abstract needs to discuss your   key findings and   the implications   thereof . It should address questions such as:

• What did you find?
• Why is it important?
• What implications (and applications) are there for your findings?

The word “key” is vital here – you   don’t have to discuss every finding , just the ones that are central to your research aims and   research questions.

Need a helping hand?

3. Using body content verbatim

Since the abstract is a summary of your work, you’ll generally   write it last   (although you can of course create an outline earlier in the dissertation writing process). Because of this, there is a tendency amongst students to copy and paste content from their body chapters (e.g., the literature review chapter, methodology chapter, etc.) to create an abstract. This is problematic, as the abstract needs to be an   original piece of writing , not a hodgepodge of the existing body content.

A good abstract should present a be a smooth,   clear narrative   of what you set out to discover (i.e., the   research topic   and justification), how you approached it (i.e., the methodology), and what the results were. Importantly, you need to tell an   engaging story   with your abstract, as that is what will attract them to read the rest of your thesis or dissertation. To achieve this, you cannot simply copy-paste content from the body section of your document. You need to craft a   unique piece of content   that can stand alone and engage potential readers with an enticing narrative.

All that said, when crafting your abstract, a good starting point can be to copy-paste some key insights from each chapter so that you have everything in one place. You could, for example, have a few bullet points for each chapter. However, that is   purely a starting point . From there, you need to craft an original piece of writing that will form a smooth, engaging narrative.

4. Formatting and language-related issues

Another common issue we encounter is that of   formatting   and   language -related issues in abstracts. Understandably, students are generally quite worn out by this stage of the dissertation and may slip up on the finer details. However, the abstract is your “shop window” – the first thing a new reader will encounter – so it needs to be   very well polished . If you write a brilliant abstract but it’s riddled with spelling and grammar issues, you’re going to   lose the reader’s interest   (and, of course, marks).

So, what sort of issues do you need to avoid?

First – typically, an abstract   doesn’t make use of citations , as these are reserved for the body content of the dissertation or thesis. However, you can use author names when referring to seminal work. For example, if your study is a response to prior research, you can name the researchers (but you don’t need to include a full citation). Of course, it’s worth noting that some institutions may have a different preference, so be sure to   look at past dissertations   and theses from your university program to gauge what the norms are.

Second – when writing up your abstract, try to   avoid using excessive jargon , complex terminology and abbreviations. Always assume that you are writing for the   intelligent layman . In other words, an intellectually curious outsider to your field of research. Ultimately, your abstract needs to be understandable to your audience and using excessive jargon or complex terminology may   lose the reader . If you must use jargon or abbreviations to accurately represent a concept, be sure to   explain   each piece of terminology first.

Third – since your abstract needs to be concise, it can be tempting to write using bullet points and numbered lists. Typically, however, an abstract   shouldn’t have bullet points , numbered lists, figures, or tables as it is a textual summary. So, avoid these at all costs.

Lastly – it may sound obvious, but your abstract needs to be “perfect” in terms of language use. All too often, we see   spelling, punctuation, grammar and tense errors   in the abstract. Since it is your “shop window”, these types of issues are inexcusable. So, be sure to carefully edit and proofread your abstract before submission.

5. Not including relevant keywords

Another common mistake that we see students make is not including   relevant keywords   at the end of the abstract. Sometimes the keywords aren’t relevant, and sometimes they’re just altogether absent.

But what exactly are keywords?

Keywords are what make your   research discoverable   in search engines and academic databases – they’re like academic hashtags that connect research and make it possible to navigate through similar studies. An example of a keyword would be something like, “cognition” or “addiction”.

Typically, keywords can be   quite vague or broad , so you’ll likely need to make use of   key phrases   to more accurately represent your research. Key phrases consist of multiple keywords, for example, “temporal cognition” or “Dutch sentence negation”. While key phrases provide more specificity than individual keywords,   never use whole sentences   as key phrases, these just look bad and make your research very hard to find. Ideally, you should try to stick to key phrases of 2-3 words.

In general, you should aim for   5-6 keywords/key phrases   for your research project. However, it’s always a good idea to check with your institution to find out how many keywords/phrases they prefer. While it may be tempting to go full Instagram and use every keyword you can come up with, this is not advised as this can make your research look like it   lacks credibility and specificity . It can also appear that you’re trying to game the system.

To identify relevant keywords, think about the research process and the kinds of search terms you used when performing your literature review, as these terms are a good start. Further, have a look at the   keywords used in previous studies   (i.e., the journal articles you read as part of your literature review) to identify relevant keywords.

