how to write a list in essay

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How To List Things in an Essay (APA and MLA)

Essays usually follow a consistent format but every now and then something happens to throw that pattern off. Lists may be required in essays, which might throw off the piece’s general formatting, organization, and syntax. Let us go through how to list things in an essay.

When adding a list of subtopics or themes, lists of recommendations, phases of analysis, components of an item, and the like, readers often get your point fast. The key to using lists in an essay is to employ proper punctuation and grammar, as well as to maintain a consistent grammatical style.

Anything less than 3 items should not be listed in your essay.

Lists frequently appear in essays, posing problems for formatting, paragraph structure, and grammar. When you include:

• subtopics or themes
• evaluation checklists
• complex lists of ideas
• steps in project planning
• component pieces of an item

With lists, readers immediately grasp your message. Punctuation and parallelism in grammar are some of the important tools for creating lists in essays. Here is how to list things in an essay.

Ways to List Things in Your Essay

1. listing with bullets.

Bulleted lists aid in the organization of texts and project ideas by eliminating the necessity for a chronological order of events or concepts. Maintain a consistent listing style throughout. Following the bullet style, statements should begin with capital letters and end with simply the correct punctuation. Bulleted lists aren’t the best format for listings in chronological order.

The APA lists are quite effective at establishing concepts, and they are organized in a variety of ways based on the type of information conveyed.

Find the most effective technique of establishing the facts about your subject matter after reviewing your work and confirming that your professors do not prohibit bullet points.

Consider whether an MLA numbered list or any other APA list would showcase your content more effectively. Find a technique to list things in an essay, specifically the MLA numbered list, when the specific points of your topic require a specific order in which they must be given.

Bullets are a good option in research papers.

If there isn’t a specific chronological order, a bulleted list is another option for listing items in an essay.

Lists that aren’t too long should be organized as separate paragraphs or under their titled sections rather than as vertical lists. However, for extremely thorough information, the bulleted list is still the best alternative.

Bullet points should be indented at least one inch from the left margin, which is a standard recognized formatting style. Lists with double spaces and precise quotations from their sources are more efficient.

Create a brief topic sentence that explains your motives just as soon as you’re about to introducing a sentence, and then include all those items in your list in an orderly manner that pertains to that statement.

When Do You Use Bullet Lists?

Exercise some restraint when employing bullet points in your academic writing assignments. The last thing you want your essay to look like is a smallpox sore.  Many of the circumstances and ways in which you might use bullet points in your article include the following:

• Significant emphases on interpretation
• In the case of listings
• Clarification of step-by-step instructions
• Formulating recipes and component lists.
• When you want to condense descriptions
• To provide evidence to support your essay points
• When making use of illustrations

When Bullet Points are not allowed

Watch closely for patterns in how frequently you employ them. The bullet points should not take up more than a quarter of the total space on your page.

However, there are some instances in which using bullet points in an academic composition is a strict no-no. Here are some examples of such situations:

• When writing your thesis statement.
• When writing a conclusion in your paper.
• Within the context of a detailed illustration.
• In the case of quotations.
• Within the first paragraph of the introduction.

2. Listing with Numbers

For numbered lists, they’re ideal for describing a series of events or a logical arrangement of thoughts. When writing an APA format list, the standard format is to start with numerals and end with a full stop. The next logical step is to begin your listed item with a capital letter after the period has been removed.

In their papers, psychologists and experts in the social sciences use the APA style. These APA lists are quite effective at establishing concepts, and they are organized in a variety of ways based on the type of information conveyed.

Using colons and bracketed numbers

There are numerous methods for enumerating things such as statements. The first of these ways involves writing the number in parentheses: Here’s an illustration:

Dinosaurs lived 4 million years ago: (1) first evidence to support, (2) second evidence, and (3) third evidence written here. 

It’s important to pay attention to the numbers inside the parenthesis, and it’s not a good idea to utilize only one bracket once the number has been written. If the introduction of your supporting claim is an incomplete sentence, do not begin the list with a colon. You could try the following:

Here are the pieces of evidence: (1) the first evidence, (2) the second evidence, and (3) the third proof.

Using semi colons and bracketed numbers

If one of your pieces of evidence also has a comma in the middle, use semicolons to separate the elements. Changing it from a run-in text to a vertical list is the easiest method to get around this.

Naming the numbers

Here, instead of writing 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, you will use first, second, third, fourth, and so on.

This other way to list data include separates statements using the serial versions of the numerals.

For instance.

The following are the arguments to support it. First (insert evidence). Second (here is the evidence). Third, here is the evidence. 

It is not a good practice to use semicolons to join all the pieces into one big claim since itemizing facts into one phrase necessitates the use of parentheses.

3. Lists with Letters

In this case, semicolons are utilized to properly divide APA-styled lists. They often use (a) lowercase letters; (b) within parentheses; and (c) semicolons to divide their sentences.

They often use (a) lowercase letters; (b) within parentheses; and (c) semicolons to divide their sentences. You should get the idea from there.

4. Running Text Lists

To identify elements in a list, Oxford commas are employed in run-in-texts. It’s known as the serial comma, and it comes before the conjunction. The main ingredients for recipe ABC are tomatoes, chilies, onions, and cilantro.

5. The First Sentence of the Introduction

When you create a numbered or unnumbered list in conjunction with a thesis statement or the introduction sentence, you have the option of either concluding the list or leaving it incomplete. It all depends on the structure of the essay and the methods used to list items. The colon should only be used with statements that have been completed.

A good example would be: “When making the perfect cup of coffee, you would usually need the following ingredients:”

Other than that approach, you could write “For the best cup of coffee, ensure that you” — think this approach only if every item on the list could self-sufficiently conclude a sentence that began with this structure.

6. Listing Single Items

Sometimes, what you need to list come as a complete statement, then each list item can be a single word, an expression, or a complete sentence, depending on the situation. The only requirement is that you adhere to a consistent pattern throughout the list. If you find yourself in this circumstance, write it in all capital letters and only use the full stop for complete statements.

7. Punctuation

Only statements and phrases that help to bring the structure to completion should be used when it is still unfinished. There should be a period at the end of each of them. Never use commas or semicolons, and avoid appending items from the second to the final one in a list unless necessary.

8. Deciding on a List

Ensure that your plans for really using that structure are expressed in that manner prior to deciding on a list format. For short itineraries with only a few things to say about each of them, it is ideal to utilize them as a statement in the run-in text. It is necessary to utilize a semicolon in order to neatly arrange the elements that will be listed within the sentence after the colon.

In contrast to our first case, lengthy statements that are to be incorporated into lists are difficult to deal with when they are presented as statements alone. In this case, the things should be separated into separate paragraphs or mentioned within a single lengthy paragraph, depending on their importance. It is best to break up long sentences inside a paragraph into separate paragraphs and number them in an essay. It is also best to bullet point or title them in an essay.

9. Separators

The usage of dividers such as “2)” or “(b)” in lists created with run-in-text should only be done when absolutely essential. The language and punctuation, in other words, fall short of the purpose of distinguishing the items on a list. Furthermore, despite this, you might want to think about doing a second rewrite to alleviate the complication and improve the overall comprehension of the section.

Using roman numerals and lowercase letters alternately, create simple outlines with a number of levels of difficulty. This method of defining your work and identifying each item in a list is the most effective technique to use multilevel lists. You should follow this order:

• Roman numbers
• Capitalized letters
• Arabic numbers
• Lowercase letters
• An Arabic numeral marked by parentheses or placed within brackets is a type of numeric expression.
• Lowercase letters, mainly denoted by parenthesis or put within brackets.

How to List Things in an Essay APA Style

Always make sure that all of the items on a list are syntactically and conceptually equivalent. For example, all of the items could be nouns, or all of the items could be phrases that begin with the word “and.” In the vast majority of cases, lists are simple lists in which commas (or semicolons in the case of lists in which items contain commas) are used between items, including immediately before the final item (see more information and examples on the lettered lists page). The use of lettered lists, numbered lists, and bulleted lists are all permitted in APA Style in order to draw additional attention to specific items.

Bulleted and numbered lists are permitted by the APA Style rules; however, if you’re unsure whether or not your instructor will allow them in your assignment, you should check with your instructor before submitting your work. See the section below for information on how to format lists.

Bulleted lists in the APA format

Depending on how the sentence is structured, the capitalization and punctuation for each bulleted item will differ. The first letter of the first word in the bulleted text should be capitalized, and the paragraph should be terminated by placing a period after the last bullet (see “Lists, Part 5: Bulleted Lists” in the APA Style Blog). As an illustration:

• This is a complete sentence.
• This is an additional sentence.

This is the final sentence of the bulleted list.

The bulleted list that separates three or more elements within a sentence is “capitalized and punctuated as if it were a complete sentence,” according to the style guide (American Psychological Association, 2010, p. 64).

APA 7th Edition

Bulleted and numbered lists are allowed by the APA Style rules, but if you’re unsure whether or not your instructor will allow them in your assignment, you should check with your instructor before submitting your work. Always keep in mind that, because bulleted or numbered items only provide undetailed information and do not include analysis, and because the goal of formal academic writing is to showcase your analytical thinking, these lists should be used sparingly in favor of conveying your ideas in full sentences and paragraphs. See the section below for information on how to format lists.

Lists with bullets

The capitalization and punctuation used for each bulleted item is determined by whether the items are complete sentences or sentence parts in the paragraph below. It is acceptable to capitalize the first letter of the very first word and to end the paragraph with a period in case the bulleted text is a complete sentence.

How to Make a List in MLA Format

Vertical lists are uncommon in essays written in humanities departments around the world, and they are most often used as run-in text within a sentence, with a colon marking the beginning of the list.

As an illustration, “Mark Twain has written five books: The Adventures of Mississippi, The Prince and the Tramp, A Tramp At Home, Life on the Finn, and My Early Life”.

The colon, on that note, is not used before a list when the list if those items are the object of the verb that announces them.

For instance, “Mark Twain’s recently published books include The Adventures of Mississippi, The Prince and the Tramp, A Tramp At Home, Life on the Finn, My Early Life.”

Although it is possible to include numbered lists in an MLA essay, it is recommended that you avoid doing so as much as possible. The use of lists in your essay can be accomplished in a variety of ways, so you should inquire about your professor’s preferences before proceeding.

How to Write a List Correctly: Colons, Commas, and Semicolons

If you want to write a list but aren’t sure about the correct punctuation, look no further. In this article, you’ll learn how to appropriately use colons, commas, and semicolons when making lists.

• Colons are sometimes used to introduce a list.
• Commas separate items in a simple list.
• Semicolons are used to separate items in a complex list.

How to Write a List Correctly

For writers, list-making is a handy tool to illustrate your ideas or to make your text more readable by breaking it up.

There are two types of lists: horizontal and vertical. Each type uses colons, commas, and/or semicolons.

A Punctuation Review

Before we dig in, let’s review what colons, commas, and semicolons are.

Colons look like this:

Commas look like this:

Semicolons look like this:

Horizontal Lists

Horizontal lists help you give examples or specify your argument by having ideas laid out next to each other.

Colons, commas, and semicolons come in handy when it comes to laying out your list and making it look neat. But what are the standard guidelines?

