most important events in american education history

American Educational History: A Hypertext Timeline  Last Updated 8-18 -2024. See the lesson plan designed for use with this timeline. This page was scanned for broken links and updated on August 18, 2024. However, it is virtually impossible to keep them all current. If you find a broken link, please let me know. You can reach me at [email protected] .   (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); Index: 1500 - 1699,   1700 - 1799,   1800 - 1899,   1900 - 1999,   2000 - Present   1565 - The first European settlement in what is now the United States is founded by Spain at Saint Augustine in what is now the state of Florida. A school is established there by the Franciscans in 1606 . 1607 – The first permanent English settlement in North America is established by the Virginia Company at Jamestown in what is now the state of Virginia. 1620 - The Mayflower arrives at Cape Cod, bringing the  "Pilgrims" who establish the Plymouth Colony. Many of the Pilgrims are Puritans who had fled religious persecution in England. Their religious views come to dominate education in the New England colonies .            1635 - The first Latin Grammar School (Boston Latin School) is established. Latin Grammar Schools are designed for sons of certain social classes who are destined for leadership positions in church, state, or the courts. 1635 - The first "free school" in Virginia opens. However, education in the Southern colonies is more typically provided at home by parents or tutors. 1636 - Harvard College, the first higher education institution in what is now the United States, is established in Newtowne (now Cambridge) , Massachusetts. 1638 - The first printing press in the American Colonies is set up at Harvard College. 1638 - Hartford Public High School opens in Hartford Connecticut. It is "the second oldest secondary school in the United States." 1640 - Henry Dunster becomes President of Harvard College. He teaches all the courses himself! 1642 - The Massachusetts Bay School Law is passed. It requires that parents ensure their children know the principles of religion and the capital laws of the commonwealth. 1647 - The Massachusetts Law of 1647, also known as the Old Deluder Satan Act, is passed. It decrees that every town of at least 50 families hire a schoolmaster who would teach the town's children to read and write and that all towns of at least 100 families should have a Latin grammar school master who will prepare students to attend Harvard College. 1690 - John Locke publishes his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which conveys his belief that the human mind is a tabula rasa, or blank slate, at birth and knowledge is derived through experience, rather than innate ideas as was believed by many at that time. Locke's views concerning the mind and learning greatly influence American education. 1690 - The first New England Primer is printed in Boston. It becomes the most widely-used schoolbook in New England. 1692 - The Plymouth Colony merges with the Massachusetts Bay Colony. About 50 miles to the north, in Salem, the infamous Salem Witch Trials take place. 1693 - John Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education is published, describing his views on educating upper class boys to be moral, rationally-thinking, and reflective "young gentlemen." His ideas regarding educating the masses are conveyed in On Working Schools, published in 1697, which focused on the importance of developing a work ethic. 1693 - The College of William and Mary is established in Virginia. It is the second college to open in colonial America and has the distinction of being Thomas Jefferson's college. 1698 - The first public lending library in the U.S. is established in Charles Town, South Carolina. 1710 - Christopher Dock, a Mennonite and one of Pennsylvania's most famous educators, arrives from Germany and later opens a school in Montgomery County, PA. Dock's book, Schul-Ordnung (meaning school management), published in 1770, is the first book about teaching printed in colonial America. Typical of those in the middle colonies, schools in Pennsylvania are established not only by the Mennonites, but by the Quakers and other religious groups as well. 1727 - The  Ursuline Academy of New Orleans is founded. A Catholic school for girls sponsored by Sisters of the Order of Saint Ursula, it is "the oldest continuously operating school for girls and the oldest Catholic school in the United States." 1731 - The first "official" Jewish school in what is now the United States opens at Shearith Israel (a Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue) in New York City. 1734 - Christian Wolff describes the human mind as consisting of powers or faculties. Called Faculty Psychology, this doctrine holds that the mind can best be developed through "mental discipline" or tedious drill and repetition of basic skills and the eventual study of abstract subjects such as classical  philosophy, literature, and languages. This viewpoint greatly influences American education throughout the 19th Century and beyond. 1743 - Benjamin Franklin forms the American Philosophical Society, which helps bring ideas of the European Enlightenment, including those of John Locke, to colonial America. Emphasizing secularism, science, and human reason, these ideas clash with the religious dogma of the day, but greatly influence the thinking of prominent colonists, including Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. 1751 - Benjamin Franklin helps to establish the first "English Academy" in Philadelphia with a curriculum that is both classical and modern, including such courses as history, geography, navigation, surveying, and modern as well as classical languages. The academy ultimately becomes the University of Pennsylvania. 1752 - St. Matthew Lutheran School, one of the first Lutheran "parish schools" in North America, is founded in New York City by Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, after whom Muhlenberg College in Allentown Pennsylvania is named. 1754 - The French and Indian War begins in colonial America as the French and their Indian allies fight the English for territorial control. 1762 - Swiss-born Jean-Jacques Rousseau's book, Emile , ou l'education, which describes his views on education, is published. Rousseau's ideas on the importance early childhood are in sharp contrast with the prevailing views of his time and influence not only contemporary philosophers, but also 20th-Century American philosopher and educational reformer John Dewey . 1763 - The French are defeated, and the French and Indian War ends with the Treaty of Paris. It gives most French territory in North America to England. 1766 - The Moravians , a protestant denomination from central Europe, establish the village of Salem in North Carolina. In 1772, they start the first school for girls in what is now the United States. The school is still in existence today ( Salem Academy ). They later found Salem College , a liberal arts college for women, which currently shares a campus with Salem Academy .     1775   - The Revolutionary War begins. 1776 - The Declaration of Independence is adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4th. Written by Thomas Jefferson, The document serves notice to King George III and the rest of the world that the American Colonies no longer considered themselves part of the British Empire. 1778/1779 - Thomas Jefferson authors Bill 79: "A Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge," which provides "a comprehensive plan for public education . . ." It is presented in the Virginia House of Delegates several times before a revised bill titled, "An Act to Establish Public Education," is finally passed in 1796. 1783 - The Revolutionary War officially ends with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, which recognizes U.S. independence and possession of all land east of the Mississippi except the Spanish colony of  Florida 1783 to 1785 - Because of his dissatisfaction with English textbooks of the day, Noah Webster writes A Grammatical Institute of the English Language , consisting of three volumes: a spelling book, a grammar book, and a reader. They become very widely used throughout the United States. In fact, the spelling volume, later renamed the American Spelling Book and often called the Blue-Backed Speller, has never been out of print! 1784 - The Ordinance of 1784 divides the Western territories (north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi) into ten separate territories that would eventually become states and have the same rights as the thirteen original states. 1785 - The University of Georgia becomes "America's first state-chartered university." 1785 - The Land Ordinance of 1785 specifies that the western territories are to be divided into townships made up of 640-acre sections, one of which was to be set aside "for the maintenance of public schools." 1787 - The Constitutional Convention assembles in Philadelphia. Later that year, the constitution is endorsed by the Confederation Congress (the body that governed from 1781 until the ratification of the U.S. Constitution) and sent to state legislatures for ratification. The document does not include the words education or school. 1787 - The Northwest Ordinance is enacted by the Confederation Congress. It provides a plan for western expansion and bans slavery in new states. Specifically recognizing the importance of education, Act 3 of the document begins, "Religion, morality, and knowledge, being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." Perhaps of more of practical importance, it stipulates that a section of land in every township of each new state be reserved for the support of education. 1787 - The Young Ladies Academy opens in Philadelphia and becomes the first academy for girls in the original 13 colonies/states. 1788 - The U. S. Constitution is ratified by the required number of states. 1789 - On December 11, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill is chartered by the North Carolina General Assembly. It is the only public university to award degrees in the 18th century . 1791 - The Bill of Rights is passed by the first Congress of the new United  States. No mention is made of education in any of the amendments. However, the Tenth Amendment to the Constitution states that powers not delegated to the federal government "are reserved to the States, respectively, or to the people." Thus, education becomes a function of the state rather than the federal government.     (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 1801 - James Pillans invents the modern blackboard. 1812-1815 - The War of 1812, sometimes called the "Second War of Independence," occurs for multiple reasons, including U.S. desires for territorial expansion and British harassment of U.S. merchant ships. The war begins with an  unsuccessful invasion of Canada by U.S. forces. Though the Treaty of Ghent, signed on December 24, 1814, supposedly ends the war, the final battle actually takes place January 8, 1815 with U.S. forces defeating the British at New Orleans.   1817 - The Connecticut Asylum at Hartford for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons opens. It is the first permanent school for the deaf in the U.S. Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc are the school's co-founders. In 1864, Thomas Gallaudet's son, Edward Miner Gallaudet, helps to start Gallaudet University, the first college specifically for deaf students.  1821 - Boston English High School, one of the first public high schools in the U.S., opens . 1823 - Catherine Beecher founds the Hartford Female Seminary , a private school for girls in Hartford, Connecticut. She goes on to found more schools and become a prolific writer. Her sister, Harriet Beecher Stowe, an influential abolitionist, is the author of Uncle Tom's Cabin . 1827 - The state of Massachusetts passes a law requiring towns of more than 500 families to have a public high school open to all students. 1829 - The New England Asylum for the Blind, now the Perkins School for the Blind, opens in Massachusetts, becoming the first school in the U.S. for children with visual disabilities. 1836 - The first of William Holmes McGuffey's readers is published. Their secular tone sets them apart from the Puritan texts of the day. The McGuffey Readers, as they came to be known, are among the most influential textbooks of the 19th Century. 1837 - Horace Mann becomes Secretary of the newly formed Massachusetts State Board of Education. A visionary educator and proponent of public (or "free") schools, Mann works tirelessly for increased funding of public schools and better training for teachers. As Editor of the Common School Journal, his belief in the importance of free, universal public education gains a national audience. He resigns his position as Secretary in 1848 to take the Congressional seat vacated by the death of John Quincy Adams and later becomes the first president of Antioch College. 1837 - Louisville, Kentucky  appoints the first school superintendent . 1837 - Eighty students arrive at Mount Holyoke Female Seminary, the first college for women in the U.S. Its founder/president is Mary Lyon. 1837 - The African Institute (later called the Institute for Colored Youth) opens in Cheyney, Pennsylvania. Now called Cheyney University , it the oldest institution of higher learning for African Americans. 1837 - Oberlin College admits its first group of women. It is the first college in the United States to become coeducational . 1838 - The first Jewish Sunday School is established in Philadelphia by Rebecca Gratz . 1839 - The first state funded school specifically for teacher education (then known as "normal" schools) opens in Lexington, Massachusetts. 1848 - Samuel Gridley Howe helps establish the Experimental School for Teaching and Training Idiotic Children, the first school of its kind in the U.S.     1849 -  In the case of Roberts v. City of Boston , the Massachusetts Supreme Court rules that the Boston Public Schools can deny enrolment of African American children to segregated, "whites-only" schools. The case is later cited as a precedent for the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) ruling.    1849 - Elizabeth Blackwell graduates from Geneva Medical College, becoming the first woman to graduate from medical school. She later becomes a pioneer in the education of women in medicine. 1851 - The New York State Asylum for Idiots opens. 1852 - Massachusetts enacts the first mandatory attendance law. By 1885, 16 states have compulsory-attendance laws, but most of those laws are sporadically enforced at best. All states have them by 1918. 1853 - Pennsylvania begins funding the Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble-Minded Children , a private school for children with intellectual disabilities. 1854 - The Boston Public Library opens to the public. It is t he first "free municipal library" in the U.S. 1854 - Ashmun Institute, now Lincoln University, is founded on October 12, and as Horace Mann Bond, the university's eighth president states in his book, Education for Freedom: A History of Lincoln University, it becomes the "first institution anywhere in the world to provide higher education in the arts and sciences for male youth of African descent." The university's many distinguished alumni include Langston Hughes and Thurgood Marshall . 1855 - The University of Iowa is then first state university "to admit men and women on an equal basis." 1856 - The first kindergarten in the U.S. is started in Watertown, Wisconsin, founded by Margarethe Schurz. Four years later, Elizabeth Palmer Peabody opens the first "formal" kindergarten in Boston, MA. 1857 - The National Teachers Association (now the National Education Association) is founded by forty-three educators in Philadelphia. 1859 - Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species is published on November 24, introducing his theory that species evolve through the process of natural selection, and setting the stage for the controversy surrounding teaching the theory of evolution in public schools that persists to this day. 1860 - Abraham Lincoln, an anti-slavery Republican, is elected president. 1861 - Matthew Vassar founds Vassar College , "A pioneer in women's education and liberal arts education in the United States . . ." 1861 - The U.S. Civil War begins when South Carolina secedes from the union and along with 10 other states forms the Confederate States of American. The shooting begins when Fort Sumter is attacked on April 12. With the exception of the First Morrill act of 1862, educational progress is essentially put on hold until the war's end.  1862 - The First Morrill Act , also known as the "Land Grant Act" becomes law. It donates public lands to states, the sale of which will be used for the "endowment, support, and maintenance of at least one college where the leading object shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life." Many prominent state universities can trace their roots to this forward-thinking legislation. 1863 - President Lincoln signs the "Emancipation Proclamation" on January 1. 1865 - The 13th Amendment is passed, abolishing slavery. 1865 - The Civil War ends with Lee's surrender at Appomattox Courthouse. Much of the south, including its educational institutions, is left in disarray. Many schools are closed. Even before the war, public education in the south was far behind that in the north. The physical devastation left by the war as well as the social upheaval and poverty that follow exacerbate this situation. 1865 - Abraham Lincoln is assassinated, and Andrew Johnson, a southern Democrat and advocate of state's rights, becomes President. 1866 - The 14th Amendment is passed by Congress as one of the reconstruction amendments . If ratified by three-fourths of the states, it would give all persons born or naturalized in the United States citizenship and equal protection under the law.     1867 - The Department of Education is created in order to help states establish effective school systems. 1867 - After hearing of the desperate situation facing schools in the south, George Peabody funds the two-million-dollar Peabody Education Fund to aid public education in southern states. 1867 - Howard University is established in Washington D.C. to provide education for African American youth "in the liberal arts and sciences.” Early financial support is provided by the Freedmen's Bureau . 1867 - Christopher Sholes invents the "modern" typewriter. Known as the Sholes Glidden , it is first manufactured by E. Remington & Sons in 1873. 1867 & 1868 - The four Reconstruction Acts are passed over President Andrew Johnson's veto. They divide the south into military districts and require elections to be held with freed male slaves being allowed to vote. 1868 -In spite of opposition by southern states, the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution is ratified and becomes law. It guarantees privileges of citizenship including due process and equal protection under the law including the right to vote for freed male slaves. It becomes the basis for the rulings in Brown v. Board of Education and Pyler v. Doe as well as many other important court cases. 1869 - Congress passes the 15th Amendment. It prohibits states from denying male citizens over 21 (including freed slaves) the right to vote. 1869 - Boston creates the first public day school for the deaf. 1873 - The Panic of 1873 causes bank foreclosures, business failures, and job loss. The economic depression that follows results in reduced revenues for education. Southern schools are hit particularly hard, making a bad situation even worse.  1873 - The Society to Encourage Studies at Home is founded in Boston by Anna Eliot Ticknor , daughter of Harvard professor George Ticknor . It's purpose is to allow women the opportunity for study and enlightenment and becomes the first correspondence school in the United States. 1874 - The Michigan State Supreme Court rules that Kalamazoo may levy taxes to support a public high school , setting an important precedent for similar rulings in other states. 1874 - Phebe Sudlow becomes the first female superintendent of public schools in the United States when she is named Davenport. Iowa Superintendent of Schools 1875 - The Civil Rights Act is passed, banning segregation in all public accommodations. The Supreme Court rules it unconstitutional in 1883. 1876 - Edouard Seguin becomes the first President of the Association of Medical Officers of American Institutions for Idiotic and Feebleminded Persons, which evolves into the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. 1876 - Meharry Medical College is founded in Nashville, Tennessee . It is the first medical school in the south for African Americans. 1876 - The Dewey Decimal System, developed by Melvil Dewey in 1873, is published and patented. The DDC is still the worlds most widely-used library classification system.  1877 - Reconstruction formally ends as President Rutherford B. Hayes removes the last federal troops from the south. The foundation for a system of legal  segregation and discrimination is quickly established. Many African Americans flee the south. 1879 - The first Indian boarding school opens in Carlisle, Pennsylvania. It becomes the model for a total of 26 similar schools, all with the goal of assimilating Indian children into the mainstream culture. The schools leave a controversial legacy. Though some see them as a noble, albeit largely unsuccessful experiment, many view their legacy to be one of alienation and "cultural dislocation." The Carlisle Indian Industrial School closes in 1918. Famous athlete Jim Thorpe is among the school's thousands of alumni. 1881 - Booker T. Washington becomes the first principal of the newly-opened normal school in Tuskegee, Alabama, now Tuskegee University. 1884 -The first practical fountain pen is patented by Lewis Waterman. 1885 - On October 15, Morris-Brown College opens in Atlanta, Georgia. It is "the first educational institution in Georgia under sole African-American patronage." 1887 - The Hatch Act of 1887 establishes a network of agricultural experiment stations connected to land grant universities established under the First Morrill Act. 1889 - Jane Addams and her college friend Ellen Gates Starr found Hull House in a Chicago, Illinois neighborhood of recent European immigrants. It is the first settlement house in the U.S. Included among its many services are a kindergarten and a night school for adults. Hull House continues to this day to offer educational services to children and families. In 1931, Addams becomes the second woman to win the Nobel Peace Prize . 1890 - The Second Morrill Act is enacted. It provides for the "more complete endowment and support of the colleges" through the sale of public lands, Part of this funding leads to the creation of 16 historically black land-grant colleges. 1891 - Stanford University is founded in 1891 by former California Governor and railroad tycoon Leland Stanford in memory of his son, Leland Jr. 1892 - Formed by the National Education Association to establish a standard secondary school curriculum, the Committee of Ten, recommends a college-oriented high school curriculum. 1895 - Gratz College , the first college for Jewish studies in North America, is founded. 1896 - Homer Plessy, a 30-year-old African American, challenges the state of Louisiana's "Separate Car Act," arguing that requiring Blacks to ride in separate railroad cars  violates the 13th and 14th Amendments. The U.S. Supreme Court upholds the Louisiana law stating in the majority opinion that the intent of the 14th Amendment "had not been intended to abolish distinctions based on color." Thus, the Supreme Court ruling in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson makes "separate but equal" policies legal. It becomes a legal precedent used to justify many other segregation laws, including "separate but equal" education. 