education discussion

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What is education? A definition and discussion

Education is the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning and change undertaken in the belief that we all should have the chance to share in life., mark k smith explores the meaning of education and suggests it is a process of being with others and inviting truth and possibility., contents : introduction • education – cultivating hopeful environments and relationships for learning • education, respect and wisdom • education – acting so all may share in life • conclusion – what is education • further reading and references • acknowledgements • how to cite this piece.

picture: Education by Claude Gillot (1673–1722). creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/

Introduction

When talking about education people often confuse it with schooling. Many think of places like schools or colleges when seeing or hearing the word. They might also look to particular jobs like teacher or tutor. The problem with this is that while looking to help people learn, the way a lot of schools and teachers operate is not necessarily something we can properly call education. They have chosen or fallen or been pushed into ‘schooling’ – trying to drill learning into people according to some plan often drawn up by others. Paulo Freire (1973) famously called this banking – making deposits of knowledge. Such ‘schooling’ too easily descends into treating learners like objects, things to be acted upon rather than people to be related to.

Education, as we understand it here, is a process of inviting truth and possibility, of encouraging and giving time to discovery. It is, as John Dewey (1916) put it, a social process – ‘a process of living and not a preparation for future living’. In this view educators look to learning and being with others rather than acting upon them. Their task is to educe (related to the Greek notion of educere ), to bring out or develop potential both in themselves and others. Such education is:

• Deliberate and hopeful. It is learning we set out to make happen in the belief that we all can ‘be more’;
• Informed, respectful and wise. A process of inviting truth and possibility.
• Grounded in a desire that at all may flourish and share in life . It is a cooperative and inclusive activity that looks to help us to live our lives as well as we can.

In what follows we will try to answer the question ‘what is education?’ by exploring these dimensions and the processes involved.

Education – cultivating hopeful environments and relationships for learning

It is often said that we are learning all the time and that we may not be conscious of it happening. Learning is both a process and an outcome. As a process, it is part of being and living in the world, part of the way our bodies work. As an outcome, it is a new understanding or appreciation of something.

In recent years, developments in neuroscience have shown us how learning takes place both in the body and as a social activity. We are social animals. As a result, educators need to focus on creating environments and relationships for learning rather than trying to drill knowledge into themselves and others.

Teachers are losing the education war because our adolescents are distracted by the social world. Naturally, the students don’t see it that way. It wasn’t their choice to get endless instruction on topics that don’t seem relevant to them. They desperately want to learn, but what they want to learn about is their social world—how it works and how they can secure a place in it that will maximize their social rewards and minimize the social pain they feel. Their brains are built to feel these strong social motivations and to use the mentalizing system to help them along. Evolutionarily, the social interest of adolescents is no distraction. Rather, it is the most important thing they can learn well. (Lieberman 2013: 282)

The cultivation of learning is a cognitive and emotional and social activity (Illeris 2002)

Alison Gopnik (2016) has provided a helpful way of understanding this orientation. It is that educators, pedagogues and practitioners need to be gardeners rather than carpenters. A key theme emerging from her research over the last 30 years or so that runs in parallel with Lieberman, is that children learn by actively engaging their social and physical environments – not by passively absorbing information. They learn from other people, not because they are being taught – but because people are doing and talking about interesting things. The emphasis in a lot of the literature about parenting (and teaching) presents the roles much like that of a carpenter.

You should pay some attention to the kind of material you are working with, and it may have some influence on what you try to do. But essentially your job is to shape that material into a final product that will fit the scheme you had in mind to begin with.

Instead, Gopnik argues, the evidence points to being a gardener.

When we garden, on the other hand, we create a protected and nurturing space for plants to flourish. It takes hard labor and the sweat of our brows, with a lot of exhausted digging and wallowing in manure. And as any gardener knows, our specific plans are always thwarted. The poppy comes up neon orange instead of pale pink, the rose that was supposed to climb the fence stubbornly remains a foot from the ground, black spot and rust and aphids can never be defeated.

Education is deliberate. We act with a purpose – to build understanding and judgement and enable action. We may do this for ourselves, for example, learning what different road signs mean so that we can get a license to drive; or watching wildlife programmes on television because we are interested in animal behaviour. This process is sometimes called self-education or teaching yourself. We join with the journey that the writer, presenter or expert is making, think about it and develop our understanding. Hopefully, we bring that process and understanding into play when we need to act. We also seek to encourage learning in others (while being open to learning ourselves). Examples here include parents and carers showing their children how to use a knife and fork or ride a bike; schoolteachers introducing students to a foreign language; and animators and pedagogues helping a group to work together.

Sometimes as educators, we have a clear idea of what we’d like to see achieved; at others, we do not and should not. In the case of the former, we might be working to a curriculum, have a session or lesson plan with clear objectives, and have a high degree of control over the learning environment. This is what we often mean by ‘formal education’. In the latter, for example, when working with a community group, the setting is theirs and, as educators, we are present as guests. This is an example of informal education and here two things are happening.

First, the group may well be clear on what it wants to achieve e.g. putting on an event, but unclear about what they need to learn to do it. They know learning is involved – it is something necessary to achieve what they want – but it is not the main focus. Such ‘incidental learning’ is not accidental. People know they need to learn something but cannot necessarily specify it in advance (Brookfield 1984).

Second, this learning activity works largely through conversation – and conversation takes unpredictable turns. It is a dialogical rather than curricula form of education.

In both forms, educators set out to create environments and relationships where people can explore their, and other’s, experiences of situations, ideas and feelings. This exploration lies, as John Dewey argued, at the heart of the ‘business of education’. Educators set out to emancipate and enlarge experience (1933: 340). How closely the subject matter is defined in advance, and by whom, differs from situation to situation. John Ellis (1990) has developed a useful continuum – arguing that most education involves a mix of the informal and formal, of conversation and curriculum (i.e. between points X and Y).

Those that describe themselves as informal educators, social pedagogues or as animators of community learning and development tend to work towards the X; those working as subject teachers or lecturers tend to the Y. Educators when facilitating tutor groups might, overall, work somewhere in the middle.

Acting in hope

Underpinning intention is an attitude or virtue – hopefulness. As educators ‘we believe that learning is possible, that nothing can keep an open mind from seeking after knowledge and finding a way to know’ (hooks 2003: xiv) . In other words, we invite people to learn and act in the belief that change for the good is possible. This openness to possibility isn’t blind or over-optimistic. It looks to evidence and experience, and is born of an appreciation of the world’s limitations (Halpin 2003: 19-20).

We can quickly see how such hope is both a part of the fabric of education – and, for many, an aim of education. Mary Warnock (1986:182) puts it this way:

I think that of all the attributes that I would like to see in my children or in my pupils, the attribute of hope would come high, even top, of the list. To lose hope is to lose the capacity to want or desire anything; to lose, in fact, the wish to live. Hope is akin to energy, to curi­osity, to the belief that things are worth doing. An education which leaves a child without hope is an education that has failed.

But hope is not easy to define or describe. It is:

An emotion . Hope, John Macquarrie (1978 11) suggests, ‘consists in an outgoing and trusting mood toward the environment’. We do not know what will happen but take a gamble. ‘It’s to bet on the future, on your desires, on the possibility that an open heart and uncertainty is better than gloom and safety. To hope is dangerous, and yet it is the opposite of fear, for to live is to risk’ (Solnit 2016: 21).

A choice or intention to act . Hope ‘promotes affirmative courses of action’ (Macquarrie 1978: 11). Hope alone will not transform the world. Action ‘undertaken in that kind of naïveté’, wrote Paulo Freire (1994: 8), ‘is an excellent route to hopelessness, pessimism, and fatalism’. Hope and action are linked. Rebecca Solnit (2016: 22) put it this way, ‘Hope calls for action; action is impossible without hope… To hope is to give yourself to the future, and that commitment to the future makes the present inhabitable’.

An intellectual activity . Hope is not just feeling or striving, according to McQuarrie it has a cognitive or intellectual aspect. ‘[I]t carries in itself a definite way of understanding both ourselves – and the environing processes within which human life has its setting’ ( op. cit. ).

This provides us with a language to help make sense of things and to imagine change for the better – a ‘vocabulary of hope’. It helps us to critique the world as it is and our part in it, and not to just imagine change but also to plan it (Moltman 1967, 1971). It also allows us, and others, to ask questions of our hopes, to request evidence for our claims. (See, what is hope? ).

Education – being respectful, informed and wise

Education is wrapped up with who we are as learners and facilitators of learning – and how we are experienced by learners. In order to think about this, it is helpful to look back at a basic distinction made by Erich Fromm (1979), amongst others, between having and being. Fromm approaches these as fundamental modes of existence. He saw them as two different ways of understanding ourselves and the world in which we live.

Having is concerned with owning, possessing and controlling. In it we want to ‘make everybody and everything’, including ourselves, our property (Fromm 1979: 33). It looks to objects and material possessions.

Being is rooted in love according to Fromm. It is concerned with shared experience and productive activity. Rather than seeking to possess and control, in this mode, we engage with the world. We do not impose ourselves on others nor ‘interfere’ in their lives (see Smith and Smith 2008: 16-17).

These different orientations involve contrasting approaches to learning.

Students in the having mode must have but one aim; to hold onto what they have ‘learned’, either by entrusting it firmly to their memories or by carefully guarding their notes. They do not have to produce or create something new…. The process of learning has an entirely different quality for students in the being mode… Instead of being passive receptacles of words and ideas, they listen, they hear , and most important, they receive and they respond in an active, productive way. (Fromm 1979: 37-38)

In many ways, this difference mirrors that between education and schooling. Schooling entails transmitting knowledge in manageable lumps so it can be stored and then used so that students can pass tests and have qualifications. Education involves engaging with others and the world. It entails being with   others in a particular way. Here I want to explore three aspects – being respectful, informed and wise.

Being respectful

The process of education flows from a basic orientation of respect – respect for truth, others and themselves, and the world. It is an attitude or feeling which is carried through into concrete action, into the way we treat people, for example. Respect, as R. S. Dillon (2014) has reminded us, is derived from the Latin respicere , meaning ‘to look back at’ or ‘to look again’ at something. In other words, when we respect something we value it enough to make it our focus and to try to see it for what it is, rather than what we might want it to be. It is so important that it calls for our recognition and our regard – and we choose to respond.

We can see this at work in our everyday relationships. When we think highly of someone we may well talk about respecting them – and listen carefully to what they say or value the example they give. Here, though, we are also concerned with a more abstract idea – that of moral worth or value. Rather than looking at why we respect this person or that, the interest is in why we should respect people in general (or truth, or creation, or ourselves).

First, we expect educators to hold truth dearly . We expect that they will look beneath the surface, try to challenge misrepresentation and lies, and be open to alternatives. They should display the ‘two basic virtues of truth’: sincerity and accuracy (Williams 2002: 11). There are strong religious reasons for this. Bearing false witness, within Christian traditions, can be seen as challenging the foundations of God’s covenant. There are also strongly practical reasons for truthfulness. Without it, the development of knowledge would not be possible – we could not evaluate one claim against another. Nor could we conduct much of life. For example, as Paul Seabright (2010) has argued, truthfulness allows us to trust strangers. In the process, we can build complex societies, trade and cooperate.

Educators, as with other respecters of truth, should do their best to acquire ‘true beliefs’ and to ensure what they say actually reveals what they believe (Williams 2002: 11). Their authority, ‘must be rooted in their truthfulness in both these respects: they take care, and they do not lie’ op. cit.).

Second, educators should display fundamental respect for others (and themselves) . There is a straightforward theological argument for this. There is also a fundamental philosophical argument for ‘respect for persons’. Irrespective of what they have done, the people they are or their social position, it is argued, people are deserving of some essential level of regard. The philosopher most closely associated with this idea is Immanuel Kant – and his thinking has become a central pillar of humanism. Kant’s position was that people were deserving of respect because they are people – free, rational beings. They are ends in themselves with an absolute dignity

Alongside respect for others comes respect for self. Without it, it is difficult to see how we can flourish – and whether we can be educators. Self-respect is not to be confused with qualities like self-esteem or self-confidence; rather it is to do with our intrinsic worth as a person and a sense of ourselves as mattering. It involves a ‘secure conviction that [our] conception of the good, [our] plan of life, is worth carrying out’ (Rawls 1972: 440). For some, respect for ourselves is simply the other side of the coin from respect for others. It flows from respect for persons. For others, like John Rawls, it is vital for happiness and must be supported as a matter of justice.

Third, educators should respect the Earth . This is sometimes talked about as respect for nature, or respect for all things or care for creation. Again there is a strong theological argument here – in much religious thinking humans are understood as stewards of the earth. Our task is to cultivate and care for it (see, for example, Genesis 2:15). However, there is also a strong case grounded in human experience. For example, Miller (2000) argues that ‘each person finds identity, meaning, and purpose in life through connections to the community, to the natural world, and to spiritual values such as compassion and peace’. Respect for the world is central to the thinking of those arguing for a more holistic vision of education and to the thinking of educationalists such as Montessori . Her vision of ‘cosmic education’ puts appreciating the wholeness of life at the core.

Since it has been seen to be necessary to give so much to the child, let us give him a vision of the whole universe. The universe is an imposing reality, and an answer to all questions. We shall walk together on this path of life, for all things are part of the universe, and are connected with each other to form one whole unity. This idea helps the mind of the child to become fixed, to stop wandering in an aimless quest for knowledge. He is satisfied, having found the universal centre of himself with all things’. (Montessori 2000)

Last, and certainly not least, there is a basic practical concern. We face an environmental crisis of catastrophic proportions. As Emmett (among many others) has pointed out, it is likely that we are looking at a global average rise of over four degrees Centigrade. This ‘will lead to runaway climate change, capable of tipping the planet into an entirely different state, rapidly. Earth would become a hell hole’ (2013: 143).

Being informed

To facilitate learning we must have some understanding of the subject matter being explored, and the impact study could have on those involved. In other words, facilitation is intelligent.

We expect, quite reasonably, that when people describe themselves as teachers or educators, they know something about the subjects they are talking about. In this respect, our ‘subject area’ as educators is wide. It can involve particular aspects of knowledge and activity such as those associated with maths or history. However, it is also concerned with happiness and relationships, the issues and problems of everyday life in communities, and questions around how people are best to live their lives. In some respects, it is wisdom that is required – not so much in the sense that we know a lot or are learned – but rather we are able to help people make good judgements about problems and situations.

We also assume that teachers and educators know how to help people learn. The forms of education we are exploring here are sophisticated. They can embrace the techniques of classroom management and of teaching to a curriculum that has been the mainstay of schooling. However, they move well beyond this into experiential learning, working with groups, and forms of working with individuals that draw upon insights from counselling and therapy.

In short, we look to teachers and educators as experts, We expect them to apply their expertise to help people learn. However, things don’t stop there. Many look for something more – wisdom.