Using Colons in a List

First of all, the colon. It can be used to introduce lists but isn’t necessary. Your list can be a simple continuation of your sentence.

For instance:

The available colors are blue, gray , and white.

You should use a colon, though, if you use an apposition (e.g., “the following”).

The available colors are the following: blue, gray, and white.

You should also use a colon to introduce a list if semicolons separate the items in the list:

The available colors are: blue and gray; black and white; and red and pink.

Later I’ll explain whether to choose commas or semicolons to separate the items in your list.

Using Commas in a List

Use commas to separate items in a simple list - that is, if each item comprises a single word.

The following sentence illustrates this:

For lunch, you can have a toastie, salad, or fries.

Using Semicolons in a List

You can use semicolons to separate items in complex lists - that is, if each item comprises several words or contains the conjunction ‘and.’

If you use semicolons to separate the items, you must also introduce the list with a colon.

I’ll show you what I mean.

For lunch, you can have: a cheese and ham toastie; a caesar salad; or french fries with ketchup .

Because each separate item contains several words, and sometimes the word ‘and’ it could be confusing to the reader if they were only separated with commas.

It’s by no means necessary to do this and perfectly acceptable to use commas still, but it’s just a way to make your list easier on the eye.

Vertical Lists

Vertical lists are a great way to make items stand out or to break up your text by making it more visually appealing. They are usually made with bullet points, numbers, or letters.

A common problem with vertical lists is deciding which punctuation to use at the end of each item.

Here are some easy-to-follow guidelines:

• Put a comma at the end if the items are unpunctuated single words or phrases.
• Use a semicolon at the end if the items are punctuated but aren’t complete sentences.
• If the items are complete sentences, use a full stop at the end as you usually would when writing a regular sentence.

The last item in your bulleted list needs a full stop. You can look at the bulleted list above as an example of a vertical list that uses full sentences.

Here’s an example of a vertical list with unpunctuated single words or phrases:

The top three things we look for in a Masters Student candidate are

• motivation,

And here’s an example of a vertical list with punctuated clauses or phrases:

The plan for this evening is to go:

• to the restaurant for dinner;
• dancing with friends;
• have the happiest birthday .

To introduce a list, use a colon if the items are complete sentences that stand alone. If it’s just a clause or phrase, use no punctuation, and imagine the bulleted list as being a continuation of the sentence.

Top Tip! If you’re writing some kind of brochure or creative document, you can take more freedom with the punctuation since your goal is to make it look as appealing and readable as possible.

Concluding Thoughts on How to Write a List Correctly

I hope this article has helped you feel more confident about using punctuation when writing lists. Let’s summarize what we’ve learned:

• Use commas to separate items in a simple list.
• Use semicolons to separate items in a complex list.
• Use colons to introduce a list after an apposition or semicolons to separate the list items.

If you found this article helpful, check out our blog archive on navigating complex grammar rules.

Learn More:

• 'Dos and Don'ts': How to Write Them With Proper Grammar
• How to Write a Movie Title in an Essay or Article
• How to Write Comedy: Tips and Examples to Make People Laugh
• ‘Spicket’ or ‘Spigot’: How to Spell It Correctly
• How to Write Height Correctly - Writing Feet and Inches
• Assertive Sentence Examples: What is an Assertive Sentence?
• Optative Sentence Example and Definition: What Is an Optative Sentence?
• Grammar Book: Learn Basic English Grammar
• How to Write a Monologue: Tips and Examples
• ‘Writing’ or ‘Writting’: How to Spell It Correctly
• How to Correctly Apply 'In Which', 'Of Which', 'At Which', Etc.
• ‘Goodmorning’ or ‘Good Morning’: How to Spell ‘Good Morning’ Correctly
• ‘Realy’ or ‘Really’: How to Spell ‘Really’ Correctly
• ‘Eachother’ or ‘Each Other’: How to Spell ‘Each Other’ Correctly
• 'Do' or 'Does': How to Use Them Correctly

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

MLA Formatting Lists 

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Note: This page is new and reflects added guidance published in the latest version of the MLA Handbook (i.e., MLA 9).

Though they should be used sparingly, lists are a great way to convey information in an easily digestible and recognizable format. Lists are either integrated into the prose or set vertically, dependent on the list’s purpose and the amount of information presented.

INTEGRATED INTO THE PROSE

 Lists that are integrated into the text can be introduced by text itself:

        Baldwin was known for his astute sociological observations, meticulously crafted sentences, and decidedly metropolitan dialogue.

Or they can be introduced with a colon:

       Baldwin was known, mainly, for three things: his astute sociological observations, meticulously crafted sentences, and decidedly metropolitan dialogue.

SET VERTICALLY

 There are a number of ways to properly format a vertically set list. Numbered lists should only be used when the nature of the list necessitates a specific order.

LISTS INTRODUCED BY A COMPLETE SENTENCE

Lists can be introduced by a sentence in the body, which should end with a colon. The items can be complete sentences or fragments. The first letter of each list-item must be capitalized if the items are complete sentences. Each sentence requires punctuation.

Keeping with Cabral’s teachings, we must ask the following questions while interacting with social issues:

       Do our solutions consider the stated needs of the community we are speaking for?

       Do we have a clear strategy?

       Do we have realistic expectations?

If the items are not complete sentences, they should be bulleted or numbered. These should also be introduced with a colon at the end of a sentence. In both formats, begin each item in lowercase. Bulleted items do not require punctuation. Numbered items, beyond their respective numbers, should follow the same guidelines as a list-item that continues the sentence that introduces it (detailed below).

LISTS THAT CONTINUE THE SENTENCES THAT INTRODUCED THEM

Some sentences can be stratified into vertically-set lists. These lists should be considered, technically, as one single sentence. Do not introduce the list with a colon. Simply begin the sentence as you normally would and then format each item onto a separate line. End each item with a semicolon, closing the second-to-last item with a semicolon, followed by the word “and” or the word “or”. End the final item with the closing punctuation of the sentence.

Several health-food stores are focusing on customer safety by

       requiring that essential oil manufacturers include skin irritation warnings on their bottles;

       documenting the temperature of all frozen produce upon arrival; and

       performing all mopping after hours, in order to prevent accidents.

Bullet items that continue sentences do no not require punctuation, nor do they require a colon to introduce them.

How to Properly List Things in a Sentence

| Danielle McLeod

Danielle McLeod

Danielle McLeod is a highly qualified secondary English Language Arts Instructor who brings a diverse educational background to her classroom. With degrees in science, English, and literacy, she has worked to create cross-curricular materials to bridge learning gaps and help students focus on effective writing and speech techniques. Currently working as a dual credit technical writing instructor at a Career and Technical Education Center, her curriculum development surrounds student focus on effective communication for future career choices.

Lists are a popular way for people to stay organized. Perhaps you jot down grocery items or tasks you need to complete at work each day on a sticky note or your phone. But, when you need to communicate lists in writing and speech, you need to organize them in a manner to show importance and clarity to your audience.

Items aren’t the only thing you can make a list of either: ideas, claims, directions, and even complicated storylines can be integrated into a list format.

The biggest challenge I encounter when teaching English is how to punctuate list items properly. Let’s look at how to write a sentence with a list below and where and when to use punctuation, so your information is clear to your reader.

What is the Best Way to Write a List?

When jotting down some quick list items for your eyes only (such as a simple grocery list), you probably don’t care what your lists look like. But list format matters when you have an audience.

Listing things in a sentence can contain simple items, such as what you might pick up from a store. Or a list might illustrate complicated directions or ideas to help support a claim. No matter the content, organization and punctuation matter , as does the proper grammar for listing items.

There are two types of lists: vertical and horizontal. Both are very useful and communicate ideas effectively when used in the proper context.

When to Use Vertical Lists

Vertical, bulleted lists are great to use when you need to make a very visual point concerning your list items. This style of organization is best used for emails and memos that are formal but brief and very specific in the information being shared. It also works great to help break larger sentences into something quick and easy to view.

For example:

• A copy of your licensure certification
• Your available transportation dates
• A list of all students attending
• An overview of your trip itinerary
• The objectives of the lesson associated with the trip

It is also good for providing formal yet understandable directions.

• 4 lbs of flour
• 1 dozen eggs
• 1 can each of baking soda and baking powder
• 12 packets of yeast
• 1 block of sharp cheddar cheese
• 2 lbs fresh jalapeno peppers

Vertical lists are also the preference for a quick, informal item listing for personal use.

Grocery List

When to Use Horizontal Lists

Horizontal lists are best used when writing out more complicated ideas in paragraph form. They work well for quick lists and are also the preference for writing dialog. These can be used in both formal and informal writing, especially when sharing complicated ideas or thoughts.

• My frustration with the students had to do with their complete apathy toward the material, their disregard for wasted time, and their inability to realize how their actions were affecting their future.
• I need you to run to the store to pick up a few items: milk, butter, eggs, and bread.
• On our road trip, we passed through Fort Worth, Texas, where we spent a day at the Stockyards; Orlando, Florida, to visit my brother and his family; and Garden City, South Carolina, because I have a condo there.

How to Punctuate a List in a Sentence

Knowing the correct punctuation for list items is very important to avoid running your items together and creating a jumble of words. Lists not only use commas to separate items but also use colons and semicolons when the occasion arises.

Comma List Rules

If you list three or more words, prepositional phrases, or clauses in a series, you need to use a comma to separate them. The comma placed between the final two items is called an Oxford (or serial) comma . Some people feel this is an unnecessary punctuation mark, but its use helps provide a visual separation to avoid confusion.

Use Commas to Separate Three or More Words

Commas separate words in a simple list of items to ensure your reader that they are separate items and not the same thing.

• After work, I need to run to the grocery, laundry, and daycare.

Use Commas to Separate Three or More Prepositional Phrases

Prepositional phrases add detail to your sentence’s main topic. Commas help separate these details to create understandable information.

• Mykayla won the scholarship due to her detailed essay writing, her intrinsic motivation, and her interview preparation.

Use Commas to Separate Three or More Clauses

Clauses are detailed and consist of multiple words. A comma creates organization and structure, so your reader understands the information you share.

• The high school marching band was plagued by many disappointments over the weekend when the bus they were traveling on got a flat tire, the competition they were performing in rained out after the first round, and the trip home took twice as long due to the rain.

When Not to Use a Comma

If your list items are already separated by coordinating conjunctions or you list pairs of items, you don’t have to use commas between them.

• I went to the farm store for chicken and horse and dog food.
• I love to make bacon and eggs, biscuits and gravy, and toast and jelly for breakfast.

Colon List Rules

Colons follow an independent clause to connect the information that follows with the main topic. When a colon introduces a list, what precedes it must be a complete sentence, even if the list is vertical.

Use a Colon to Introduce a List Horizontally

Horizontal lists are lists that are integrated into the sentence following the colon placement.

• The school drill went flawlessly: everyone was organized, students stayed quiet, and the meeting place made it easy to take a head count.

Use a Colon to Introduce a List Vertically

If you use a colon to introduce a vertical list, you still need to place it after a complete sentence. Vertical lists work well for simple lists, or to list fragments when creating horizontal lists may create confusing or long sentences.