1897 -  The National Congress of Mothers is founded by Alice McLellan Birney and Phoebe Apperson Hearst . It becomes the National Parent Teacher Association (PTA) . 1898 - The Spanish American War makes Theodore Roosevelt a hero, and the United States becomes an international power. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 1900 - The Association of American Universities is founded to promote higher standards and put U.S. universities on an equal footing with their European counterparts. 1901 - Joliet Junior College , in Joliet, Illinois, opens. It is the first public community college in the U.S. 1902 :  A youth program begun in Ohio "is considered the birth of 4-H." With the passage of the Smith-Lever Act in 1914, 4-H becomes a national program for positive youth development. 1903 - Ivan Pavlov reads his paper, The Experimental Psychology and Psychopathology of Animals, at the 14th International Medical Congress in Madrid, explaining his concept of the conditioned reflex, an important component of classical conditioning . 1904 - Mary McLeod Bethune, an African American educator, founds the Daytona Educational and Industrial Training School for Negro Girls in Daytona Beach, Florida. It merges with the Cookman Institute in 1923 and becomes a coeducational high school, which eventually evolves into Bethune-Cookman College, now Bethune-Cookman University . 1905 - Alfred Binet's article, "New Methods for the Diagnosis of the Intellectual Level of Subnormals," is published in France. It describes his work with Theodore Simon in the development of a measurement instrument that would identify students with mental retardation. The Binet-Simon Scale, as it is called, is an effective means of measuring intelligence. 1905 - The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching is founded. It is charted by an act of Congress in 1906, the same year the Foundation encouraged the adoption of a standard system for equating "seat time" (the amount of time spent in a class) to high school credits. Still in use today, this system came to be called the " Carnegie Unit ." Other important achievements of the Foundation during the first half of the 20th Century include the "landmark ' Flexner Report ' on medical education, the development of the Graduate Record Examination , the founding of the Educational Testing Service (ETS), and the creation of the Teachers Insurance Annuity Association of America (TIAA-CREF) ." See the Carnegie Foundation's home page for additional information. 1909 - Educational reformer Ella Flagg Young becomes superintendent of the Chicago Public Schools. She is the first female superintendent of a large city school system. One year later she is elected president of the National Education Association .     1909 - Ellen Swallow Richards , chemist, prominent water scientist, and the first woman to attend MIT, is instrumental in founding the American Home Economics Association , now the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences . 1909 -  In order to improve high school graduation rates, the Columbus Ohio School Board authorizes the creation of junior high schools. Indianola Junior High School opens that fall and becomes the first junior high school in the U.S. 1910 - The Boy Scouts of America is established . The Girl Scouts are founded two years late r by Juliette Gordon Low . 1911 - The first Montessori school in the U.S. opens in Tarrytown, New York. Two years later (1913), Maria Montessori visits the U.S., and Alexander Graham Bell and his wife Mabel found the Montessori Educational Association at their Washington, DC, home 1913 - Edward Lee Thorndike's book, Educational Psychology: The Psychology of Learning, is published. It describes his theory that human learning involves habit formation, or connections between stimuli (or situations as Thorndike preferred to call them) and responses (Connectionism). He believes that such connections are strengthened by repetition ("Law of Exercise") and achieving satisfying consequences ("Law of Effect"). These ideas, which contradict traditional faculty psychology and mental discipline, come to dominate American educational psychology for much of the Twentieth Century and greatly influence American educational practice. 1914 - The Smith-Lever Act establishes a system of cooperative extension services connected to land grant universities, provides federal funds for extension activities, and nationalizes 4-H . 1916 - Louis M. Terman and his team of Stanford University graduate students complete an American version of the Binet-Simon Scale. The Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon Scale becomes a widely-used individual intelligence test, and along with it, the concept of the intelligence quotient (or IQ) is born. The Fifth Edition of the Stanford-Binet Scales is among the most popular individual intelligence tests today. 1916 - The American Federation of Teachers (AFT) is founded. So is the American Educational Research Association (AERA) . 1916 - John Dewey's Democracy and Education. An Introduction to the Philosophy of Education is published. Dewey's views help advance the ideas of the "progressive education movement." An outgrowth of the progressive political movement, progressive education seeks to make schools more effective agents of democracy. His daughter, Evelyn Dewey , coauthors Schools of To-morrow with her father, and goes on to write several books on her own. 1916 - The Bureau of Educational Experiments is founded in New York City by Lucy Sprague Mitchell with the purpose of studying child development and children's learning. It opens a laboratory nursery school in 1918 and in 1950 becomes the Bank Street College of Education. Its School for Children is now "an independent demonstration school for Bank Street College." This same year (1916), Mrs. Frank R. Lillie helps establish what would become the University of Chicago N ursery School. 1917 - The Smith-Hughes Act passes, providing federal funding for agricultural and vocational education. It is repealed in 1997.    1917 - As the U.S. enters W.W.I the army has no means of screening the intellectual ability of its recruits. Robert Yerkes, then President of the American Psychological Association and an army officer, becomes Chairman of the Committee on Psychological Examination of Recruits. The committee, which includes Louis Terman, has the task of developing a group intelligence test. He and his team of psychologists design the Army Alpha and Beta tests. Though these tests have little impact on the war, they lay the groundwork for future standardized tests. 1918 -  The Seven Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education are submitted by the Commission of the Reorganization of Secondary Education . 1918 - World War I ends on 11 November. 1919 - The Treaty of Versailles is signed on 28 June. It officially ends the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. However, the terms of the treaty are tragically flawed, and instead of bringing lasting peace, it plants the seeds for World War II, which begins twenty years later. 1919 - The Progressive Education Association is founded with the goal of reforming American education. 1919 - All states have laws providing funds for transporting children to school. 1920 -  John B. Watson and his assistant Rosalie Rayner conduct their experiments using classical conditioning with children. Often referred to as the Little Albert study, Watson and Rayner's work showed that children could be conditioned to fear stimuli of which they had previously been unafraid. This study could not be conducted today because of ethical safeguards currently in place. 1920 - The 19th Amendment is ratified, giving women the right to vote. 1921 - Louis Terman launches a longitudinal study of "intellectually superior" children at Stanford University. The study continues for more than 75 years! 1922 - The International Council for Exceptional Children is founded at Columbia University Teachers College. 1922 -  Abigail Adams Eliot , with help from Mrs. Henry Greenleaf Pearson, establishes the Ruggles Street Nursery School in Roxbury, MA, one of the first educational nursery schools in the U.S. It becomes the Eliot-Pearson Children's School and is now affiliated with the Eliot-Pearson Department of Child Development at Tufts University . 1924 - Max Wertheimer describes the principles of Gestalt Theory to the Kant Society in Berlin. Gestalt Theory, with its emphasis on learning through insight and grasping the whole concept, becomes important later in the 20th Century in the development of cognitive views of learning and teaching.     1925 - Tennessee vs. John Scopes ("the Monkey Trial") captures national attention as John Scopes, a high school biology teacher, is charged with the heinous crime of teaching evolution, which is in violation of the Butler Act , The trial ends in Scopes' conviction. The evolution versus creationism controversy persists to this day. 1926 - The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) is first administered. It is based on the Army Alpha test.  1927 - Thirty-eight children and five adults (including the perpetrator) die in the Bath (Michigan) Consolidated School bombing . It remains the deadliest school massacre in the United States. 1928 - The Meriam Report: The Problem of Indian Administration , commissioned by the Institute for Government Research (which becomes the Brookings Institute), is highly critical of conditions on Indian reservations and in Indian boarding schools . 1929 - Jean Piaget's The Child's Conception of the World is published. His theory of cognitive development becomes an important influence in American developmental psychology and education. 1929 - The Great Depression begins with the stock market crash in October. The U.S. economy is devastated. Public education funding suffers greatly, resulting in school closings, teacher layoffs, and lower salaries. 1931 - Alvarez vs. the Board of Trustees of the Lemon Grove (California) School District becomes the first successful school desegregation court case in the United States, as the local court forbids the school district from placing Mexican-American children in a separate "Americanization" school. 1932 - Franklin Delano Roosevelt is elected president and begins bold efforts to initiate his New Deal and spur economic recovery. His wife, Eleanor , becomes a champion of human rights and forever transforms the role of American First Lady. 1935 - Congress authorizes the Works Progress Administration. Its purpose is to put the unemployed to work on public projects, including the construction of hundreds of school buildings. 1938 - After earlier failed attempts to regulate child labor, the Fair Labor Standards Act is signed in to law by president Franklin D. Roosevelt. Among its many provisions (which include setting a minimum wage of 25 cents per hour!), the act sets a minimum age for working in non-agricultural jobs and limits the number of hours and types of employment for older children. 1938 - Laszlo  Biro and his brother Georg patent the ballpoint pen .    1939 - Frank W. Cyr, a professor at Columbia University's Teachers College, organizes a national conference on student transportation. It results in the adoption of standards for the nation's school buses, including the shade of yellow.   1939 - The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (first called the Wechsler- Bellevue Intelligence Scale) is developed by David Wechsler. It introduces the concept of the " deviation IQ ," which calculates IQ scores based on how far subjects' scores differ (or deviate) from the average (mean) score of others who are the same age, rather than calculating them with the ratio (MA/CA multiplied by 100) system. Wechsler intelligence tests, particularly the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children , are still widely used in U.S. schools to help identify students needing special education. 1941 - The U.S. enters World War II after the Japanese attack Pearl Harbor on December 7. During the next four years, much of the country's resources go to the war effort. Education is put on the back burner as many young men quit school to enlist; schools are faced with personnel problems as teachers and other employees enlist, are drafted, or leave to work in defense plants; school construction is put on hold. 1944 - The G.I. Bil of Rights officially known as the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944, is signed by FDR on June 22. Some 7.8 million World War II veterans take advantage of the GI Bill during the seven years benefits are offered. More than two-million attend colleges or universities, nearly doubling the college population. About 238,000 become teachers. Because the law provides the same opportunity to every veteran, regardless of background, the long-standing tradition that a college education was only for the wealthy is broken. 1945 - World War II ends on August 15 (VJ Day) with victory over Japan. 1946 - At one minute after midnight on January 1st, Kathleen Casey-Kirschling is born, the first of nearly 78-million baby boomers, beginning a generation that results in unprecedented school population growth and massive social change. She becomes a teacher! 1946 - In the landmark court case of Mendez vs. Westminster and the California Board of Education , the U. S. District Court in Los Angeles rules that educating children of Mexican descent in separate facilities is unconstitutional, thus prohibiting segregation in California schools and setting an important precedent for Brown vs. Board of Education. 1946 - The computer age begins as the Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer (ENIAC) , the first vacuum-tube computer, is built for the U.S. military by Presper Eckert and John Mauchly. 1946 - With thousands of veterans returning to college, The President's Commission on Higher Education is given the task of reexamining the role of colleges and universities in post-war America.  The first volume of its report, often referred to as the Truman Commission Report, is issued in 1947 and recommends sweeping changes in higher education, including doubling college enrollments by 1960 and extending free public education through the establishment of a network of community colleges. T his latter recommendation comes to fruition in the 1960s, during which community college enrollment more than triples.    1946 - Recognizing "the need for a permanent legislative basis for a school lunch program, " the 79th Congress approves the National School Lunch Act .        1947 - In the case of Everson v. Board of Education, the U.S. Supreme Court rules by a 5-4 vote that a New Jersey law which allowed reimbursements of transportation costs to parents of children who rode public transportation to school, even if their children attended Catholic schools, did NOT violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.    1948 - In the case of McCollum v. Board of Education , the Supreme Court rules that schools cannot allow "released time" during the school day which allows students to participate in religious education in their public school classrooms.  1950 - Public Law 81-740 grants a federal charter to the FFA and recognizes it as an integral part of the program of vocational agriculture. The law is revised in 1998 and becomes Public Law 105-225 . 1952 - Public Law 550, the Veterans Readjustment Assistance Act of 1952, modifies the G.I. Bill for veterans of the Korean War. 1953 - Burrhus Frederic (B.F.) Skinner's Science and Human Behavior is published. His form of behaviorism (operant conditioning), which emphasizes changes in behavior due to reinforcement, becomes widely accepted and influences many aspects of American education (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 1954 - On May 17th, the U.S. Supreme Court announces its decision in the case of Brown v. Board. of Education of Topeka, ruling that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," thus overturning its previous ruling in the 1896 case of  Plessy v. Ferguson.   Brown v. Board of Education is actually a combination of five cases from different parts of the country. It is a historic first step in the long and still unfinished journey toward equality in U.S. education. 1955 - Rosa Parks , a Montgomery, Alabama seamstress, refuses to give up her seat on the bus to a Caucasian passenger and is subsequently arrested and fined. The Montgomery bus boycott follows, giving impetus to the Civil Rights Movement . A year later, in the case of Browder v. Gale, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that segregated seating on buses is unconstitutional. 1956 - Twelve African American students, known as the "Clinton12," successfully integrate Clinton High School in Clinton, Tennessee. 1956 – The Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Cassification of Educational Goals; Handbook I: Cognitive Domain is published. Often referred to simply as “ Bloom’s Taxonomy ” because of its primary author, Benjamin S. Bloom , the document actually has four coauthors (M.D. Engelhart, E.J. Furst, W.H. Hill, and David Krathwohl). Still widely used today, Bloom’s Taxonomy divides the cognitive domain into six levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.. Handbook II: Affective Domain, edited by Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia, is published in 1964. Taxonomies for the psychomotor domain have been published by other writers. 1957 - The Civil Rights Act of 1957 is voted into law in spite of Strom Thurmond's filibuster . Essentially a voting-rights bill, it is the first civil rights legislation since reconstruction and is a precursor to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 . 1957 - Federal troops enforce integration in Little Rock, Arkansas as the Little Rock 9 enroll at Central High School.      1957 - The Soviet Union launches Sputnik, the first satellite to orbit the Earth. Occurring in the midst of the Cold War, it represents both a potential threat to American national security as well as a blow to national pride. 1958 - At least partially because of Sputnik, science and science education become important concerns in the U.S., resulting in the passage of the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) which authorizes increased funding for scientific research as well as science, mathematics, and foreign language education. 1959 - The ACT Test is first administered. 1960 -First grader Ruby Bridges is the first African American to attend William Frantz Elementary School in New Orleans. She becomes a class of one as parents remove all Caucasian students from the school. 1969 -  A.S. Neil's controversial book, Summerhill: A Radical Approach to Child Rearing , is published. 1962 - First published in 1934, Lev Vygotsky's book, Thought and Language is introduced to the English-speaking world. Though he lives to only 38, Vygotsky's ideas regarding the social nature of learning provide important foundational principles for contemporary social constructivist theories . He is perhaps best known for his concept of "Zone of Proximal Development." 1962 - In the case of Engel v. Vitale, the U. S. Supreme Court rules that the state of New York's Regents prayer violates the First Amendment. The ruling specifies that "state officials may not compose an official state prayer and require that it be recited in the public schools of the State at the beginning of each school day. . . " 1963 - In the cases of School District of Abington Township, Pennsylvania v. Schempp and Murray v. Curlett, the U. S. Supreme Court reaffirms Engel v. Vitale by ruling that " no state law or school board may require that passages from the Bible be read or that the Lord's Prayer be recited in the public schools . . . even if individual students may be excused from attending or participating . . ." 1963 - Samuel A. Kirk uses the term "learning disability" at a Chicago conference on children with perceptual disorders. The term sticks, and in 1964, the Association for Children with Learning Disabilities, now the Learning Disabilities Association of America, is formed. Today, nearly one-half of all students in the U.S. who receive special education have been identified as having learning disabilities. 1963 - President John F. Kennedy is assassinated. Schools close as the nation mourns its loss. Lyndon Johnson becomes president. 1963 - In response to the large number of Cuban immigrant children arriving in Miami after the Cuban Revolution , Coral Way Elementary School  starts the first bilingual and bicultural public school in the United States. 1964 - The Civil Rights Act becomes law. It prohibits discrimination based on race, color, sex, religion or national origin. 1965 - The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) is passed on April 9. Part of Lyndon Johnson's "War on Poverty," it provides federal funds to help low-income students, which results in the initiation of educational programs such as Title I and bilingual education. 1965 -  President Johnson signs the Manpower Training Act into law on April 16. 1965 - The Higher Education Act is signed at Southwest Texas State College on November 8. It increases federal aid to higher education and provides for scholarships, student loans, and establishes a National Teachers Corps. 1965 - Project Head Start , a preschool education program for children from low-income families, begins as an eight-week summer program. Part of the "War on Poverty," the program continues to this day as the longest-running anti-poverty program in the U.S. 1965 - Lyndon Johnson signs the Immigration Act of 1965 , also known as the Hart-Cellar Act, on October.3rd. It abolishes the National Origins Formula and results in unprecedented numbers of Asians and Latin Americans immigrating to the United States, making America's classrooms much more diverse. 1966 - The Equality of Educational Opportunity Study , often called the Coleman Report because of its primary author James S. Coleman, is conducted in response to provisions of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Its conclusion that African American children benefit from attending integrated schools sets the stage for school "busing" to achieve desegregation. 1966 - Jerome Bruner's Toward a Theory of Instruction is published. His views regarding learning help to popularize the cognitive learning theory as an alternative to behaviorism. 1966 - Public Law 358, the Veterans Readjustment Benefits Act of 1966, provides not only educational benefits, but also home and farm loans as well as employment counseling and placement services for Vietnam veterans. More than 385,000 troops, serve in Vietnam during 1966. From 1965-1975, more than nine million American military personnel are on active military duty, about 3.4 million of whom serve in Southeast Asia. 1968 - Dr. Martin Luther King, Nobel Prize winner and leader of the American Civil Rights Movement, is assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee on April 4th. The Martin Luther King, Jr. Holiday , observed on the third Monday of January, celebrates his life and legacy. 1968 - The Bilingual Education Act, also know as Title VII, becomes law. After many years of controversy, the law is repealed in 2002 and replaced by the No Child Left Behind Act. 1968 - The "Monkey Trial" revisited! In the case of Epperson et al. v. Arkansas, the U.S. supreme Court finds the state of Arkansas' law prohibiting the teaching of evolution in a public school or university is unconstitutional.    1968 - Shirley Anita St. Hill Chisholm , an African American educator, becomes the first African American woman to serve in the U.S. Congress. 1968 - McCarver Elementary School in Tacoma, Washington becomes the nation's first magnet school . 1968 - The Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB) is introduced for selection and classification of recruits. By 1976, the ASVAB is used by all services. Practice tests are available online. 1969 - Herbert R. Kohl's book, The Open Classroom , helps to promote open education, an approach emphasizing student-centered classrooms and active, holistic learning. The conservative back-to-the-basics movement of the 1970s begins at least partially as a backlash against open education. . 