Wisdom is not something that we can generally claim for ourselves – but a quality recognized by others. Sometimes when people are described as wise what is meant is that they are scholarly or learned. More often, I suspect, when others are described as ‘being wise’ it that people have experienced their questions or judgement helpful and sound when exploring a problem or difficult situation (see Smith and Smith 2008: 57-69). This entails:

• appreciating what can make people flourish
• being open to truth in its various guises and allowing subjects to speak to us
• developing the capacity to reflect
• 
  being knowledgeable, especially about ourselves, around ‘what makes people tick’ and the systems of which we are a part
• being discerning – able to evaluate and judge situations. ( op. cit. : 68)

This combination of qualities, when put alongside being respectful and informed, comes close to what Martin Buber talked about as the ‘real teacher’. The real teacher, he believed:

… teaches most successfully when he is not consciously trying to teach at all, but when he acts spontaneously out of his own life. Then he can gain the pupil’s confidence; he can convince the adolescent that there is human truth, that existence has a meaning. And when the pupil’s confidence has been won, ‘his resistance against being educated gives way to a singular happening: he accepts the educator as a person. He feels he may trust this man, that this man is taking part in his life, accepting him before desiring to influence him. And so he learns to ask…. (Hodes 1972: 136)

Education – acting so that all may share in life

Thus far in answering the question ‘what is education?’ we have seen how it can be thought of as the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning. Here we will explore the claim that education should be undertaken in the belief that all should have the chance to share in life. This commitment to the good of all and of each individual is central to the vision of education explored here, but it could be argued that it is possible to be involved in education without this. We could take out concern for others. We could just focus on process – the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning – and not state to whom this applies and the direction it takes.

Looking beyond process

First, we need to answer the question ‘if we act wisely, hopefully, and respectfully as educators do we need to have a further purpose?’ Our guide here will again be John Dewey. He approached the question a century ago by arguing that ‘the object and reward of learning is continued capacity for growth’ (Dewey 1916: 100). Education, for him, entailed the continuous ‘reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the meaning of experience, and which increases the ability to direct the course of subsequent experience. (Dewey 1916: 76). His next step was to consider the social relationships in which this can take place and the degree of control that learners and educators have over the process. Just as Freire (1972) argued later, relationships for learning need to be mutual, and individual and social change possible.

In our search for aims in education, we are not concerned… with finding an end outside of the educative process to which education is subordinate. Our whole conception forbids. We are rather concerned with the contrast which exists when aims belong within the process in which they operate and when they are set up from without. And the latter state of affairs must obtain when social relationships are not equitably balanced. For in that case, some portions of the whole social group will find their aims determined by an external dictation; their aims will not arise from the free growth of their own experience, and their nominal aims will be means to more ulterior ends of others rather than truly their own. (Dewey 1916: 100-101)

In other words, where there are equitable relationships, control over the learning process, and the possibilities of fundamental change we needn’t look beyond the process. However, we have to work for much of the time in situations and societies where this level of democracy and social justice does not exist. Hence the need to make clear a wider purpose. Dewey (1916: 7) argued, thus, that our ‘chief business’ as educators is to enable people ‘to share in a common life’. I want to widen this and to argue that all should have a chance to share in life.

Having the chance to share in life

We will explore, briefly, three overlapping approaches to making the case – via religious belief, human rights and scientific exploration.

Religious belief. Historically it has been a religious rationale that has underpinned much thinking about this question. If we were to look at Catholic social teaching, for example, we find that at its heart lays a concern for human dignity . This starts from the position that, ‘human beings, created in the image and likeness of God (Genesis 1:26-27), have by their very existence an inherent value, worth, and distinction’ (Groody 2007). Each life is considered sacred and cannot be ignored or excluded. As we saw earlier, Kant argued something similar with regard to ‘respect for persons’. All are worthy of respect and the chance to flourish.

To human dignity a concern for solidarity is often added (especially within contemporary Catholic social teaching). Solidarity:

… is not a feeling of vague compassion or shallow distress at the misfortunes of so many people, both near and far. On the contrary, it is a firm and persevering determination to commit oneself to the common good; that is to say, to the good of all and of each individual, because we are all really responsible for all. On Social Concern ( Sollicitudo rei Socialis . . . ), #38

Another element, fundamental to the formation of the groups, networks and associations necessary for the ‘common life’ that Dewey describes, is subsidiarity . This principle, which first found its institutional voice in a papal encyclical in 1881, holds that human affairs are best handled at the ‘lowest’ possible level, closest to those affected (Kaylor 2015). It is a principle that can both strengthen civil society and the possibility of more mutual relationships for learning.

Together, these can provide a powerful and inclusive rationale for looking beyond particular individuals or groups when thinking about educational activity.

Human rights. Beside religious arguments lie others that are born of agreed principle or norm rather than faith. Perhaps the best known of these relate to what have become known as human rights. The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights puts it this way:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Article 26 further states:

(1) Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. (2) Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms….

These fundamental and inalienable rights are the entitlement of all human beings regardless of their nation, location, language, religion, ethnic origin or any other status (Article 2).

Scientific exploration. Lastly, I want to look at the results of scientific investigation into our nature as humans. More specifically we need to reflect on what it means when humans are described as social animals.

As we have already seen there is a significant amount of research showing just how dependent we are in everyday life on having trusting relationships in a society. Without them even the most basic exchanges cannot take place. We also know that in those societies where there is stronger concern for others and relatively narrow gaps between rich and poor people are generally happier (see, for example, Halpern 2010). On the basis of this material we could make a case for educators to look to the needs and experiences of all. Political, social and economic institutions depend on mass participation or at least benign consent – and the detail of this has to be learnt. However, with our growing appreciation of how our brains work and with the development of, for example, social cognitive neuroscience, we have a different avenue for exploration. We look to the needs and experience of others because we are hard-wired to do so. As Matthew D. Lieberman (2013) has put it:

Our basic urges include the need to belong, right along with the need for food and water. Our pain and pleasure systems do not merely respond to sensory inputs that can produce physical harm and reward. They are also exquisitely tuned to the sweet and bitter tastes delivered from the social world—a world of connection and threat to connection. (Lieberman 2013: 299)

Our survival as a species is dependent upon on looking to the needs and experiences of others. We dependent upon:

  Connecting: We have ‘evolved the capacity to feel social pains and pleasures, forever linking our well-being to our social connectedness. Infants embody this deep need to stay connected, but it is present through our entire lives’ ( op. cit. : 10) Mindreading: Primates have developed an unparalleled ability to understand the actions and thoughts of those around them, enhancing their ability to stay connected and interact strategically… This capacity allows humans to create groups that can implement nearly any idea and to anticipate the needs and wants of those around us, keeping our groups moving smoothly ( op. cit. : 10) Harmonizing: Although the self may appear to be a mechanism for distinguishing us from others and perhaps accentuating our selfishness, the self actually operates as a powerful force for social cohesiveness. Whereas   connection   is about our desire to be social, harmonizing   refers to the neural adaptations that allow group beliefs and values to influence our own. ( op. cit. : 11)

One of the key issues around these processes is the extent to which they can act to become exclusionary i.e. people can become closely attached to one particular group, community or nation and begin to treat others as somehow lesser or alien. In so doing relationships that are necessary to our survival – and that of the planet – become compromised. We need to develop relationships that are both bonding and bridging (see social capital ) – and this involves being and interacting with others who may not share our interests and concerns.

Education is more than fostering understanding and an appreciation of emotions and feelings. It is also concerned with change – ‘with how people can act with understanding and sensitivity to improve their lives and those of others’ (Smith and Smith 2008: 104). As Karl Marx (1977: 157-8) famously put it ‘all social life is practical…. philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways; ‘the point is to change it’. Developing an understanding of an experience or a situation is one thing, working out what is good and wanting to do something about it is quite another. ‘For appropriate action to occur there needs to be commitment’ (Smith and Smith 2008: 105).

This combination of reflection; looking to what might be good and making it our own; and seeking to change ourselves and the world we live in is what Freire (1973) talked about as  praxis. It involves us, as educators, working with people to create and sustain environments and relationships where it is possible to:

• Go back to experiences . Learning doesn’t take place in a vacuum. We have to look to the past as well as the present and the future. It is necessary to put things in their place by returning to, or recalling, events and happenings that seem relevant.
• Attend and connect to feelings . Our ability to think and act is wrapped up with our feelings. Appreciating what might be going on for us (and for others) at a particular moment; thinking about the ways our emotions may be affecting things; and being open to what our instincts or intuitions are telling us are important elements of such reflection. (See Boud et. al. 1985).
• Develop understandings . Alongside attending to feelings and experiences, we need to examine the theories and understandings we are using. We also need to build new interpretations where needed. We should be looking to integrating new knowledge into our conceptual framework.
• Commit . Education is something ‘higher’ according to John Henry Newman. It is concerned not just with what we know and can do, but also with who we are, what we value, and our capacity to live life as well as we can . We need space to engage with these questions and help to appreciate the things we value. As we learn to frame our beliefs we can better appreciate how they breathe life into our relationships and encounters, become our own, and move us to act.
• Act . Education is forward-looking and hopeful. It looks to change for the better. In the end our efforts at facilitating learning have to be judged by the extent to which they further the capacity to flourish and to share in life. For this reason we need also to attend to the concrete, the actual steps that can be taken to improve things.

As such education is a deeply practical activity – something that we can do for ourselves (what we could call self-education), and with others.

Conclusion – so what is education?

It is in this way that we end up with a definition of education as ‘the wise, hopeful and respectful cultivation of learning undertaken in the belief that all should have the chance to share in life’. What does education involve?

We can begin with what Aristotle discusses as hexis – a readiness to sense and know. This is a state – or what Joe Sachs (2001) talks about as an ‘active condition’. It allows us to take a step forward – both in terms of the processes discussed above, and in what we might seek to do when working with learners and participants. Such qualities can be seen as being at the core of the haltung and processes of pedagogues and educators (see below). There is a strong emphasis upon being in touch with feelings, attending to intuitions and seeking evidence to confirm or question what we might be sensing. A further element is also present – a concern not to take things for granted or at their face value (See, also, Pierre Bourdieu on education , Bourdieu 1972|1977: 214 n1).

Beyond that, we can see a guiding eidos or leading idea. This is the belief that all share in life and a picture of what might allow people to be happy and flourish. Alongside is a disposition or haltung   (a concern to act respectfully, knowledgeably and wisely) and interaction (joining with others to build relationships and environments for learning). Finally, there is praxis – informed, committed action (Carr and Kemmis 1986; Grundy 1987).

The process of education

At first glance, this way of answering the question ‘what is education?’ – with its roots in the thinking of  Aristotle , Rousseau , Pestalozzi and Dewey (to name a few) – is part of the progressive tradition of educational practice. It seems very different from ‘formal tradition’ or ‘traditional education’.

If there is a core theme to the formal position it is that education is about passing on information; for formalists, culture and civilization represent a store of ideas and wisdom which have to be handed on to new generations. Teaching is at the heart of this transmission; and the process of transmission is education…

While progressive educators stress the child’s development from within, formalists put the emphasis, by contrast, on formation from without— formation that comes from immersion in the knowledge, ideas, beliefs, concepts, and visions of society, culture, civilization. There are, one might say, conservative and liberal interpretations of this world view— the conservative putting the emphasis on transmission itself, on telling, and the liberal putting the emphasis more on induction, on initiation by involvement with culture’s established ideas.(Thomas 2013: 25-26).

As both Thomas and Dewey (1938: 17-23) have argued, these distinctions are problematic. A lot of the debate is either really about education being turned, or slipping, into something else, or reflecting a lack of balance between the informal and formal.

In the ‘formal tradition’ problems often occur where people are treated as objects to be worked on or ‘moulded’ rather than as participants and creators i.e. where education slips into ‘schooling’.

In the ‘progressive tradition’ issues frequently arise where the nature of experience is neglected or handled incompetently. Some experiences are damaging and ‘mis-educative’. They can arrest or distort ‘the growth of further experience’ (Dewey 1938: 25). The problem often comes when education drifts or moves into entertainment or containment. Involvement in the immediate activity is the central concern and little attention is given to expanding horizons, nor to reflection, commitment and creating change.

The answer to the question ‘what is education?’ given here can apply to both those ‘informal’ forms that are driven and rooted in conversation – and to more formal approaches involving a curriculum. The choice is not between what is ‘good’ and what is ‘bad’ – but rather what is appropriate for people in this situation or that. There are times to use transmission and direct teaching as methods, and moments for exploration, experience and action. It is all about getting the mix right and framing it within the guiding eidos and disposition of education.

Further reading and references

Recommended introductions.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books. (Collier edition first published 1963). In this book, Dewey seeks to move beyond dualities such as progressive/traditional – and to outline a philosophy of experience and its relation to education.

Thomas, G. (2013). Education: A very short introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press. Simply the best contemporary introduction to thinking about schooling and education.

Boud, D., Keogh, R. and Walker, D. (eds.) (1985). Reflection. Turning experience into learning . London: Kogan Page.

Bourdieu, Pierre. (1972|1977). Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. First published in French as Esquisse d’une théorie de la pratique, précédé de trois études d’ethnologie kabyle, (1972).

Brookfield, S. (1984). Adult learners, adult education and the community . Milton Keynes, PA: Open University Press.

Buber, Martin (1947). Between Man and Man. Transl. R. G. Smith. London: Kegan Paul .

Carr, W. and Kemmis, S. (1986). Becoming Critical. Education, knowledge and action research. Lewes: Falmer.

Dewey, J. (1916), Democracy and Education. An introduction to the philosophy of education (1966 edn.). New York: Free Press.

Dewey, J. (1933). How We Think. A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. (Revised edn.), Boston: D. C. Heath.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: Collier Books. (Collier edition first published 1963).

Dillon, R. S. (2014). Respect. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). [ http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/entries/respect/ . Retrieved: February 10, 2015].

Ellis, J. W. (1990). Informal education – a Christian perspective.   Tony Jeffs and Mark Smith (eds.)   Using Informal Education. Buckingham: Open University Press.

Emmott, S. (2013). 10 Billion . London: Penguin. [Kindle edition].

Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Harmondsworth: Penguin.

Freire, P. (1994) Pedagogy of Hope. Reliving Pedagogy of the Oppressed . With notes by Ana Maria Araujo Freire. Translated by Robert R. Barr. New York: Continuum.

Fromm, E. (1979). To Have or To Be . London: Abacus. (First published 1976).

Fromm, E. (1995). The Art of Loving . London: Thorsons. (First published 1957).

Gallagher, M. W. and Lopez, S. J. (eds.) (2018). The Oxford Handbook of Hope . New York: Oxford University Press.

Gopnik, A. (2016). The Gardener and the Carpenter. What the new science of child development tells us about the relationship between parents and children . London: Random House.

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Grundy, S. (1987). Curriculum. Product or praxis . Lewes: Falmer.

Halpern, D. (2010). The hidden wealth of nations . Cambridge, UK: Polity Press.

Halpin, D. (2003). Hope and Education. The role of the utopian imagination . London: RoutledgeFalmer.

hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to Transgress. Education as the practice of freedom , London: Routledge.

hooks, b. (2003). Teaching Community. A pedagogy of hope. New York: Routledge.

Hodes, A. (1972). Encounter with Martin Buber. London:   Allen Lane/Penguin.