• A choice of hot or iced coffee
• Homemade breakfast pastries
• Sandwiches made to order

Use a Colon to List Abbreviations

You can also use colons to list abbreviations.

• MI: Michigan
• SYP: Student Youth Program

When NOT to Use a Colon

Colons should not be used after headings, titles, or captions to introduce information. There are many other options you can use to indicate formatting.

• Indentations
• Underlining
• Color changes

Semicolon List Rules

Semicolons are used to conjoin two complete sentences related to one another. It can also replace a comma and coordinating conjunction pair to avoid the repetitive use of and .

When used to separate list items, semicolons help create a division between elements that already include a comma. This can be as simple as city and state combinations or work to help clarify complex lists that contain descriptive instruction.

Use a Semicolon to List Locations

Semicolons are used to punctuate complex lists that include cities, states, and countries. Since commas are necessary to properly punctuate locations, a semicolon is needed if more than one is used in a series.

• I’m using my vacation days this year to road trip through Moab, Utah; San Francisco, California; Portland, Oregon; and a stop to ski in Banff, Alberta, Canada before heading back home.

Use a Semicolon to Divide Events

Descriptive events that contain a comma should be separated by a semicolon if they are listed within a sentence.

• Our trip to the Kennedy Space Center included a walking tour of the shuttle Atlantis, which is on display in the memorial building; a break in the Planet Play Zone, where children are immersed in space exploration; and an astronaut training experience, a real-life encounter with astronaut training scenarios.

Use a Semicolon for Descriptive Instructions

If your sentence includes detailed, punctured instructions, you will need to separate these steps using a semicolon.

• Before our field trip on Friday, I need you all to complete the following information in advance: one, your physical health release; two, your physics worksheet on forces; three, your confirmed group members complete with contact information.

Use a Semicolon to Provide Detail

When including descriptive elements in your list items, you should include semicolons if the descriptions are already punctuated.

• The luncheon included ham, turkey, and vegetable finger sandwiches with delicate cheeses; fresh melons, strawberries, and grapes with a sweet dipping sauce; and a choice of decadent fruit sorbets, tartlets, or hand-dipped chocolates for dessert.

When NOT to Use a Semicolon

Do not use a semicolon to replace a comma unless the list item that follows already includes comma punctuation. Also, do not use a semicolon to replace a colon. Semicolons do not introduce a list.

Let’s Review

Including lists in your writing to create descriptions and detail is an excellent way to create varied sentence structure. Although you don’t want to depend upon it too heavily, there are many ways to punctuate your items when you begin to include phrases and clauses within your list organization.

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How to Integrate a List of Things in an Essay or Paper

In academic writing, all papers must follow strict formatting rules and structures. Essays, research papers, term papers, dissertations, theses, or reports are written in APA, MLA, Harvard, Chicago, or Oxford, among other formatting styles. With the structure comes some rules to maintain, and one of these rules is how to incorporate lists when writing.

Lists are ideal even when writing in prose, even if they abruptly disrupt the structure, design, length, and sometimes grammar of the written piece. They can be integrated into the prose (horizontally or run-in) or set vertically depending on the amount of information and its intended purpose.

What is in a list? You may ask .

A list makes your work easy to read without struggling to identify the main points. They make your format recognizable and your reading digestible.

If you use the right punctuation, syntax, and grammar and stick to the formatting style requirements, you are good at including lists in an essay or any academic writing task. However, you must know that you can only use a vertical list if there are more than three items, and anything less than that should not be listed and should follow the general sentence formatting rules.

Let us see how everything works and how to present a list in an essay.

Types of Lists in Academic Writing

You can format lists differently, provided they are parallel and consistent. In academic writing, there are two types of lists: run-in lists and vertical lists, and let us expound on the meaning and formats of each.

Run-in Lists

A run-in list is a list that is included as part of the general text, and they are laid out in line in running prose. It is a horizontal list that entails listing the items as part of the sentences in a paragraph using the correct punctuation. In APA, you can use seriation within sentences where an item in the sentence is preceded by a number or letter enclosed in two brackets, followed by a semicolon, and has a period at the end of the sentence. Let’s look at an example:

Based on post-world cup analysis research conducted by sports researchers, it emerged that (a) it united more people than ever; (b) created a sense of belongingness for football fans; (c) broke the fear caused by the Covid-19; (d) helped entertain millions of fans; (e) contributed to Qatar’s GDP.

You can introduce run-in lists through a complete sentence followed by a list of items preceded by a colon while a comma separates each item. Let us look at an example:

Every camper and hiker should be introduced to basic survival skills training so that they can: make a fire without flint or matches, forage food, track and navigate the wild, make simple tools, and manage emergency scenarios.

On the same note, the list can also be part of a sentence where each item is separated by numbers or letters in paragraphs. Let us look at an illustration.

Kids should train for and participate in triathlons because it: (1) keeps them active, (2) teaches them to set and meet goals, (3) helps them develop motor skills, and (4) develops strength, endurance, and balance.

Vertical Lists

Vertical lists are laid out vertically and can be ordered and labeled with numbers or letters or bulleted (unordered).

A vertical list is preceded by a complete sentence that gives a brief introduction or overview of the items or points in a list. Vertical lists do not necessarily have to be bulleted, nor do you require to put a punctuation mark at the end of each item in the entry.

Making a camping fire is a fun process that involves the following:

• Have a source of water, a bucket, and a shovel
• Gather enough wood for the fire
• Pile a handful of tinder at the center of the fire pit
• Kindle the fire and add more wood

When your lead-in sentence is complete, and all the entries comprise complete sentences, you can use a final period at the end of each item in the list.

When you have a long list that cannot be presented in a single sentence, use vertical lists that are punctuated as a sentence. You can use this structure when the phrases have internal punctuation, or the reader might have trouble getting the gist of your written text.

If you have a complex vertical list, you can format it like an outline. You can then use numbers or letters to itemize the items in the list. The lead-in or introductory sentence should be a complete sentence followed by a colon.

Vertical lists help improve readability by breaking blocks of prose or chunks. They also help the readers to skim the text with ease, and they also highlight important content. Finally, they can be used as a signpost or to cue the readers about the following content, especially when listing subheadings or sections.

Ensure that you observe the nuanced rules for punctuating vertical lists for every formatting style you use to write an academic paper.

When to Use Lists in an Essay or Paper

Even though lists can disrupt the formatting, grammar, and structure of an essay or a written piece, they are sometimes the necessary evil that makes such papers organized. Imagine reading a prose format text that has stuffed a list of items in a sentence, and you must read, interpret, or internalize. It would be a tough call, won’t it? That’s where lists come in. Lists are meant to get your reader’s attention so they can decode your message on the go and off the bat. You can use lists in an essay when:

• Introducing a cluster of ideas
• Including themes
• Writing subtopics
• Writing an assessment/evaluation checklist
• Steps in a process or analysis (procedures, strategic planning or project planning, nursing SOAP Notes, etc.)
• Components of an item (list of board of directors, recipes, etc.)
• Signposting the ideas in your written piece
• List of recommendations
• Help navigate longer lists such as data sets

That said, you must adhere to parallelism and punctuation to the T when creating a list in an essay or any academic writing task. Besides, you must pay attention to the general formatting guidelines for the respective formatting style you are writing the paper.

Different Ways to List Items in an Essay

When assigned to write an essay or research paper in MLA, APA, Chicago, or Harvard formatting styles and you need to make a list, you should only proceed when it is unavoidable. Combine the list with good transition words, and you will make comprehensive, coherent, and cogent paragraphs that make your writing stand out.

That said, many ways to list items in an essay include using a numbered list, bulleted list, lettered list, and running text lists. Even though these means are allowed, you can only use lists sparingly in your writing.

1.      Bulleted or Unordered Lists

Bulleted lists are a preference when using lists that do not communicate hierarchical, superiority, priority, or chronological order. Although sparingly, you can use bulleted points in academic writing when:

• Formulating recipes and introducing component lists.
• Listing items
• Emphasizing points after an interpretation
• Clarifying the step-by-step process
• Condensing descriptions
• Providing evidence to support arguments and claims
• Illustrating points
• Providing examples

If opportunity allows, you are highly encouraged to use bullet lists in a research paper to make it readable as long as there is no condition to the list. If you have lists that are not too long, have them as separate paragraphs. You can also introduce short bulleted lists as titled sections. But if you have longer items to list and want to be thorough in your listing, use a bulleted list.

Before introducing the bullet list, ensure that you have an opening sentence explaining the list's contents. The introduction should give your readers a head start on the items, so they are not confused as they read.

When including the bulleted lists, indent them at least one inch or one tab stop from the left margin. The lists should be double or single, depending on the entire document's general spacing.

You cannot use a bulleted list in an academic essay or paper when:

• Writing the conclusion of your paper
• Writing the thesis statement
• Writing the introduction paragraph

The use of bullet points is strictly prohibited in these circumstances. You can use bullet lists in quotations, as we share later in this article.

Related Reading: Transition words and phrases to use in a university essay .

2.      Numbered or Ordered Lists

Like bullet point lists, you can use numbered lists that are similar, only that the latter has numbers instead of bullet points. Besides, there are also rules to observe when using either.

Most formatting styles, such as MLA and APA, allow seriation (use of numbered or ordered lists). However, this should be done sparingly as well. Overusing the numbered lists will make your paper look more like an outline than an academic piece written in prose.

You should use numbered lists when describing a series of events or a logical arrangement of items. Every list begins with numerals and ends in a full stop/ period.

If you are integrating the list in prose, you need to use colons and bracketed numbers.

The main steps of taking a shower include: (1) getting your clothes off, (2) getting into the bathroom; (3) activating the shower and adjusting to the right temperature, and (4) taking a bath.”

Notice that you must open and close the parentheses and not use just one bracket.

You can also use a semicolon and bracketed numbers if your pieces of evidence have a comma in the middle, and Semicolons are used to separate the elements. Alternatively, you can make a vertical list rather than a run-in text to better capture readers' attention.

You can also list items by specifying their order. This is the first, second, third…nth.

3.      List with Letters

Lettered lists are like numbered lists in every aspect. Listing things in an essay using letters and brackets entails using lowercase letters within parentheses preceding the items in the list, followed by semicolons before introducing the next item. The second last item will have the semicolon and the word “and” or “or” before introducing the last item and finishing with a period.

The main steps of taking a shower include: (a) getting your clothes off, (b) getting into the bathroom; (c) activating the shower and adjusting to the right temperature, and (d) taking a bath.

4.      Running Text Lists

Ever heard of the famous Oxford comma? You can use it in a sentence to introduce a list of items in an essay within run-in texts, and the serial comma precedes the conjunction.

When you plan a hike, you must pick a safe destination, get good gear, have the right attitude, prepare well, and plan your trip.

Making Lists in APA formatting Style

APA formatting style, used primarily in social sciences, allows using both numbered and bulleted lists. You should consult with your instructor whether to include lists in your essay or piece of assignment for clarity so that you submit work that meets instructions.

In APA style, you can list with bullets if you want to separate points in a sentence. In this case, the list is not preceded by a colon, and the bulleted list is considered part of the sentence. This option is usually great when writing complex sentences that might be difficult to digest without punctuation. If the bulleted list contains phrases rather than sentences, there is no need for punctuation.