1969 - On April 30th, the number of U.S. military personnel in Vietnam stands at 543,482, the most at any time during the war. College enrollments swell as many young men seek student deferments from the draft; anti-war protests become commonplace on college campuses, and grade inflation begins as professors realize that low grades may change male students' draft status. 1969 - Based on the ideas of Charles Bowser , then Deputy Mayor of Philadelphia,  Edison High School in Philadelphia becomes the first "Career Academy. " 1969 - ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network ) , the first "packet-switching" network and precursor of the internet, is created by the U.S. Defense Department. Its first message is sent October 29, at about 10:30 P.M. For alternate perspectives on the origins of the internet, see So, who really invented the internet? 1969 - In the Case of Tinker v. des Moines , the U.S. Supreme Court rules that students' First Amendment rights were violated when they were suspended for wearing black arm bands to protest the Vietnam War. 1970 - Four students are killed by Ohio National Guard troops on May 4th during an anti-war protest at Kent State University in Ohio. 1970 - In his controversial book, Deschooling Society, Ivan Illich sharply criticizes traditional schools and calls for the end of compulsory school attendance. 1970 - Jean Piaget's book, The Science of Education, is published. His Learning Cycle model helps to popularize discovery-based teaching approaches, particularly in the sciences. 1970 - The case of Diana v. California State Board results in new laws requiring that children referred for possible special education placement be tested in their primary language. 1971 - In the case of Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children (PARC) v. Pennsylvania, the federal court rules that students with mental retardation are entitled to a free public education. 1971 - Michael Hart , founder of Project Guttenberg, invents the e-Book . 1972 - Texas Instruments introduces the first in its line of electronic hand-held calculators, the TI-2500 Data Math . TI becomes an industry leader known around the world.   1972 - The Indian Education Act becomes law and establishes " a comprehensive approach to meeting the unique needs of American Indian and Alaska Native students" 1972 - The case of Mills v. the Board of Education of Washington, D.C. extends the PARC v. Pennsylvania ruling to other students with disabilities and requires the provision of "adequate alternative educational services suited to the child's needs, which may include special education . . ." Other similar cases follow.   1972 - Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972  becomes law. Though many people associate this law only with girl's and women's participation in sports, Title IX prohibits discrimination based on sex in all aspects of education.      1972 - The Marland Report to Congress on gifted and talented education is issued. It recommends a broader definition of giftedness that is still widely accepted today. 1972 - Dartmouth becomes the last of the Ivy League schools to begin admitting women. 1973 - U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War ends on January 27. More than 58,000 U.S. service personnel are killed in action during the war. The fighting continues until April 30, 1975 when South Vietnam surrenders to the communist North Vietnamese forces. 1973 - Marian Wright Edelman founds the Children's Defense Fund , a non-profit child advocacy organization.   1973 - The Rehabilitation Act becomes law. Section 504 of this act guarantees civil rights for people with disabilities in the context of federally funded institutions and requires accommodations in schools including participation in programs and activities as well as access to buildings. Today, " 504 Plans " are used to provide accommodations for students with disabilities who do not qualify for special education or an IEP. 1974 - In the Case of Lau v. Nichols, the U.S. Supreme Court rules that the failure of the San Francisco School District to provide English language instruction to Chinese-American students with limited English proficiency (LEP) is a violation of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . Though the ruling does not require a specific approach to teaching LEP students, it does require school districts to provide equal opportunities for all students, including those who do not speak English., 1974 - The Equal Educational Opportunities Act is passed. It prohibits discrimination and requires schools to take action to overcome barriers which prevent equal protection. The legislation has been particularly important in protecting the rights of students with limited English proficiency. 1974 - Federal Judge Arthur Garrity orders busing of African American students to predominantly white schools in order to achieve racial integration of public schools in Boston, MA. White parents protest, particularly in South Boston. 1974 -  In the case of Milliken v. Bradley , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that outside suburbs were not responsible for segregation within the Detroit city schools, and the District Court could not " redraw the lines . . .to achieve racial balance. " Therefore busing of students from Detroit to suburban schools was not required by law. 1975 - The Education for All Handicapped Children Act (PL 94-142) becomes federal law. It requires that a free, appropriate public education, suited to the student's individual needs, and offered in the least restrictive setting be provided for all "handicapped" children. States are given until 1978 (later extended to 1981) to fully implement the law. 1975 - The National Association of Bilingual Education is founded. 1975 - Newsweek's December 8 cover story, "Why Johnny Can't Write," heats up the debate about national literacy and gives impetus to the back-to-the-basics movement . 1977 - Apple Computer , now Apple Inc. , introduces the Apple II , one of the first successful personal computers. It and its offspring, the Apple IIe , become popular in schools as students begin to learn with computer games such as Oregon Trail and Odell Lake . 1977 - In the case of Abood v. Detroit Board of Education , the U.S. Supreme Court rules that public-sector unions (including teachers unions) can require non-members to pay "agency fees," which fund collective bargaining and various other union activities, from non-members. The ruling is overturned in the 2019 case of Janus v. AFSCME . 1978 - The Tribally Controlled Community College Act is signed into law on October 17 by President Jimmy Carter. It provides Federal assistance to tribally controlled community colleges. (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 1980 - The Refugee Act of 1980 is signed into law by President Jimmy Carter on March 18th. Building on the Immigration Act of 1965, it reforms immigration law to admit refugees for humanitarian reasons and results in the resettlement of more than three-million refugees in the United States  including many children who bring special needs and issues to their classrooms. 1980 - President Jimmy Carter signs the Refugee Education Assistance Act into law as the "Mariel Boatlift" brings thousands of Cuban and a small number of Haitian refugees to Florida. 1980 - Ronald Reagan is elected president, ushering in a new conservative era, not only in foreign and economic policy, but in education as well. However, he never carries out his pledge to reduce the federal role in education by eliminating the Department of Education, which had become a Cabinet level agency that same year under the Carter administration. 1981 - John Holt's book, Teach Your Own: A Hopeful Path for Education , adds momentum to the homeschooling movement. 1981 - IBM introduces its version of the personal computer (PC) with its Model 5150 . It's operating system is MS-DOS . 1982 - In the case of Edwards v. Aguillard, the U.S. Supreme Court invalidates Louisiana's "Creationism Act," which requires the teaching of creationism whenever evolution is taught, because it violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the Constitution. 1982 - Madeline C. Hunter's book, Mastery Teaching , is published. Her teaching model becomes widely used as teachers throughout the country attend her workshops and become "Hunterized." 1982 - In the case of Plyler v. Doe , the U.S. Supreme Court rules in a 5-4 decision that Texas law denying access to public education for undocumented school-age children violates the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. The ruling also found that school districts cannot charge tuition fees for the education of these children. 1982 - In the case of Board of Education v. Pico , the U.S. Supreme court rules that books cannot be removed from a school library because school administrators deemed their content to be offensive. 1983 - The report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk, calls for sweeping reforms in public education and teacher training. Among their recommendations is a forward-looking call for expanding high school requirements to include the study of computer science. 1983 -  Columbia College begins admitting women . Though Columbia University had been awarding graduate and professional degrees to women for many years, this change of allowing women to enroll in Columbia College as undergraduates makes it the last Ivy League school to become c ompletely coeducational. 1984 - The Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act , is passed with the goal of increasing the quality of vocational-technical education in the U.S. It is reauthorized in 1998 and again in 2006 as the  (PL 109-270). 1984 -The Emergency Immigrant Education Act is enacted to provide services and offset the costs for school districts that have unexpectedly large numbers of immigrant students.  1985 - In the case of Wallace v, Jaffree, the U.S. Supreme Court finds that Alabama statutes authorizing silent prayer and teacher-led voluntary prayer in public schools violate the First Amendment. 1985 - Microsoft Windows 1.0, the first independent version of Windows, is released, setting the stage for subsequent versions that make MS-DOS obsolete. 1985 - In the Case of New Jersey v. TLO , the U.S. Supreme Court rules that reasonable searches of students on school grounds do not violate their Fourth Amendment rights. 1986 - Christa McAuliffe is chosen by NASA from among more than 11,000 applicants to be the first teacher-astronaut, but her mission ends tragically as the Space Shuttle Challenger explodes 73 seconds after its launch, killing McAuliffe and the other six members of the crew. 1986 - Reports by the Holmes Group and Carnegie Forum on Education recommend changes in teacher education and the teaching profession. 1987 - In response to  the report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education, A Nation at Risk , the National Board of Professional Teaching Standards is formed and National Board Certification , based in these standards, is established as a means of "recognizing accomplished teaching." 1988 - In the case of Honig v. Doe , the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the state of California could not indefinitely suspend a student for behavior that was related to his/her disability. 1989 - The case of Sheff v. O'Neill, a lawsuit aimed at correcting racial inequities in the Hartford, Connecticut Public Schools, begins. It  becomes a a "landmark desegregation case case" and is eventually decided by the Connecticut Supreme Court in 1996 , which rules in favor the the plaintiffs and requires the state to take action to integrate the Hartford schools . 1989 - The University of Phoenix establishes their "online campus," the first to offer online bachelor's and master's degrees. It becomes the "largest private university in North America." 1989 - President George H. W. Bush calls together the nation's governors for an education  summit in Charlottesville, Virginia . The meeting sows the seeds for national standards for K-12 education. 1989/1990 -Mumford High School in Detroit, Michigan becomes one of the first schools in the United States to install Metal detectors to improve school safety. 1990 - Tim Berners-Lee, a British engineer and computer scientist called by many the inventor of the internet , writes the first web client-server protocol (Hypertext Translation Protocol or http), which allows two computers to communicate. On August 6, 1991, he puts the first web site on line from a computer at the CERN (the European Organization for Nuclear Research) in order to facilitate information sharing among scientists. So . . . does this mean that Al Gore didn't invent the internet after all? 1990 - Public Law 101-476, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), renames and amends Public Law 94-142. In addition to changing terminology from handicap to disability, it mandates transition services and adds autism and traumatic brain injury to the eligibility list. 1990 -  The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) becomes law. Essentially a civil rights law, it prohibits discrimination against those with disabilities in all areas, including education. 1990 - The Milwaukee Parental Choice program is initiated. It allows "students, under specific circumstances, to attend at no charge, private sectarian and nonsectarian schools located in the city of Milwaukee." 1990 - Teach for America is formed, reestablishing the idea of a National Teachers Corps. 1990 - The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1990 , the first comprehensive reform since 1965, is enacted on 29 November and increases annual immigration to 700,000 adding to the diversity of our nation and its schools. Specific aspects of the law provide for family-sponsored visas; employment-based visas for priority workers, skilled workers, and "advanced professionals"; and 55,000 diversity visas allocated to natives of a country that has sent fewer than 50,000 immigrants to the United States over the previous five years." 1991 - Minnesota passes the first "charter school" law. 1991 - The smart board (interactive white board) is introduced by SMART Technologies . 1992 - City Academy High School, the nation's first charter school, opens in St. Paul, Minnesota. 1993 - Jacqueline and Martin Brooks' In Search of Understanding: The Case for Constructivist Classrooms is published. It is one many books and articles describing constructivism, a view that learning best occurs through active construction of knowledge rather than its passive reception. Constructivist learning theory, with roots such as the work of Dewey, Bruner, Piaget, and Vygotsky, becomes extremely popular in the 1990s. 1993 - The Massachusetts Education Reform Act requires a common curriculum and statewide tests (Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System). As has often been the case, other states follow Massachusetts' lead and implement similar, high-stakes testing programs. 1994 – The controversial Sandia Report is finally published. Commissioned in 1989 as a scientific study of public education, its findings are contrary to expectations in that it finds improvement in mostl aspects of U.S. public education. Results of the study are withheld by the Bush administration and others in government who advocate for vouchers and school choice. 1994 - The Improving America's Schools Act (IASA) is signed into law by President Bill Clinton on January 25th. It. reauthorizes the ESEA of 1965 and includes reforms for Title I; increased funding for bilingual and immigrant education; and provisions for public charter schools, drop-out prevention, and educational technology. 1994 - As a backlash to illegal immigration, California voters pass Proposition 187, denying benefits, including public education, to undocumented aliens in California. It is challenged by the ACLU and other groups and eventually overturned. 1994 - Jim Clark and Mark Andreesan found Mosaic Communications. The corporation is later renamed Netscape Communications. On December 15th, they release the first commercial web browser , Mozilla 1.0 . It is available without cost to individuals and non-profit organizations. By the summer of 1995, more than 80% of internet users are browsing with Netscape! 1994 - CompuHigh Whitmorte   is founded. It claims to be the first online high school. 1994-1995 - Whiteboards find their way into U.S. classrooms in increasing numbers and begin to replace the blackboard. 1995 - Georgia becomes the first state to offer universal preschool to all four year olds whose parents choose to enroll them. More than half of the state's four year olds are now enrolled. 1996 - James Banks' book, Multicultural Education: Transformative Knowledge and Action, makes an important contribution to the growing body of scholarship regarding multiculturalism in education. 1996 - The Oakland, California School District sparks controversy as it proposes that Ebonics be recognized as the native language of African American children. 1996 - President Bill Clinton signs the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 into law on September 30th.. It prohibits states from offering higher education benefit based on residency within a state (in-state tuition) to undocumented immigrants unless the benefit is available to any U.S. citizen or national. This law conflicts, however, with practices and laws in several U.S. states. 1996 -  Educators come together to form the National Career Academy Coalition . 1997 - New York follows Georgia's lead and passes legislation that will phase in voluntary pre-kindergarten classes over a four-year period. However, preschool funding is a casualty of September 11, 2001 as New York struggles to recover. As of 2008, about 39% of the state's four year olds, mostly from low-income families, are enrolled.     1998 - California voters pass Proposition 227, requiring that all public school instruction be in English. This time the law withstands legal challenges. 1998 - The Higher Education Act is amended and reauthorized requiring institutions and states to produce "report cards" about teacher education. 1998 - Google co-founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin set up a workplace for their newly incorporated search engine in a Menlo Park, California garage.    1999 - On April 20th, two Columbine High School students go on a killing spree that leaves 15 dead and 23 wounded at the Littleton, Colorado school, making it the nations' deadliest school shooting incident. Though schools tighten safety procedures as a result of the Columbine massacre, school shootings continue to occur at an alarming rate . (adsbygoogle = window.adsbygoogle || []).push({}); 2000 - Diane Ravitch's book, Left Back: A Century of Failed School Reforms , criticizes progressive educational policies and argues for a more traditional, academically-oriented education. Her views, which are reminiscent of the "back to the basics" movement of the late 1970s and 1980s, are representative of the current conservative trend in education and the nation at large. 2000 - In yet another case regarding school prayer (Santa Fe School District v. Doe), the U.S. Supreme Court rules that the district's policy of allowing student-led prayer prior to football games violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.     2001 - Nineteen al-Qaeda terrorists hijack four commercial jet airliners on the morning of September 11 . They crash two into the twin towers of the World Trade Center and another into the Pentagon. The fourth plane crashes in a rural area of Pennsylvania as passengers try to retake it from the hijackers. A total of 2976 victims as well as the 19 terrorists are killed. The attacks have a devastating effect on both U.S. and world stock markets, result in the passage of the Patriot Act and formation of the Department of Homeland Security , provide the impetus for two wars, and take a lasting toll on Americans' sense of safety and well-being. 2001 - The controversial No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) is approved by Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002. The law, which reauthorizes the ESEA of 1965 and replaces the Bilingual Education Act of 1968, mandates high-stakes student testing, holds schools accountable for student achievement levels, and provides penalties for schools that do not make adequate yearly progress toward meeting the goals of NCLB.    2002 - In the case of Zelman v. Simmons-Harris the U.S. Supreme court rules that certain school voucher programs are constitutional and do not violate the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. 2002 - The North American Reggio Emilia Alliance (NAREA) is formally launched as an organization. Its goals include promoting the rights of young children and providing information about the Reggio Emilia approach to early childhood education. 2003 - The Higher Education Act is again amended and reauthorized, expanding access to higher education for low and middle income students, providing additional funds for graduate studies, and increasing accountability. 2003 - The International Association for K-12 Online Learning (iNACOL) , a non-profit organization dedicated to enhancing K-12 online education, is "launched as a formal corporate entity." 2004 - H.R. 1350, The Individuals with Disabilities Improvement Act (IDEA 2004), reauthorizes and modifies IDEA. Changes, which take effect on July 1, 2005 , include modifications in the IEP process and  procedural safeguards, increased authority for school personnel in special education placement decisions, and alignment of IDEA with the No Child Left Behind Act. The 2004 reauthorization also requires school districts to use the Response to Intervention (RTI) approach as a means for the early identification of students at risk for specific learning disabilities. RTI provides a three-tiered model for screening, monitoring, and providing increasing degrees of intervention using “research-based instruction" with the overall goal of reducing the need for special education services   2005 - In the latest incarnation of the "Monkey Trial,"  the U.S. District Court of Pennsylvania rules in the case of Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District that teaching "intelligent design" as an alternative to evolution is a violation of the First Amendment.      2006 -  The Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Act of 2006 is reauthorized and signed into law on August 12. It is the fourth version of this law which was originally passed in 1984. 2007 - On January 1, 2007, the American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) became the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD), joining the trend toward use of the term intellectual disability in place of mental retardation. 2007 - Cho Seung-Hui, a 23-year-old student, kills two students in a dorm and then 30 others in a classroom building at Virginia Tech University . Fifteen others are wounded. His suicide brings the death toll to 33, making it the deadliest school shooting incident in U.S. history. 2007 - In the cases of Parents involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No 1 and Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 that race cannot be a factor in assigning students to high schools, thus rejecting integration plans in Seattle and Louisville, and possibly affecting similar plans in school districts around the nation. 2007 - Both the House and Senate pass the Fiscal Year 2008 Labor-HHS- Education appropriation bill which includes reauthorization of the No Child Left Behind Act. However, the bill is vetoed by President Bush because it exceeds his budget request. Attempts to override the veto fall short. 