Illeris, K. (2002). The Three Dimensions of Learning. Contemporary learning theory in the tension field between the cognitive, the emotional and the social. Frederiksberg: Roskilde University Press.

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Kaylor, C. (2015). Seven Principles of Catholic Social Teaching. CatholicCulture.org. [ http://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id=7538#PartV . Retrieved March 21, 2015].

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Smith, H. and Smith, M. K. (2008). The Art of Helping Others . Being Around, Being There, Being Wise . London: Jessica Kingsley.

Smith, M. K. (2019). Haltung, pedagogy and informal education, The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education . [ https://infed.org/mobi/haltung-pedagogy-and-informal-education/ . Retrieved: August 28, 2019].

Smith, M. K. (2012, 2021). ‘What is pedagogy?’, The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education . [ https://infed.org/mobi/what-is-pedagogy/ . Retrieved February 16, 2021)

Thomas, G. (2013). Education: A very short introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press. [Kindle Edition].

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Warnock, M. (1986). The Education of the Emotions. In D. Cooper (ed.) Education, values and the mind. Essays for R. S. Peters . London: Routledge and Keegan Paul.

Williams, B. (2002). Truth & truthfulness: An essay in genealogy . Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.

Acknowledgements : Picture: Dessiner le futur adulte by Alain Bachellier. Sourced from Flickr and reproduced under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.0 Generic (CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) licence. http://www.flickr.com/photos/alainbachellier/537180464/

The informal-formal education curriculum diagram is reproduced with permission from Ellis, J. W. (1990). Informal education – a Christian perspective. Tony Jeffs and Mark Smith (eds.) Using Informal Education . Buckingham: Open University Press. You can read the full chapter in the informal education archives: http://infed.org/archives/usinginformaleducation/ellis.htm

The process of education diagram was developed by Mark K Smith and was inspired by Grundy 1987. It can be reproduced without asking for specific permission but should be credited using the information in ‘how to cite this piece’ below.

This piece uses some material from Smith (2019) Haltung, pedagogy and informal education and (2021) What is pedagogy? (see the references above).

How to cite this piece : Smith, M. K. (2015, 2021). What is education? A definition and discussion. The encyclopedia of pedagogy and informal education . [ https://infed.org/mobi/what-is-education-a-definition-and-discussion/ . Retrieved: insert date ].

© Mark K Smith 2015, 2021

The 10 Education Issues Everybody Should Be Talking About

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What issues have the potential to define—or re define—education in the year ahead? Is there a next “big thing” that could shift the K-12 experience or conversation?

These were the questions Education Week set out to answer in this second annual “10 Big Ideas in Education” report.

You can read about last year’s ideas here . In 2019, though, things are different.

This year, we asked Education Week reporters to read the tea leaves and analyze what was happening in classrooms, school districts, and legislatures across the country. What insights could reporters offer practitioners for the year ahead?

Some of the ideas here are speculative. Some are warning shots, others more optimistic. But all 10 of them here have one thing in common: They share a sense of urgency.

Accompanied by compelling illustrations and outside perspectives from leading researchers, advocates, and practitioners, this year’s Big Ideas might make you uncomfortable, or seem improbable. The goal was to provoke and empower you as you consider them.

Let us know what you think, and what big ideas matter to your classroom, school, or district. Tweet your comments with #K12BigIdeas .

No. 1: Kids are right. School is boring.

Out-of-school learning is often more meaningful than anything that happens in a classroom, writes Kevin Bushweller, the Executive Editor of EdWeek Market Brief. His essay tackling the relevance gap is accompanied by a Q&A with advice on nurturing, rather than stifling students’ natural curiosity. Read more.

No. 2: Teachers have trust issues. And it’s no wonder why.

Many teachers may have lost faith in the system, says Andrew Ujifusa, but they haven’t lost hope. The Assistant Editor unpacks this year’s outbreak of teacher activism. And read an account from a disaffected educator on how he built a coalition of his own. Read more.

No. 3: Special education is broken.

Forty years since students with disabilities were legally guaranteed a public school education, many still don’t receive the education they deserve, writes Associate Editor Christina A. Samuels. Delve into her argument and hear from a disability civil rights pioneer on how to create an equitable path for students. Read more.

No. 4: Schools are embracing bilingualism, but only for some students.

Staff Writer Corey Mitchell explains the inclusion problem at the heart of bilingual education. His essay includes a perspective from a researcher on dismantling elite bilingualism. Read more.

No. 5: A world without annual testing may be closer than you think.

There’s agreement that we have a dysfunctional standardized-testing system in the United States, Associate Editor Stephen Sawchuk writes. But killing it would come with some serious tradeoffs. Sawchuk’s musing on the alternatives to annual tests is accompanied by an argument for more rigorous classroom assignments by a teacher-practice expert. Read more.

No. 6: There are lessons to be learned from the educational experiences of black students in military families.

Drawing on his personal experience growing up in an Air Force family, Staff Writer Daarel Burnette II highlights emerging research on military-connected students. Learn more about his findings and hear from two researchers on what a new ESSA mandate means for these students. Read more.

No. 7: School segregation is not an intractable American problem.

Racial and economic segregation remains deeply entrenched in American schools. Staff Writer Denisa R. Superville considers the six steps one district is taking to change that. Her analysis is accompanied by an essay from the president of the American Educational Research Association on what is perpetuating education inequality. Read more.

No. 8: Consent doesn’t just belong in sex ed. class. It needs to start a lot earlier.

Assistant Editor Sarah D. Sparks looked at the research on teaching consent and found schools and families do way too little, way too late. Her report is partnered with a researcher’s practical guide to developmentally appropriate consent education. Read more.

No. 9: Education has an innovation problem.

Are education leaders spending too much time chasing the latest tech trends to maintain what they have? Staff Writer Benjamin Herold explores the innovation trap. Two technologists offer three tips for putting maintenance front and center in school management. Read more.

No. 10: There are two powerful forces changing college admissions.

Some colleges are rewriting the admissions script for potential students. Senior Contributing Writer Catherine Gewertz surveys this changing college admissions landscape. Her insights are accompanied by one teacher’s advice for navigating underserved students through the college application process. Read more.

Wait, there’s more.

Want to know what educators really think about innovation? A new Education Week Research Center survey delves into what’s behind the common buzzword for teachers, principals, and district leaders. Take a look at the survey results.

A version of this article appeared in the January 09, 2019 edition of Education Week as What’s on the Horizon for 2019?

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Discussions that Teach

Discussion is a flexible and effective method of  interactive learning . As with other forms of interactive learning, discussion requires careful preparation and skill to achieve pedagogical goals. When done well, classroom discussion enhances student learning and helps students develop a range of intellectual and social skills.  

Benefits of Discussion

Discussion is not a mere technique, but a pedagogy that ought to flow from certain instructor values—for instance, that classrooms are communities where everyone has a voice and that well-structured learning communities successfully refine knowledge (Abercrombie, 1979). Classroom discussions can draw attention to greater diversity of viewpoints and help students learn how to formulate and critique arguments—distinguish fact from opinion, distinguish assertion from evidence, judge the relationship between assertion and evidence, organize thoughts, etc. Although lectures can be as effective as discussion in helping students learn foundational knowledge, discussion is better at promoting thought among students and engendering interest in a subject (Bligh, 2000).

Getting Students to Participate

Students may be reluctant to engage in class discussion. This may be linked to introversion, shyness, or fear of being perceived as wrong, uninformed, or inarticulate; but students may also be reticent because they are inexperienced with participating in academic discussions, have language or cultural barriers, expect that college classrooms should be lecture-driven, or simply prefer to process information internally (Zakrajsek, 2017). Instructors should recognize that common American conversation practices—interrupting, contradicting, speaking over another—can be uncomfortable for students from other cultures.

Opinions differ on whether to require students to speak in class; instructors must balance accountability and authenticity (Hess, 2009). Either way, instructors should encourage a range of behaviors as participation beyond voluntary response to a question or prompt. Students can be assigned roles, such as devil’s advocate or reporter. Instructors can also task student with conversational moves, such as making a comment that summarizes what some else has said or finding a way to express appreciation for the what one has learned in the discussion (Brookfield and Preskill, 2005; see  Conversational Roles  and  Conversational Moves  for more ideas). Instructors can encourage more and higher-quality participation by asking open-ended and “authentic” questions—that is, questions for which there are many legitimate answers. Thoughtfully arranging the learning space also facilitates participation; for instance, students sitting in a circle are more likely to talk to each other, while student sitting in rows are more likely to talk to the teacher.

Balancing Voices

One challenge with classroom discussion is ensuring that all participants have opportunities to speak freely. Instructors can overtly or implicitly dominate discussion—by simply speaking more than others, by unduly restricting the boundaries of discussion, or by subtly indicating “right” and “wrong” responses. Outspoken students may also dominate discussion and shut down others’ participation. Because open discussion requires instructors to take a less directive role, it can be both “unpredictable and risky” as well as “enjoyable and exciting” (Brookfield and Preskill, 2005, p. 45; see  Keeping Voice in Balance  for more ideas).

The degree of regulation an instructor exercises in a discussion has many implications. Observational analysis suggests that high instructor regulation correlates to high content quality, more frequent student-teacher interaction, and higher percentage of students participating (often because of instructor assigning turns or actively inviting contributions from specific individuals). On the other hand, high student regulation correlates to more “genuine” discussion, more student-student interaction, and more domination of the discussion by a few students (Schuitema et al, 2018).

What are Students Learning?

Discussions necessarily include a range of voices; therefore tensions, contradictions, and seemingly disconnected ideas may arise. Consider your learning objectives: if you require memorizing many facts or understanding major categories and concepts, you may want to regularly summarize or close the discussion with a reiteration of main points. Similarly, because discussion necessarily gives greater control to students, a discussion may get stuck on narrow or tangential topics or fail to draw forth well-supported and diverse arguments. Instructors who aim for high content quality may need to ask pointed questions, introduce key information, and press students to reply to one another, expand on their views, and support their positions with evidence and logic.

Some, however, believe that for discussion to be authentic, the instructor must not move the conversation to a predetermined conclusion—that “guided discussion,” in this sense, is an oxymoron (Brookfield and Preskill, 2005). Student ownership of discussion may be especially important if a learning objective is productively participating in discussion as a democratic practice (Hess, 2009).  

Abercrombie, M. L. J. (1979).  Aims and techniques of group teaching.  Guilford: Society for Research into Higher Education.

Bligh, D. A. (2000).  What’s the use of lectures?  San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Brookfield, S., & Preskill, S. (2005).  Discussion as a way of teaching: Tools and techniques for democratic classroom s. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hess, D. (2009).  Controversy in the classroom: The democratic power of discussion.  New York: Routledge.

Schuitema, J., Radstake, H., van de Pol, Janneke, & Veugelers, W. (2018). Guiding classroom discussions for democratic education.  Educational Studies, 44 (4), 377-407.

Zakrajsek, T. (2017). Students who don’t participate in class discussions: They are not all introverts.  The Scholarly Teacher .  https://www.scholarlyteacher.com/blog/students-who-dont-participate-in-class-discussions .

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Learning Through Discussion 

Discussions can be meaningful and engaging learning experiences: dynamic, eye-opening, and generative. However, like any class activity, they require planning and preparation. Without that, discussion challenges can arise in the form of unequal participation, unclear learning outcomes, or low engagement. This resource presents key considerations in class discussions and offers strategies for how instructors can prepare and engage in effective classroom discussions.

On this page:

• The What and Why of Class Discussion

Identifying your Course Context

• Plan for Classroom Discussion
• Warm up Classroom Discussion
• Engage in Classroom Discussion
• Wrap up Classroom Discussion

Leveraging Asynchronous Discussion Spaces

• References and Further Reading

The CTL is here to help!

Seeking additional support with discussion pedagogy? Email [email protected] to schedule a 1-1 consultation. For support with any of the Columbia tools discussed below, email [email protected] or join our virtual office hours .

Interested in inviting the CTL to facilitate a session on this topic for your school, department, or program? Visit our Workshops To Go page for more information.

Cite this resource: Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (2021). Learning Through. DIscussion. Columbia University. Retrieved [today’s date] from https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/learning-through-discussion/

The What and Why of Class Discussion 

Class discussion can take many forms, from structured prompts and assignments to more casual or informal conversations. Regardless of class context (e.g.: a seminar, large lecture, or lab course) or the form (e.g.: in-person or asynchronous) discussion takes, it offers a number of benefits to students’ learning. As an active learning technique, class discussion requires students to be co-constructors of their learning. Research shows that students learn more when they actively participate in their learning, rather than passively listen. Furthermore, studies have also shown that “student participation, encouragement, and peer-to-peer interaction was consistently and positively related to the development of critical thinking skills” (Howard, 2015, pp. 6). Class discussion has also been linked to greater student motivation, improved communication skills, and higher grades (Howard, 2015). But just like effective lectures or assignments require planning and preparation, so too does class discussion. 

The following sections offer a framework and strategies for learning through discussion. These strategies are organized around four key phases: planning for classroom discussion, warming up for classroom discussion, engaging in classroom discussion, and wrapping up classroom discussion.

While the strategies and considerations provided throughout this resource are adaptable across course contexts, it is important to recognize instructors’ varied course formats, and how discussion might differ across them. This section identifies a few of these contexts, and reviews  how these contexts might shape instructors’ engagement with both this resource and class discussion more broadly. 

I teach a discussion-based course

Small classes and seminars use discussion-based pedagogies, though it can be challenging to get every student to contribute to discussions. It is important to create multiple opportunities for engagement and not just rely on whole group discussion. Pair and small group discussions can create trust among students and give them the confidence to speak up in the larger group. Instructors of discussion-based courses can extend in-class discussions into the asynchronous space. These inclusive moves allow students to contribute to discussions in multiple ways.

I do not teach a discussion-based course

Whether teaching a large lecture course, a lab course, or other non-discussion based course, students will still benefit from interacting with each other and learning through discussion. Small group or pair discussion can be less intimidating for students regardless of class size and help create a sense of community that impacts learning.

I teach a course that may have some Hybrid/HyFlex meetings.

In-person classes might sometimes offer hybrid or HyFlex opportunities for students to accommodate extenuating circumstances. In a hybrid/HyFlex course session, students participating in-person and remotely should have equal opportunities to contribute to discussions. To make this a reality, advanced preparation involves thinking through the logistics using discussion activities, roles and responsibilities (if working with TA(s)), classroom technologies (e.g., ceiling microphones available in the classroom; asking in-person students to bring a mobile device and headset if possible to engage with their remote peers), and determining the configurations if using discussion groups or paired work (both in a socially distanced classroom, and if asking both in-person and remote students to discuss together in breakout groups).

Planning for Classroom Discussion

Regardless of your course context, there are some general considerations for planning a class discussion; these considerations include: the goals and expectations, the modality of discussion, and the questions you might use to prompt discussion. The following section offers some questions for reflection, alongside ideas and strategies to address these considerations.

Goals & Expectations

What is the goal of the discussion? How will it support student learning? What are your expectations of student participation and contributions to the discussion? How will you communicate the goals and expectations to students?

Articulate the goals of discussion : Consider both the content you want your students to learn and the skills you want them to apply and develop. These goals will inform the learner-centered strategies and digital tools you use during discussion.