Recap: Abstract Mistakes

In this post, we’ve discussed 5 common mistakes to avoid when writing the abstract for your thesis or dissertation. To recap, these include:

• Not understanding exactly   what an abstract is (and does)
• Failing to cover the   key aspects   of your study
• Using   body content verbatim   instead of paraphrasing
• Having   formatting and language -related issues
• Failing to include relevant   keywords

If you have any questions about these mistakes, drop a comment below. Alternatively, if you’re interested in getting   1-on-1 help with your thesis or dissertation , be sure to check out our dissertation coaching service or book a free initial consultation with one of our friendly Grad Coaches.

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Impressive Academic Phrases for Writing Manuscripts

If you are a graduate student or a researcher, you definitely know the challenges involved in composing academic documents. Right from the abstract to the conclusion, every section must follow a logical structure. Using appropriate language, tense, voice, and perspective to present your ideas is very important. As a good practice, researchers prior to writing a manuscript extensively read previously published literature. However, scanning for the right phrases and then using them as templates to fill in data obtained from their work can be extremely time-consuming! In the following article we present to you a “quick reference guide for impressive academic phrases”. Collated from hundreds of published manuscripts, these frequently used academic phrases are tailored to what every section of your article should achieve.

Benefits of Using Tailor-made Academic Phrases

• Using these phrases will simplify your writing process. You can invest your time and efforts for something more productive.
• These phrases will help you write in a clear and concise manner.
• Ready-made phrases can expedite your process of organizing your data in a logical manner.
• There are far less chances of plagiarism as these are generic phrases that find acceptance across all disciplines.
• Editors and peer reviewers may find it easier to run through your data when expressed using standard or conventional phrases. This may assist in speeding up the review process and increasing your chances of a faster publication.
• Think about your target audience – busy researchers and academicians! They will surely enjoy reading a manuscript that is crisp and engaging.
• Structure of a manuscript is paramount! These phrases may also help you create a logical framework for your data.

Abstract is that element of a manuscript that convinces your reader why your article is worth reading. It is like a miniature article that clearly states the objectives and briefly explains all your key findings.

XYZ is the primary/main/leading/major cause of… XYZ is /are attracting considerable interest/gaining widespread attention due to… An intriguing/important/challenging aspect of XYZ is… As far as we know/to our knowledge this is the first study/no previous research has investigated… Very few studies have investigated/have shown/examined/focused on… One approach /alternative approach to solve these problems… The aim /overall objective/ultimate goal of… This paper reports/outlines/proposes/describes/presents a novel approach.. This manuscript examines/focusses on/addresses/investigates/sheds light on how to.. The aim of this study/work/research was to broaden/widen/extend/further the current knowledge about… Here, we describe/present a simple/novel/radical/effective/interesting solution for

Introduction and literature review

This section focuses on – what did you investigate and why it is important? Consequently, you have to provide some background information and thereafter introduce the aims or arguments of the paper.

An ever-increasing body of literatures shows that.. Very recently, XYZ have provided new evidences for… Several studies have hypothesized /proposed/put forward.. In recent years, there has been growing/considerable interest in… The last few years has witnessed/ seen a huge growth in XYZ. This study constitutes a relatively new area of research which has emerged from… In order to elucidate/reveal/understand the XYZ mechanism… For several years, researchers have been focusing on XYZ in an attempt to understand… To address these three gaps in research outlined above, we formulated the following research question… Overall, this review paper puts an emphasis on… Preliminary/ initial studies on XYZ primarily focused on… An increase/decrease in factor X was first reported/noted/identified by… Several studies, for instance [1], [4], and [9]  have suggested/highlighted/revealed/proposed/demonstrated…. XYZ et al. calculated/analyzed/estimated… ABC traced the developments/advancements /evolution of XYZ… PQR  maintains/suggests/underlines/argues/suggests that… Few authors have also suggested that… Although there are several studies consistent with XYZ , no study has till date examined… Previous studies reported by [A], [B] and [C] cannot be considered conclusive as…. Studies by XYZ have led to a more profound understanding of… Only a few studies in literature demonstrate… To fill this gap in literature, this manuscript/paper identifies… To develop/establish a novel/effective alternative… Our findings might be useful/vital/crucial for developing a simple/effective/cost-effective…method for.. Despite several reviews in the literature that address the importance of XYZ none of the recently published articles have comprehensively discussed the important roles of… While XYZ is well documented in literature ([1],[5],[8],[16]), to date, no research has… However, we argue that the reported literature suffers from certain limitations…

Materials and Methods

This sections provides details about the study site, organisms studies, experimental design, and computational or statistical methods used to analyze the data.