2008 -  Less than one year after the Virginia Tech massacre, former graduate student Stephen P. Kazmierczak kills five and wounds 17 in a classroom at Northern Illinois University . He later takes his own life. 2008 - The Higher Education Opportunity Act is passed into law. It reauthorizes an amended version of the Higher Education Act and includes major changes in student loan eligibility for people with cognitive disabilities as well as other changes to federal financial aid programs. Additionally, it requires more financial transparency, timely notification regarding campus emergencies, and training to combat copyright abuses. 2008 - Barack Obama defeats John McCain and is elected the 44th President of the United States. Substantial changes in the No Child Left Behind Act are eventually expected, but with two ongoing wars as well as the current preoccupation with our nation's economic problems, reauthorization of NCLB is unlikely to happen any time soon. 2009 - The American Reinvestment and Recovery Act of 2009 provides more than 90-billion dollars for education, nearly half of which goes to local school districts to prevent layoffs and for school modernization and repair. It includes the Race to the Top initiative, a 4.35-billion-dollar program designed to induce reform in K-12 education. 2009 - The Common Core State Standards Initiative , "a state-led effort coordinated by the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and the Council of Chief State School Officers ," is launched. It is expected that many, perhaps most, states will adopt them. 2009 - Quest to Learn (Q2L) , the first school to teach primarily through game-based learning, opens in September in New York City with a class of sixth graders There are plans to add a grade each year until the school serves students in grades six through twelve. 2010 - With the U.S. economy mired in the " great recession " and unemployment remaining high, states have massive budget deficits . Many teachers face layoffs.. 2010 - New Texas social studies curriculum standards , described by some as “ultraconservative,” spark controversy. Many fear they will affect textbooks and classrooms in other states. . 2011 - Sylvia Mendez , whose parents were lead plaintiffs in the historic civil rights case, Mendez vs. Westminster and the California Board of Education , is awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on February 16th.. 2011 - In spite of workers' protests and Democratic legislators leaving the state to delay the vote, the Wisconsin legislature passes a bill removing most collective-bargaining rights from many public employees, including teachers. Governor Scott Walker signs the bill into law on March 11. After legal challenges are exhausted, it  is finally implemented in June. A similar measure passes in Ohio but is later repealed through a state referendum . 2011 - President Barack Obama announces on September 23 that the U.S. Department of Education is inviting each State educational agency to request flexibility regarding some requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act.  2011 - Alabama becomes the first state "to require public schools to check the immigration status" of students . Though the law does not require schools to prohibit the enrollment nor report the names of undocumented children, opponents nevertheless contend it is unconstitutional based on the Plyler v. Doe ruling . 2012 - President Barack Obama announces on February 9 that the applications of ten states seeking waivers from some of the requirements of the No Child Left Behind law were approved. New Mexico's application is approved a few days later, bringing the number of states receiving waivers to 11. An additional 26 states apply for waivers in late February . 2012 - On July 6, Washington and Wisconsin become the two most recent states to be granted waivers from some requirements of the federal No Child left Behind law, bringing the total number of states granted waivers to 26 . Several more states have submitted waiver applications and are waiting for approval. 2012 -  As of December , 33 states and Washington, D.C. have been granted waivers from some No Child Left Behind requirements. 2012 - On December 14 , Adam Lanza, 20, kills his mother and then invades Sandy Hook Elementary School where he kills 20 children and six adults, including principal Dawn Hochsprung and psychologist Mary Sherlachmaking, making this the second deadliest mass shooting by a single person in U.S. history. 2013 - On January 11, the Washington Post reports that Seattle high school teachers have refused to give the district-mandated Measures of Academic Progress, joining a "growing grass-roots revolt against the excessive use of standardized tests." 2013 - On May 22, the Chicago Board of Education votes to close 50 schools , the largest mass closing in U.S. history. Mayor Rahm Emanuel and CPS officials claim the closures are not only necessary to reduce costs, but will also improve educational quality. However, Chicago teachers and other opponents say the closures disproportionately affect low-income and minority students, but their efforts to stop the closings, which included tthree lawsuits, were unsuccessful. Other cities, including Detroit, Philadelphia, and Washington, D.C., have also recently closed large numbers of public schools. 2013 - The School District of Philadelphia announces on June 7 that it will cut nearly 4000 employees , including 676 teachers as well as many administrators and guidance counselors. 2013 -  On Friday, June 14 the Chicago Public Schools announce that they will be laying off 663 employees , including 420 teachers. A month later, they lay off another 2100 employees including more than 1000 teachers! CPS blames the layoffs on the state's "pension crisis." 2013 - In the case of Fisher v. University of Texas ,  the U.S. Supreme Court rules on June 25 that affirmative action is constitutional only if it is “narrowly tailored.” The Court then sends the case back to the lower courts to determine if the University of Texas policy meets this standard. 2013 - William Glasser , author of more than two dozen books including Choice Theory and Schools Without Failure , dies at age 88. 2013 - On October 21, a 13-year-old student arrives on the campus of Sparks, Nevada middle school armed with a handgun. He wounds two 12-year old boys and kills a teacher who was trying to protect other students before he turns the gun on himself and takes his own life. 2013 -  In yet another school shooting tragedy , high school senior Karl Pierson enters Arapohoe High School  (Centennial, Colorado) on December 13 armed with a shotgun, machete, and Molotov Cocktails. His goal apparently was to take revenge on the school librarian and debate coach who had disciplined him earlier in the school year. Instead, before taking his own life, he critically wounds a female classmate. She dies eight days later. 2014 - President Barack Obama signs the 1.1-trillion dollar bipartisan budget bill on January 17. The bill restores some, but not all, of the cuts to federal education programs that resulted from sequestration . It is the first budget to be agreed to by our divided government since 2009! 2014 -  On March 24, Indiana Governor Mike Pence signs legislation withdrawing the state from the Core Standards . Indiana becomes the first state to do so. However, aspects of the Common Core may still be included in Indiana's "new" standards . 2014 - The Civil Rights Project  report, Brown at 60: Great Progress, a Long Retreat, and an Uncertain Future , is published on May 15. It shows what many teachers already know: a decline in non-Hispanic Caucasian students, a large increase in Latino students, and the growth of segregation, both by race and poverty, particularly among Latinos in central cities and suburbs of the largest metropolitan areas. 2014 - Based on a report from a group called Every Town for Gun Safety , a CNN article published on June 12 states that there have been 74 school shootings in the last 18 months , 15 of which have been "Newtown-like incidents." What the heck is going on? 2014 - In the case of Vergara v. California, the Superior Court of the State of California rules that laws regarding teacher tenure, seniority rights and dismissal are unconstitutional. California is not the only state where attempts are being made to weaken or eliminate teacher tenure protections. 2014 -  As schools open this fall, a demographic milestone is reached : minority students enrolled in K-12 public school classrooms outnumber non-Hispanic Caucasians. 2014 -  More teacher layoffs in Chicago! CPS announces on June 26 that its latest round of layoffs will total than 1000 employees, including approximately 550 teachers. 2014 -  The Minnesota State High School League votes on December 4 to adopt a policy allowing transgender students to join female sports teams . Minnesota is the 33rd state to have a formal transgender student policy. 2015 -  On January 9, President Barack Obama announces a plan to allow two years of free community college for all American students . However, with Republicans in control of both the House and Senate, there seems little hope that this proposal will be implemented any time soon.  2015 - New York parents opt 150,000 kids out of standardized tests as the revolt against high-stakes testing grows . 2015 -  Another senseless, mass school shooting occurs on October 1 when Chris Harper Mercer kills nine and wounds several others at Umpqua Community College in Roseburg, Oregon. As always seems to be the case, the slaughter ends when the shooter takes his own life. Are these tragedies really becoming "routine" as President Obama says? 2015 - President Obama joins the "too-much-testing" movement as his new plan calls for limiting "standardized testing to no more than 2% of class time." 2015 - On December 9, the U.S. Senate votes 85-12 to approve the Every Student Succeeds Act, and President Obama signs it into law on December 10. This l atest version of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) replaces No Child  Left Behind and allows more state control in judging school quality. 2016 -  More than 60 schools in Detroit are forced to close on Monday, January 11th due to a teacher "sick out" called to protest conditions in the Detroit Public Schools, which are "drowning under 3.5 billion of debt." 2016 - On May 13, the federal government tells school districts "to allow transgender students to use the bathroom that matches their gender identity." Though the directive is not a law, districts that do not comply could face lawsuits or lose federal aid. 2016 - On August 21, a federal judge in Texas signs a temporary injunction allowing schools to opt out of the above transgender bathroom directive. 2016 -  California Proposition 58 is approved by voters and implements the California Multilingual Education Act . 2016 -  Donald Trump defeats Hillary Clinton and is elected President of the United States. One can only wonder what this means for American education . 2016 - President-elect Donald Trump names billionaire and school-choice advocate Betsy DeVos Secretary of Education. 2017 - In the Case of Endrew F v Douglas County School District , the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously rules that schools must offer "an individualized education program reasonably calculated  to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child's circumstances." 2017 -  On February 7, Vice President Mike Pence casts the deciding vote , breaking a 50-50 tie in the Senate, to confirm Betsy DeVos as Secretary of Education. Many educators criticize her lack of academic credentials and experience . 2017 -  February 22: President Donald Trump rescinds the Obama administration's controversial transgender bathroom directive . The issue may eventually be decided by the courts. 2017 - July 6: Eighteen states and the District of Columbia sue Betsy DeVos and the U.S. Department of Education over delays in implementing regulations protecting student loan recipients. 2017 -  President Donald Trump signs the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act into law on December 22nd. The bill lowers corporate taxes as well as those for most individuals. Educational implications include maintaining the $250 limit on deductions teachers can take for school supplies and expanding the use of 529 savings plans for K-12 private and homeschool costs. The final bill does not include provisions to tax graduate student tuition benefits nor those provided to college and university employees. However, some education advocates believe the tax bill may hurt public school funding and reduce donations to colleges and universities . 2018 - Nicholas Cruz is charged with 17 counts of murder in yet another horrific school massacre. This attack, that occurred February 14th in Parkland, Florida, brings the total number of school shooting incidents for this year to 18 . Eight have resulted in injury or death , including the Marshall County High School (Kentucky) shooting that left two dead and many others injured. Is there no end to these senseless tragedies? 2018 - In the wake of the Parkland, Florida massacre, Marjory Stoneman Douglas students become passionate advocates for gun control and school safety . Their activism soon spreads across the nation. In a meeting with students, parents, and teachers affected by gun violence, President Trump promises more rigorous background checks and better mental health screenings for gun buyers . He later suggests training and arming teachers in order to improve school safety. Both the AFT and NEA reject this idea. 2018 - Schools are closed  throughout West Virginia on February 22nd as teachers walk out to protest their pay and benefits . West Virginia teacher salaries are among the lowest in the nation . 2018 -  The West Virginia teacher strike ends as Governor Jim Justice signs legislation on March 6th giving teachers, as well as all other state employees, a 5% pay increase. Which state will be next? 2018 -  In response to the Parkland, Florida school shootings, Florida Governor Rick Scott signs legislation on March 9 that, among other things, raises the minimum age to purchase a firearm to 21 and imposes a three-day waiting period for firearm purchases. The bill also allows some school personnel to carry firearms. The state is promptly sued by the NRA ! 2018 -  Thousands of students across the nation walk out of classrooms on March 14 demanding changes in gun laws . 2018 -March 24: Hundreds of thousands of students from across the nation join the March for Our Lives protest in Washington , DC as well as many other cities. 2018 - March 30: Following the successful outcome of the West Virginia teachers strike, teachers from Kentucky, Arizona, and Oklahoma begin to take action to improve their pay and benefits. 2018 - April 13: Though schools will remain closed for at least one more day in Oklahoma's largest cities, many are set  to reopen as the Oklahoma Education Association calls for teachers to end their strike . T eachers will receive an increase in pay ; however, many remain concerned about education funding cuts that have forced about one-fifth of the state's school districts to reduce to four-day school weeks. Elsewhere, as the the Kentucky Education Association encourages teachers to protest at the state capital. 2018 - Students from across the nation protest gun violence on April 20th ( National Walkout Day ), which marks the 19th anniversary of the Columbine High School shooting tragedy. 2018 - May 4: The Arizona teachers strike ends as legislators pass both a pay increase and school-funding plan. 2018 - May 19: Ten are killed and 10 more wounded at Santa Fe High School (Texas) in the latest senseless school shooting incident. 2018 - June 27: In the case of Janus v. AFSCME , the U.S. Supreme Court rules that it is a violation of the First Amendment for public-sector unions (including teachers unions) to collect "agency fees" from non-members. Agency fees cover the costs of representing non-members in contractual and other negotiations. Twenty-two states currently require the payment of those fees. The Janus ruling overturns the 1977 Abood v. Detroit Board of Education ruling. 2018 - The Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century Act (Perkins V) is signed into law on July 31. 2018 -  Hundreds of educators and former educators run for office in the mid-term elections. Winners include Minnesota Governor-Elect Tim Walz, Wisconsin Governor-Elect Tony Evers, and 2016 National Teacher of the Year, Jahana Hayes , from Connecticut, who was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. 2018 - A federal judge orders the U.S. Department of Education to forgive the student loan debt of about 15,000 students who attended for-profit schools that are no longer in business. 2 019 - On January 14, more than 30,000 public school  teachers in the Los Angeles go on strike over class size, pay, and lack of support staff. 2019 - Los Angeles teachers return to work after a deal is reached ending their six-day strike. 2019 - Chicago students head back to school on November 4th as teachers end their 11-say strike . Teachers and lower-paid workers get raises and a commitment for smaller class sizes and more school nurses and social workers. 2020 - On March 11, the World Health Organization declares COVID-19 a pandemic . Two days later, President Trump declares a national emergency. States close schools , and many colleges and universities suspend "in-person classes." 2020 - Florida passes legislation to provide a minimum salary of $47,500 for all K-12 teachers. Without that legislation, Florida's teacher salaries would have been among the lowest in the United States. 2020 - Though daily numbers of COVID-19 cases continue to increase in many parts of the country, states begin to implement their plans for reopening K-12 schools this fall. While many major universities will offer primarily online classes for the fall semester, others still plan to provide "in-person" instruction . 2020 - Joe Biden wins the 2020 Presidential Election . However, Donald Trump refuses to concede and brings legal actions in several states to challenge the outcome. 2020 - As COVID-19 cases in the U.S. surge in November, NY City temporarily closes schools and moves to distance learning as do many other districts around the nation . 2020 - Joe Biden nominates Miguel  Cardona for Secretary of Education . 2021 - On January 6, an angry mob attacks the Capital in an attempt to prevent Congress from confirming the results of the 2020 Presidential Election. More than 1200 who participated in the attack have been charged, and hundreds have been convicted of various crimes. In spite of the magnitude of this attack on our democracy, the event has only served to intensify the political divisions within our troubled nation.     2021 - On March 1, the U.S. Senate confirms Miguel Cardona as Secretary of Education . 2021 - The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services directs states to make teachers and other school staff eligible for COVID-19 vaccinations . 2021 -  On March 11, President Joe Biden signs the 1.9-trillion dollar COVID-19 relief bill into law. In addition to providing stimulus payments to  most Americans, the bill also extends federal unemployment benefits, increases child tax credits, and provides 125 billion dollars to help schools reopen. 2021 - As the 2021 school year begins, COVID-19 cases surge due to the Delta Variant , particularly in areas with low vaccination rates . Complicating matters, several states have banned schools from requiring students and faculty to wear masks . 2022 - Some schools delay reopening after winter break; others go to remote learning as COVID-19 cases rise due to the highly contagious Omicron Variant . Chicago teachers vote to strike in order to suspend in-person learning until after January 18 or until COVID-19 cases in the district decline. However, and agreement is quickly reached, and students return to school . 2022 - Several states pass laws banning the teaching of Critical Race Theory and its tenets or restricting how the topics of race and racism can be taught in schools. 2022 - Florida and Alabama pass laws prohibiting the teaching of content related to sexual preference to younger students. Other states are also considering similar, "Don't Say Gay," laws . 2022 - May 24: After shooting his grandmother , an 18-year-old male armed with an AR-15 style weapon enters Robb Elementary School in Uvalde, Texas through an unlocked door. He murders 19 students and two teachers as well as wounding many others before being eventually shot and killed by police . I have no words to adequately describe my sense of outrage, anger, and dismay regarding this horrific crime, other than to say that I hope and pray our government finds the courage to finally take action to lessen the probability of similar atrocities in the future. 2023 - A first-grade teacher is shot in her New Port News, Virginia classroom . The alleged shooter is a 6-year-old first-grader who reportedly brought his mother's gun to school! Fortunately, the teacher is recovering from her wounds and has been released from the hospital . 2023 - On June 29, the Supreme Court rules that using race as a factor in college /university admissions (affirmative action) violates the 14th  Amendment of the U.S. Constitution. 2023 - One day after its decision on affirmative action, the Supreme Court blocks President Biden's college loan forgiveness plan . 2024 - The latest tragic incident in the epidemic of senseless school shootings occurs in Perry, Iowa on January 4, when a 17-yesr-old student kills a 6th-grader and wounds five others, including the school principal, before taking hi own life. 2024 - Pro-Palestinian protests occur at Columbia University and soon spread to campuses across the nation . Though most have been peaceful, there have been violent clashes with both counter-protesters and police. More than 2000 protesters have been arrested . 2024 - On June 19, Louisiana Governor Jeff Landry signs into law legislation requiring a copy of the 10 Commandments be displayed in every public school classroom in the state . Legal challenges based on the Establishment clause of the First Amendment of the Constitution are sure to follow.   Additional References (print references and online references not linked in the text above): Barger, R.N. (2004). History of American Education Web Project. Retrieved December 21, 2004 from Applied Research Center (2008). Historical Timeline of Public Education in the US. Retrieved December 28, 2008 from http://www.arc.org/content/view/100/53/ Helton, Gene. (No Date). Curriculum Development in 20th Century United States. Retrieved January 2, 2005 from http://www.personal.kent.edu/~whelton/index.html. The link is no longer active. Lloyd, J. W. (2005). Chronology of Some Important Events in the History of Learning Disabilities. Retrieved June 22, 2009 from http://faculty.virginia.edu/johnlloyd/edis511/classes/LD_Times.html . Rippa, S. Alexander (1971). Education in a Free Society, (2nd. Edition ). New York: David McKay Company. Stankiewicz, M.A. (No Date). The History of Art Education Timeline. Retrieved June 22, 2009 from http://www.personal.psu.edu/faculty/m/a/mas53/timelint.html Thayer, V. T. (1965). Formative Ideas in American Education . New York: Dodd, Mead, and Company. mailto:[email protected] Please consider this timeline to be a work in progress. If you see an error or have a suggestion for an important event that should be added, send it to me at [email protected] I will review your idea, and if I think it has merit, I will add it to the timeline. Permission is granted to anyone wishing to use this page or the related lesson plan for instructional purposes or in a thesis, dissertation, or class assignment as long as you credit the author (me!) and the web page source. My name is Edmund Sass, Ed.D. , Professor Emeritus of Education , College of Saint Benedict/Saint John's University . Please understand, however, that the content of this page is my intellectual property and cannot be duplicated or displayed on another web site or in a publication without my permission.