Communicate the purpose (not just the topic) of discussion: Sharing learning goals will help students understand why discussion is being used and how it will contribute to their learning. 

Specify what you expect of student contributions to the discussion and how they will be assessed: Be explicit about what students should include in their contributions to make them substantive, and model possible ways of responding. Guide students in how they can contribute substantively to their peers’ live responses or online posts. You might consider asking students to use the 3CQ model: 

• Compliment—I like that ___ because…; 
• Comment—I agree/disagree with (specific point/idea) because…; 
• Connection—I also thought that…; 
• Question—I wonder why…  

Establish discussion guidelines: Communicate expectations for class discussion.  Be sure to include desired behaviors/etiquette and how technologies and tools for discussion will be used. Students in all classes can benefit from discussion guidelines as they help to clearly identify and establish expectations for student success. For more support with getting started, see the Barnard Center for Engaged Pedagogy’s resource on Crafting Community Agreements . Additionally, while there are some shared general discussion guidelines, there are also some specific considerations for asynchronous discussions: 

Sample Discussion Guidelines:

• Refer to classmates by name.
• Allow everyone the chance to speak (“Take Space, Make Space”).
• Constructively critique ideas, not individuals.
• Listen actively without interrupting. 
• Contribute questions, ideas, or resources.

Sample Asynchronous Discussion Guidelines:

• Respond to discussion posts within # of hours or days.
• Review one’s own writing for clarity before posting, being mindful of how it may be interpreted by others.
• Prioritize building upon or challenging the strongest ideas presented in a post instead of only focusing on the weakest aspects. 
• Acknowledge something someone else said. 
• Build on their comment by connecting with course content, adding an example or observation.
• Conclude with critical thinking or socratic questions. 

Invite students to revise, contribute to, or co-create the guidelines. One way to do this is to facilitate a discussion about discussions, asking students to identify what the characteristics of an effective discussion are. This will encourage their ownership of the guidelines. Post the guidelines in CourseWorks and refer to them as needed.

In what modality/modalities will the discussion take place (in-person/live, asynchronous, or a blend of both)?

The modality of your class discussion may determine the tools and technologies that you ask students to engage with. Thus, it is important to determine early on how you would like students to engage in discussion and what tools you will use to support their engagement. Consider leveraging your asynchronous course spaces (e.g., CourseWorks), which can help students both prepare for an in-class discussion, as well expand upon and continue in-class discussions. For support with setting up asynchronous discussions, see the Leveraging Asynchronous Discussion Spaces section below.

What prompts will be used for discussion? Who will come up with those prompts (e.g.: instructor, TA, or students)?

The questions you ask and how you ask them are important for leading an effective discussion. Discussion questions do not have to be instructor-generated; asking students to generate discussion prompts is a great way to engage them in their learning. 

Draft open-ended questions that advance student learning and inspire a range of answers (avoiding closed-ended, vague, or leading questions). Vary question complexity over the course of a discussion. If there’s one right answer, ask students about their process to get to the right answer. 

The following table features sample questions that increase in cognitive complexity and is based on the six categories of the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Warming up for Classroom Discussion 

Get students comfortable talking with their peers, you, and the TA(s) (as applicable) from the start of the course. Create opportunities for students to have pair or small group conversations to get to know one another and connect as a community. Regardless of your class size or context (i.e.: seminars, large-lecture classes, labs), for discussions to become a norm in your course, you will need to build community early on in the course.

Get students talking early and often to foster community

How will you make peer-to-peer engagement an integral part of your class? How can you get students talking to each other?

To encourage student participation and peer-to-peer interaction, create early and frequent opportunities for students to share and talk with each other. These opportunities can help make students more comfortable with participating in discussion, as well as help build rapport and foster trust amongst class members. Icebreakers and small group discussion opportunities provide great ways to get students talking, especially in large-enrollment classes where students may feel less connection with their peers (see sample icebreakers below ).  For additional support with building community in your course, see the CTL’s Community Building in Online and Hybrid (HyFlex) Courses resource. (Although this resource emphasizes online and hybrid/HyFlex modalities, the strategies provided are applicable across all course modalities.)

Establish class norms around discussion and participation

How can you communicate class norms around discussion and participation on day one? 

The first class meeting is an opportunity to warm students up to class discussion and participation from the outset. Rather than letting norms of passivity establish over the first couple of weeks, you can use the first class meeting to signal to students they will be expected to participate or interact with their peers regularly. You might ask students to do a welcoming icebreaker on the first day, or you might invite questions and syllabus discussion. No matter the activity, establishing a norm around discussion and participation at the outset will help warm students up to participating and contributing to later discussions; these norms can also be further supported by your discussion guidelines . Icebreakers:  Icebreakers are a great way to establish a positive course climate and encourage student-student, as well as instructor-student, interactions. Some ideas for icebreaker activities related to discussion include:

• (Meta)Discussion about Discussions: In small groups during class, or using a CourseWorks discussion board , students introduce themselves to each other, and share their thoughts on what are the qualities of good and bad discussions.
• Course Content: Ask students to share their thoughts about a big question that the course addresses or ask students what comes to mind when they think of an important course concept. You could even ask students to scan the syllabus and share about a particular topic or reading they are most excited about.

Engaging in Classroom Discussion

With all of your preparation and planning complete, there are some important considerations you will need to make with both your students and yourself in mind. This section offers some strategies for engaging in classroom discussion.

Involve students in discussion 

How will you engage all of your students in the discussion? How will you make discussion and your expectations about student participation explicit and integral to the class?

Involving your students in class discussion will allow for more student voices and perspectives to be contributed to the conversation. You might consider leveraging the time before and after class or office hours to have informal conversations and build rapport with students. Additionally, having students rotate roles and responsibilities can keep them focused and engaged.

Student roles: Engage all students by asking them to volunteer for and rotate through roles such as facilitator, summarizer, challenger, etc. In large-enrollment courses, these roles can be assigned in small group or pair discussions. For an asynchronous discussion, roles might include: discussion starter / original poster, connector to research, connector to theory. Additional roles might include: timekeeper, notetaker, discussion starter, wrapper, and student  monitor:

• Discussion starter / original poster: Involve students in initiating the discussion. Designate 2–3 students per discussion to spark the conversation with a question, quotation, an example, or link to previous course content.
• Discussion wrapper: Engage students in facilitating the discussion. Help students grasp take-aways. Designate 2-3 students per discussion to wrap up the discussion by identifying themes, extracting key ideas, or listing questions to explore further. 
• Student monitor: Ask a student (on a rotating basis) or TA(s) if applicable, to monitor the Zoom chat (in hybrid/HyFlex courses) or the CourseWorks Discussion Boards (when leveraging asynchronous discussion spaces). The monitors can then flag important points for the class or read off the questions that are being posed. 

Student-generated questions: Prepare students for discussion and involve them in asking and answering peer questions about the topic. Invite students to post questions to a CourseWorks Discussion before class, or share their questions during the discussion. If students are expected to respond to their peer’s questions, they need to be told and guided how to do so. Highlight and use insightful student questions to prime or further the discussion.

Student-led presentations: In smaller seminar-style classes or labs, invite students to give informal presentations. You might ask them to share examples that relate to the topic or concept being discussed, or respond to a targeted prompt.

Determine your role in discussion 

How will you facilitate discussion? What will your presence be in asynchronous discussion spaces? What can students expect of your role in the discussion? 

Make your role (or that of your co-instructor(s) and/or TA(s)) in the discussion explicit so that students know what to expect of your presence, reinforcement of the discussion guidelines, and receipt of feedback. 

Actively guide the discussion to make it easy for students to do most of the talking and/or posting. This includes being present, modeling contributions, asking questions, using students’ names, giving timely feedback, affirming student contributions, and making inclusive moves such as including as many voices and perspectives and addressing issues that may arise during a conversation. 

• For in-class discussions , additional strategies include actively listening, giving students time to think before responding, repeating questions, and warm calling. (Unlike cold calling, warm calling is when students do pre-work and are told in advance that they will be asked to share their or their group’s response. This technique can minimize student anxiety, as well as produce higher quality responses.)
• For asynchronous discussions , additional strategies include having parallel discussions in small groups on CourseWorks, and inviting students to post videos, audio clips, or images such as drawings, maps, charts, etc.

Manage the discussion and intervene when necessary : Manage dynamics, recognizing that your classroom is influenced by societal norms and expectations that may be inherently inequitable. Moderate the ongoing discussion to make sure all students have the opportunity to contribute. Ask students to explain or provide evidence to support their contributions, connect their contributions to specific course concepts and readings, redirect or keep the conversation on track, and revisit discussion guidelines as needed.

For large-enrollment courses, you might ask TAs or course assistants to join small groups or monitor discussion board posting. While it’s important for students to do most of the talking and posting, TAs can support students in the discussion, and their presence can help keep the discussion on track. If you have TAs who lead discussion sections, you might consider sharing some of these discussion management strategies and considerations with them, and discuss how the discussion sections can and will expand upon discussions from the larger class.    

Give students time to think before, during, and after the discussion

Thinking time will allow students to prepare more meaningful contributions to the discussion and creates opportunities for more students, not just the ones that are the quickest to respond, to contribute to the conversation. Comfort with silence is important following a posed question. Some thinking time activities include:   

• “ Silent meeting ” (Armstrong, 2020): Devote class time to students silently engaging with course materials and commenting in a shared document. You can follow this “silent meeting” with small group discussions. In a large enrollment class, this strategy can allow students to engage more deeply and collaboratively with material and their peers. 
• Think-Pair-Share : Give students time to think before participating. In response to an open-ended question, ask students to first think on their own for a few minutes, then pair up to discuss their ideas with their partner. Finally, ask a few pairs to share their main takeaways with the whole class. 
• Discussion pause : Give students time to think and reflect on the discussion so far. Pause the discussion for a few minutes for students to independently restate the question, issue, or problem, and summarize the points made. Encourage students to write down new insights, unanswered questions, etc. 
• Extend the discussion: Encourage students to continue the class discussion by leveraging asynchronous course spaces (e.g.: CourseWorks discussion board). You may ask students to summarize the discussion, extend the discussion by contributing new ideas, or pose follow-up questions that will be discussed asynchronously or used to begin the next in-class discussion. 
• Polls to launch the discussion : Pose a poll closed-ended question and give students time to think and respond individually. See responses in real time and ask students to discuss the results. This can be a great warm up activity for a pair, small group, or whole class discussion, especially in large classes in which it may be more challenging to engage all students. 

Wrapping up Classroom Discussion 

Ensure that the discussion meets the learning objectives of the course or class session, and that students are leaving the discussion with the knowledge and skills that you want them to acquire. Give students an opportunity to reflect on and share what they have learned. This will help them make connections between other class material and previous class discussions. It is also an opportunity for you to gauge how the discussion went and consider what you might need to clarify or shift for future discussions. 

Debrief the Discussion

How will you know the discussion has met the learning objectives of the course or class session? How will you ensure students make connections between broader course concepts and the discussion?

Set aside time to debrief the discussion. This might be groups sharing out their discussion take-aways, designated students summarizing the key points made and questions raised, or asking students to reflect and share what they learned. Rather than summarizing the discussion yourself, partner with your students; see the section on Student Roles above for strategies. 

• Closing Reflection: Ask students to reflect on and process their learning by identifying key takeaways. Carve out 2-5 minutes at the end of class for students to reflect on the discussion, either in writing or orally. You might consider collecting written reflections from students at the end of class, or after class through a Google Form or CourseWorks post. Consider asking students to not only reflect on what they learned from the discussion, but to also summarize key ideas or insights and/or pose new questions.

Collect Feedback, Reflect, Iterate  

How will you determine the effectiveness of class discussion? How can you invite students into creating the learning space? 

Feedback: Student feedback is a great way to gauge the effectiveness and success of class discussion. It’s important to include opportunities for feedback regularly and frequently throughout the semester; for feedback collection prompts and strategies, see the CTL’s resource on Early and Mid-Semester Student Feedback . You might collect this through PollEverywhere, a Google Form, or CourseWorks Survey. Classes of all sizes and modalities can benefit from collecting this type of feedback from students.

Reflect: Before you engage with your students’ feedback, it’s important to take time and reflect for yourself: How do you think the discussion went? Did your students achieve the learning goals that you had hoped? If not, what might you do differently? You can then couple your own reflection with your students’ feedback to determine what is working well, as well as what might need to change for discussions to be more effective.

Iterate: Not all class discussions will go according to plan, but feedback and reflection can help you identify those key areas for improvement. Share aggregate feedback data with your students, as well as what you hope will go differently in future discussions.   

Asynchronous discussion spaces are an effective way for students to prepare for in-class discussion, as well as expand upon what they have already discussed in class. Asynchronous discussion boards also offer a great space for students to reflect upon the discussion, and provide informal feedback. 

Columbia Tools to Support Asynchronous Discussion 

There are a number of Columbia tools that can support asynchronous discussion spaces. Some options that instructors might consider include: 

• CourseWorks Discussion boards : CourseWorks discussion boards offer instructors a number of customizable options including: threaded or focused discussions , post “like” functionality , graded discussion posts , group discussions , and more. For further support with your CourseWorks discussion board, see the CTL’s CourseWorks Support Page or contact the CTL at [email protected] to set up a consultation. 
• Ed Discussion (via CourseWorks): Starting in Fall 2021, instructors will have access to Ed Discussion within their CourseWorks site. For support on getting started with Ed Discussion, see their Quick Start Guide , or contact the CTL at [email protected] . For strategies and examples on how to enhance your course’s asynchronous discussion opportunities using Ed Discussion’s advanced features, refer to Enhance your Course Discussion Boards for Learning: Three Strategies Using Ed Discussion .    

References and Further Reading 

Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives. New York: Longman.

Armstrong, B. (2020). To Spark Discussion in a Zoom Class, Try a ‘Silent Meeting .’ The Chronicle of Higher Education. November 18, 2020.

Barkley, E.F. (2010). Student Engagement Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty . Jossey-Bass.

Barkley, E.F.; Major, C.H.; and Cross, K.P. (2014). Collaborative Learning Techniques: A Handbook for College Faculty . Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. 

Barnard Center for Engaged Pedagogy. (2021). Crafting community agreements .

Brookfield, S. D., & Preskill, S. (2016). The Discussion Book: 50 Great Ways to Get People Talking . Wiley.

Cashin, W.E. (2011). Effective Classroom Discussions . IDEA Paper #49. Retrieved from www.ideaedu.org 

Center for Research on Teaching and Learning. Guidelines For Classroom Interactions. Retrieved from http://www.crlt.umich.edu/examples-discussion-guidelines

Davis, B.G. (2009). Tools for Teaching , 2 nd Edition. 

Hancock, C., & Rowland, B. (2017). Online and out of synch: Using discussion roles in online asynchronous discussions. Cogent Education, 4(1).

Howard, J.R. (2015). Discussion in the College Classroom: Getting Your Students Engaged and Participating in Person and Online . Wiley. 