As an example:

The project planning team has assessed the suitability of the location and has already completed

• the impact assessment report;
• health and safety report;
• work breakdown structure;
• letters of request;
• soil testing report as illustrated in their final letter.

In APA 7, using numbered lists is encouraged for complete sentences or paragraphs in a series. You can, for instance, use a numbered list when describing steps in a procedure or including itemized recommendations.

In APA 7, you have two options for punctuating bulleted phrases: to include no punctuation after each list item and after the last list item or to include commas or semicolons, as appropriate, after each list item and final punctuation at the end of the list. Example:

• the impact assessment report
• health and safety report
• work breakdown structure
• letters of request

Here is an example of a seriated list in APA

A survey should include (a) clear wording, (b) convenient access, (c)concise direction, and (d) simple language.

If you list three or more items, use a serial comma or Oxford comma before the last item and the conjunction “and’ or “or.” If you have one or more clauses that contain commas, you should use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate every clause.

Also Read: Signposting strategies for essays and papers .

How to make a List in MLA Format

In MLA style, primarily used in humanities subjects, there are many ways to integrate a list.

First, you can integrate a list into your essay's prose or paragraphs. In this case, the lists are introduced by the text.

E.g., “ We can praise Baldwin for his astute sociological observations, crafting meticulous sentences, and using metropolitan dialogue.”

Instead of using commas, you can also list using a colon.

For example, “ Baldwin is known, primarily, for three reasons: astute sociological observations, meticulous crafting of sentences, and using decidedly metropolitan dialogue.”

You can also introduce a vertical list in MLA either as a complete sentence or a list that continues the sentence that introduced it.

If you introduce a list by a complete sentence in the body, it should end in a colon first, then introduce the list as complete sentences or fragments. In this case, the first letter of each item in the list must be capitalized if they are a complete sentence. Besides, you should adhere to the punctuation rules for sentences.

Having gone through the report, four pertinent questions arise:

• Are we prepared for the future?
• Are our competitors edging us out of the market?
• Do we have the capacity to counter competition?
• When can we begin implementing new mechanisms to counter the effects we are seeing now?

You can also stratify some sentences in your MLA-format paper into a vertical list, and the lists will be considered as one single sentence.

In this case, since it is a sentence continuation, there is no need to include a colon before the list. Instead, begin the sentence as usual and format each item on a separate line.

Every item in the list ends in a semicolon. The second last item should have a semicolon and the word “or” or the word “and. The final item should have a closing punctuation of the sentence.

Several schools are reconsidering their physical security setups by

• installing motion sensors;
• installing gates with access controls;
• hiring guards with military training;
• only allowing authorized vehicles into the school; and
• Log in to all the people who enter and leave the school digitally.

If you can avoid using numbered lists in MLA, please do so without hesitation.

Using Bulleted Lists with Quotes and Paraphrased Text

You can use bulleted lists to format paraphrased passages from a source. You need to use a signal phrase or citation in the sentence before the text. For example:

“Red and yellow are the best colors to decorate a restaurant because they induce feelings of hunger, energize customers to order more food, and prevent patrons from lingering in the dining area once they have finished their meals.” (Jackson, 2009)

This can be paraphrased as:

It is profit-oriented to decorate a restaurant with yellow and red colors. Jackson (2009) suggests

• make people feel hungry;
• lead to customers eating and therefore spending more;
• and encourage diners to leave the restaurant once they have finished eating, freeing the tables for new customers.

A bulleted list can also function as a block quote, without quotation marks, if taken directly from the source. However, you must introduce the source with a signal phrase, and the quote should be single-spaced. If you change any words, you need to use brackets. You should also include the citation in the list item after the period after the last thing in the list.

Sticking to the same original passage, the right way to present this would be:

In her marketing study, Jackson highlights the benefits of decorating a restaurant with red and yellow color schemes citing that these colors,

• induce (potential customers’) feelings of hunger,
• energize customers to order more food, and
• prevent patrons from lingering in the dining area once they have finished their meals. (Jackson, 2009, p. 29)

You can also use the bulleted list to quote individual list items directly and paraphrase some items. Again, you must use the signal phrase or citation in the paragraph preceding the list. You should also include quotation marks and citations with the quotes in verbatim. Taking the same example:

When it comes to restaurant décor, the findings of a marketing study by Jackson (2009) suggest that the colors red and yellow:

• Make people feel hungry.
• “Energize customers to order more food.” (Jackson, 2009, p. 29)
• Encourage diners to leave the restaurant once they have finished eating, freeing the table for new customers.

Dos and Don’ts when Using Lists

As you strive to perfect listing items or things in an essay or paper, there are some things you should do and others that you should not do. Even though we have listed them as part of this guide, in the previous sections, let us gather them together for clarity. Below are some things you should do and others not to do with lists in academic writing:

• Only group items that are related. As you write and edit lists in your essay or academic writing, ensure they belong together. Only give a list of items related to the paragraph, sentences preceding it, or those it is part of. If the things are unrelated, disband the list and use other strategies.
• Your list should be easy to read. Instead of slapping everything else into your list, ensure it is structured and easy to read. The intention is to get the main idea out to your readers without them wasting much time. The list should be introduced well and straightforwardly. If there is a grammatically complex item, place it at the end of the list for easy processing.
• Observe punctuation rules. Every academic writing style guide has a unique approach and the best ways to use either numbered or bulleted lists. You must adhere to punctuation styles, including a colon, semicolon, or period. The punctuation should be consistent and correct. If unsure, ask your instructor for clarification.
• Stick to the grammatical rules. As you write the lists in your essay or paper, ensure that you observe grammatical rules such as capitalization rules.
• Do it Sparingly . Your academic writing must demonstrate that you can comprehensively research, synthesize, and present facts about a specific topic or subject. Depending too much on lists can dilute the very purpose resulting in a subpar essay or paper. If there is an opening to use them, do it sparingly and only when unavoidable. You are not doing a PowerPoint slide and do not want your essay to look like a scatter graph. Draw meaningful connections using prose format that entails good flowing words, sentences, and paragraphs.

As you Exit….

Again, we insist that using numbered or bulleted items or points in academic writing should only be made when unavoidable.

• How to write a perfect academic essay .
• How to use quotes in essays and papers.

 The rationale is that formal academic writing entails synthesizing information and critically presenting arguments to explore in-depth topics, which can only be achieved with uninterrupted prose: complete sentences and paragraphs.

Capitalizing the items in a list depends on whether you are writing complete sentences or the list is part of a sentence in a paragraph. You can capitalize the first letter of the first word of the items in the list if you are writing a complete sentence where you don’t need a semicolon but a full stop or period at the end of each item.

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Numbered Lists

Use a numbered list to display complete sentences or paragraphs in a series (e.g., itemized conclusions, steps in a procedure).

Use a lettered list or bulleted list rather than a numbered list if the items are phrases.

To create a numbered list, use the numbered list function of your word-processing program. This will automatically indent the list as well. Select the option for an Arabic numeral followed by a period but not enclosed in or followed by parentheses.

This is an example of a numbered list:

Our hypotheses were as follows:

• Social media use would be associated with lower mood.
• Active participation in social media would be associated with higher mood than passive participation.
• Perceived meaningfulness of online activity would mediate the relationship between online activity and mood.

Numbered lists are covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 6.51 and the Concise Guide Section 4.13

From the APA Style blog

Navigating the not-so-hidden treasures of the APA Style website

This post links directly to APA Style topics of interest that users may not even know exist on the website.

How do I incorporate lists into my essay in MLA style?

Note: This post relates to content in the eighth edition of the MLA Handbook . For up-to-date guidance, see the ninth edition of the MLA Handbook .

In humanities essays, lists are generally run into the text rather than set vertically. A colon is often used to introduce a run-in list:

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie has written four novels: Purple Hibiscus , Half a Yellow Sun , The Thing around Your Neck , and Americanah .

But no colon is used before a list when the list is the object of the verb that introduces it:

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s novels include Purple Hibiscus , Half a Yellow Sun , and The Thing around Your Neck.

The list is the object of the verb include .

How to Use Bullet Lists and Number Lists in a Research Paper

Academic articles often include lists, which organize the material and provide the reader with a quick overview of a section. There are different ways to format lists, but some general principles apply to all of them: they should be constructed in a parallel fashion, and they should be consistent. Numbers, letters, and bullet points are not required in all cases. Academic writers who use The Chicago Manual of Style will find various formats there, but four common list formats are presented here.

Types of List Formats

Run-in lists.

A run-in list, as the name suggests, is included as part of the general text. Elements can be separated in different ways, as shown in the examples below.

Separated with a Colon:   When a complete sentence is followed by a list of items, separate the sentence from the list with a colon.

E.g. “ Do not venture into the wilderness without these items: a knife, a book of matches, a flashlight, and a map. ”

Separated with Numbers:  When the list is part of the sentence, you can separate the items by numbering them.

E.g. “ The Housing Committee passed resolutions on (1) annual salaries, (2) fundraising efforts, and (3) community building. ”

Related: Need instant academic writing tips on your cell phone? Download the FREE Enago Academy mobile app now!

Vertical Lists

A vertical list should be preceded by a complete sentence that gives an overview of the points being listed. The list does not need to have a bullet point format and a punctuation mark is not at the end of the entries. For example:

Your admissions packet should include these items:

The three-page statement of purpose

The financial questionnaire

Your contact information

If the lead-in sentence is a complete one and all entries in the list are complete sentences, a punctuation mark should follow each entry. For example (using bullet points):

Make perfect banana bread every time by following these easy steps:

• Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
• Grease an 8 x 8 baking dish.
• Combine all the dry ingredients (listed above).
• Gently fold in the wet ingredients (listed above).
• Pour the batter into the dish and bake for 45 minutes.

Again, note that because each entry in the list is a complete sentence, a final period is used.

Vertical Lists Punctuated as a Sentence

When a list is too long or convoluted to be presented as one sentence, you can use a vertical list that is punctuated like a sentence. This format is especially useful when the phrases include internal punctuations or the reader might find it difficult to follow the meaning. An example follows below.

Biology instructors have made significant changes to their curricula and classrooms, and today it is common to find

• innovative research techniques, especially those requiring knowledge of anatomy, in labs;
• greater focus on teamwork;
• in-class lectures customized for learning styles; and
• bilingual lesson plans.

Vertical Lists with Subdivided Items

A complex vertical list may be formatted in a way that resembles an outline, using numbers and letters to provide a logical structure. The lead-in (introductory) line should be a complete sentence, as seen in the example below.

Students should be prepared to discuss the following topics:

• Regional History
• Geography and landmarks
• Erosion in mountainous areas
• Notable Figures
• The first tribal chieftains
• The emergence of political divisions and leaders
• The role of women
• Cultural Developments
• The spread of language
• Music used to bind communities

The next time you read a research paper , look for lists and examine how they were constructed. Do the entries use a consistent format? Are the numbers and/or letters correctly placed and in the proper order? Is the lead-in line a complete sentence? If you find that these steps are all present, chances are that the author took the time to research the structure of lists and present them accurately. Now you can do the same.