The History of Education in America: A Timeline

By: Author Dr. Patrick Capriola

Posted on Published: October 31, 2022

When we think of the history of education in America, we might picture a handful of children in a rustic one-room schoolhouse. Now, we have preschools, graduate schools, and everything in between. So when did formal education begin in America, and how did it become what it is now?

Secondary education and higher learning have been a part of American life since the first generation of colonists established schools and colleges in the seventeenth century. From these beginnings, education in America has grown and expanded into the thousands of institutions that today educate people of all ages.

Read on to learn about the origins of America’s first schools and the key people and events that helped to grow American education into what it is today.

When Did Formal Education Begin in America?

As the first colonists settled in what would become the United States, they established schools and colleges in the new world. Colonists modeled their schools after the European schools of their time, which were very different from our modern public schools.

Boston Latin School opened in 1635 in Boston, Massachusetts, and was the first public school in the eventual United States ( source ). Puritan settlers opened Boston Latin School as a boys-only college preparation school.

Donors and land renters funded the operation of the school. The school’s founding schoolmaster, Philemon Pormort, instructed boys of all social classes in grammar and literature over the course of a four-year program.

While colonists continued to establish secondary schools throughout the New World, families and private tutors were responsible for teaching younger children elementary math and reading. To learn more about everyday life in the colonies, read our article 13 American Colonies Timeline: Dawn of the Colonial Era .

In colonial America, most trades relied on apprenticeships to train new practitioners. Even practitioners of medicine and law trained apprentices directly.

Still, colleges were not absent from colonial America despite their narrower scope than our modern colleges and universities. Some of America’s earliest and best-known colleges, including Harvard, Yale, and William and Mary College, date to the seventeenth and early eighteenth century. 

Who Started Schools in America?

Religious denominations established most of colonial America’s earliest schools and colleges. As the settlements grew, towns began to charter their own public schools.

Puritan settlers in New England pioneered America’s first schools. Other religious groups took similar actions elsewhere in the colonies. Anglican, Catholic, and Dutch Reformed communities established schools in their settlements along the eastern seaboard.

The religious groups that pioneered public secondary schools were also responsible for America’s first colleges. New England Puritans founded the aforementioned Harvard and Yale Colleges. While the Virginia government was directly responsible for founding William and Mary College, the school maintained a close association with the Anglican Church.

In the century leading up to the American Revolution, Presbyterians, Baptists, and others would go on to establish colleges to meet the higher education needs of their respective communities.

How Did Education Begin in America?

Education in colonial America focused on the religious needs of the communities, with the particular aim of training ministers.

The colonial settlers valued and encouraged literacy so that all people could read their Bibles. For this reason, churches and religious groups took on the responsibility of educating their communities.

Also, for this reason, secondary education focused almost entirely on reading and literature. Schools seldom instructed students in science or math, choosing instead to leave instruction in those disciplines to trade-specific apprenticeships.

The need to train young men as ministers compelled the religious denominations to establish colleges in the colonies ( source ). All the earliest colleges offered ministerial training in addition to broader civics and history courses intended to educate the future governing class.

One education pioneer, Benjamin Franklin, took a different approach. He founded the Academy of Philadelphia to provide higher education in the arts and practical skills to a broad audience instead of focusing on training future clergy.

The Academy of Philadelphia would soon go on to establish America’s first medical school and become the first school to earn the “university” designation.

What Was Education Based on in Early America?

Education in early America was based on society’s need to prepare young men for futures as spiritual, business, and political leaders. As the needs of society changed, education grew and expanded to meet emerging needs.

In colonial America, both public and private schools limited enrollment to boys only. The tax base supporting emerging public schools was limited. Since women did not play significant roles in commerce and politics, schoolmasters determined that the limited education dollars should only be used to educate boys.

Education for Girls

Girls still received the same elementary reading instruction in their homes but did not have many of the same secondary education opportunities as boys.

Quaker settlements in Pennsylvania operated co-ed schools as early as the seventeenth century, but such schools were an exception in the colonies. Schools specifically for girls began to emerge in the early eighteenth century, nearly an entire century after the establishment of public education in the colonies.

Throughout the eighteenth century, the colonies took unique and disparate approaches to educate girls. Some New England towns funded girls’ education with taxpayer dollars. This was most common in areas where taxpaying families reaped the direct benefit of receiving an education for their own daughters.

Upper-class families were more likely to educate their daughters to ensure their future prominence in society.

After the American Revolution, American men settled into their roles as soldiers, tradesmen, and statesmen, and the task of teaching increasingly fell to women. Colonial women had already been providing elementary education to the children in their care. The need for more secondary educators led to new educational opportunities for girls and young women.

With a twist of irony, teaching itself became a primary reason that girls gained access to education in mathematics, sciences, and philosophy. This was the first of several notable changes in education trends in America.

Common School Journal

In 1838, Horace Mann began a biweekly publication called Common School Journal . Through the Journal , Mann outlined a vision for public education that would ultimately shape the future of American education.

A native of Massachusetts, Mann graduated from Brown University in 1819 and practiced law in the early years of his career. Within a decade, Mann turned his efforts toward politics, serving in the Massachusetts House of Representatives from 1827 until 1833. He subsequently won a seat in the state’s senate and began serving in 1835 ( source ).

Mann recognized the deep and proud legacy of education in his home state. As a product of the state’s education system, he also perceived a decline in the quality of education and leveraged his role as a public servant to advocate for reform.

Committed to reform, Massachusetts established a State Board of Education in 1837 and appointed Horace Mann as the state’s first Secretary of Education.

Through his Common School Journal , Mann promoted taxpayer-funded public schooling based on six key principles:

• An uneducated republic cannot expect to remain free and independent.
• Universal education serves the interests of the public.
• Schools ought to provide education to students of all backgrounds.
• Public schools should be free from sectarian influence.
• Education should espouse the tenets of a free society.
• Well-trained professional teachers are necessary for proper education.

Many of these principles seem apparent to us today because they now form the very structure of our education system. But they were innovative and controversial in Mann’s time.

While Mann’s vision is responsible for much of the structure and philosophy of American education as we know it today, another change in society prompted the rapid expansion of the number of schools and education content.

Progressive Education Movement

In the late nineteenth century, the industrial revolution led to urbanization and increased demand for factory labor. The resulting shift from apprenticeship in the trades led to new education reforms.

In the United States, John Dewey was the most outspoken advocate of the progressive education movement. As a philosophy professor, Dewey believed that education should not simply pass on academic knowledge but should prepare students for life in society ( source ).

In his 1916 book, Democracy in Education , Dewey advocated for education that built upon children’s natural creativity and activity that led to critical thinking and problem-solving in a group setting.

Dewey’s ideas and the changing needs of an industrialized society led to more hands-on and experimental learning, themed curricula, and the development of social skills through the education experience.

In just three centuries, education had grown from a specialized privilege for select students to an integral part of American society.

Important Facts about the History of Education in America

Before we examine education in twenty-first-century America, let’s briefly recap how we got from where we started to where we are.

The growth and increased availability of education only tell half the story. Education has reached every town, demographic, and age group in the United States, but how do we evaluate the effectiveness of our robust schooling? 

When Was America First in Education?

America’s early educational reforms followed then-existing European models. American pioneers forged new paths beginning with the progressive education movement. By the mid-twentieth century, America would lay claim, at least subjectively, to the distinction of being the best at educating its population.

In the decades that followed World War II, schooling in America began to coalesce into what is familiar to us today. The Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared racial segregation of schools unconstitutional. The hard-fought effort to fully desegregate the schools would proceed well into the 1970s.

Alongside desegregation, space exploration and advances in medicine and warfare encouraged increased investment in scientific education. At the same time, state houses and the federal government each sought to exert greater control over education in the United States.

While states continued to refine licensing requirements for school teachers, President Lyndon Johnson signed several federal education bills into law as part of his Great Society programs. 

The Higher Education Act and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act passed in 1965, allocating federal funding for college and grade-school education plus brand-new initiatives to promote early childhood education.

In the 1980s and 1990s, state legislatures implemented academic standards and developed testing for measuring students’ progress to determine if they had met the minimum criteria to earn a high-school diploma ( source ).

As similar metrics emerged worldwide, the United States entered the twenty-first century as the world’s most educated country.

Education in Twenty-First-Century America

Since the beginning of the twenty-first century, over a dozen countries have surpassed America’s college graduation rate, the primary metric for determining the education level of a nation’s population.

Much of America’s approach to education in this century has been centered on creating as many educational opportunities as possible for the broadest number of residents. Read our article, Finding, Understanding, and Explaining Your Academic Interests , to learn more about the dynamics of modern education.

The 2002 No Child Left Behind Act and the 2015 update, the Every Student Succeeds Act, federalized this effort by holding states accountable through the use of financial incentives to enforce their own standards for students’ math and reading proficiency.

This article was written for strategiesforparents.com .

In the 2010s, the federal government encouraged but did not mandate, states to adopt the Common Core Standards promoted by the National Governors Association, which would nationalize the academic standards by which states measured students’ progress.

Not all states embraced the Common Core Standards, and those that did subsequently reverted to their previous standards.

Final Thoughts

Education has grown in size, scope, and reach since America’s founding. With the proliferation of the Internet, remote learning, and self-paced study, education is again shifting with society.

We cannot know for sure what education will look like in 10 or 20 years. Still, history tells us that pioneers and visionaries will continue to innovate to meet the educational needs of our ever-changing society.

From 1871 to 2021: A Short History of Education in the United States

In 1600s and 1700s America, prior to the first and second Industrial Revolutions, educational opportunity varied widely depending on region, race, gender, and social class.

Public education, common in New England, was class-based, and the working class received few benefits, if any. Instructional styles and the nature of the curriculum were locally determined. Teachers themselves were expected to be models of strict moral behavior.

By the mid-1800s, most states had accepted three basic assumptions governing public education: that schools should be free and supported by taxes, that teachers should be trained, and that children should be required to attend school.

The term “normal school” is based on the French école normale, a sixteenth-century model school with model classrooms where model teaching practices were taught to teacher candidates. In the United States, normal schools were developed and built primarily to train elementary-level teachers for the public schools.

The Normal School The term “normal school” is based on the French  école normale , a sixteenth-century model school with model classrooms where model teaching practices were taught to teacher candidates. This was a laboratory school where children on both the primary or secondary levels were taught, and where their teachers, and the instructors of those teachers, learned together in the same building. This model was employed from the inception of the Buffalo Normal School , where the “School of Practice” inhabited the first floors of the teacher preparation academy. In testament to its effectiveness, the Campus School continued in the same tradition after the college was incorporated and relocated on the Elmwood campus.

Earlier normal schools were reserved for men in Europe for many years, as men were thought to have greater intellectual capacity for scholarship than women. This changed (fortunately) during the nineteenth century, when women were more successful as private tutors than were men.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, newly industrialized European economies needed a reliable, reproducible, and uniform work force. The preparation of teachers to accomplish this goal became ever more important. The process of instilling in future citizens the norms of moral behavior led to the creation of the first uniform, formalized national educational curriculum. Thus, “normal” schools were tasked with developing this new curriculum and the techniques through which teachers would communicate and model these ideas, behaviors, and values for students who, it was hoped, through formal education, might desire and seek a better quality of life.

In the United States, normal schools were developed and built primarily to train elementary-level teachers for the public schools. In 1823, Reverend Samuel Read Hall  founded the first private normal school in the United States, the Columbian School in Concord, Vermont. The first public normal school in the United States was founded shortly thereafter in 1839 in Lexington, Massachusetts. Both public and private “normals” initially offered a two-year course beyond the secondary level, but by the twentieth century, teacher-training programs required a minimum of four years. By the 1930s most normal schools had become “teachers colleges,” and by the 1950s they had evolved into distinct academic departments or schools of education within universities.