Howard, J.R. (2019) How to Hold a Better Class Discussion: Advice Guide. Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/interactives/20190523-ClassDiscussion

The K. Patricia Cross Academy. Making Good Use of Online Discussion Boards. Retrieved from https://kpcrossacademy.org/making-good-use-of-online-discussion-boards/  

Read more about Columbia undergraduate students’ experiences with discussion

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Discussion is important to learning in all disciplines because it helps students process information rather than simply receive it. Leading a discussion requires skills different from lecturing. The goal of a discussion is to get students to practice thinking about the course material. Your role becomes that of facilitator. You design and facilitate the discussion rather than convey information. If you want to hold a discussion, don’t do all the talking yourself; don’t lecture to the group or talk to one student at a time.

Preparing for Discussions

To start planning a discussion (or any instruction, for that matter) decide what you want your students to get out of the discussion.  For example, do you want them to share responses, make new connections, and articulate the implications of a text?  Should they be able to work certain problems by the end of the hour?  Should they be able to interpret and critique a journalistic photograph or a piece of art?  Deciding on and articulating the objective for the discussion will help you decide what kinds of discussion activities will best help your students reach that objective.  Remember that you can organize a discussion in many different ways: you can have students work in small groups, role-play, choose sides for a debate, or write and share a paragraph in response to the theme in question 1 . You will also want to leave time to wrap up and summarize the discussion for your students (or have students summarize it), or to debrief after activities such as debates or role-plays.

Develop a Clear Goal for the Discussion

Knowing the content to be covered is not enough. Naming the chapter your students will read is not enough. If you’ve only thought as far as, “I want students to know ...” you haven't thought through enough what needs to be accomplished. You should be able to articulate what the students will be able to do with the information or ideas. For example, in a philosophy class for which students have read a chapter on epistemologies or theories of knowledge, you might want students to be able to construct legitimate arguments for and against any epistemology about which they have read.

Problematize the Topic

Having a clear goal in mind makes it much easier to plan a discussion. You know what you want students to get out of it. But it is not enough: An instructor at IU several years ago told the story of how she wanted her students to deal with the issue of prejudice. She tried to start discussion merely by saying “Discuss prejudice.” No one spoke. She then asked if anyone had seen prejudice. One student raised a hand. When she asked what it was like, the student merely said “awful.” She had a goal, but not a problem or an activity to get the students to engage the ideas to achieve the goal.

The opposite end of the spectrum is also a problem. While “Discuss prejudice” is too open-ended, merely asking for the basic facts won’t work either. You’ve probably heard a professor rattle off a list of questions that require only brief factual replies and little student involvement:

Q. When was the Battle of Hastings? A. 1066.

The result could hardly be called a discussion. So, give your students an open-ended problem to solve, a task to complete, a judgment to reach, a decision to make, or a list to create—something that begs for closure.

Select a Discussion Format

Many discussion activities can be used in the classroom. Choose one that will help your students meet your goals for the discussion. The more specific you can be in assigning the task, the more likely your students will be to succeed at it. Consider the protocols for tasks such as Think-Pair-Share, Affinity Mapping, Chalk Talk and other conversation structures.

Choose a Method to Assign Students to Groups

When assigning students to groups, consider the following questions.

• How big should the groups be:  Two to six is ideal. Smaller groups (two-three) are better for simple tasks and reaching consensus. Also, students are more likely to speak in smaller groups. Larger groups of four-five are better for more complex tasks and generating lots of ideas.
• How should students be assigned to groups:  Randomly assigning students to groups avoids the problem of friends wanting to get off track. For long-term groups, you may want to select for certain attributes or skills (e.g. a statistician, a geology major, and a writer) or by interest in the topic, if different groups have different tasks.
• How long should the groups meet:  Just for this activity or for all semester. Stop the discussion groups while they are still hard at work; next time, they will work doubly hard. Long-term groups allow students to practice collaborative skills and make stronger bonds, but sometimes they get tired of each other.

Choose a Debriefing Method

Always debrief students; it is the most important part of a discussion, the time to summarize and synthesize. Most of learning in discussions happens during debriefing, so don't squeeze it in—a rule of thumb is to use one-third of the total discussion time for debriefing.

You can use debriefing to correct incorrect notions. You can slip in any points that students neglected but that are important. You can pick which student reports from each group, though you should tell them in advance that you plan to do this. This makes everyone in the group responsible. You don’t have to hear back from every group, but can instead choose a few at random. When groups start repeating ideas, it’s time to stop.

Many techniques can get students to share what their smaller groups have done with the entire class: verbally, on newsprint/flipchart, blackboard or overhead, ditto/photocopy, etc. And you don't have to hear from everyone; calling on a few groups at random to report works quite well. To encourage student cross-team competition in Team-Based Learning, reporting out from groups is simultaneous. Answers can be posted to a Powerpoint slide or pieces of newsprint hung on walls of class.

Problems with Discussion

• Getting Started:   Students are often reluctant to get down to work in a discussion. Students are more likely to join in discussion if you divide them into pairs or small groups and assign a specific discussion question.  After a few minutes of small group discussion, ask several groups to report out their ideas to the entire class.  This often helps to get discussion going because students have had a chance to “try out” their ideas on their peers.  Alternatively, give students time to write individually before opening up a discussion; they are much more likely to speak up if they have some notes to speak from.  Further, by allowing for this kind of pre-discussion activity, you will be able to ask more complex and interesting questions.  At the same time you will be promoting equity in the conversation, allowing everyone in the class to gather his or her thoughts before speaking rather than privileging the bold or the entitled, who can otherwise dominate the discussion.
• Attendance:  Despite the fact that discussion section participation is a requirement for many introductory courses, students may believe that their attendance is not mandatory since the AI rather than the professor is in charge. Therefore you may want to devise a way to structure required assignments, projects or presentations into your sections so that section participation will be a part of the final course grade. If students know that the AI has some responsibility for determining their grades, that AI will have considerably more authority in the classroom or in any interactions with students.
• Losing Control:   One fear about discussion is the possibility that the discussion will be TOO enthusiastic or not remain civil. Develop ground rules as a class. Gently, students can be reminded that behavior X (e.g., interrupting, blatantly ignoring the conversation, showing disrespect) is not appropriate in the context of the rules the class agreed on.  If no rules have been established, or if the inappropriate behavior doesn’t seem to fit under the rules, you should address it immediately. Otherwise, you send a message to the students that such behavior is acceptable. Often, simply walking toward the student(s) will resolve the problem, as they will see that you are paying attention.  Sometimes, however, you will need to address the problem directly. Try not to get rattled—take a deep breath, allow some silence, and then respond. This gives you some time to plan a response that models for the students how to handle a difficult situation. Remember: never shame or humiliate a student, and don’t take student remarks personally—although an attack may seem personal, it may be directed at authority figures in general rather than at you in particular. 
• Discussion Monopolizers:   If the same students answer all the time, you might say, “Let’s hear from someone else.” Then don’t call on students who have already spoken. Do not allow one student to speak for an inordinate amount of class time. Take that person aside and ask him or her to limit comments in class. If the student does not respond to this hint, tell him or her an exact number of times he or she will be allowed to respond in class, and do not call on him or her after that number has been reached in any class period.
• Controversial Topics:   If you teach charged topics, prepare students for discussing them. For an article about how to build up the skills necessary to discuss sensitive topics, see “ Controlled Fission: Teaching Supercharged Subjects ” (Pace, 2003).

Strategies for Building Discussion throughout a Class Session

• Delay the problem-solving part  until the rest of the discussion has had time to develop. Start with expository questions to clarify the facts, then move to analysis, and finally to evaluation, judgment, and recommendations.
• Shift points of view : “Now that we’ve seen it from [W’s] standpoint, what’s happening here from [Y’s] standpoint?” "What evidence would support Y’s position?" "What are the dynamics between the two positions?"
• Shift levels of abstraction : if the answer to the question above is “It’s just a bad situation for her,” quotations help: "When [Y] says “_____,” what are her assumptions?" Or seek more concrete explanations: "Why does she hold this point of view?”
• Ask for benefits/disadvantages of a position  for all sides.
• Shift time frame —not just to “What’s next?” but also to “How could this situation have been different?” "What could have been done earlier to head off this conflict and turn it into a productive conversation?" "Is it too late to fix this?" "What are possible leverage points for a more productive discussion?" "What good can come of the existing situation?"
• Shift to another context : "We see how a person who thinks X would see the situation. How would a person who thinks Y see it?" "We see what happened in the Johannesburg news, how could this be handled in [your town/province]?" "How might [insert person, organization] address this problem?"
• Follow-up questions : “What do you mean by ___?” Or, “Could you clarify what you said about ___?” (even if it was a pretty clear statement—this gives students time for thinking, developing different views, and exploration in more depth). Or “How would you square that observation with what [name of person] pointed out?”
• Point out and acknowledge differences in discussion —“that’s an interesting difference from what Sam just said, Sarah. Let’s look at where the differences lie.” (Let sides clarify their points before moving on).
• Compare topics from a previous week —“Use the four systems of though/intellectual movements we have studied to create a slide that answers the following questions...”

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Using Class Discussions as AI-Proof Assessments

Classroom discussions are one way to ensure that students are doing their own work in the age of artificial intelligence.

I admit it: Grading essays has never topped my list of teaching joys. Sure, the moments when a student finally nails a skill after months of hard work make me shout for joy, startling my nearby colleagues (sorry, Ms. Evans), but by and large, it’s hard work. Yet lately, as generative artificial intelligence (AI) headlines swirl in my mind, a new anxiety has crept into my grading life. I increasingly wonder, am I looking at their hard work?

Do you know when I don’t feel this way? During discussions. A ninth grader wiggling the worn corner of her text, leaning forward with excitement over what she’s cleverly noticed about Kambili, rarely makes me wonder, “Are these her ideas?”

While I’ve always thought discussion is important, AI is elevating that importance. This year, I wonder, how can I best leverage discussion in my classroom?

Protocols to Build Discussion Skills

Discussion requires specific skills. I like to allow my students to build theirs with these two protocols.

1. “Micro Lab” discussion. Students take turns answering questions in small groups. They must deliver their answers in a minute or two, either filling their time or running down the clock in silence because in this discussion, there is no cross talk until the end. Additionally, the order in which students answer the questions rotates, meaning that sometimes they have time to process, and other times they must think on their feet. For my classes, I’ve developed four general questions that can work with most texts, but tailored questions are another good option.

Micro Lab practices quick thinking and careful listening to avoid repeating previous answers. These skills are foundational in any discussion. With equal airtime for all voices, I particularly like Micro Lab for classrooms where some voices dominate, and others are consistently quiet. Additionally, I like it for classes in which students are still learning to elaborate on and extend their arguments. Sitting in silence often pushes students to say more.

2. “Concentric circles” discussion. Students form inner and outer circles , facing one partner at a time. The outer circle rotates after each round of sharing, providing students with a variety of partners. To prepare, I ask students to answer a question or two from choices on the board, or I do a quick “quote and note” on scratch paper, jotting down a short quote from the text and noting why it’s significant or interesting. Often at the end, I’ll segue into a whole class share-out, collecting the papers, drawing a name, and asking that student to share their answer.

To participate in discussion, students must feel emboldened to speak in front of their peers. For some of my students, sharing in front of the whole class is intimidating, but with a partner they find more success, building their confidence for larger discussions. I formatively assess this discussion by wandering the room and listening to the pairs, as well as by collecting and reviewing the note cards at the end of class.

Protocols to Build (and Assess) Analytical Writing Skills

Once students feel confident and skilled enough to participate in discussions, how might discussions offer opportunities to practice, develop, and even assess skills that I traditionally assess through writing?

1. “Quote of the day” discussion. In groups of four, students select one unique passage from the reading that they feel is significant. Next, they select their roles, which I write on the board:

• Argument Maker (In one sentence, what does your passage reveal?)
• Contextualizer (What happens just before your passage?)
• Reader (Read the passage aloud and preface that with who is speaking, thinking, or writing: “Kambili thinks” or “Adichie writes.”)
• Analyzer (Explain why the passage proves the argument.)

After some time to prepare, we go through the passages chronologically, and each group shares out, fulfilling their roles.

During a Quote of the Day discussion this year, a student blurted, “Hey, this is like a paragraph.” The jig is up! This discussion helps students understand elements of paragraph structure and practice foundational analytical essay writing skills such as making arguments along with selecting, contextualizing, and analyzing evidence. Hearing groups share out allows me to formatively assess, and I can give the groups real-time verbal feedback. More formal assessment is also possible with a rubric like this one .

2. “Inside/outside” discussion. When I observed a colleague doing this discussion, I knew I wanted to try it. Half the class speaks (insiders), and the other half is given a listening task (outsiders), such as “Make a list of the topics discussed,” “Count how many quotes are used in the discussion,” or even a silly task, like “Meow each time you hear an insightful point and write down that point.” To provide fuel before getting started, I might use guided questions or just ask students to jot down notes for a few moments. Halfway through, the outer circle shares what they heard, and the insiders and outsiders swap roles.

I’m fascinated by the way this discussion includes many of the skills I traditionally assess through analytical writing: making arguments, selecting and analyzing evidence, and using transitions to connect ideas. Listening tasks help nonparticipating students maintain focus, and participating students know they have an authentic audience in their carefully listening peers. The discussion can be assessed using this rubric .

Structured discussion protocols are real-time, screen-free supplements to writing assessment. The structure more equitably supports students who are still developing skills and confidence as they navigate into and contribute to discussions, allowing teachers to more authentically glimpse what our students know, understand, and are able to do.

Eberly Center

Teaching excellence & educational innovation, discussions.

(Some sections adapted from Davis, 1993; Brookfield and Preskill, 1999)

Discussions can be an excellent strategy for enhancing student motivation, fostering intellectual agility, and encouraging democratic habits. They create opportunities for students to practice and sharpen a number of skills, including the ability to articulate and defend positions, consider different points of view, and enlist and evaluate evidence.

While discussions provide avenues for exploration and discovery, leading a discussion can be anxiety-producing: discussions are, by their nature, unpredictable, and require us as instructors to surrender a certain degree of control over the flow of information. Fortunately, careful planning can help us ensure that discussions are lively without being chaotic and exploratory without losing focus. When planning a discussion, it is helpful to consider not only cognitive, but also social/emotional, and physical factors that can either foster or inhibit the productive exchange of ideas.

Cognitive factors:

Determine and communicate learning objectives, plan a strategy.

• Ask good questions
• Provide direction and maintain focus
• Bring closure

Social/emotional factors:

• Demonstrate relevance
• Encourage participation
• Make high-quality participation “count”

Evaluate the discussion

Physical factors:.

• Creating a setting conducive for discussion

Cognitive Factors

For discussions to accomplish something valuable, they must have a purpose. Consider your goals for each discussion. How do the ideas and information to be discussed fit into the course as a whole? What skills, knowledge, perspectives, or sensibilities do you want students to walk away from the discussion with? Your goals for a particular discussion should be consistent with your course objectives and values as an instructor. You might, for example, want students to be able to:

• Articulate the arguments made by the authors of two assigned readings and assess the evidence used to support them. Evaluate the arguments alone and in comparison with one another and discuss their contemporary policy implications. Or…
• Formulate arguments and counter-arguments for a legal position. Or…
• Imagine a particular approach to the design of cities and discuss the impact such a design would have on the lives of people in different socioeconomic categories. Suggest and justify design changes to optimize the benefits for the most number of people.