References:

• Get It Write. Handling Vertical Lists.  Retrieved from http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/101406VerticalLists.htm

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Writing from Near and Far

Transform Your Travels Into Meaningful Memoir

How to Write a List Essay

If you’re feeling stuck with your travel memoir writing, an interesting and playful structure to try is to tell your story in the form of a how-to list. This structure is like an instruction manual, but humorously reframes each step as part of your story. Some example titles might be:

How to Not Get Deported in Singapore How to Get Your Heart Broken in Hanoi How to Get Over Sea Sickness in Greece How to Become a Lifelong American Expatriate

What would your title be?

Let’s think about an example: If you had a life changing experience on a boat ride down the Ganges River, your title might be ‘How to be Profoundly Moved on the Ganges River’. You might start out with: “1. Decide to book a flight to India. Change your mind. Change it back. Ask your friends if you’re making the right decision. Listen to your husband telling you, ‘Just go. It’s not that big of a deal.”

As you can see, this type of essay is written in the second person. That means you’ll be using ‘you’ in place of ‘I’, and writing in the imperative voice (giving commands) rather than unfolding a traditional tale.

This type of essay will also include numbers for each ‘step’ in your how to guide. I suggest not having too many steps. Between 5 and 15 is a good range to aim for. Some steps can be longer than others—they don’t necessarily need to be of similar lengths.

Still going with our example, the rest of ‘How to be Profoundly Moved on the Ganges River’ could focus on your transition from ambivalence to profound experience as you spend time on the river, meet the others on the boat with you, and make stops along the way.

These steps could start something like this:

“Meet Chris from Idaho on the walk up to the temple. He tells you …”

And “Walk next to Daveed, your guide. Decide to listen closely to everything he says about …”

And “Avoid stray dogs at all costs. You read about this in the guide books, but acting upon this advice is different than reading. You love dogs, but you must suppress this love for now.”

Obviously I’m just making up these examples to help you get some ideas for your own how to essay.

Even if you’ve written about a particular trip in the past in a more traditional way, this structure can help you reframe that experience and write it from a different angle. This kind of structure is also great for online publications, since so much of what we read online these days is comprised of lists. This how to structure gives the impression of a light, quick read. And your interpretation of this kind of essay can certainly fit that, but it can also be dense and profound, only masking as light Internet fodder.

Take a look at this example from the Agni review  titled Breakup Tips.

Even though Breakup Tips is not travel themed, it is still a great (and quick) example of a how to essay that reaches for profound over light. Almost every sentence starts with an imperative: “Stand,” “Draw,” “Wait,” “Pull,” “Find,” etc. It’s a good idea to start most of your numbered sections with a command word to pull off the conceit that this is an instructional text.

I’ve also published one of these essays, mentioned as an example above: How to Become a Lifelong American Expatriate . Writing my story as a how to guide allowed me to give a broad overview of my travels and moves to different countries over the years, all masked as instructions to the reader. The appealing and humorous aspect of these kinds of essays is the suspended belief that any of these lists could ever actually exist as an instruction to someone else, when of course they couldn’t. That’s what makes it fun, and potentially profound. When we push ourselves to tell our stories in unconventional forms, magic can happen.

If you start to write this, I’d love to read it! Send me an email with your draft, and I’ll give you some helpful feedback.

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How to Write an Essay

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Essay Writing Fundamentals

How to prepare to write an essay, how to edit an essay, how to share and publish your essays, how to get essay writing help, how to find essay writing inspiration, resources for teaching essay writing.

Essays, short prose compositions on a particular theme or topic, are the bread and butter of academic life. You write them in class, for homework, and on standardized tests to show what you know. Unlike other kinds of academic writing (like the research paper) and creative writing (like short stories and poems), essays allow you to develop your original thoughts on a prompt or question. Essays come in many varieties: they can be expository (fleshing out an idea or claim), descriptive, (explaining a person, place, or thing), narrative (relating a personal experience), or persuasive (attempting to win over a reader). This guide is a collection of dozens of links about academic essay writing that we have researched, categorized, and annotated in order to help you improve your essay writing. 

Essays are different from other forms of writing; in turn, there are different kinds of essays. This section contains general resources for getting to know the essay and its variants. These resources introduce and define the essay as a genre, and will teach you what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab

One of the most trusted academic writing sites, Purdue OWL provides a concise introduction to the four most common types of academic essays.

"The Essay: History and Definition" (ThoughtCo)

This snappy article from ThoughtCo talks about the origins of the essay and different kinds of essays you might be asked to write. 

"What Is An Essay?" Video Lecture (Coursera)

The University of California at Irvine's free video lecture, available on Coursera, tells  you everything you need to know about the essay.

Wikipedia Article on the "Essay"

Wikipedia's article on the essay is comprehensive, providing both English-language and global perspectives on the essay form. Learn about the essay's history, forms, and styles.

"Understanding College and Academic Writing" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This list of common academic writing assignments (including types of essay prompts) will help you know what to expect from essay-based assessments.

Before you start writing your essay, you need to figure out who you're writing for (audience), what you're writing about (topic/theme), and what you're going to say (argument and thesis). This section contains links to handouts, chapters, videos and more to help you prepare to write an essay.

How to Identify Your Audience

"Audience" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This handout provides questions you can ask yourself to determine the audience for an academic writing assignment. It also suggests strategies for fitting your paper to your intended audience.

"Purpose, Audience, Tone, and Content" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

This extensive book chapter from Writing for Success , available online through Minnesota Libraries Publishing, is followed by exercises to try out your new pre-writing skills.

"Determining Audience" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This guide from a community college's writing center shows you how to know your audience, and how to incorporate that knowledge in your thesis statement.

"Know Your Audience" ( Paper Rater Blog)

This short blog post uses examples to show how implied audiences for essays differ. It reminds you to think of your instructor as an observer, who will know only the information you pass along.

How to Choose a Theme or Topic

"Research Tutorial: Developing Your Topic" (YouTube)

Take a look at this short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill to understand the basics of developing a writing topic.

"How to Choose a Paper Topic" (WikiHow)

This simple, step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through choosing a paper topic. It starts with a detailed description of brainstorming and ends with strategies to refine your broad topic.

"How to Read an Assignment: Moving From Assignment to Topic" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Did your teacher give you a prompt or other instructions? This guide helps you understand the relationship between an essay assignment and your essay's topic.

"Guidelines for Choosing a Topic" (CliffsNotes)

This study guide from CliffsNotes both discusses how to choose a topic and makes a useful distinction between "topic" and "thesis."

How to Come Up with an Argument

"Argument" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

Not sure what "argument" means in the context of academic writing? This page from the University of North Carolina is a good place to start.

"The Essay Guide: Finding an Argument" (Study Hub)

This handout explains why it's important to have an argument when beginning your essay, and provides tools to help you choose a viable argument.

"Writing a Thesis and Making an Argument" (University of Iowa)

This page from the University of Iowa's Writing Center contains exercises through which you can develop and refine your argument and thesis statement.

"Developing a Thesis" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page from Harvard's Writing Center collates some helpful dos and don'ts of argumentative writing, from steps in constructing a thesis to avoiding vague and confrontational thesis statements.

"Suggestions for Developing Argumentative Essays" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

This page offers concrete suggestions for each stage of the essay writing process, from topic selection to drafting and editing. 

How to Outline your Essay

"Outlines" (Univ. of North Carolina at Chapel Hill via YouTube)

This short video tutorial from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill shows how to group your ideas into paragraphs or sections to begin the outlining process.

"Essay Outline" (Univ. of Washington Tacoma)

This two-page handout by a university professor simply defines the parts of an essay and then organizes them into an example outline.

"Types of Outlines and Samples" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL gives examples of diverse outline strategies on this page, including the alphanumeric, full sentence, and decimal styles. 

"Outlining" (Harvard College Writing Center)

Once you have an argument, according to this handout, there are only three steps in the outline process: generalizing, ordering, and putting it all together. Then you're ready to write!

"Writing Essays" (Plymouth Univ.)

This packet, part of Plymouth University's Learning Development series, contains descriptions and diagrams relating to the outlining process.

"How to Write A Good Argumentative Essay: Logical Structure" (Criticalthinkingtutorials.com via YouTube)

This longer video tutorial gives an overview of how to structure your essay in order to support your argument or thesis. It is part of a longer course on academic writing hosted on Udemy.

Now that you've chosen and refined your topic and created an outline, use these resources to complete the writing process. Most essays contain introductions (which articulate your thesis statement), body paragraphs, and conclusions. Transitions facilitate the flow from one paragraph to the next so that support for your thesis builds throughout the essay. Sources and citations show where you got the evidence to support your thesis, which ensures that you avoid plagiarism. 

How to Write an Introduction

"Introductions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page identifies the role of the introduction in any successful paper, suggests strategies for writing introductions, and warns against less effective introductions.

"How to Write A Good Introduction" (Michigan State Writing Center)

Beginning with the most common missteps in writing introductions, this guide condenses the essentials of introduction composition into seven points.

"The Introductory Paragraph" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming focuses on ways to grab your reader's attention at the beginning of your essay.

"Introductions and Conclusions" (Univ. of Toronto)

This guide from the University of Toronto gives advice that applies to writing both introductions and conclusions, including dos and don'ts.

"How to Write Better Essays: No One Does Introductions Properly" ( The Guardian )

This news article interviews UK professors on student essay writing; they point to introductions as the area that needs the most improvement.

How to Write a Thesis Statement

"Writing an Effective Thesis Statement" (YouTube)

This short, simple video tutorial from a college composition instructor at Tulsa Community College explains what a thesis statement is and what it does. 

"Thesis Statement: Four Steps to a Great Essay" (YouTube)

This fantastic tutorial walks you through drafting a thesis, using an essay prompt on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter as an example.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) walks you through coming up with, writing, and editing a thesis statement. It invites you think of your statement as a "working thesis" that can change.

"How to Write a Thesis Statement" (Univ. of Indiana Bloomington)

Ask yourself the questions on this page, part of Indiana Bloomington's Writing Tutorial Services, when you're writing and refining your thesis statement.

"Writing Tips: Thesis Statements" (Univ. of Illinois Center for Writing Studies)

This page gives plentiful examples of good to great thesis statements, and offers questions to ask yourself when formulating a thesis statement.

How to Write Body Paragraphs

"Body Paragraph" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course introduces you to the components of a body paragraph. These include the topic sentence, information, evidence, and analysis.

"Strong Body Paragraphs" (Washington Univ.)

This handout from Washington's Writing and Research Center offers in-depth descriptions of the parts of a successful body paragraph.

"Guide to Paragraph Structure" (Deakin Univ.)

This handout is notable for color-coding example body paragraphs to help you identify the functions various sentences perform.

"Writing Body Paragraphs" (Univ. of Minnesota Libraries)

The exercises in this section of Writing for Success  will help you practice writing good body paragraphs. It includes guidance on selecting primary support for your thesis.

"The Writing Process—Body Paragraphs" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

The information and exercises on this page will familiarize you with outlining and writing body paragraphs, and includes links to more information on topic sentences and transitions.

"The Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post discusses body paragraphs in the context of one of the most common academic essay types in secondary schools.

How to Use Transitions

"Transitions" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill explains what a transition is, and how to know if you need to improve your transitions.

"Using Transitions Effectively" (Washington Univ.)