In our preliminary experiments, we determined that… This phenomenon was experimentally investigated by… The principle focus of this experiment was to calculate… The XYZ strain used in this study was kindly supplied by… Statistical analyses were performed by using … test with a significance level of … Data analysis (regression analysis/correlation studies) and graphical representations were performed using…

Results and Discussion

This section discusses all the outcomes relevant to the research question. One needs to highlight the significance of the results and indicate whether your findings support or reject the hypothesis.

When analyzing the data, we applied XYZ technique and… The current study confirmed the findings/found clear support for the… Our results demonstrated/found evidence that… From the results it is evident/clear that… Moreover, the results of the empirical studies showed that… Additionally, researchers have found a positive/negative relationship/correlation between… These findings/results are consistent/in line/in accordance with… in addition we assessed…, the findings revealed significant differences in… On the contrary, very few studies have reported… Equally important is the fact that there is strong correlation between… The limitations of the present study include… Although widely accepted, this method suffers from certain limitations .. It is interesting to note that… Further investigation/studies are required to precisely/accurately understand/elucidate… In addition to these findings, the results of our previous studies demonstrate…

Conclusions

The conclusions section highlights all the important trends and comparisons identified in the study. It also states the limitations as well as future recommendations to carry out subsequent research.

XYZ has shown promising results and thus could be a powerful technique/tool/method for… These findings could provide new insights into… The significant benefits/key contributions/main achievements of this study can be summarized as.. We believe that XYZ merits further research to discover/explore… and potential for… Also this remains a subject for future studies/experiments. Although further investigations are needed, the present study contributes to a better understanding/characterization of… In this review/article we addressed the current progress and challenges in… Nevertheless, there are still critical challenges regarding.. Furthermore, XYZ is a domain where much remains to be studied… As a final remark, it is also vital to mention…

We hope these academic phrases will assist you in the logical development of your manuscript and making it impactful. Let us know your feedback in the comments section below!

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• Thesis & Dissertation Acknowledgements | Tips & Examples

Thesis & Dissertation Acknowledgements | Tips & Examples

Published on May 3, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

The acknowledgements section is your opportunity to thank those who have helped and supported you personally and professionally during your thesis or dissertation process.

Thesis or dissertation acknowledgements appear between your title page and abstract  and should be no longer than one page.

In your acknowledgements, it’s okay to use a more informal style than is usually permitted in academic writing , as well as first-person pronouns . Acknowledgements are not considered part of the academic work itself, but rather your chance to write something more personal.

To get started, download our step-by-step template in the format of your choice below. We’ve also included sample sentence starters to help you construct your acknowledgments section from scratch.

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Table of contents

Who to thank in your acknowledgements, how to write acknowledgements, acknowledgements section example, acknowledgements dos and don’ts, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the acknowledgements section.

Generally, there are two main categories of acknowledgements: professional and personal .

A good first step is to check your university’s guidelines, as they may have rules or preferences about the order, phrasing, or layout of acknowledgements. Some institutions prefer that you keep your acknowledgements strictly professional.

Regardless, it’s usually a good idea to place professional acknowledgements first, followed by any personal ones. You can then proceed by ranking who you’d like to thank from most formal to least.

• Chairs, supervisors, or defense committees
• Funding bodies
• Other academics (e.g., colleagues or cohort members)
• Editors or proofreaders
• Librarians, research/laboratory assistants, or study participants
• Family, friends, or pets

Typically, it’s only necessary to mention people who directly supported you during your thesis or dissertation. However, if you feel that someone like a high school physics teacher was a great inspiration on the path to your current research, feel free to include them as well.

Professional acknowledgements

It is crucial to avoid overlooking anyone who helped you professionally as you completed your thesis or dissertation. As a rule of thumb, anyone who directly contributed to your research process, from figuring out your dissertation topic to your final proofread, should be mentioned.

A few things to keep in mind include:

• Even if you feel your chair didn’t help you very much, you should still thank them first to avoid looking like you’re snubbing them.
• Be sure to follow academic conventions, using full names with titles where appropriate.
• If several members of a group or organization assisted you, mention the collective name only.
• Remember the ethical considerations around anonymized data. If you wish to protect someone’s privacy, use only their first name or a generic identifier (such as “the interviewees”)/

Personal acknowledgements

There is no need to mention every member of your family or friend group. However, if someone was particularly inspiring or supportive, you may wish to mention them specifically. Many people choose to thank parents, partners, children, friends, and even pets, but you can mention anyone who offered moral support or encouragement, or helped you in a tangible or intangible way.