The Buffalo Normal School Buffalo State was founded in 1871 as the Buffalo Normal School. It changed its name more often than it changed its building. It has been called the State Normal and Training School (1888–1927), the State Teachers College at Buffalo (1928–1946), the New York State College for Teachers at Buffalo (1946–1950), SUNY, New York State College for Teachers (1950–1951), the State University College for Teachers at Buffalo (1951–1959), the State University College of Education at Buffalo (1960–1961), and finally the State University College at Buffalo in 1962, or as we know it more succinctly, SUNY Buffalo State College.

As early as the 1800s, visionary teachers explored teaching people with disabilities. Thomas Galludet developed a method to educate the deaf and hearing impaired. Dr. Samuel Howe focused on teaching the visually impaired, creating books with large, raised letters to assist people with sight impairments to “read” with their fingers.

What Goes Around, Comes Around: What Is Good Teaching? Throughout most of post-Renaissance history, teachers were most often male scholars or clergymen who were the elite literates who had no formal training in “how” to teach the content in which they were most well-versed. Many accepted the tenet that “teachers were born , not made .” It was not until “pedagogy,” the “art and science of teaching,” attained a theoretical respectability that the training of educated individuals in the science of teaching was considered important.

While scholars of other natural and social sciences still debate the scholarship behind the “science” of teaching, even those who accept pedagogy as a science admit that there is reason to support one theory that people can be “born” with the predisposition to be a good teacher. Even today, while teacher education programs are held accountable by accreditors for “what” they teach teachers, the “dispositions of teaching” are widely debated, yet considered essential to assess the suitability of a teacher candidate to the complexities of the profession. Since the nineteenth century, however, pedagogy has attempted to define the minimal characteristics needed to qualify a person as a teacher. These have remained fairly constant as the bases for educator preparation programs across the country: knowledge of subject matter, knowledge of teaching methods, and practical experience in applying both are still the norm. The establishment of the “norms” of pedagogy and curriculum, hence the original name of “normal school” for teacher training institutions, recognized the social benefit and moral value of ensuring a quality education for all.

As with so many innovations and trends that swept the post-industrial world in the twentieth century, education, too, has experienced many changes. The names of the great educational theorists and reformers of the Progressive Era in education are known to all who know even a little about teaching and learning: Jean Piaget , Benjamin Bloom , Maria Montessori , Horace Mann , and John Dewey to name only a few.

As early as the 1800s, visionary teachers explored teaching people with disabilities. Thomas Galludet developed a method to educate the deaf and hearing impaired. He opened the Hartford School for the Deaf in Connecticut in 1817. Dr. Samuel Howe focused on teaching the visually impaired, creating books with large, raised letters to assist people with sight impairments to “read” with their fingers. Howe led the Perkins Institute, a school for the blind, in Boston. Such schools were usually boarding schools for students with disabilities. There are still residential schools such as St. Mary’s School for the Deaf in Buffalo, but as pedagogy for all children moved into the twentieth century, inclusive practice where children with disabilities were educated in classrooms with non-disabled peers yielded excellent results. This is the predominant pedagogy taught by our Exceptional Education faculty today.

As the reform movements in education throughout the twentieth century introduced ideas of equality, child-centered learning, assessment of learner achievement as a measure of good teaching, and other revolutionary ideas such as inquiry-based practice, educating the whole person, and assuring educational opportunities for all persons, so did the greater emphasis on preparing teachers to serve the children of the public, not just those of the elite.

This abridged version of events that affected teacher education throughout the twentieth century mirrors the incredible history of the country from WWI’s post-industrial explosion to the turbulent 1960s, when the civil rights movement and the women’s rights movement dominated the political scene and schools became the proving ground for integration and Title IX enforcement of equality of opportunity. Segregation in schools went to the Supreme Court in 1954 with  Brown vs. Board of Education.  Following this monumental decision, schools began the slow process of desegregating schools, a process that, sadly, is still not yet achieved.

As schools became more and more essential to the post-industrial economy and the promotion of human rights for all, teaching became more and more regulated. By the end of the twentieth century, licensing requirements had stiffened considerably in public education, and salary and advancement often depended on the earning of advanced degrees and professional development in school-based settings.

In the second half of the twentieth century, the Sputnik generation’s worship of science gave rise to similarities in terminology between the preparation of teachers and the preparation of doctors. “Lab schools” and quantitative research using experimental and quasi-experimental designs to test reading and math programs and other curricular innovations were reminiscent of the experimental designs used in medical research. Student teaching was considered an “internship,” akin to the stages of practice doctors followed. Such terminology and parallels to medicine, however, fell out of vogue with a general disenchantment with science and positivism in the latter decades of the twentieth century.  Interestingly, these parallels have resurfaced today as we refer to our model of educating teachers in “clinically rich settings.” We have even returned to “residency” programs, where teacher candidates are prepared entirely in the schools where they will eventually teach.

As schools became more and more essential to the post-industrial economy and the promotion of human rights for all, teaching became more and more regulated. By the end of the twentieth century, licensing requirements had stiffened considerably in public education, and salary and advancement often depended on the earning of advanced degrees and professional development in school-based settings. Even today, all programs in colleges and universities that prepare teachers must follow extensive and detailed guidelines established by the New York State Education Department that determine what must be included in such programs. Additions such as teaching to students with disabilities and teaching to English language learners are requirements that reflect the changing needs of classrooms.

As the world changed, so did the preparation of teachers. The assimilation of the normal school into colleges and universities marked the evolution of teaching as a profession, a steady recognition over the last 150 years that has allowed the teacher as scientist to explore how teaching and learning work in tandem and to suggest that pedagogy is dynamic and interactive with sociopolitical forces and that schools play a critical role in the democratic promotion of social justice.

Campus Schools and Alternative Classroom Organization During the ’60s and ’70s, new concepts of schooling such as multigrade classrooms and open-concept spaces, where students followed their own curiosity through project-based learning, were played out right here at Buffalo State in what was then the College Learning Lab (Campus School). Campus School shared many of the college’s resources and served as the clinical site for the preparation of teachers. School administration and teachers held joint appointments at the college and in the lab. Classrooms were visible through one-way glass, where teacher candidates could observe and review what they saw with the lab school teacher afterward. Participation in these classrooms was a requirement during the junior year. (I myself did my junior participation in a 5/6 open class there.)

However, as the SUNY colleges became less and less supported by New York State budgetary allocations, the Campus School was soon too expensive to staff and to maintain. The baby boom was over, and the population was shrinking. Job opportunities for the graduates of Buffalo State were rare. A 10-year cycle of teacher shortage and teacher over-supply continues to be a trend.

Standards and Norms In the 1980s, education in America once again turned to “norming,” but now the norms were not measuring one child against others; rather, each child was assessed as he or she approached the “national standards” that theoretically defined the knowledge and skills necessary for all to achieve.  

Fearing America’s loss of stature as the technologically superior leader of the free world, A Nation at Risk , published in 1983, cast a dark shadow over teaching and schools for many years to come until its premises were largely disrupted. During the time after this report, however, being a teacher was not a popular career choice, and teaching as a profession was called into question.

By 1998, almost every state had defined or implemented academic standards for math and reading. Principals and teachers were judged; students were promoted or retained, and legislation was passed so that high school students would graduate or be denied a diploma based on whether or not they had met the standards, usually as measured by a criterion-referenced test.

In the 1980s, education in America once again turned to “norming,” but now the norms were not measuring one child against others; rather, each child was assessed as he or she approached the “national standards” that theoretically defined the knowledge and skills necessary for all to achieve.

The pressure to teach to a standards-based curriculum, to test all students in an effort to ensure equal education for all, led to some famous named policies of presidents and secretaries of education in the later twentieth century. National panels and political pundits returned to the roots of the “normal school” movement, urging colleges of teacher education to acquaint teacher candidates with the national educational standards known as Goals 2000 . The George H. W. Bush administration kicked off an education summit with the purpose of “righting the ship” since the shock of A Nation at Risk .  Standards-based curriculum became a “teacher proof” system of ensuring that all children—no matter what their socioeconomic privilege—would be taught the same material.  This “curriculum first” focus for school planning persisted through the Clinton administration with the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), the George W. Bush administration with No Child Left Behind , and the Obama administration with Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) and the accompanying federal funding called Race to the Top .  Such packaged standards-based curriculum movements once again turned the public eye to a need to conform, achieve, and compete.

For teachers, the most important development from this pressure to teach to the standards was the controversial Common Core , a nationalized curriculum based on standards of education that were designed to give all students common experiences within a carefully constructed framework that would transcend race, gender, economics, region, and aptitude. So focused were the materials published on the Common Core that schools began to issue scripted materials to their teachers to ensure the same language was used in every classroom. Teacher autonomy was suppressed, and time for language arts and mathematics began to eclipse the study of science, social studies, art, music.

Now What? That takes us almost to today’s schools, where teachers are still accountable for helping student achieve the Common Core standards or more currently the National Standards. Enter the COVID pandemic. Full stop.

Curriculum, testing, conformity, and standards are out the window. The American parent can now “see into” the classroom and the teacher can likewise “see into” the American home. Two-dimensional, computer-assisted instruction replaced the dynamic interactive classroom where learning is socially constructed and facilitated by teachers who are skilled at classroom management, social-emotional learning, and project-based group work. Teacher candidates must now rely on their status as digital natives to engage and even entertain their students who now come to them as a collective of individuals framed on a computer screen rather than in a classroom of active bodies who engage with each other in myriad ways. Last year’s pedagogical challenges involved mastery of the 20-minute attention span, the teacher as entertainer added to the teacher as facilitator . Many of our teacher candidates learned more about themselves than they did about their students. Yet, predominately, stories of creativity, extraordinary uses of technology, and old-fashioned persistence and ingenuity were the new “norm” for the old Buffalo State Normal School.

There has been nothing “normal” about these last two years as the world learns to cope with a silent enemy. There will be no post-war recovery, no post-industrial reforms, no equity of opportunity in schools around the world. But there will be teaching. And there will be learning. And the Buffalo State Normal School will continue to prepare the highest quality practitioners whose bags of tricks grow ever-more flexible, driven by a world where all that is known doubles in just a few days. Pedagogy is still a science. Teaching is a science, but it is also a craft practiced by master craftsmen and women and learned by apprentices.

Teaching has been called the noblest profession. From our earliest roots as the Buffalo Normal School to the current challenges of post-COVID America, we have never changed our dedication to that conviction.

Ultimately, however, as even the earliest teacher educators knew, the art of teaching is that ephemeral quality that we cannot teach, but which we know when we see it at work, that makes the great teacher excel far beyond the competent teacher.

Teaching has been called the noblest profession. From our earliest roots as the Buffalo Normal School to the current challenges of post-COVID America, we have never changed our dedication to that conviction. We are still doing what the words of Nobel laureate Malala Yousafzai encourage us to do: “One child, one teacher, one book, one pen can change the world.” That was and always will be the mission of Buffalo State, “the Teachers College.”

This article was contributed as part of a guest author series observing the 150th anniversary celebration of Buffalo State College. Campus authors who are interested in submitting articles or story ideas pertaining to the sesquicentennial are encouraged to contact the editor .

Wendy Paterson, ’75, ’76, Ph.D., dean of the School of Education, is an internationally recognized scholar in the areas of early literacy and reading, developmental and educational technology, and single parenting. She received the SUNY Chancellor’s Award for Excellence in Professional Service in 1996.

Read other stories in the 150th anniversary guest author series:

Pomp, Pageantry Seize the Day in 1869 Normal School Cornerstone Laying

Transforming Lives for 150 Years: Memoir of a 1914 Graduate

Buffalo Normal School Held Opening Ceremony 150 Years Ago Today

New Buffalo Normal School Replaces Outgrown Original

The Grover Cleveland–E. H. Butler Letters at Buffalo State

Test Your College Knowledge with a Buffalo State Crossword Puzzle

Photo: Staff of the Record student newspaper, 1913 .

References:

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/education-reforms/

https://wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_school

https://britannica.com/topic/normal-school

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1216495.pdf

https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Normal_school

http://reformmovements1800s.weebly.com/education.html

http://www.leaderinme.org/blog/history-of-education-the-united-states-in-a-nutshell/

American Education timeline

| Science, math, & technology timeline | Historical & political timeline | Literature & media timeline |

Use - crtl f - to search this page for key words

Timeline of people & events that develop American education

Every decision in education is political.

Introduction

Content outline

• Laws, Court Rulings and Education
• Summary professional educator changes
• Twentieth century (1900's)

Summary of ideas that influenced the Twentieth Century

• Summary of instructional changes in the 60's, 70's and beyond
• Summary education as Compulsory & Teachers as Professionals (1850 - 1950)
• Early American Education (1776 - 1850)
• Colonial education and its roots prior to 1776

A concise, yet comprehensive annotated historical timeline of American education. It includes key educational events, people, and forces that shaped and continue to shape American education.

Key factors shaping education:

• Check the financial support of education in your state !
• Education as compulsory
• Education as a standardized curriculum
• Teachers as professionals
• Laws, courts and their rulings related to education

Educational Law basics:

Public schools has served as the single most significant site of the constitutional interpretation within the nation's history. Justin Driver

• To better understand public education in the United states today, one must consider the judicial systems in shaping schooling across the country by initiating , stalling , and rejecting change.
• The judiciary does not operate on laws within a vacuum. It is embedded in American culture, which influences and shapes its legal decisions. Therefore, both law and culture must be considered when reviewing judicial decisions.
• Citizens who seek legal recourse often use the constitution to support their arguements. Arguements for and against: mandatory education, freedom of speech in and out of school (speech restriction, censorship), segregation, integration, …
• The constitution doesn’t mention education , therefore, the supreme court should reject or not rule. Counter arguments include rationale such as: the constitutions also does not mention the Air Force, but it does allow it to be authorized.)
• Public schools are local government responsibilities. Therefore, federal government should not interfer. Counter arguments often refer to 14 th amendment violation.
• Local boards have greater pedagogical knowledge than the judiciary to monitor and make decisions. Counter arguments often refer to 14 th amendment violation.
• De facto (something that has become a standard practice over time (fact) by a dominant group of people. Not necessarily based on law, logic, fact, or ethics). Counter arguments attempt to present errors caused by standard practice or past reasoning.
• De jure (something that exists in practice in law written law on paper) as applied to integration and segregation since Brown v. Board . Counter arguments attempt to present errors caused by standard practice or past reasoning.

Timeline - today

2023 - campaigns to undermine public schools continue.

State of community and public school relationships

About one thousand suburban superintendents are surveyed about their communities and schools relationship.

Their concerns include:

• Contentious school board elections.
• The platform or agenda of at least one school board candidate.
• Increasing contentious school board meetings.
• Attendance at school board meetings has increased noticeably.
• A substantial increase in the number of Freedom of Information Act requests for their district to process.
• They have felt or been threatened and are aware of at least one school board member who has felt or been threatened.
• The spread of inaccurate information related to their schools and/or decision-making processes.
• Potential lack of support for their decisions from parts of the community.
• Being misunderstood and misrepresented.
• The negative affect of current school community relationships on the mental health and physical well-being of their administrators, faculty, and staff.

Source Kappan February 2023

The Heritage Foundation, implores Congress to

dismantle the higher education accreditation cartel by creating alternative - and potentially unaccountable - avenues for financial aid eligibility.

Attacks on accreditation agencies, are designed to destroy academic freedom, college and university autonomy, to serious damage American higher education which provide innovation, excellence, social mobility, and break down barriers to help millions of people achieve their dreams.

Censorship attacks on higher education escalate

Legislative attacks on college and university free speech increase as legislators in state governments introduce hundreds of bills with educational gag orders focused on higher education and dozens of other bills with higher education censorious restrictions, aimed to destroy the integrity and autonomy of educational institutions in favor of state dictates on what content and curricula are appropriate in schools.

Guns become the number one killer of kids and teens in the United States , more than drugs or cancer.

In Carson v. Makin the U.S. Supreme court rules :

if a state offers tuition assistance for students to attend private school, then requiring them to be nonsectarian violates the Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment. Thus allowing tuition payments to religious schools.

This ruling probably makes any state law or policy that bars religious schools from participating on an equal footing with nonreligious schools in state assistance (vouchers, tuition, charters …) illegal.

This court seems to rule that any state policy that bars religious schools from participating on an equal footing with nonreligious schools for state tuition, vouchers, or any other program, will be sruck down. This raises questions:

If the state denies participation, then Is the state protecting against government establishment of religion? Or Is the state engaging in anti-religious discrimination?

Justic Stephen Breyer writes: How will the court reconcile their currrent belief that states who subsidize private nonsectarian schools must also subsidize private religious schools?

If the first amendment protects religious entities from having to comply with antidiscimination laws, that conflict with their religion, then how do states, who don't want to support discrimination or religous indoctrination do so?

The answer may be to eliminate all state funding to all private school programs.

The second issue. If a person or entity is allowed to discriminate based on religious beliefs, then much discrimination is permissible? Refusing to bake a cake is one thing, but what about life saving medical procedures?

Education at the start of 2022

Parents report:

• 68% worry about politicians making decisions about curriculum
• 65% worry about child’s happiness and emotional well being
• 63% worry about Child experiencing stress or anxiety
• 60% worry about a family member getting COVID-19
• 57% worry about another school shutdown
• 56% worry about being able to finance child’s college education
• Good news multiple sources show a decline in incidents of bullying
• 1 in 14 students lose a parent before they’re 18
• This year 175,000 additional children lost a parent or grandparent to COVID-19

Teachers report:

• 55% will leave or retire early, 1% will work longer, 44% plan no change
• Teachers and the public agree there is a shortage of teachers, support staff, counseling & mental health for staff and students, should be more planning and collaboration time, and better scheduled student holidays to reduce long slogs between breaks.