This handout defines transitions, offers tips for using them, and contains a useful list of common transitional words and phrases grouped by function.

"Transitions" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

This page compares paragraphs without transitions to paragraphs with transitions, and in doing so shows how important these connective words and phrases are.

"Transitions in Academic Essays" (Scribbr)

This page lists four techniques that will help you make sure your reader follows your train of thought, including grouping similar information and using transition words.

"Transitions" (El Paso Community College)

This handout shows example transitions within paragraphs for context, and explains how transitions improve your essay's flow and voice.

"Make Your Paragraphs Flow to Improve Writing" (ThoughtCo)

This blog post, another from academic advisor and college enrollment counselor Grace Fleming, talks about transitions and other strategies to improve your essay's overall flow.

"Transition Words" (smartwords.org)

This handy word bank will help you find transition words when you're feeling stuck. It's grouped by the transition's function, whether that is to show agreement, opposition, condition, or consequence.

How to Write a Conclusion

"Parts of An Essay: Conclusions" (Brightstorm)

This module of a free online course explains how to conclude an academic essay. It suggests thinking about the "3Rs": return to hook, restate your thesis, and relate to the reader.

"Essay Conclusions" (Univ. of Maryland University College)

This overview of the academic essay conclusion contains helpful examples and links to further resources for writing good conclusions.

"How to End An Essay" (WikiHow)

This step-by-step guide (with pictures!) by an English Ph.D. walks you through writing a conclusion, from brainstorming to ending with a flourish.

"Ending the Essay: Conclusions" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This page collates useful strategies for writing an effective conclusion, and reminds you to "close the discussion without closing it off" to further conversation.

How to Include Sources and Citations

"Research and Citation Resources" (Purdue OWL Online Writing Lab)

Purdue OWL streamlines information about the three most common referencing styles (MLA, Chicago, and APA) and provides examples of how to cite different resources in each system.

EasyBib: Free Bibliography Generator

This online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. Be sure to select your resource type before clicking the "cite it" button.

CitationMachine

Like EasyBib, this online tool allows you to input information about your source and automatically generate citations in any style. 

Modern Language Association Handbook (MLA)

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of MLA referencing rules. Order through the link above, or check to see if your library has a copy.

Chicago Manual of Style

Here, you'll find the definitive and up-to-date record of Chicago referencing rules. You can take a look at the table of contents, then choose to subscribe or start a free trial.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

"What is Plagiarism?" (plagiarism.org)

This nonprofit website contains numerous resources for identifying and avoiding plagiarism, and reminds you that even common activities like copying images from another website to your own site may constitute plagiarism.

"Plagiarism" (University of Oxford)

This interactive page from the University of Oxford helps you check for plagiarism in your work, making it clear how to avoid citing another person's work without full acknowledgement.

"Avoiding Plagiarism" (MIT Comparative Media Studies)

This quick guide explains what plagiarism is, what its consequences are, and how to avoid it. It starts by defining three words—quotation, paraphrase, and summary—that all constitute citation.

"Harvard Guide to Using Sources" (Harvard Extension School)

This comprehensive website from Harvard brings together articles, videos, and handouts about referencing, citation, and plagiarism. 

Grammarly contains tons of helpful grammar and writing resources, including a free tool to automatically scan your essay to check for close affinities to published work. 

Noplag is another popular online tool that automatically scans your essay to check for signs of plagiarism. Simply copy and paste your essay into the box and click "start checking."

Once you've written your essay, you'll want to edit (improve content), proofread (check for spelling and grammar mistakes), and finalize your work until you're ready to hand it in. This section brings together tips and resources for navigating the editing process. 

"Writing a First Draft" (Academic Help)

This is an introduction to the drafting process from the site Academic Help, with tips for getting your ideas on paper before editing begins.

"Editing and Proofreading" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page provides general strategies for revising your writing. They've intentionally left seven errors in the handout, to give you practice in spotting them.

"How to Proofread Effectively" (ThoughtCo)

This article from ThoughtCo, along with those linked at the bottom, help describe common mistakes to check for when proofreading.

"7 Simple Edits That Make Your Writing 100% More Powerful" (SmartBlogger)

This blog post emphasizes the importance of powerful, concise language, and reminds you that even your personal writing heroes create clunky first drafts.

"Editing Tips for Effective Writing" (Univ. of Pennsylvania)

On this page from Penn's International Relations department, you'll find tips for effective prose, errors to watch out for, and reminders about formatting.

"Editing the Essay" (Harvard College Writing Center)

This article, the first of two parts, gives you applicable strategies for the editing process. It suggests reading your essay aloud, removing any jargon, and being unafraid to remove even "dazzling" sentences that don't belong.

"Guide to Editing and Proofreading" (Oxford Learning Institute)

This handout from Oxford covers the basics of editing and proofreading, and reminds you that neither task should be rushed. 

In addition to plagiarism-checkers, Grammarly has a plug-in for your web browser that checks your writing for common mistakes.

After you've prepared, written, and edited your essay, you might want to share it outside the classroom. This section alerts you to print and web opportunities to share your essays with the wider world, from online writing communities and blogs to published journals geared toward young writers.

Sharing Your Essays Online

Go Teen Writers

Go Teen Writers is an online community for writers aged 13 - 19. It was founded by Stephanie Morrill, an author of contemporary young adult novels. 

Tumblr is a blogging website where you can share your writing and interact with other writers online. It's easy to add photos, links, audio, and video components.

Writersky provides an online platform for publishing and reading other youth writers' work. Its current content is mostly devoted to fiction.

Publishing Your Essays Online

This teen literary journal publishes in print, on the web, and (more frequently), on a blog. It is committed to ensuring that "teens see their authentic experience reflected on its pages."

The Matador Review

This youth writing platform celebrates "alternative," unconventional writing. The link above will take you directly to the site's "submissions" page.

Teen Ink has a website, monthly newsprint magazine, and quarterly poetry magazine promoting the work of young writers.

The largest online reading platform, Wattpad enables you to publish your work and read others' work. Its inline commenting feature allows you to share thoughts as you read along.

Publishing Your Essays in Print

Canvas Teen Literary Journal

This quarterly literary magazine is published for young writers by young writers. They accept many kinds of writing, including essays.

The Claremont Review

This biannual international magazine, first published in 1992, publishes poetry, essays, and short stories from writers aged 13 - 19.

Skipping Stones

This young writers magazine, founded in 1988, celebrates themes relating to ecological and cultural diversity. It publishes poems, photos, articles, and stories.

The Telling Room

This nonprofit writing center based in Maine publishes children's work on their website and in book form. The link above directs you to the site's submissions page.

Essay Contests

Scholastic Arts and Writing Awards

This prestigious international writing contest for students in grades 7 - 12 has been committed to "supporting the future of creativity since 1923."

Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest

An annual essay contest on the theme of journalism and media, the Society of Professional Journalists High School Essay Contest awards scholarships up to $1,000.

National YoungArts Foundation

Here, you'll find information on a government-sponsored writing competition for writers aged 15 - 18. The foundation welcomes submissions of creative nonfiction, novels, scripts, poetry, short story and spoken word.

Signet Classics Student Scholarship Essay Contest

With prompts on a different literary work each year, this competition from Signet Classics awards college scholarships up to $1,000.

"The Ultimate Guide to High School Essay Contests" (CollegeVine)

See this handy guide from CollegeVine for a list of more competitions you can enter with your academic essay, from the National Council of Teachers of English Achievement Awards to the National High School Essay Contest by the U.S. Institute of Peace.

Whether you're struggling to write academic essays or you think you're a pro, there are workshops and online tools that can help you become an even better writer. Even the most seasoned writers encounter writer's block, so be proactive and look through our curated list of resources to combat this common frustration.

Online Essay-writing Classes and Workshops

"Getting Started with Essay Writing" (Coursera)

Coursera offers lots of free, high-quality online classes taught by college professors. Here's one example, taught by instructors from the University of California Irvine.

"Writing and English" (Brightstorm)

Brightstorm's free video lectures are easy to navigate by topic. This unit on the parts of an essay features content on the essay hook, thesis, supporting evidence, and more.

"How to Write an Essay" (EdX)

EdX is another open online university course website with several two- to five-week courses on the essay. This one is geared toward English language learners.

Writer's Digest University

This renowned writers' website offers online workshops and interactive tutorials. The courses offered cover everything from how to get started through how to get published.

Writing.com

Signing up for this online writer's community gives you access to helpful resources as well as an international community of writers.

How to Overcome Writer's Block

"Symptoms and Cures for Writer's Block" (Purdue OWL)

Purdue OWL offers a list of signs you might have writer's block, along with ways to overcome it. Consider trying out some "invention strategies" or ways to curb writing anxiety.

"Overcoming Writer's Block: Three Tips" ( The Guardian )

These tips, geared toward academic writing specifically, are practical and effective. The authors advocate setting realistic goals, creating dedicated writing time, and participating in social writing.

"Writing Tips: Strategies for Overcoming Writer's Block" (Univ. of Illinois)

This page from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign's Center for Writing Studies acquaints you with strategies that do and do not work to overcome writer's block.

"Writer's Block" (Univ. of Toronto)

Ask yourself the questions on this page; if the answer is "yes," try out some of the article's strategies. Each question is accompanied by at least two possible solutions.

If you have essays to write but are short on ideas, this section's links to prompts, example student essays, and celebrated essays by professional writers might help. You'll find writing prompts from a variety of sources, student essays to inspire you, and a number of essay writing collections.

Essay Writing Prompts

"50 Argumentative Essay Topics" (ThoughtCo)

Take a look at this list and the others ThoughtCo has curated for different kinds of essays. As the author notes, "a number of these topics are controversial and that's the point."

"401 Prompts for Argumentative Writing" ( New York Times )

This list (and the linked lists to persuasive and narrative writing prompts), besides being impressive in length, is put together by actual high school English teachers.

"SAT Sample Essay Prompts" (College Board)

If you're a student in the U.S., your classroom essay prompts are likely modeled on the prompts in U.S. college entrance exams. Take a look at these official examples from the SAT.

"Popular College Application Essay Topics" (Princeton Review)

This page from the Princeton Review dissects recent Common Application essay topics and discusses strategies for answering them.

Example Student Essays

"501 Writing Prompts" (DePaul Univ.)

This nearly 200-page packet, compiled by the LearningExpress Skill Builder in Focus Writing Team, is stuffed with writing prompts, example essays, and commentary.

"Topics in English" (Kibin)

Kibin is a for-pay essay help website, but its example essays (organized by topic) are available for free. You'll find essays on everything from  A Christmas Carol  to perseverance.

"Student Writing Models" (Thoughtful Learning)

Thoughtful Learning, a website that offers a variety of teaching materials, provides sample student essays on various topics and organizes them by grade level.

"Five-Paragraph Essay" (ThoughtCo)

In this blog post by a former professor of English and rhetoric, ThoughtCo brings together examples of five-paragraph essays and commentary on the form.

The Best Essay Writing Collections

The Best American Essays of the Century by Joyce Carol Oates (Amazon)

This collection of American essays spanning the twentieth century was compiled by award winning author and Princeton professor Joyce Carol Oates.

The Best American Essays 2017 by Leslie Jamison (Amazon)

Leslie Jamison, the celebrated author of essay collection  The Empathy Exams , collects recent, high-profile essays into a single volume.