When you can clearly envision the purpose of the discussion, it is easier to formulate stimulating questions and an appropriate strategy for facilitating the discussion. Communicating your objectives to your students, moreover, helps to focus their thinking and motivate participation.

After determining the objectives for your discussion, ask yourself: How will I make sure that students meet these objectives?  Plan the discussion out, even if you end up deviating from your plan. Some of the questions to consider when formulating a plan include:

• How do I want students to prepare: read a case study? (if so, in class or as homework?) do a team exercise? watch a documentary? reflect on a set of questions?
• What questions will I pose to spark or guide discussion? to encourage deeper analysis?
• Will I open the discussion to the entire class or ask students to discuss the issue in pairs, small groups, or some combination of the above?
• What will I do if students simply aren’t participating? If certain students dominate the discussion?
• How will I allocate and manage the time I have?
• How will I deal with digressions or unanticipated shifts in topic?
• How will I correct students’ misconceptions or inaccuracies without stifling participation?
• How will I (or my students) synthesize the ideas at the end of the class period?

Your answers to these questions will depend on your goals. For example, correcting factual inaccuracies might be critical in some circumstances, less so in others. Digressions may be productive if your primary purpose is to explore connections, and undesirable if the goal of your discussion is more focused.

One of the most important things to consider when formulating a strategy is how to get the discussion jump-started. Davis (1993) and Frederick (1981) provide a number of excellent suggestions.

Ask Good Questions

Good questions are the key to a productive discussion. These include not only the questions you use to jump-start discussion but also the questions you use to probe for deeper analysis, ask for clarification or examples, explore implications, etc. It is helpful to think about the various kinds of questions you might ask and the cognitive skills they require to answer. Davis (1993) lists a range of question types, including:

• Exploratory questions: probe facts and basic knowledge
• Challenge questions: interrogate assumptions, conclusions or interpretations
• Relational questions: ask for comparisons of themes, ideas, or issues
• Diagnostic questions: probe motives or causes
• Action questions: call for a conclusion or action
• Cause-and-effect questions: ask for causal relationships between ideas, actions, or events
• Extension questions: expand the discussion
• Hypothetical questions: pose a change in the facts or issues
• Priority questions: seek to identify the most important issue(s)
• Summary questions: elicit synthesis

These question types can be mapped onto Bloom’s taxonomy of learning objectives, which shows increasing levels of cognitive complexity as students move from fairly simple tasks (such as recall of information) to more complex tasks (such as synthesis, evaluation, or creation.) While you might frame the entire discussion in terms of a Big Question to grapple with, it is a good general strategy to move from relatively simple, convergent questions (i.e., questions with correct answers, such as “According to this treatise, what is Argentina’s historical claim on the Falklands?” or “What kinds of tax cuts does this bill propose?”) to more complex, divergent questions (i.e., questions with many valid answers, such as “Why did Argentina invade the Falklands?” or “To what extent would this bill’s proposed tax increases resolve the budget deficit?”) (examples from Davis, 1993). Starting with convergent questions helps discussion participants to establish a base of shared knowledge and builds student confidence; it also gives you, the instructor, the opportunity to correct factual inaccuracies or misconceptions before the discussion moves into greater complexity and abstraction. Asking a variety of types of questions can also help to model for students the ways that experts use questions to refine their analyses. For example, an instructor might move an abstract discussion to a concrete level by asking for examples or illustrations, or move a concrete discussion to a broader level by asking students to generate a generalization or implication.

When instructors are nervous that a discussion might flag, they tend to fall prey to some common questioning errors. These include:

Asking too many questions at once: Instructors often make the mistake of asking a string of questions together, e.g., “What do you think the author is trying to say here? Do you agree with him? Is his evidence convincing? Did you like this article?” Students may get confused trying to figure out which question to address first. Asking a number of questions together may also conflate issues you really want to help students distinguish (for example, the author’s thesis versus the kinds of evidence he uses to support it).

Asking a question and answering it yourself: We have all had the experience of asking a question only to encounter blank stares and silence. The temptation under these circumstances is to jump in and answer your own question, if only to relieve the uncomfortable silence. Don’t assume, though, that students’ silence necessarily indicates that they are stumped (or unprepared); sometimes they are simply thinking the question through and formulating an answer. Be careful not to preempt this process by jumping in too early.

Failing to probe or explore the implications of answers: One mistake instructors can make in leading a discussion is not to follow up sufficiently on student contributions. It is important not only to get students talking, but to probe them about their reasoning, ask for evidence, explore the implications of what they say, etc. Follow-up questions push students to think more deeply, to substantiate their claims, and consider the practical impact of particular perspectives.

Asking unconnected questions: In the best discussions, there is a logical progression from question to question so that, ultimately, the discussion tells (or reveals) a story. When you are planning your discussion questions, think about how they fit together.

Asking yes/no or leading questions: Asking questions with a yes/no answer can be the starting point of a good discussion, but only if there is a follow-up question that calls for explanation or substantiation. Otherwise, yes/no questions tend to be conversation-stoppers. By the same token, discussions can stall if the instructor’s questions are overly leading, i.e., if there is clearly an answer the instructor wants, and the students’ task is simply to guess it, rather than to think for himself.

Ignoring or failing to build on answers: If students do not feel like their voices have weight in discussion, their motivation to participate drops. Thus, it is important to acknowledge student contributions, responding enthusiastically when they are insightful (“That’s an excellent point, Sarah; could you elaborate further?”) and pointing out when they contain inaccuracies or problematic reasoning (“Take another look at the article, Tranh; is that really what the author is claiming?”). If you do not wish to play such a directive role yourself – and want students to develop the habit of assessing and responding to one another’s contributions – you can throw student comments back to the class for evaluation (for example, “Do the rest of you agree with John’s recommendation? What would be some possible consequences if this plan of action were followed?”)

Provide Direction and Maintain Focus

Discussions tend to be most productive when they have a clear focus. It may be helpful to write out a few questions that the discussion will address, and return to those questions periodically. Also, summarize key issues occasionally as you go and refocus student attention if the discussion seems to be getting off track (for example, “How do the issues that have just been raised relate to the question originally posed?” or “That’s an interesting point, Alexis, and one we will return to later in the course.”)

While some lulls in discussion are to be expected (while participants are thinking, for example) the instructor must be alert to signs such as these that a discussion is breaking down (Davis, 1993):

• Excessive hair-splitting or nit-picking
• Repetition of points
• Private conversations
• Participants taking sides and refusing to compromise
• Apathetic participation

If the discussion seems to be flagging, it can help to introduce a new question or alter the task so as to bring a fresh kind of thinking or a different group dynamic to bear. For example, you might switch from discussing an ethical issue in the abstract to a concrete case study, or shift from large-group discussion to small group or pair-work.

Bring Closure

It is important to leave time at the end of the discussion to synthesize the central issues covered, key questions raised, etc. There are a number of ways to synthesize. You could, for example, tell students that one of them (they won’t know who in advance) will be asked at the end of every discussion to identify the major issues, concerns and conclusions generated during discussion. You could also ask students individually to write down what they believe was the most important point, the overall conclusion, and/or a question the discussion raised in their mind (these can be collected and serve as the basis of a follow-up lecture or discussion.) You might also provide students with a set of 2 or 3 “take-home” points synthesizing what you thought were the key issues raised in discussion.  Synthesizing the discussion is a critical step for linking the discussion to the original learning objectives and demonstrating progress towards meeting those objectives.

Social and Emotional Factors:

Demonstrate relevance.

While students generally enjoy discussions, they may have difficulty recognizing what they gain from participating in them – in contrast with lectures, in which students may take copious notes and have a sense of having covered clearly discernable ground. This can be particularly true for international students from cultures <link to Cultural Variations> in which discussions are not a regular or valued part of the educational curriculum.

It is helpful to tell students up front how you think the skills they gain from participating in discussion will help them in academic and future pursuits. For example: “The ability to articulate and defend a position thoughtfully and respectfully will serve you well in the work world when you are arguing for a particular policy solution or course of action. Discussions for this class will give you the opportunity to practice that skill.”

Beyond explaining the relevance of discussion in general, it is a good idea to point out the relevance of particular discussions vis-à-vis contemporary social issues, your students’ future plans, etc. For example, “Today we’ll be discussing the advantages of Chinese traditional medicine over Western medicine in the treatment of pain and chronic illness. As we talk, think about a conversation with a colleague in medical school and imagine how you would articulate this argument and suggest a productive fusion of both approaches to medicine.”

Encourage Participation

Many issues can affect students’ willingness to participate in discussions, from cultural background (Are discussion classes new and unfamiliar to them?) to preparedness (Have they done the background work – reading, for example – to prepare for the discussion?) to the kinds of questions asked (Are the questions too difficult or, alternatively, are the answers too obvious?).  Below are some strategies that can help encourage meaningful student participation.

Create a discussion climate early. If you want to use discussion in your class, encourage active student participation from the first day of class <link to first day of class html page>. Plan an icebreaker early in the semester that gets students talking and interacting, preferably while doing an activity that is integral to the content material for the course. Also, create a climate in which students feel comfortable taking intellectual risks: respond to their comments respectfully, even when you correct or challenge them, and make sure (perhaps by establishing clear behavioral ground rules) that their peers do as well.

Require students to prepare for discussion. Discussions often break down because students simply haven’t done the reading or work upon which the discussion is based. Discussions tend to be most productive when students have already done some preparatory work for them. It can be helpful to give assignments to help students to prepare for discussion. This could be a set of questions to answer, a question or two to write, an informal one-page (or paragraph) “reflection” on a reading, film, work of art, etc. Brookfield and Preskill (1999), for example, recommend “structured, critical pre-reading” focused on these kinds of questions:

• Epistemological questions probe how an author comes to know or believe something to be true
• Experiential questions help the student review the text through the lens of his/her relevant personal experiences
• Communicative questions ask how the author conveys meaning and whether the forms clarify or confuse
• Political questions ask how the work serves to represent certain interests and challenge others

Preparatory assignments help students focus their reading and their thinking, thus facilitating a higher-quality discussion. It is important to note that assigning preparatory work does not necessarily add significant extra work for the instructor, who can collect student prep assignments, glance over them quickly to assess overall comprehension or to identify questions to address in class, and simply mark them Credit/No Credit.

Get to know your students. Students are more likely to participate if they feel that they are recognized as individuals. If at all possible, learn your students’ names and encourage them to learn and use one another’s names. Some faculty members require individual students (or groups of students) to come to their office hours once early in the semester, to get to know them better; others use ice-breaking exercises <link to> early in the semester to lower inhibitions and encourage interaction.

Model exemplary discussion behavior. Often, students must learn how to enter meaningfully into a discussion. One way to encourage students to engage in the style of intellectual exchange you desire is to model good discussion techniques in your own behavior, using language that demonstrates, among other things:

• how to build on another individual’s contribution (“As Sunil pointed out…”)
• how to ask for clarification (“I’m not sure what you mean, Allie. Can you give a concrete example from one of the readings we’ve had?”)
• how to disagree politely (“I’ve got a different take on that issue…”)
• how to marshal evidence to support a position (“There are three things in the book that led me to this conclusion. They are…”)

In the interests of modeling a particular style of intellectual exchange, some instructors invite a colleague to their class and engage in a scholarly discussion or debate for the benefit of their students.On its own, instructor modeling is not likely to affect student behavior, however. It is also important to explicitly point out the kinds of discussion skills illustrated above and to distinguish high-quality contributions (e.g. claims that are substantiated with evidence, comments which effectively build on other student comments) from lower-quality contributions (e.g. unsubstantiated claims, opinions based purely on personal taste, etc.)

Create ground rules. Explicit ground rules or guidelines can help to ensure a respectful environment for discussion. The ground rules you use will depend on your class size and goals, but may include provisions such as these:

• speak respectfully to one another, even when disagreeing
• avoid using put-downs (even humorous ones)
• avoid disrupting the flow of thought by introducing new issues before the discussion of the previous issue has come to its natural end
• keep in confidence any information shared by a student in class

You can set these ground rules yourself and specify them in your syllabus, or have students help create them. Click on these links to see examples of ground rules and a template for creating student-generated ground rules.

Monitor group dynamics. One of the instructor’s responsibilities is to manage the personalities and dynamics within the discussion group, so that all students feel that their contributions (if thoughtful and appropriate) are welcome. Cultural <link to CV doc> as well as personality differences influence the ways in which students enter into (or hesitate to enter into) the discussion.If a subset of students seems reluctant to speak up in class, you might consider ways for them to share their ideas and engage with the material in an alternative forum, such as via discussion board or e-mail. You can then bring these students’ contributions to the attention of the class as a way of acknowledging their perspectives and encouraging further participation (“Felipe made an interesting observation in a post to the discussion board yesterday. He pointed out that…”). Giving students time to write down their thoughts before opening the floor to discussion can also help quiet students get more involved. So too can the use of pair-work and small-group discussions. While some faculty are reluctant to call on quiet students for fear of embarrassing them, it should be pointed out that calling on students can also liberate them: not all students who are quiet are shy; they may simply have trouble finding a way into the discussion.Sometimes the problem is not shy students but overly domineering or aggressive students who monopolize discussion. Sometimes a subtle approach to reining in these students can be effective (for example: “Jake, I see your hand and want to hear your perspective, but I’d like to give some of the other students a chance to answer first.”); other times it may be necessary to take a domineering student aside after class to discuss changing the behavior.Handling strong emotions and disagreement that arise in a discussion can be a challenge for instructors. A certain amount of disagreement is desirable, yet if the conversation gets too heated or antagonistic, it can inhibit participation and squelch a productive exchange of ideas. When emotions are high, remind students to focus on ideas and refrain from personal comments (this stipulation can be included in your ground rules as well). You might also consider asking students to take a minute to write about their reactions to what has been said so they can cool off, focus their thoughts, and consider one another’s perspectives before re-entering the discussion.Also, consider in advance how you will handle sensitive discussion topics. Certainly one of the goals of education is to challenge and unsettle students’ assumptions and beliefs. Discussions that do so may not be comfortable for some participants yet still have the desired effect. On the other hand, done poorly such discussions can stifle rather than stimulate engagement and learning. Thus, it is important to anticipate where the “hot spots” will be and make sure you accord them the time and sensitivity they deserve. Also, think about whether the discussion environment in your classroom is sufficiently inclusive of all your students, regardless of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, political persuasion, religion, etc. (link to principle about inclusivity).

Assign pair and small-group work. As a prelude or addition to full-class discussion, consider giving pairs or small groups of students the task of discussing a question or problem. Group work tends to work best when the task is clearly defined and concrete. It can facilitate group work to assign roles within the group. For example, one member of the group could be charged with breaking the task down into steps and posing questions to the group; another could be charged with managing time and keeping the group on task; another could have the job of recording the group’s thoughts or recommendations and reporting back to the full class. (Assigning this last task to a quiet student can help to draw him or her out.) Click on this link for more on group work.