In Kennedy v. Bremerton School District

the U.S. Supreme court rules that the decision not to rehire a public school's athletic coach, because of his insistence on praying, often with students, at the 50 yard line after games violated the coach's free exercise of free speech rights.

• When does state sponsered religious exercise become coercive?
• When is a school employees personal free exercise, in the presence of students, coercive?
• Does the relationship between the student and school employee or the student's age and experience make a difference?

The majority opinion, led by Neil Gorsuch said: an innocent coach was fired because he briefly and unobtrusively knelt at midfield after a football game to give thanks when students were otherwise unoccupied or left the field. There was no evidence of coercion even though some might have been offended, it was not coercion.

Dissent, led by Sonia Sotomyor said: while he began his prayers alone, overtime most players on the team came to pray, the coach would hold up student helments and speak religious references while players knelt around him, showing coercive pressure. The coach also prayed in the locker room, before being ordered to stop. The case was not about private prayer at work. Is is about: is a school district required to allow an employee to perform a public communicative display of their personl religious beliefs at a school event.

Segregation continues

Mask mandates & schools

Lower courts rule for and against mask mandates with a possible push to restore local discretion to make the decision at the local level. Ruling with statements such as ... there is little harm to defendants in leaving a universal mask mandate to local districts discretion . However, studies found schools without mask mandates had 3.5 times more Covid 19 outbreaks.

Some notable rulings :

In Zinman v. Nova Southeastern U. the United States District Court rules against a Florida student’s argument that a mask requirement violates his First Amendment free speech rights by requiring him to express subservience to authority … and … not allowing him to express a message of disapproval for mask mandates by not wearing one. The court ruled against him reasoning … defiance of a law or regulation to communicate disagreement of the law or regulation is insufficient for free speech protection. Otherwise, people could refuse to wear a seatbelt or motorcycle helmet… And he could wear a mask with I hate masks written on it, to express a message of disapproval.

In Resurrection School v. Hertel the 6th. Circuit rules against Catholic school parents and students who challenged Michigan’s law that required all persons 5 years and older to wear a mask indoors, including public and private K-12 schools. The court rejected the claim that wearing a mask violated their right to free exercise of religion by fully taking part in a Catholic education, as masks are uncomfortable and distract from their religious education. The court cited the Supreme Court 1990 decision in Emp. Div. v. Smith to uphold the law as having neutral and general applicability with incidental effect on religion.

In ARC of Iowa v. Reynolds the United States District Court rules that Iowa’s mask mandate ban likely violates federal disability law because it did not make school program services and activities readily accessible to disabled students in the most integrated setting possible, because unmasked conditions are dangerous to children with disabilities or moving them to inferior remote learning, which unnecessarily segregates them from non disabled students.

Campaigns to undermine public schools continue

Public schools depend on their communities to work well. The better the community and tax base the higher the quality of education.

It is the public outcries, about issues such as: critical race theory, ethnic studies, inclusive curriculums, bilingual education, transgender, sex education, which are promoted to stroke fears and win elections for candidates who are, anti-public school.

They want to undermine public schools by reducing their resources for tax cuts and moving resources with vouchers and other subsidies from public schools to private schools and corporate schools.

Current attacks used to spread fear about public education.

1. Critical race theory includes explanations for how race is tied to a legal and social system. Such as redlining. Critical race theory is not a curriculum.

• In 2020 Christopher Rufo deliberately initiates attacks on government and education by making absurd distorted claims about CRT. His attacks steadily drive up negative perceptions and turn CRT toxic.

2. History curriculums should include truthful age appropriate stories from diverse backgrounds and cultures.When truthful and age appropriate stories are not told, it is censorship . And when a collective group of ideas is censored, a dishonest form of propoganda is communicated for a political purpose, such as to stoke fear and create injustice, which when acted on results in not learning a full history and does not provide the background and reasoning to confront injustices.

3. Claims of losing freedom, choice, fairness, and liberty to choose what is best for every child. States continue to pass laws for vouchers, freedom of choice, open enrollement, charter schools, home schooling, and on the fly home school pods. All with mixed results for better academic achievement, increased segregation, deminished special education sevices, transfers public tax money to for profit schools, allows citizens with upper incomes to hoard educational opportunities and resources, decreases per pupil spending, reallocates tax expenditures. Reinforced by

4. Deemphasizing the necessity of government to provide education that unifies its country's citizens. And instead emphasizing education as a parental right or responsibility to chose to provide a singular focused education for a profitable career. As if we are consumers shopping for our children's futures. A process which creates mistrust and fear of personal failure to do so successfully. Instead of understanding the public necessity of education as a shared consequence required for a healthy nation.

• Parents want their children to be prepared to survive and thrive.
• A state wants citizens that are economically productive and content or complacent as the capital necessary to support and sustain the state.
• Public education was created to achieve these goals.

People will support public schools and the education they provide if they believe: …

What it provides is a legitimate and fair. And the system is equitable in how it determines and educates each person for a social role that each person deserves.

Historically this was achieved by the belief that people were gifted or limited by their birth right and could alter their fortune for better or worse depending on their ability and effort. Thus making what they do or do not achieve deserved.

Today, an equity belief that everyone is capable and deserving focuses cause of success and failure on individual effort, grit, ... and resources available.

To provide success for all, requires a caring inclusive society that is well managed and thriving. One that recognizes the power a diverse population has when they collaborate to solve problems rather than withdrawing into smaller factions who achieve far less.

We achieve this by taking charge through collaboration of our learning and teaching, by recognizing everything humans have achieved. All the good, the bad, and the ugly in ways that expand our circle of empathy …. from tribes to the whole World and cooperate to achieve Jefferson’s democracy.

Intentionally or not, support of private schools can increase discrimination based on race, color, religion, national origin, ancestry, citizen status, gender, sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, or special education status and divides, rather than unites, us as a country.

Covid 19 creates an uncertain school environment. Some challenges include:

• Lack of knowledge on how serious the viral infection is for different ages of people and the consequences of being infected.
• The risks on students and teacher for teaching and learning safely in a different kinds of school environments.
• Lack of initial understanding of the virus, how it is spread, lack of health protocols, and shortages of protective equipment.
• Not knowing if it is possible to have safe face to face instruction.
• How to provide equipment and expertise for everyone or some groups to learn virutally.
• How to help teachers stay healthy and provide support for all changes.
• How to balance public pressure to close schools with the desire to return to school and normalacy.
• Uncertainty with public health recommendations and infection rates.
• Lack of effective and timely testing and tracing.

School attendance increases world wide in the late 1900’s and early 2000’s

While attendance rises achievement remains stubbornly unchanged. Schooling which is successful can be characterized as focusing on personalized adaptive learning to develop every learner’s maximum potential. Including SPED.

Schools remove police from campuses

Concerns for better use of resources, than paying to have police officers and SROs in schools, causes actions to replace them and reallocate funding.

School Boards who cancel contracts with the police depatments and remove SROs from their public schools include: Minneapolis Board of Education, St. Paul, MN, Phoenix, AZ, Oakland, CA, with other schools initiating similar actions.

First rulings on transgender

In Bostock v. Clayton County the United States Supreme Court rules discrimination against employees, because they are gay or transgender, violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the federal employment discrimination law.

Neal Gorsuch writes:

an employer who fires an individual for being homosexual or transgender fires that person for traits or actions it would not have questioned in members of a different sex. Sex plays a necessary and undisguisable role in the decision, exactly what Title VII forbids.

In Adams v. St. Johns County School Board 11th circuit says:

Bostock has great import for [the transgender student's] Title IX claim ... [it] confirmed that workplace discrimination against transgender people is contrary to law. Neither should this discrimination be tolerted in schools. The school board's bathroom policy,as applied to [the student], singled him out for different treatment because of his transgender status.

United States Supreme Court rules vouchers with public funds can be given to private schools as tuition.

In 2018 the Montana Supreme Court rules a recently passed school voucher program has the intent to send money to private religious schools. Which, violates a clause in the Montana Constitution written to prevent public money being given to private religious schools; and struck down the entire program.

The decison is appealed to the United States Supreme Court as Espinoza v. Montana Department of Revenue . The court rules 5-4 that the Montana Supreme Court decision to prohibit voucher funds going to a school controlled in whole or in part by any church, sect, or denomination violated the free exercise clause by prohibiting families from sending children to the religious schools of their choice.

SAT adds an Adversity Score to test reports

College admission decisions are questioned by the public in the media and in court cases. SAT uses 15 factors, related to cultural, social, and economic background, to calculate an additional score (adversity) for test takers.

Schools resources are still affected by a race based history :

• Three out of four neighborhoods redlined on government maps 80 years ago continue to struggle economically.
• Non-White school districts, serving the same number of students, get $23 billion less than White districts.
• For every student enrolled, the average non-White school district gets $2,226 less than a White school district.
• Poor White school districts get about $150 less per student than the national average, but $1,500 more than poor non White school districts.
• In 61 metropolitan areas redlining still persists.

Source: NEA Today October 2019

More historical information: The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America . by Richard Rothstein.

The Strengthening Career and Technical Education for the 21st Century - (Perkins V) Act is passed and signed into law , replacing the Perkins IV Act of 2006.

The act includes:

• Funds for career exploration and development activities in the middle grades
• Funds for comprehensive guidance and academic counseling in the upper grades.
• Empower states and their stakeholders to determine performance goals.
• Updates and expands the definition of special populations to include homeless individuals, foster youth, and those who have aged out of the foster care system, and youth with a parent who is on active duty in the armed forces.
• Requires yearly reporting on graduation rates, proficiency, placements, with disaggregated performance by gender, race/ethnicity, ability, ELL, income, and more.
• Increases the amount states may spend on students in state correctional systems.
• Increases the amount states may set aside in a special reserve fund to focus on rural areas, areas with high numbers or concentrations of CTE programs, or areas with gaps or disparities in performance. Source

Bethel Ministries v. Salmon

The religious school sues the state of Maryland for with holding state funds for it's anti-LGBTQ policies. It loses, and appeals to the Supreme Court. The school claims it's policies are based on the religious belief: that there are two immutable and complementary genders ... assigned at birth. Therefore, can not be considered a violation of the state's anti discrimination policy, because they don't relate to admissions.

Maryland officials revoked the church school's eligibility to participate in a voucher program to benefit low-income students and demanded the school pay back thousands of dollars for previous participation in the program.

Waiting an appeal decision ...

FUTURE Act passes

It authorizes funds for minority-serving institutions of higher education.

Parkland shooting

On Valentines day, 14 students and 3 staff members are murdered at Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland, Florida . Students speak out and spark a national response of outrage and organize to respond to school violence with increased activism across the country.

Court rules Gardendale is not permitted to withdraw from the Jefferson County school district to create a separate school district .

• 1965, eleven years after Brown v. Board of Education . Oscar Adams, sued the Jefferson County Board of Education on behalf of Black school children to end the district’s separate and unequal educational system.
• 1971 the court approves a desegregation order in Stout v. Jefferson County School Board of Education
• Alabama law states, a town with a population more than 5,000 can vote to form its own school district.
• 2012 Glendale, a suburb of Birmingham, AL, seek to follow other White communities and secede from Jefferson County district.
• 2015 a Glendale group petitions the federal court to do so. Other families oppose the petition and sue to remain.
• 2017 The court rejects the initial plan. Claims it would move students to more racially isolated schools, schools with less funds, and communicate inferiority to Black students. However, it did accept a more limited plan.
• 2018 The decision is appealed by both parties. In Stout v. Jefferson County Board of Education the court rules Gardendale is not permitted to withdraw from the Jefferson County school district as the actions were motivated by a discriminatory purpose and hence have no legitimacy at all under our Constitution.

Janus v. AFSCME (American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees).

The U.S. Supreme Court strikes down the fair share fees that unions, in 23 states charge non union members to cover their share of cost to bargain and represent them; for which the union is still legally required to represent when bargaining.

Teacher salaries in U.S. Public Schools

See how much your state's Teachers are underpaid ... yes all states.

Teacher strikes in West Virginia, Kentucky, Oklahoma, Arizona, Colorado

Teachers depressed salaries and low per pupil funding causes teachers to strike for modest increases in wages, health & retirement benefits, and greater per pupil spending.

United States Commission on Civil Rights releases a report

On the: Public Education Funding Inequity: In an Era of Increasing Concentration of Poverty and Resegregation.

The report notes there is still widespread funding inequalities across state education systems that -

"... render the education available to millions of American public school students profoundly unequal." "...low-income students and students of color are often relegated to low-quality school facilities that lack access to teachers, instructional materials, technology support, critical facilities, and physical maintenance." Source

US students are receiving an inadequate education about the role of slavery in American history

Found and reported by The Southern poverty Law Center (SPLC). Teaching hard history: American slavery . SPLC 2018. Atlanta: Georgia.

National Educational Association (NEA) representative assembly pass the following resolution:

“NEA believes that, in order to achieve racial and social justice, educators must acknowledge the existence of White supremacy culture as a primary root cause of institutional racism, structural racism, and White privilege. ... the association will actively advocate for social and educational strategies fostering the eradication of institutional racism and White privilege...“

In Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District the U.S. Supreme Court affirms IDEA’s intent:

... that children with disabilities not only reach minimal standards but make meaningful progress in their education and achieve challenging, individualized objectives.

And sets the standard for an appropriate eduction under IDEA as

... whether the IEP’s substantive educational plan was reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances.

In Trinity Lutheran Church of Columbia, Inc. v. Comer

The Supreme Court of the U.S. rules that denying public grant money to the church's preschool and daycare center discriminated against them solely because of their religious character.

Over rules Everson …

Sotomayor and Ginsberg dissent that government funds will be used to

... fund improvements to the facilities the Church uses to practice and spread its religious views.

We Will Rise. Michelle Obama's Mission to Educate Girls Around the World.

The First Lady, Meryl Streep, Freida Pinto and CNN's Isha Sesay take a journey to Morocco and Liberia, where they meet young women overcoming incredible odds to change their lives.

Video, We Will Rise . (1 hour) may need to login through cable provider for CNN.

Additional information

• Background information
• Inside Michelle Obama and Meryl Streep's Epic Trip to Liberia and Morocco
• Michelle Obama: This issue is personal for me By Michelle Obama , Special to CNN

Source The Voice November 2016 page 11

Andrew F. v. Douglas County

The Supreme Court rules a student [child with disabilities] offered an educational program providing merely more than de minims progress from year to year can hardly be said to have been offered an education at all.

his moves the achievement level higher than what is set in the 1982 ruling in Board of Education v. Rowley .

Washington State Court Rules Against Charters In September 2015 the court rules, charter schools violate the state's constitution and overturn a 2012 law, which allows public tax money to be used to fund private schools. The ruling contends:

• The constitution requires the legislature to provide a general and uniform public school system.
• The entire revenue from the common school fund and state taxes shall be exclusively used for the common school.
• Common schools defined as schools that are common to all children of proper age and capacity, free, and subject to and under the control of the qualified voters of the school district.
• Charter schools do not qualify as common schools and can not receive public tax dollars.
• Washington's charter schools are not governed by locally elected boards, lack democratic transparency and accountability since they are managed by private organizations that appoint their own boards.

Kindergarten & school attendance requirements - 2015

• 34 states require school districts to provide ½ day kindergarten
• 11 states plus D.C. require full day kindergarten: 11
• 5 states (Alaska, Idaho, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey [only Abbott districts must] do not require districts to offer kindergarten.
• 15 states plus D.C. require children to attend kindergarten (35 do not)
• The most common birth date by which children must turn 5 to be eligible to enroll in kindergarten is September 1 (19 states). Other sates birth date cut-off ranges from as early as July 31 (Hawaii, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota) to as late as January 1 (Connecticut).

Reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA) Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)

• Prohibits the federal government from acting as a national school board. Clearly the intent is deny the U.S. Department of Education the power to compel states to adopt favored standards, policy, or any other school related ideas.
• Advances equity by upholding critical protections for America's disadvantaged and high-need students.
• Requires—for the first time—that all students in America be taught to high academic standards that will prepare them to succeed in college and careers. Through significant opportunities to receive a fair, equitable, and high-quality education, and to lose educational achievement gaps.
• Ensures that vital information is provided to educators, families, students, and communities through annual statewide assessments that measure students' progress toward those high standards.
• Helps to support and grow local innovations—including evidence-based and place-based interventions developed by local leaders and educators—consistent with our Investing in Innovation and Promise Neighborhoods
• Sustains and expands this administration's historic investments in increasing access to high-quality preschool .
• Maintains an expectation that there will be accountability and action to effect positive change in our lowest-performing schools, where groups of students are not making progress, and where graduation rates are low over extended periods of time.

The National Educational Association (NEA) representative assembly adopts the following:

... we the members of the National Education Association, acknowledge the existence in our country of institutional racism - the societal patterns and practices that have the net effect of imposing oppressive conditions and denying rights, opportunity, and equality based upon race.