The Art of the Personal Essay by Phillip Lopate (Amazon)

Documentary writer Phillip Lopate curates this historical overview of the personal essay's development, from the classical era to the present.

The White Album by Joan Didion (Amazon)

This seminal essay collection was authored by one of the most acclaimed personal essayists of all time, American journalist Joan Didion.

Consider the Lobster by David Foster Wallace (Amazon)

Read this famous essay collection by David Foster Wallace, who is known for his experimentation with the essay form. He pushed the boundaries of personal essay, reportage, and political polemic.

"50 Successful Harvard Application Essays" (Staff of the The Harvard Crimson )

If you're looking for examples of exceptional college application essays, this volume from Harvard's daily student newspaper is one of the best collections on the market.

Are you an instructor looking for the best resources for teaching essay writing? This section contains resources for developing in-class activities and student homework assignments. You'll find content from both well-known university writing centers and online writing labs.

Essay Writing Classroom Activities for Students

"In-class Writing Exercises" (Univ. of North Carolina Writing Center)

This page lists exercises related to brainstorming, organizing, drafting, and revising. It also contains suggestions for how to implement the suggested exercises.

"Teaching with Writing" (Univ. of Minnesota Center for Writing)

Instructions and encouragement for using "freewriting," one-minute papers, logbooks, and other write-to-learn activities in the classroom can be found here.

"Writing Worksheets" (Berkeley Student Learning Center)

Berkeley offers this bank of writing worksheets to use in class. They are nested under headings for "Prewriting," "Revision," "Research Papers" and more.

"Using Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism" (DePaul University)

Use these activities and worksheets from DePaul's Teaching Commons when instructing students on proper academic citation practices.

Essay Writing Homework Activities for Students

"Grammar and Punctuation Exercises" (Aims Online Writing Lab)

These five interactive online activities allow students to practice editing and proofreading. They'll hone their skills in correcting comma splices and run-ons, identifying fragments, using correct pronoun agreement, and comma usage.

"Student Interactives" (Read Write Think)

Read Write Think hosts interactive tools, games, and videos for developing writing skills. They can practice organizing and summarizing, writing poetry, and developing lines of inquiry and analysis.

This free website offers writing and grammar activities for all grade levels. The lessons are designed to be used both for large classes and smaller groups.

"Writing Activities and Lessons for Every Grade" (Education World)

Education World's page on writing activities and lessons links you to more free, online resources for learning how to "W.R.I.T.E.": write, revise, inform, think, and edit.

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Essay Papers Writing Online

Tips and tricks for crafting engaging and effective essays.

Writing essays can be a challenging task, but with the right approach and strategies, you can create compelling and impactful pieces that captivate your audience. Whether you’re a student working on an academic paper or a professional honing your writing skills, these tips will help you craft essays that stand out.

Effective essays are not just about conveying information; they are about persuading, engaging, and inspiring readers. To achieve this, it’s essential to pay attention to various elements of the essay-writing process, from brainstorming ideas to polishing your final draft. By following these tips, you can elevate your writing and produce essays that leave a lasting impression.

Understanding the Essay Prompt

Before you start writing your essay, it is crucial to thoroughly understand the essay prompt or question provided by your instructor. The essay prompt serves as a roadmap for your essay and outlines the specific requirements or expectations.

Here are a few key things to consider when analyzing the essay prompt:

• Read the prompt carefully and identify the main topic or question being asked.
• Pay attention to any specific instructions or guidelines provided, such as word count, formatting requirements, or sources to be used.
• Identify key terms or phrases in the prompt that can help you determine the focus of your essay.

By understanding the essay prompt thoroughly, you can ensure that your essay addresses the topic effectively and meets the requirements set forth by your instructor.

Researching Your Topic Thoroughly

One of the key elements of writing an effective essay is conducting thorough research on your chosen topic. Research helps you gather the necessary information, facts, and examples to support your arguments and make your essay more convincing.

Here are some tips for researching your topic thoroughly:

By following these tips and conducting thorough research on your topic, you will be able to write a well-informed and persuasive essay that effectively communicates your ideas and arguments.

Creating a Strong Thesis Statement

A thesis statement is a crucial element of any well-crafted essay. It serves as the main point or idea that you will be discussing and supporting throughout your paper. A strong thesis statement should be clear, specific, and arguable.

To create a strong thesis statement, follow these tips:

• Be specific: Your thesis statement should clearly state the main idea of your essay. Avoid vague or general statements.
• Be concise: Keep your thesis statement concise and to the point. Avoid unnecessary details or lengthy explanations.
• Be argumentative: Your thesis statement should present an argument or perspective that can be debated or discussed in your essay.
• Be relevant: Make sure your thesis statement is relevant to the topic of your essay and reflects the main point you want to make.
• Revise as needed: Don’t be afraid to revise your thesis statement as you work on your essay. It may change as you develop your ideas.

Remember, a strong thesis statement sets the tone for your entire essay and provides a roadmap for your readers to follow. Put time and effort into crafting a clear and compelling thesis statement to ensure your essay is effective and persuasive.

Developing a Clear Essay Structure

One of the key elements of writing an effective essay is developing a clear and logical structure. A well-structured essay helps the reader follow your argument and enhances the overall readability of your work. Here are some tips to help you develop a clear essay structure:

1. Start with a strong introduction: Begin your essay with an engaging introduction that introduces the topic and clearly states your thesis or main argument.

2. Organize your ideas: Before you start writing, outline the main points you want to cover in your essay. This will help you organize your thoughts and ensure a logical flow of ideas.

3. Use topic sentences: Begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that introduces the main idea of the paragraph. This helps the reader understand the purpose of each paragraph.

4. Provide evidence and analysis: Support your arguments with evidence and analysis to back up your main points. Make sure your evidence is relevant and directly supports your thesis.

5. Transition between paragraphs: Use transitional words and phrases to create flow between paragraphs and help the reader move smoothly from one idea to the next.

6. Conclude effectively: End your essay with a strong conclusion that summarizes your main points and reinforces your thesis. Avoid introducing new ideas in the conclusion.

By following these tips, you can develop a clear essay structure that will help you effectively communicate your ideas and engage your reader from start to finish.

Using Relevant Examples and Evidence

When writing an essay, it’s crucial to support your arguments and assertions with relevant examples and evidence. This not only adds credibility to your writing but also helps your readers better understand your points. Here are some tips on how to effectively use examples and evidence in your essays:

• Choose examples that are specific and relevant to the topic you’re discussing. Avoid using generic examples that may not directly support your argument.
• Provide concrete evidence to back up your claims. This could include statistics, research findings, or quotes from reliable sources.
• Interpret the examples and evidence you provide, explaining how they support your thesis or main argument. Don’t assume that the connection is obvious to your readers.
• Use a variety of examples to make your points more persuasive. Mixing personal anecdotes with scholarly evidence can make your essay more engaging and convincing.
• Cite your sources properly to give credit to the original authors and avoid plagiarism. Follow the citation style required by your instructor or the publication you’re submitting to.

By integrating relevant examples and evidence into your essays, you can craft a more convincing and well-rounded piece of writing that resonates with your audience.

Editing and Proofreading Your Essay Carefully

Once you have finished writing your essay, the next crucial step is to edit and proofread it carefully. Editing and proofreading are essential parts of the writing process that help ensure your essay is polished and error-free. Here are some tips to help you effectively edit and proofread your essay:

1. Take a Break: Before you start editing, take a short break from your essay. This will help you approach the editing process with a fresh perspective.

2. Read Aloud: Reading your essay aloud can help you catch any awkward phrasing or grammatical errors that you may have missed while writing. It also helps you check the flow of your essay.

3. Check for Consistency: Make sure that your essay has a consistent style, tone, and voice throughout. Check for inconsistencies in formatting, punctuation, and language usage.

4. Remove Unnecessary Words: Look for any unnecessary words or phrases in your essay and remove them to make your writing more concise and clear.

5. Proofread for Errors: Carefully proofread your essay for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. Pay attention to commonly misused words and homophones.

6. Get Feedback: It’s always a good idea to get feedback from someone else. Ask a friend, classmate, or teacher to review your essay and provide constructive feedback.

By following these tips and taking the time to edit and proofread your essay carefully, you can improve the overall quality of your writing and make sure your ideas are effectively communicated to your readers.

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• Knowledge Base

The Beginner's Guide to Writing an Essay | Steps & Examples

An academic essay is a focused piece of writing that develops an idea or argument using evidence, analysis, and interpretation.

There are many types of essays you might write as a student. The content and length of an essay depends on your level, subject of study, and course requirements. However, most essays at university level are argumentative — they aim to persuade the reader of a particular position or perspective on a topic.

The essay writing process consists of three main stages:

• Preparation: Decide on your topic, do your research, and create an essay outline.
• Writing : Set out your argument in the introduction, develop it with evidence in the main body, and wrap it up with a conclusion.
• Revision:  Check your essay on the content, organization, grammar, spelling, and formatting of your essay.

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Table of contents

Essay writing process, preparation for writing an essay, writing the introduction, writing the main body, writing the conclusion, essay checklist, lecture slides, frequently asked questions about writing an essay.

The writing process of preparation, writing, and revisions applies to every essay or paper, but the time and effort spent on each stage depends on the type of essay .

For example, if you’ve been assigned a five-paragraph expository essay for a high school class, you’ll probably spend the most time on the writing stage; for a college-level argumentative essay , on the other hand, you’ll need to spend more time researching your topic and developing an original argument before you start writing.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Before you start writing, you should make sure you have a clear idea of what you want to say and how you’re going to say it. There are a few key steps you can follow to make sure you’re prepared:

• Understand your assignment: What is the goal of this essay? What is the length and deadline of the assignment? Is there anything you need to clarify with your teacher or professor?
• Define a topic: If you’re allowed to choose your own topic , try to pick something that you already know a bit about and that will hold your interest.
• Do your research: Read  primary and secondary sources and take notes to help you work out your position and angle on the topic. You’ll use these as evidence for your points.
• Come up with a thesis:  The thesis is the central point or argument that you want to make. A clear thesis is essential for a focused essay—you should keep referring back to it as you write.
• Create an outline: Map out the rough structure of your essay in an outline . This makes it easier to start writing and keeps you on track as you go.

Once you’ve got a clear idea of what you want to discuss, in what order, and what evidence you’ll use, you’re ready to start writing.

The introduction sets the tone for your essay. It should grab the reader’s interest and inform them of what to expect. The introduction generally comprises 10–20% of the text.

1. Hook your reader

The first sentence of the introduction should pique your reader’s interest and curiosity. This sentence is sometimes called the hook. It might be an intriguing question, a surprising fact, or a bold statement emphasizing the relevance of the topic.

Let’s say we’re writing an essay about the development of Braille (the raised-dot reading and writing system used by visually impaired people). Our hook can make a strong statement about the topic:

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

2. Provide background on your topic

Next, it’s important to give context that will help your reader understand your argument. This might involve providing background information, giving an overview of important academic work or debates on the topic, and explaining difficult terms. Don’t provide too much detail in the introduction—you can elaborate in the body of your essay.