Make high-quality participation count

While we all want students to participate in discussions for the sheer joy of intellectual exchange, not all students may be equally motivated to jump in – at least not initially. Providing extrinsic motivations can be helpful to establish the behavioral patterns that lead, ultimately, to intrinsic motivations.  For this reason, many instructors include a participation grade as part of the reward structure of their courses.

In making participation “count”, however, one runs the risk of encouraging talk for the sake of talk, rather than for the purpose of meaningful and thoughtful exchange. For this reason it can be helpful to define what you consider high-quality contributions to discussions and distinguish them from low-quality contributions by using a rubric for discussion that makes your expectations and grading criteria clear. One instructor, for example, defines high-quality participation as: “raising thoughtful questions, analyzing relevant issues, building on others’ ideas, synthesizing across readings and discussions, expanding the class’ perspective, and appropriately challenging assumptions and perspectives.” She assesses student discussion performance on the basis of whether they make such contributions to discussion regularly, sometimes, rarely, or never.

How will you know if a discussion accomplished what you hoped it would? How will you assess your own performance as a discussion leader? There are a number of ways to evaluate discussions. For example, immediately following the discussion, you might ask students to write briefly about what they learned, how their thinking changed, or how the discussion relates to other course materials. An alternative is to ask students to reflect on the quality of the discussion, answering questions such as: What kinds of contributions were and were not helpful?  When were and weren’t digressions productive? Did everyone who wanted to get a chance to speak?  If not, why not?

Brookfield and Preskill suggest that students “keep a weekly audit of their participation in class discussions and then summarize and analyze their entries in an end-of-semester learning portfolio” (1999, p. 218). Another possibility is to videotape the discussion and analyze it after the fact; this can be helpful because instructors facilitating a discussion are busy juggling many things at once (time management, the flow of ideas, group dynamics), and often cannot assess the discussion as a whole. Davis provides a useful inventory for analyzing the behavior of discussion participants in videotaped discussions (1993, p.72).

Of course, discussions can be evaluated less formally, simply by asking yourself a set of questions after the fact, for example: Who participated? Who didn’t? What might explain the patterns of participation? What questions proved most fruitful and why? How might the discussion be improved to promote deeper inquiry, more student-student interaction, etc.?

Physical Factors

Try to arrange the physical set-up of your classroom so that it is conducive to discussion. Some instructors prefer that chairs be in a circle, others in a U-shape, while for small group discussions or debates chairs must be moved and assembled differently. Our intention here is not to recommend a “best way” of organizing the discussion space, but to raise some questions to consider when determining how to arrange your classroom.

First, what are your objectives? If one of your goals is for students to enter into a dialog with one another, then it is particularly important that they be able see and address each other directly. Obviously, the traditional classroom arrangement, with the instructor positioned before rows of student chairs does not serve this objective. On the other hand, if the style of discussion (or quasi-discussion) is Socratic, with the instructor asking questions and students answering, then a more traditional seating arrangement could be successful. In keeping with your objectives, you might also ask yourself what the arrangement of physical space communicates. Do you want to set yourself apart from other discussion participants, or position yourself as one of them? Do you want to make it difficult for students to avoid participation or do you believe they have the right to opt out? (Some authors, for example, have applied a Foucaultian analysis to discussions, arguing that the traditional circle-format is coercive in that students cannot hide from the instructor’s disciplinary gaze! (citation).

Second, what discussion format(s) will you use? If you are engaging in a brainstorming session and plan to write on the board, you will need to have students sit where they can see the board. If you want students to work in small groups, you might consider how chairs and tables can be positioned so that you can walk from group to group, or have students do so if the task demands it.  If your discussion is part of a group project that involves hands-on construction or manipulation (perhaps of a flow-chart or design), the physical space must be organized accordingly.

As a general rule, it is a good idea to set up the classroom so that students can (a) see each other and (b) see progress (e.g., to watch an evolving list of brainstormed ideas take shape, to focus their participation around a central question, to see several synthesizing points written on the board.) Clearly, the configuration of the room itself can limit your options, as can class size. If you are teaching a class of 120 in an auditorium with bolted-down seats and poor acoustics, the traditional circular discussion arrangement is untenable. However, you would be surprised how much discussion can be accomplished even in large classes (link to lament) and sub-optimal physical settings.

In conclusion…

While there are a lot of issues to consider when planning and leading a discussion, the time you spend up-front thinking through the cognitive, social/emotional, and physical aspects of discussion will pay off later in more lively, productive, and rewarding discussions as well as greater student learning.

Brookfield, S. D. & Preskill, S. (1999) Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for Democratic Classrooms. San     Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Davis, B. G. (1993) Tools for Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Frederick, P. (1981) “The Dreaded Discussion: Ten Ways to Start”. Improving College and University     Teaching. 29(3).

Effective Classroom Discussions

Listen, attend, apprehend, clarify what students mean, give students time, appreciate students' ideas, accept lack of closure, balanced classroom instruction.

Premium Resource

Teacher: Now that you've all read the case, perhaps you can tell me—what factors, do you suppose, influence a voter's choice in making a decision about voting for a candidate? Simon: This may sound a little bit weird, but I think that person's appearance has a lot to do with how voters feel about him. Teacher: ( reading into the student's statement from his facial expression and from the first part of his response ) It doesn't make a lot of sense to you that voters would choose a candidate on the basis of how he or she looks. Simon: Well, I remember my father saying that "democracy is dependent on an informed electorate," and if people are basing choices on the kind of haircut a candidate has, or if he has zits, or is wearing uncool clothes—well, yes, that makes me worried.

• Can you help me out here, William? I'm not sure I've understood you.
• Frances, I'm going to try to say that back to you, and you tell me whether I've understood you correctly.

Teacher: How is it possible, do you suppose, that some fish like cod and salmon that were once abundant are now in short supply? ( There is no student response. The teacher waits for about 10 seconds, and then comments .) Perhaps you need a little more time to think about that. It's not an easy question. ( The teacher waits until a student raises her hand .) Ah, yes, Lin. I see you are going to make a stab at it. Lin: Well, I'm not sure this is right, but I remember a waitress in Sandy's Restaurant telling us that the reason that there were so few lobsters available now was greed. That's what she said. Teacher: So what did you take that to mean, Lin? Lin: Well, I think that meant that instead of the fishermen being careful not to be greedy, they just went along catching everything—just so that they could make more money. I mean, they caught the little fish and everything and didn't give them a chance to grow. Teacher: You're saying that the fishermen caught even the little fish, and so the fish could not grow to replenish the fish stocks. They did not limit their catch to fully grown fish only and that's how the supplies became depleted. Lin: Yeah, that's what I mean, and I think it's a shame. Teacher: Thank you Lin, for being the first to open this discussion. I really appreciate that. So now, who'd like to add to what Lin has said, or offer another idea?

Teacher: What did you see in the photo? Frank: Snow and ice. Teacher: Right! So what does that tell you about the weather? Phillippa: It's cold there. Teacher: Right! Good! So what does that mean about what life is like there? Anybody? Lillian? Lillian: No response. Teacher: Anyone else? Eva: Maybe you have to dress warmly. Teacher: Yes, but I was wondering about the way people live there, Eva, not their clothes.

Teacher: What observations did you make about the photo? Frank: Cold. Teacher: Tell me a little more about that, Frank. Frank: Well, I see a lot of snow and ice. Teacher: So the snow and ice tell you how cold it is. Frank: Yeah. It's got to be freezing for there to be icebergs. Teacher: Where the climate is very cold, you may find some icebergs. Thanks, Frank. Does anyone else want to add an observation?

Barnes, L., Christensen, C. R., & Hansen, A. J. (1994). Teaching and the case method . Boston: Harvard University School of Business.

Friere, P. (1983). Pedagogy of the oppressed . London: Continuum.

Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Selma Wassermann is Professor Emerita, Faculty of Education, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, British Columbia. Her most recent book, which contains a more extensive discussion of teacher-student interactions that contribute to building students' intelligent habits of mind, is  Teaching for Thinking Today: Theory, Strategies, and Activities for the K-8 Classroom  (Teachers College Press, 2009).

ASCD is a community dedicated to educators' professional growth and well-being.

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60 ESL conversation questions about education, school, and university

• Posted by by Cameron Smith

Get everyone talking with these ESL conversation questions about education, school, and university.

Almost everyone in the world has had direct experience with education in some way, shape, or form. So get your students talking and sharing their experiences on the education system they experienced in their home country, and their take on the way other countries educate their populations.

ESL conversation questions about school

• Is the education system different in your country? How?
• Do you think that education is important for everyone?
• Should free education be a basic human right? Why or why not?
• What attributes does someone need to be a great teacher?
• Would you like to be a teacher? Why or why not?
• Do you think that teachers are paid enough for the work that they do? Why or why not?
• What improvements would you like to make to your country’s education system?
• What are some of the things that your country’s education system does better than any other country?
• Is education highly valued in your country? Why or why not?
• Are teachers respected in your country?
• Is it common for students to graduate from high school in your country?
• Is it a legal requirement for children to attend school in your country?
• Is education completely free in your country?
• Does your country offer high quality education to all students? Why or why not?
• What would the world look like without education?
• Which country is doing the best job at educating its population?
• Are there any disadvantages to attending university, versus getting real-world training?
• Has education changed since you were young?
• How do you think education will evolve in the years to come?
• How will AI change education in the near and distant future?
• Did you enjoy going to school?
• Did you prefer primary school or high school? Why?
• What were your favorite subjects in high school?
• What were your least favorite subjects in high school?
• Who was your favorite teacher in school? What made them such a great educator, in your opinion?
• What is your favorite memory from school?
• What is your least favorite memory from school?
• When you were younger, what did you want to be when you grew up? Did that goal change by the time you graduated from high school?
• Do you prefer to study with books or a computer?
• Did you enjoy doing your homework?
• Do you think that homework is important for students? Why or why not?
• What improvements could we make to the education system?
• If you could go back to school and do it all over again, what would you do differently this time?
• Did you ever go on any school trips? Describe them.
• What sports did you excel at during your school years?
• What extracurricular activities did you participate in during your school years?
• Did you ever win any awards at school?
• What is a typical school lunch in your country? Describe it.
• At what age do children start to attend school in your country?
• How old are students when they graduate from high school in your country?

ESL conversation questions about university

• What are you studying / What will you study at university?
• Is university free in your country?
• Do you think that university is too expensive?
• Do you think that secondary education should be provided free to all citizens? Why or why not?
• Does your future career require a university degree?
• If you have graduated, are you still using the knowledge that you learned at university?
• How can students balance their university commitments with other life commitments (e.g. a job)?
• What are some of the challenges that students deal with in secondary or tertiary education?
• Do you think that every career should require a university degree?
• Do you think that someone can learn more from practical on-the-job experience versus a university degree? Why or why not?
• How has online learning impacted universities?
• Do you think that in-person education is more effective than online or remote education?
• Do you prefer studying alone or in a group?
• Do you enjoy participating in clubs, organizations, or extracurrucular activities at your university?
• Do you think that networking is important for students while they are at university? Why or why not?
• What are some of the advantages of obtaining a university degree?
• What are some of the downsides of obtaining a university degree?
• What is your best advice for someone who is about to attend university?
• Do you think that everyone should attend university? Why or why not?
• What are some of the differences between secondary education (high school) and tertiary education (university)?

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Cameron Smith

Cameron Smith is an English Communication Coach based in Vancouver, Canada. He's the founder of Learn English Every Day, and he's on a mission to help millions of people speak English with confidence. If you want longer video content, please follow me on YouTube for fun English lessons and helpful learning resources!

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Education Conversation Questions

Warm-up Question: Are you trying to learn anything these days? Is there something you want to study?

Discussion Questions:

• How important is education?
• Does your country have a good education system? What are its strengths and weaknesses?
• Which countries have the best schools and universities? Why are they considered good?
• Is education only for the young? What do people learn when they are older?
• Henry Ford said, "Anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or eighty. Anyone who keeps learning stays young." Do you agree? Why?
• Do you enjoy learning new things? Give an example if you can.
• Does studying make you tired? Is it hard work? How can a student get energy for study?
• What characteristics should a good teacher have?
• Have you ever considered becoming a teacher? Why or why not?
• Who has taught you a lot in your life?
• Some people learn on their own. What things, if any, have you learned without teachers or formal education?

• There are many education resources online including full university classes. Have you used the internet to learn? Give an example if you can.
• Some people feel the education style of schools damages originality and creativity. What do you think?
• How do you feel about tests and examinations? Are they necessary?
• What's your learning style? Do you learn best by listening, reading, doing things, or by some other method?
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Fate of Mt. Charleston school returning for discussion at school district meeting

by Tiffany Lane

LAS VEGAS (KSNV) — The future of Mt. Charleston's only elementary school will return for discussion next week.

The agenda for the Clark County School District Board of Trustees work session meeting on Wednesday, Aug. 7, includes an item for "discussion and possible action regarding the next steps" for Earl B. Lundy Elementary School.

No other details are listed and the agenda item has no attachments.

Lundy Elementary was only supposed to be closed temporarily after suffering damage from Tropical Storm Hilary last summer.

MORE ON NEWS 3 | Mount Charleston parents outraged as school shutdown saga drags on

Since then, however, the school district has recommended shutting down the school permanently, sparking outrage in the Mt. Charleston community.

Students have been bused to Indian Springs Elementary since August, which in some cases took an hour and a half one way.

CCSD recommended permanently closing the school in May, citing rebuilding costs. Community members and parents have questioned that reasoning.

The school had about 12 kids when it closed, but community members say about 30 would be attending if it were reopened when school started.

Trustees held off on taking any action after an hours-long meeting last month, with community outcry to reopen Lundy.

Wednesday's meeting will also discuss the national search for a permanent superintendent, as well as bills the district could be draft for the upcoming Nevada legislative session.

NC Board of Education discusses NIL for public high school athletes

RALEIGH, N.C. (WTVD) -- Amid the ongoing discussion over whether non-professional athletes should get paid for their name, image, and/or likeness - otherwise known as NIL - state leaders with the Board of Education and the North Carolina High School Athletics Association met Wednesday to further discuss the opportunity.

Que Tucker, the commissioner for the NCHSSA, gave a presentation to the board complete with suggestions on ways to legislate the issue for public high school athletes.

"This is not about paying athletes to play," she said during the presentation.

Tucker presented a question to those in attendance.

"What does all of this look like," she asked as she went through a slideshow of recommendations and suggestions with state education leaders.

Among the suggestions, Tucker offered ideas that would prohibit student-athletes from missing school to present in a NIL-endorsed event, consider capping income for high school athletes, and prevent them from promoting or showing their school in NIL-sanctioned events.

"They are students first," said Tucker.

ALSO SEE: Basketball players sue NCAA over NIL use in March Madness promos

Meanwhile, Wake County basketball parent Ricky Moore is considering all options. His son is a rising freshman and a talented basketball player who has already captured widespread attention.

"My son's being looked at by multiple equipment companies, sneaker companies, and eateries right now all around the city. So it's been a great thing for us so far," said Moore. "I think it's a great thing because it helps the kids and their families. The ones that need it."