Some students may wish to dedicate their dissertation to a deceased influential person in their personal life. In this case, it’s okay to mention them first, before any professional acknowledgements.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

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See an example

After you’ve compiled a list of who you’d like to thank, you can then sort your list into rank order. Separate everyone you listed into “major thanks,” “big thanks,” and “minor thanks” categories.

• “Major thanks” are given to people who your project would be impossible without. These are often predominantly professional acknowledgements, such as your advisor, chair, and committee, as well as any funders.
• “Big thanks” are an in-between, for those who helped you along the way or helped you grow intellectually, such as classmates, peers, or librarians.
• “Minor thanks” can be a catch-all for everyone else, especially those who offered moral support or encouragement. This can include personal acknowledgements, such as parents, partners, children, friends, or even pets.

How to phrase your acknowledgements

To avoid acknowledgements that sound repetitive or dull, consider changing up your phrasing. Here are some examples of common sentence starters you can use for each category.

Note that you do not need to write any sort of conclusion or summary at the end. You can simply end the acknowledgements with your last thank you.

Here’s an example of how you can combine the different sentences to write your acknowledgements.

A simple construction consists of a sentence starter (in purple highlight ), followed by the person or entity mentioned (in green highlight ), followed by what you’re thanking them for (in yellow highlight .)

Acknowledgements

Words cannot express my gratitude to my professor and chair of my committee for her invaluable patience and feedback. I also could not have undertaken this journey without my defense committee, who generously provided knowledge and expertise. Additionally, this endeavor would not have been possible without the generous support from the MacArthur Foundation, who financed my research .

I am also grateful to my classmates and cohort members, especially my office mates, for their editing help, late-night feedback sessions, and moral support. Thanks should also go to the librarians, research assistants, and study participants from the university, who impacted and inspired me.

Lastly, I would be remiss in not mentioning my family, especially my parents, spouse, and children. Their belief in me has kept my spirits and motivation high during this process. I would also like to thank my cat for all the entertainment and emotional support.

• Write in first-person, professional language
• Thank your professional contacts first
• Include full names, titles, and roles of professional acknowledgements
• Include personal or intangible supporters, like friends, family, or even pets
• Mention funding bodies and what they funded
• Appropriately anonymize or group research participants or non-individual acknowledgments

Don’t:

• Use informal language or slang
• Go over one page in length
• Mention people who had only a peripheral or minor impact on your work

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If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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In the acknowledgements of your thesis or dissertation, you should first thank those who helped you academically or professionally, such as your supervisor, funders, and other academics.

Then you can include personal thanks to friends, family members, or anyone else who supported you during the process.

Yes, it’s important to thank your supervisor(s) in the acknowledgements section of your thesis or dissertation .

Even if you feel your supervisor did not contribute greatly to the final product, you must acknowledge them, if only for a very brief thank you. If you do not include your supervisor, it may be seen as a snub.

The acknowledgements are generally included at the very beginning of your thesis , directly after the title page and before the abstract .

In a thesis or dissertation, the acknowledgements should usually be no longer than one page. There is no minimum length.

You may acknowledge God in your dissertation acknowledgements , but be sure to follow academic convention by also thanking the members of academia, as well as family, colleagues, and friends who helped you.

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Thesis: Vasectomy: Goals, Practices, and Effects

Editor's note:

Cole Nichols defended his Barrett Honors College thesis entitled, "Vasectomy: Goals, Practices, and Effects" in Spring 2023 in front of committee members Jane Maienschein and Dina Ziganshina.  https://keep.lib.asu.edu/items/184626

Vasectomy is one of few widely available methods of contraception for people with male reproductive systems aside from condoms, abstinence, and the withdrawal method, and it is the only one of those options that can be permanent (Amory 2016). The procedure’s prominence has led me to investigate the history of vasectomy and particularly the evolution in vasectomy technique over time. Since its introduction in the late nineteenth century, the procedure has had a variety of impacts on many people across the world. In this research project, I have sought to analyze what the technical evolution of vasectomy reveals about the changing priorities of the medical systems that use it. In particular, I point to ways the eugenics movement’s attempts to control individual reproduction have led to both vasectomy’s efficacy and its restrictiveness.

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