3. Present the thesis statement

Next, you should formulate your thesis statement— the central argument you’re going to make. The thesis statement provides focus and signals your position on the topic. It is usually one or two sentences long. The thesis statement for our essay on Braille could look like this:

As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness.

4. Map the structure

In longer essays, you can end the introduction by briefly describing what will be covered in each part of the essay. This guides the reader through your structure and gives a preview of how your argument will develop.

The invention of Braille marked a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by blind and visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

Write your essay introduction

The body of your essay is where you make arguments supporting your thesis, provide evidence, and develop your ideas. Its purpose is to present, interpret, and analyze the information and sources you have gathered to support your argument.

Length of the body text

The length of the body depends on the type of essay. On average, the body comprises 60–80% of your essay. For a high school essay, this could be just three paragraphs, but for a graduate school essay of 6,000 words, the body could take up 8–10 pages.

Paragraph structure

To give your essay a clear structure , it is important to organize it into paragraphs . Each paragraph should be centered around one main point or idea.

That idea is introduced in a  topic sentence . The topic sentence should generally lead on from the previous paragraph and introduce the point to be made in this paragraph. Transition words can be used to create clear connections between sentences.

After the topic sentence, present evidence such as data, examples, or quotes from relevant sources. Be sure to interpret and explain the evidence, and show how it helps develop your overall argument.

Lack of access to reading and writing put blind people at a serious disadvantage in nineteenth-century society. Text was one of the primary methods through which people engaged with culture, communicated with others, and accessed information; without a well-developed reading system that did not rely on sight, blind people were excluded from social participation (Weygand, 2009). While disabled people in general suffered from discrimination, blindness was widely viewed as the worst disability, and it was commonly believed that blind people were incapable of pursuing a profession or improving themselves through culture (Weygand, 2009). This demonstrates the importance of reading and writing to social status at the time: without access to text, it was considered impossible to fully participate in society. Blind people were excluded from the sighted world, but also entirely dependent on sighted people for information and education.

See the full essay example

The conclusion is the final paragraph of an essay. It should generally take up no more than 10–15% of the text . A strong essay conclusion :

• Returns to your thesis
• Ties together your main points
• Shows why your argument matters

A great conclusion should finish with a memorable or impactful sentence that leaves the reader with a strong final impression.

What not to include in a conclusion

To make your essay’s conclusion as strong as possible, there are a few things you should avoid. The most common mistakes are:

• Including new arguments or evidence
• Undermining your arguments (e.g. “This is just one approach of many”)
• Using concluding phrases like “To sum up…” or “In conclusion…”

Braille paved the way for dramatic cultural changes in the way blind people were treated and the opportunities available to them. Louis Braille’s innovation was to reimagine existing reading systems from a blind perspective, and the success of this invention required sighted teachers to adapt to their students’ reality instead of the other way around. In this sense, Braille helped drive broader social changes in the status of blindness. New accessibility tools provide practical advantages to those who need them, but they can also change the perspectives and attitudes of those who do not.

Write your essay conclusion

Checklist: Essay

My essay follows the requirements of the assignment (topic and length ).

My introduction sparks the reader’s interest and provides any necessary background information on the topic.

My introduction contains a thesis statement that states the focus and position of the essay.

I use paragraphs to structure the essay.

I use topic sentences to introduce each paragraph.

Each paragraph has a single focus and a clear connection to the thesis statement.

I make clear transitions between paragraphs and ideas.

My conclusion doesn’t just repeat my points, but draws connections between arguments.

I don’t introduce new arguments or evidence in the conclusion.

I have given an in-text citation for every quote or piece of information I got from another source.

I have included a reference page at the end of my essay, listing full details of all my sources.

My citations and references are correctly formatted according to the required citation style .

My essay has an interesting and informative title.

I have followed all formatting guidelines (e.g. font, page numbers, line spacing).

Your essay meets all the most important requirements. Our editors can give it a final check to help you submit with confidence.

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An essay is a focused piece of writing that explains, argues, describes, or narrates.

In high school, you may have to write many different types of essays to develop your writing skills.

Academic essays at college level are usually argumentative : you develop a clear thesis about your topic and make a case for your position using evidence, analysis and interpretation.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

A topic sentence is a sentence that expresses the main point of a paragraph . Everything else in the paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

At college level, you must properly cite your sources in all essays , research papers , and other academic texts (except exams and in-class exercises).

Add a citation whenever you quote , paraphrase , or summarize information or ideas from a source. You should also give full source details in a bibliography or reference list at the end of your text.

The exact format of your citations depends on which citation style you are instructed to use. The most common styles are APA , MLA , and Chicago .

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Transition Words and Phrases

Writing clearly and concisely is one of the most challenging but important aspects of academic writing. Thankfully, writers have many transition words and phrases at their disposal to ensure their ideas cohere and connect. Transition words are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence and send a clear signal to guide your reader through the text. They often link two sentences together and build momentum in your writing by clearly connecting ideas and concepts.

You can use these words and phrases when you are introducing an example that builds on a previous example.

• Additionally
• Furthermore
• In addition

You can use these words and phrases when you are describing one specific instance to explain a larger concept.

• As an illustration
• For example
• For instance
• Specifically

Elaboration

You can use these words and phrases when you are explaining something further.

• By extension
• In other words
• To put it another way
• To put it succinctly

Cause and Effect

You can use these words and phrases when you are describing how one thing leads to another.

• Accordingly
• As a result
• Consequently

You can use these words and phrases when you are suggesting two ideas are alike.

• Along the same lines
• Comparatively
• Correspondingly
• In the same way

You can use these words and phrases to suggest two things that are different.

• By contrast
• Even though
• In contrast
• Nevertheless
• Nonetheless
• On the contrary
• On the other hand

You can use these words and phrases when you are acknowledging a counterargument or opposing idea or position.

• It is true that

You can use these words and phrases when you are wrapping up or closing an argument or section.

• In conclusion
• To summarize

Graff G., & Birkenstein, C. (2018). They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing . W.W. Norton and Company.

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Introduction

As an online doctoral student, you often represent yourself and your academic work in writing.

To help you do that effectively, this assessment is designed to:

• Identify your individual writing strengths and needs, and
• Match your current skills to a specific writing course aimed to help you hone your skills.

By completing this writing assessment, online doctoral students can build strong academic writing habits targeted to their individual strengths and needs early in their studies at Walden.

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How Do I Complete the Writing Assessment

• Review the Doctoral Writing Assessment (DRWA) classroom, assignment prompt, rubric, and instructions.
• Write and submit your assessment essay to the classroom by the assignment deadline.
• Receive your essay score from the Writing Assessment team one week after the course ends.
• Complete any required Graduate Writing course(s) in the next term.

Writing Assessment Scores and Next Steps

You will receive your assessment score in an email one week after the DRWA Doctoral Writing Assessment course ends. Your score email will indicate if you tested out of any of the required writing courses and your next steps if you did not test out of those courses. Any required writing courses are free on the first attempt. Walden’s Writing Assessment team will automatically register you for your required writing course, alongside program courses, in the term following your DRWA course.

Scoring Outcomes

You have tested out of Graduate Writing I and Graduate Writing II by demonstrating competency in the following writing skills:

• Central idea is focused, clear, and directly responds to the prompt
• Relevant and accurately paraphrased or quoted evidence is provided from the reading
• Ideas are well organized
• Use of grammar and mechanics effectively conveys meaning

If you'd like to further develop your writing skills, consider taking Graduate Writing III: Advanced Composition Skills.

Learn about Graduate Writing III

If you'd like to take Graduate Writing III, please contact  [email protected]  to register for the free course.

You have tested out of Graduate Writing I by demonstrating the following writing skills:

• Central idea is clear and connected to the prompt and ideas are somewhat developed
• Clear connection to the reading is provided through paraphrase or quotation
• Ideas are generally organized
• Few inaccuracies in grammar and mechanics distract reader from meaning

You will need to complete Graduate Writing II, which is a free course that will help you develop scholarly writing skills such as paraphrasing and evaluating main ideas.

You will be enrolled in this course in the following term.

Learn about Graduate Writing II: Intermediate Composition

You need to complete both required writing courses, Graduate Writing I and Graduate Writing II as listed on your Program Progress Guide.

You will be enrolled in the first required writing course in the following term. In these courses, you practice and develop scholarly writing skills such as critical reading, summarizing, paraphrasing, and evaluating main ideas.

Learn about Graduate Writing I: Basic Composition

You received a score of 0 because you did not submit an assessment for review or there was evidence of plagiarism in your essay. Your score email will indicate if no essay was submitted or if plagiarism was present in your essay.

You need to complete both required writing courses, Graduate Writing I and Graduate Writing II, as listed on your Program Progress Guide.

Frequently Asked Questions

See all Doctoral Writing Assessment FAQs (Quick Answers

Who do I contact for help or with questions?

If you have questions about your writing assessment or your writing course, please contact us at [email protected] . We are here for you and happy to help!

or Chat with us

The Doctoral Writing Assessment chat service provides live help for simple, brief assessment related questions.

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Guest Essay

An Old Bangladeshi Reflex Threatens Its Revolution

By Tahmima Anam

Ms. Anam is a Bangladeshi-born novelist.

In Bangladesh, we are experts at erasing history.

Ever since our young nation was born 53 years ago in a traumatic war of liberation from Pakistan, historical amnesia and censorship have afflicted Bangladeshis like a chronic illness. When a regime is toppled, its successor moves quickly to erase the symbols and legacy of the previous one as if it had never existed.

That is why, for decades, when one of the two political parties that have dominated Bangladesh — the Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party — was in power, the other would often boycott Parliament or refuse to participate in elections it alleged were rigged. There has never been a healthy relationship between the people in power and those who oppose them. Party was always placed before country.

This has been a curse, preventing solid democratic institutions from flourishing in Bangladesh and making our politics fractious, hateful and peppered with violence and counterviolence.

The unexpected revolution that toppled the increasingly autocratic and corrupt rule of Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina this month offers Bangladesh a chance to break free of this cycle. What makes this revolution unprecedented and so meaningful is that it was a grass-roots movement led by idealistic university students, not one of the warring main political parties. As a Bangladeshi, I am watching with jubilation.

Yet, I also worry that the old Bangladeshi reflex to expunge the past is kicking in.

Just a few weeks ago, when visitors flew into Dhaka, the capital, they were greeted at the airport by an enormous mural of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Ms. Hasina’s father, who was the leader of Bangladesh’s 1971 independence movement and the nation’s founding figure. In 1975, when he was president, he was assassinated in a military coup along with most of his family. The mural’s caption welcomed travelers to “Mujib’s Bangladesh.”

Since Ms. Hasina’s overthrow, portraits and statues of Sheikh Mujib are being defaced and taken down across the country. His former home, which had become a museum to his memory, was looted and set on fire . Ms. Hasina’s declaration of Aug. 15 — the anniversary of her father’s assassination — as a national day of mourning was canceled .

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We are charging a token amount of 10/- for registration to the dedicated portal. We are doing it because we want to create a community of sincere aspirants who are focused and motivated till the Mains Examination. Please don’t take it otherwise. It is our honest effort to give you the best and at the same time expect students to come with the same energy and dedication to the dedicated platform specially designed for YOU!

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