If the Board were to allow NIL for public high school athletes, Moore said he would strongly consider that route for his son.

"If this doesn't get passed and private schools are the only ones that can benefit from it, of course, public schools are going to miss out on a ton of athletes because of the financial piece," said Moore.

On the other hand, at least one local coach objected to the idea.

"At the end of the day, it's supposed to be a sport. It's not a business," said basketball coach Kyle Solomon. "And then you have kids making more than the teacher. How are you gonna teach that kid? What are you going to say to that kid in the classroom?"

Solomon is a coach with IV Greatness Academy in Raleigh.

"I get kids calling here every day. They're not calling here to get developed or want to learn the game. They're calling here to get NIL deals. Which is setting up kids for failure," said Solomon.

Moore offered an alternative.

"It teaches them how to get involved with business and real estate of that nature. Because everybody is not going to make it to the pros," he said.

No action or decision was taken from today's conversation.

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Here's how Florida's education system is serving as Republican's new blueprint

More of former President Donald Trump’s education platform was unveiled during the Republican National Convention last week, and many are drawing parallels to how Gov. Ron DeSantis has shaped Florida’s public school system in recent years.

DeSantis and the Florida Legislature passed several controversial laws that defunded diversity, equity and inclusion (DEI) programs, banned instruction on gender identity and sexual orientation and demanded that state universities consider the Classic Learning Test (CLT) , largely used by Christian and charter schools, as an SAT/ACT alternative, among other initiatives to ban books and certify new, controversial Black history standards.

In May, U.S. News & World Report sent a ripple of shock across the United States when it crowned the Sunshine State as No. 1 in the nation for education . The ranking, however, seemed largely based on Florida's scores in higher education.

New Florida education laws: DeSantis signed a number of new school laws. Here's what you should know before August

“In higher education, Florida – which is No. 9 in the overall Best States rankings – posted the second-highest rates of timely graduation among students at public institutions pursuing two- and four-year degrees, respectively,” the publication stated. “Students attending its public, four-year institutions also faced the lowest average amount in the country for in-state tuition and fees.”

Pre-K through high school, students excelled in college readiness, ranking No. 5. The state was ranked No. 12 for preschool enrollment, ranked No. 19 for high school graduation rate, and No. 21 and No. 32 for eighth-grade reading and math scores, respectively.

Republicans now hope to adopt some of Florida’s ideas on education to win over voters in November. Namely, the party wants to implement universal school choice, help boost parental rights in classrooms and promote what they call “patriotic” standards for civics education.

Here’s what that looks like in Florida.

Parental Rights in Education law, aka the ‘Don’t Say Gay’ law, limits discussion on sexual orientation, gender identity

Florida’s Parental Rights in Education law was one of the first to come under fire from critics, who soon began referring to it as the “Don’t Say Gay” law.

It prohibits instruction on sexual orientation and gender identity in Florida classrooms. The bill originally only targeted kindergarten through third grade and limited similar discussions in higher grades to what is “age-appropriate or developmentally appropriate for students in accordance with state standards.”

The bill was expanded last year to include grades K-12, but a settlement curbed some ideas critics disagreed with. According to NPR , the settlement clarifies how sexual orientation and gender identities can be talked about in public schools. The vague language of the original law left many fearing they would be unable to talk about their identities without facing possible repercussions.

The settlement now makes clear that students and teachers can discuss sexual orientation and gender identity, so long as it isn’t included as part of instruction.

‘Stop Woke Act’ prohibits teaching CRT in K-12 schools

Florida's "Stop WOKE Act" targets critical race theory (CRT) in schools and workplaces by codifying the Florida Department of Education's prohibition on teaching CRT in K-12 schools, barring schools and universities from hiring "woke" CRT consultants and preventing corporations from forcing employees to take mandatory CRT training.

In March, a three-judge panel of the Atlanta-based 11th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals upheld a lower court's decision to block part of the law, preventing it from being implemented in workplaces. The law is currently being enforced in schools.

Critical race theory is a loosely organized framework of legal analysis based on the idea that race is a social construct used to oppress and exploit people of color, according to  Britannica .

It teaches that law in the U.S. maintains systems that create inequalities between white people and people of color. People who subscribe to the idea work toward restructuring these institutions to eliminate all race-based hierarchies.

Defunding DEI programs

In May 2023, DeSantis signed legislation that banned state funding for DEI programs at Florida’s public universities. The law bars Florida state universities from spending state or federal funds to promote, support or maintain any programs that “advocate for diversity, equity, and inclusion, or promote or engage in political or social activism.”

How gender and race are taught on Florida campuses is restricted under the law. It requires university officials to review any lessons “based on theories that systemic racism, sexism and privilege are inherent in the institutions of the United States and were created to maintain social, political and economic inequities.”

DEI stands for diversity, equity and inclusion. Studies by McKinsey & Company, a business focused on accelerating sustainable and inclusive growth, show that there are “clear correlations” between diversity and business performance.

Adopting the Classic Learning Test as SAT/ACT alternative

DeSantis signed a bill into law in May 2023 that authorized Florida school districts to administer the Classic Learning Test (CLT), a new and controversial standardized test, alongside the SAT and ACT. Now, the  Florida Department of Education will consider adding the CLT as an acceptable exam for university admissions.

The CLT is a new “classical and Christian” alternative to the SAT and ACT standardized tests that were created in 2015 by Maryland educator Jeremy Tate, who believes American education has become “utilitarian” and that “high-stakes” testing is partially to blame.

More than  200 colleges and universities accept CLT scores , but that list mostly consists of private universities.

The College Board, which administers the SAT, has said that it recognizes the role that the CLT and other assessments can play in a diverse educational landscape but rebuked a concordance relationship study published by the Classic Learning Initiatives in April.

There are four CLT exams that students can take, each focusing on different grade levels. The CLT is the college entrance exam for grades 11 and 12, CLT 10 is a college preparatory exam for grades 9 and 10, CLT 8 is a high school readiness program for grades 7 and 8 and CLT 3-6 is a diagnostic and summative exam for grades 3-6.

The CLT offers both online and paper assessments that evaluate English, grammar and math skills. According to the website, the CLT differs from other tests by emphasizing “foundational critical thinking skills.”

Expanding School choice programs

DeSantis signed one of the largest private school voucher expansions in the U.S. in March 2023, following a trend from other conservative states after the COVID-19 pandemic.

Under the law, all Florida students are eligible for taxpayer-financed vouchers to attend private schools. The total awarded amount is up to $8,500 depending on the area the student lives in.

The Tallahassee Democrat reported at the time that the Florida House estimated the cost of the expansion as $209.6 million to public schools, while a Senate analysis had tagged it at $646 million. However, the Florida Policy Institute, a progressive research organization, estimated that it would cost Florida taxpayers closer to $4 billion.

Teachers unions and other groups criticized the bill, saying it will rob public schools of already scarce funding and allow private schools to discriminate against students, including those with disabilities. Some parents, however, applaud the new laws, including parents who already send their kids to private schools.

Contributors : John Kennedy and Nirvi Shah , USA TODAY NETWORK

The Daily Wildcat

Students, locals stage sit-in for punished ua professors at education dean’s office.

University of Arizona students and community leaders staged a sit-in Monday morning, Nov. 20, at the College of Education , demanding that p rofessors Rebecca Lopez and Rebecca Zapien be reinstated immediately. 

The professors were recently put on administrative leave with pay after a video was shared of comments they made about the Israel-Hamas conflict during a class discussion. Students claimed the video was selectively edited to take the professors’ comments out of context, and the university acted without due process in its decision.

“Their intentions with the lecture were obvious, that they wanted to examine different perspectives in this conflict. This was only an introduction to the topic of how children are impacted in this situation, and all conflict and wars in general. Many points made were very relevant to our current placement and future as teachers,” student organizer Lily Mansfield said. “We do not believe the situation was approached appropriately.”

The students involved in this sit-in expressed concern about how this decision relates to their right to free speech on campus, and are debating if professors, along with themselves, can express how they feel without the risk of repercussions. 

Students at the sit-in believed the precedent set by this university decision is a detriment to their education and program. Other concerns expressed were why the professors were immediately put on administrative leave without talking to them or their students first, and what precedent this sets for other colleges following this situation.

Other non-students in attendance addressed these concerns as well.

“I commend the professors because they are teaching our children to be critical thinkers. And here we’re going to suspend? Two professors who simply wanted to engage in a discussion? I’ve been a lawyer for a long time and this is outrageous. They must be reinstated, because this community built this, you must reinstate them,” Isabel Garcia, co-chair of Coalición de Derechos Humanos said.

Dean of Education Robert Berry was in attendance, taking questions from UA students and Tucson residents who were demanding accountability. One student organizer gave three demands to Berry, which were: reinstate the two professors, find a way to mitigate similar situations in the future and to establish guidelines for recording video and audio in the classroom.

“I’ll take your demands, and I will consult with who I need to consult with to consider those demands, but right now I cannot make a commitment to anything,” Berry said to an audibly upset audience.

“Where’s the due process?” someone said. “Where’s your backbone?”

“What is your timeline?” another member of the sit-in said. “The community is demanding an answer.”

“How long did the process of suspending them take?” a third audience member asked. “You took a very short time to suspend them, and now you want to take your time to reinstate them?”

Berry continued to take questions and hear demands, but didn’t have much to say beyond his earlier statement. Multiple protestors asked that, if he was willing to reinstate them, then who else would he need to talk to for it to happen?

At the end of the sit-in, Berry agreed that he would like to talk to professors Lopez and Zapien Tuesday or Wednesday, then reach back out to the students to move forward.

The professors are still currently on administrative leave, and due to this, another sit-in took place today at the College of Education. The organizers and participants were adamant that the sit-ins will continue until something is done about Lopez and Zapien.

More information on when the sit-ins are taking place can be found on the UA sit-in Instagram page .

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5 Reasons to Attend EduVate 2024: Shaping the Future of Higher Education

01 August 2024

1. Engage in Thought-Provoking Discussions with Higher Education and Industry Leaders

EduVate 2024 brings together accomplished educators and visionaries in higher education for stimulating panel discussions that will challenge your perspectives and ignite new ideas. These sessions will dive deep into pressing issues, emerging trends, and innovative solutions shaping the future of higher education. Additionally, webinar sessions will offer a global perspective, featuring insights from universities worldwide. This is your chance to gain invaluable knowledge from the best in the field and stay at the forefront of educational innovation. Sessions with industry leaders can provide valuable insights into emerging trends and skills required for the future, enabling higher education stakeholders to tailor curricula that better prepare students for the future and to obtain insights in bridging the gap between academic theories and practical application.

2. Enhance Your Skills Through Interactive Workshops

Theory meets practice in EduVate's hands-on workshops. These sessions focus on cutting-edge pedagogical approaches, innovative curriculum models, and AI-powered educational solutions. Whether you're looking to incorporate new technologies into your teaching or redesign your curriculum for the digital age, these workshops will provide you with practical skills and strategies to implement in your own educational context. Don't miss this opportunity to transform your teaching repertoire and elevate your students' learning experience.

3. Get Inspired from Learning and Teaching Showcase by Fellow Educators

The essence of EduVate 2024 is the Learning and Teaching Showcase, where fellow educators share their success stories and real-world applications of innovative practices in higher education. This is your chance to discover tried-and-tested methods that have made a tangible impact on student learning outcomes. You will gain insights into diverse approaches that can be adapted to your specific teaching environment. Let the successes of your peers inspire and guide your own innovative journey.

4. Expand Your Professional Network

In today's interconnected world, collaboration is key to driving educational innovation. EduVate 2024 offers unparalleled networking opportunities, bringing together leaders, educators, and students from various institutions. Exchange ideas, share insights, and explore potential collaborations with like-minded professionals who are equally passionate about advancing higher education. The connections you make at EduVate could lead to exciting research partnerships, joint projects, or even career opportunities. Don't underestimate the power of a vibrant professional network in shaping your educational journey.

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As we stand on the brink of a new era in higher education, EduVate 2024 emerges as a platform to showcase innovation and to foster collaboration. This event is a catalyst for change in the higher education landscape. By participating, you'll be part of a community dedicated to shaping the future of learning and teaching in higher education.

Don't miss this opportunity to be at the forefront of educational innovation. Mark your calendars for August 19-21, 2024, and prepare to join fellow visionaries at Monash University, Indonesia. We look forward to seeing you there and collaborating to create a brighter, more innovative future for higher education. Visit EduVate 2024 page to learn more or you can register directly from these buttons.

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Major Shifts Beneath the Surface in a New Trump-Harris Poll

The changes among groups cancel out for now, and Trump leads narrowly, but there’s a tie when candidates like Kennedy Jr. are considered.

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By Nate Cohn

After all the political tumult of the last month, Thursday’s latest New York Times/Siena College poll is full of findings unlike any we’ve seen this cycle, with one exception: who leads the presidential race.

The poll found Donald J. Trump ahead of Kamala Harris by one percentage point, 48 percent to 47 percent, among likely voters . Other than the name of the Democratic candidate, “Trump +1” is a result that could have been from any other Times/Siena poll before President Biden’s disastrous debate.

But on question after question, there are major shifts from previous Times-Siena polls, which were all taken before Vice President Harris essentially locked up her party’s nomination for president, before the Republican convention, and before the attempted assassination of Mr. Trump. Even the one-point Harris deficit represents a significant improvement for Democrats from Mr. Biden’s six-point deficit in our last Times/Siena poll.

As I have written , these events make it hard to know what to make of the results of recent polls , including this one. The survey is a useful marker of where the race stands now, but there’s no reason to be confident that this is where the race will stand once the dust settles.

While the overall result between Ms. Harris and Mr. Trump may look familiar, the poll is full of signs that there’s a lot of dust still in the political air.

Mr. Trump hits a high in popularity. Overall, 48 percent of registered voters say they have a favorable view of him, up from 42 percent in our last poll (taken after the debate but before the convention and assassination attempt). It’s his highest favorable number in a Times/Siena poll, which previously always found his favorable ratings between 39 percent and 45 percent.

Ms. Harris is surging. In fact, her ratings have increased even more than Mr. Trump’s. Overall, 46 percent of registered voters have a favorable view of her, up from 36 percent when we last asked about her in February. Only 49 percent have an unfavorable view, down from 54 percent in our last measure. As important, her favorable rating is higher than Mr. Biden’s. In fact, it’s higher than his standing in any Times/Siena poll since September 2022, which so happens to be the last time Mr. Biden led a Times/Siena national poll of registered voters.

The national political environment is a little brighter. The share of voters who say the country is on the “right track” is up to 27 percent — hardly a bright and smiley public, but still the highest since the midterm elections in 2022. Mr. Biden’s approval and favorable ratings are up as well. The ranks of the double haters have dwindled: With both Ms. Harris and Mr. Trump riding high, the number of voters who dislike both candidates has plunged to 8 percent, down from 20 percent in Times/Siena polls so far this year.

With all of these underlying changes in the attitudes about the candidates, there’s no reason to assume that this familiar Trump +1 result means that the race has simply returned to where it stood before the debate. For now, these developments have mostly canceled out, but whether that will still be true in a few weeks is much harder to say.

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