The U.S. Supreme Court refuses to hear the B.H.& K.M. v. Easton Area School District case , upholding the lower courts ruling that wearing rubber bracelets with the phrase "I ♥ Boobies! (Keep A Breast)" may be protected by the First Amendment right to free speech.

On Breast Awareness Day two middle school students are asked to remove their bracelets, they refuse and are punished by being denied to attend extra-curricular activities. The court is informed by the fact: “there were no incidents presented to the Court of any disruption prior to the School’s bracelet ban.”

Summary of professional educator role changes entering twenty-first century

• From each teacher finding their own teaching style to teaching being defined by a professional community or board,
• From teaching as dispensing information to teaching as facilitating student's construction of knowledge and learning how to learn,
• From teaching as technical work to inquiry with authentic instruction,
• From controlling student behavior to being accountable for student performance,
• From teachers being managed to teachers as leaders,
• From learning taking place in the classroom to learning in the world community,
• From an undefined knowledge base to a rigorous and broadly defined common core knowledge base for students connected to a teacher's knowledge base on creating curriculum, instruction, and assessment.

Along with new additional ideas like:

• Teacher's beliefs and experiences affect what they teach.
• Knowledge of children and adolescents is crucial for teaching and student understanding.
• Teachers need opportunities to plan, reflect, and analyze to improve their teaching and student learning.

Common Core State Standards adopted by 43 states

The National Governors Association and Council of Chief State School Officers, funded in part by the gates foundation support the writing of the Common Core State Standards . They are concepts and outcomes students should know and be able to do in math and language arts from Kindergarten to hight school to prepare students for college and careers and make them more competitive academically. Source

Congress amends FERPA (created to protect student privacy) to create a school official exemption

However, a loopholw is created so that whenever a teacher or other school official gives a technological provider consent, the company acquires a treasure trove of data analytics to use without parent consent. While information must be de-identified to be legally used for predictive analytics. It is fairly easy to re-identify students.

Further, because the companies who acquire the data are private, they can not be required to provide public record requests.

Supreme Court rules schools have authority to censor student speech that promotes illegal drug use, at school events in Morse v. Frederick

At a school sponsored event, Joseph Frederick displayed a 14 foot banner with "Bong Hits 4 Jesus." during the Olympic torch run through their community. The principal Deborah Morse took away the banner and suspended Frederick for ten days. She used the school policy against the display of material that promotes the use of illegal drugs as justification. Frederick challenged the action on the basis of his right to free speech that was not disruptive. See Tinker v. Des Moines Ind. School District 1969. The US. Supreme Court rules (5-4) that students do have some right to political speech, however, schools may restrict student speech at school sponsored events if the speech promotes illegal drug use.

Supreme Court rules integration plan violates equal protection in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No 1 .

The Seattle School District has an open enrollment policy to resolve segregation and maintain racial diversity. Parents sue on the basis of race being contrary to the Equal Protection clause.

The U.S. Supreme Court stops their voluntary integration plan by claiming school officials could only consider race to assign students to schools if there is a compelling interest to remedy past intentional discrimination. Further, the court claims the district did not present a compelling state interest for the use of race in their diversity plan to achieve specific educational benefits sufficient to achieve a compelling state interest.

It seems the court failed or was unwilling to consider: segregation today is a result of private choices, which have historically been limited by long imposed discriminatory decisions based on social status and racial heritage .

Selman et al. v. Cobb County School District et al.

Court rules that requiring an evolution warning label on textbooks violates the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. See 2000

Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover

The U.S. District Court orders the Dover Area School Board not to include the implementation of their Intelligent Design Policy in any schools in the district. The court rules the policy violates the First Amendments Establishment Clause and the teaching of intelligent design in public schools is unconstitutional. See 2000

A challenge to the teaching of evolution : has been tried over and over again: changing from a direct challenge of evolution, then creation science, followed by intellectual design, critical analysis, freedom of speech, academic freedom. … and most likely more to come. Future rulings will depend on the appointment of judges.

When cases specifically target teaching related to evolution, one needs to ask why it is necessary? The only answer can be to promote a religious doctrine over another.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) is reauthorized again.

School personnel are given more authority for special education placement and better alignment with the No Child Left Behind Act .

Supreme Court rules to retain under god in the Pledge of Allegiance

Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow. Michael Newdow claims having his daughter recite under god in the pledge violates the first amendment establishment clause. The court rules recitation of the Pledge in school did not. See 1943

Hearn & U.S. v. Muskogee Public School District

District court and the Justice Department determine Nashala’s decision to wear a headscarf is protected by the Constitution's guarantee of equal protection and religious freedom. Source

Perkins act reauthorized

Reported to Senate recommends to reauthorize and amend the Perkins Act of 1998. While the report finds there is a disproportionate representation of students, particularly gender, in the programs it doesn’t include any significant goals on equity or nondiscrimination.

The Act is renamed as the Carl D. Perkins Career and Technical Education Improvement Act of 2004.

Affirmative action, quotas, and race

On June 23, 2003, the Supreme Court abrogated Hopwood in Grutter v. Bollinger the U.S. Supreme court rules the United States Constitution does not prohibit the law school's narrow use of race in admissions decisions to further a compelling interest in obtaining a diverse student body. The ruling means that universities in the Fifth Circuit's jurisdiction can again use race as a factor in admissions (as long as quotas are not used as in Gratz v. Bollinger (2003) . Source

Supreme court rules entrance based narrowly on race unconstitutional in Gratz v. Bollinger

Two White students are denied entry into the University of Michigan’s undergraduate College of Literature, Science, and the Arts, and file suit against their advisor. They claim that the admission policy violates the 14th Amendment’s Equal Protection clause. The U.S. Supreme court rules the policy is unconstitutional under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment since it gives automatic preference to minority students on the basis of race.

2003, 2001, 1999, & 1997

Standardized tests, SAT, as biased admission criteria

Pryor and Spivey (2003) appeal to the Third Circuit Court It rules there is a sufficient claim for purposeful discrimination under Title VI. However, it also rules the claim did not hold, because Alexander v. Sandoval ruling prevents Title VI from being used by private action.

Alexander v. Sandoval (2001) United States Supreme Court decision held a regulation enacted under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not include a private right of action to allow private lawsuits based on evidence of disparate impact (meaning it may be considered discriminatory if it has a disproportionate adverse impact against any group based on race, national origin, color, religion, sex, familial status, or disability). Thus, making it difficult for private citizens to sue public entities, by requiring they prove intentional discrimination.

Pryor v. NCAA (1999), Kelly Pryor and Warren Spivey were offered athletic scholarships in 1999. However, neither student was able to meet Proposition 16 guidelines. The Third District Court ruled in favor of the NCAA, but said it could be possible to bring successful purposeful discrimination suits against the NCAA. Pryor and Spivey argued the NCAA knew Black athletes would receive fewer scholarship. The NCAA stated their intentions were to increase Black athletes graduation rates and not to discriminate against any athlete. District court ruled in favor of NCAA and no intentional discrimination.

Cureton v. NCAA (1997) , Black student-athletes who met the NCAA grade point average requirement but not minimum SAT score. The district court rules Proposition 16 had a disparate impact on African-American students and violated Title VI. However, the Third Circuit Court reversed the decision. Stating, Title VI only applied to programs or activities using federal funds and since the NCAA does not directly admit students, Title VI does not apply. Furthermore, the Alexander v. Sandoval decision states Title VI only covers intentional discrimination and NCAA argued it wasn't intentional, but trying to insure greater success of athletes.

• These cases demonstrate legal actions can create social pressure for change if court decisions do not demand it.
• Institutions should be wary if they use entrance exams . They should carefully evaluate their admission requirements and be prepared to justify possible effects on graduation rates of their applicant pools. Source

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) , increases the federal role in public education. It does not provide national standards, but requires states to develop or adopt their own standards. It focuses on accountability through state-mandated standardized testing and punishment to improve schools and ultimately the education of our youth. Based on the belief data driven decision making (DDDM) should diagnose student needs, implement target support based on data that informs curriculum will improve schools and student achievement.

States are required to use their designated standards and create a system that uses standardized annual testing to collect multiple measures to determine if adequate yearly progress (AYP) is met and report this information to the public and government officials for the evaluative purpose of rewarding and punishing schools through Title 1 funding and corrective measures. States are also required to determine what makes a highly qualified teacher.

Corrective measures:

• Schools that miss AYP two consecutive years are publicly labeled as in need of improvement and must develop a two-year improvement plan. Their students were permitted to transfer to a better school in the district, if one exists.
• If AYP is not met the third year, they must provide free tutoring and additional support services for students.
• If AYP is not met a fourth consecutive year, they are required to take corrective action, which can be replacement of all staff, introduction of a new curriculum, increase class time for students.
• After a fifth consecutive year, they must develop a plan to restructure the entire school. The plan must be implemented if AYP is not achieved in the sixth year. restructure plans can be to close the school, turn it into a charter school, hire a private company to run the school, or have the state take it over.

Supreme Court rules state vouchers can be paid to religious schools.

Zelman v. Simmons- Harris Ohio enacts a tuition voucher in Cleveland City Schools for students to use in religious and secular private schools. Ohio taxpayers challenged it as a violation of the Establishment Clause . The court rules vouchers are neutral in terms of religion, because children and families, rather than schools, benefit, therefore, did not violate the Establishment Clause .

Supreme Court rules drug testing of students in extracurricular activities legal.

Board of Indian school District #92 of Pottawatomie County v. Earls the district required urinalysis to participate in extra curricular activities. Earls challenged the policy as a violation of students' Fourth Amendment rights to privacy. Court ruled in favor of the District noting the testing was done in a minimally intrusive manner and consistent with the interest of deterring drug use. This builds on Vernonia School District v. Acton 1995 allowing testing of student athletes.

U.S. Supreme Court rules that a school board's mandatory school uniform policy did not violate the First Amendment rights of its students

Canady v. Bossier Parish School Board. In the 1998-1999 school year, the school board implements a mandatory school uniform policy. Parents challenged the new dress code on First Amendment grounds. The Fifth district court ruled dress could be a form of expression protected by the first amendment. However, a uniform policy could be upheld if it supports an important or substantial government interest, an interest unrelated to the suppression of student expression, restrictions to speech were no more than necessary to further the state interest, and it was not meant to curtail any particular viewpoint or message. The court ruled the policy did not.

The Children’s Online Privacy Protection act (COPPA) goes into effect

It is not enforced enough to make a difference.

Rodney LeVake v Independent School District 656, et al.

Minnesota State District Court dismiss the case brought by the school district against a high school biology teacher who argued he had the right to teach evidence both for and against the theory of evolution . The court rules the school district considered the content of what he was teaching did not match the curriculum, which requires the teaching of evolution. Therefore, he does not have a free speech right to override the curriculum. See also 1997 & 2005

Santa Fe Independent School District v. Doe

The U.S. supreme Court held student initiated prayer at public school football games violated separation of church and state principles under the First Amendment's Establishment Clause.

Decision based on: use of the school's public address system, speaker represented the student body, supervision of school faculty, and a schol policy that encourages or coerces those present to participate in an act of religious worship through public prayer.

Political ideas in the 1920's... that influenced educators and the public who made educational decisions were: free public education for all, compulsory education, elementary school goals and objects with a focus on literacy through the subjects of reading, writing, arithmetic and disciplined study to ready students for a more rigorous secondary education. Secondary school goals and objectives were oriented toward college prep for the able, vocational studies for the less able, and preparation for everyone to become productive obedient citizens. Taught by certified teachers, using direct instruction methodologies in group settings and a subject centered curriculum. Quality education was subsidized by women who were limited by lack of professional job opportunities in other areas of employment. This increased the number and quality of professional educators while it depressed wages and reduced taxes. This began to change as employment opportunities opened to women after the mid 1900's.

Educational ideas in the 1920's that influenced education:

• Information was packaged in subjects, measured with Carnegie Units, in a seven and eight period day, over an average 180 day school year. Information was delivered through lecture and textbooks and assessed with standardized tests which were largely multiple choice. Information At the beginning of the century the Committee of Ten standardized information by subjects and somewhat delineated relevant content they important. At the other end of the century professional organizations for different subjects gathered and wrote standards for content, teaching, and administration based on their particular subjects. P21 Partnership for 21st Century Learning wrote standards that included life learning skills. Information selected and described by all these committees some consider ideological or dogmatic. A large segment of the general public believe it is sufficient that content be limited to a collection of common facts necessary to be job ready at graduation. They chide a liberal education that is open to investigation that encourages problem solving and critical thinking about big ideas through alternate paths of study that often culminates in uncertainty and skepticism with the discovery of multiple possibilities. This liberal or progressive education is often coupled with student interest met with student empowerment and choice, which many people believe will result in students making poor choices and not working hard enough to achieve a high quality elite education. Openness allows for many entry points of learning, makes room for different voices, is the best guarantee to discover and fixes errors so children and adolescents learn better and educators learn how to make education better. Learning, education and schooling are always works in progress.
• Mandatory education for all children and adolescents of a certain age increased the number of students. This created a need for an increase in the total number of schools or for each school to be larger to meet the demand of the increasing enrollment.
• Education for all . In the twentieth century the idea of a public education for all, equal access, school choice, and the idea all students can learn became stronger as the century unfolded. Toward the beginning of the century, 1918, compulsory education laws existed in all states. However, few people believed all really meant all children. Women, non-White, handicapped, ability, poor, and LBGTQ ( lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questionable people) were mostly thought to be less able or worthy of a high quality education. These changes were influenced by greater acceptance of a more broad definition of all. Events such as in 1920 women were granted the right to vote, 1954 with Brown vs. Board of Education affect on segregation amid separate and equal, 1928 restructure of Native American education, 1969 and later laws for children with learning disabilities, and 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Title 1 to address socio-economic limitations. ...
• Limited resources created a desire to find economical and efficient solutions. A simple solution was to put greater numbers of students in schools and increase class sizes. As crowding increased larger building were built and benefited by having greater resources in a common location. This lead to thinking of consolidation of school districts as more efficient and economical. Specialization of teachers in the upper grades. Instead of increasing school districts more and more states choose to consolidate school boards into bigger districts decreasing the number of independent school districts in the U.S. 1920 - 200 000+; 1952 - 67 000; 1982 - 14 851; 2012 - 12 880; Source This decrease in school boards and districts had a significant detrimental effect of reducing the number of school board members. Community leaders who had a vested personal involvement dedicated to know what was happening in their schools to make decisions that would best benefit their students in a democratic manner. For example: if there were 200 000+ school boards in 1920 with an average of 8 members per board, that would be 1.6 million board members. In 2012 if there were12 880, then that would be about 100 000. That is a significant difference that would seem to have a large effect on people's positive involvement in education. Further, if the increase in population from 1920 to today was considered, then the increase of the number of people that each board member represents is even more detrimental to school community relations.
• Governance . As schools and districts grew so did concerns of governance, quality of instruction, standardization, evaluation, and accountability of teaching and learning. Hierarchal bureaucracies were created, similar to military and factory organizations to address these concerns, too often, with the belief they could be managed with rewards (merit pay, grading, scholarships, ...) and punishment (school closure, expulsion, firing teachers...). Thinking of learning as production on an assembly line factory managed with efficient spending of resources and effective instructional methods to achieve a quality standardized education. Creation of instructional methodologies (mastery learning, directed instruction, cooperative learning, learning cycle ...), effective instructional strategies, teacher proof curriculum, scripted teaching, standardized uniform curriculum, ... Control of schools moves from teacher and boards of education to state and national government. With more rules and regulations being imposed top down in the name of accountability and standardization with high stakes standardized tests used to rate students and schools. Eliminating local control and personal choice and empowerment of students and teachers, parents and communities.
• Validation of organizational patterns and instructional methodologies being substantiated with information analyzed through scientific and statistical means. Standardized testing to sort students and validate achievement, teacher assessment, teacher training with the teacher in a scripted role of technocrat. Required entry level testing, certification testing, teacher observation, peer evaluation... All based on the assumption that if one can define it, then it can be measured.
• Good teachers - Review 100 years of what mades good teachers and how they were assessed. Good teachers, Plural , by Donald R Cruickshand & Donald Haefele in Ed Leadership , 2001.
• The Benefits of Collective Bargaining in Public Schools
• The Labor Union Movement in America at the social studies help center . if link doesn't work try - The Labor Union Movement in America
• See professional changes in early twenty-first century.

Twentieth century

Columbine High School shooting

In Columbine, Colorado two high school students murder 12 students and one teacher on April 20. It becomes, at the time, the worst school shooting in U.S. history and prompts significant changes to insure safe school environments. Safety changes like: visitor sign in, locks on classroom doors, locked doors, intruder drills, armed guards, metal detectors, fencing, barriers, ... which change the school experience for all students.

Olmstead v. L.C.

The U.S. Supreme Court rules the institutionalization of people with disabilities amounts to a discriminatory and unjust form of segregation, in violation of Title II of the Americans with Disabilities Act.

Wisconsin Supreme Court rules the City of Milwaukee can use tax money to pay tuition for pupils to parochial or other religious schools . The court says the program ''has a secular purpose'' and ''will not have the primary effect of advancing religion.''

Reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Changes include:

• Adding regular education teachers to the IEP process
• Providing students more access to the general curriculum.
• Include students in state-wide assessments
• Add ADHD to the list of conditions for eligibility of services under the category, other health impairment.

Freiler v. Tangipahoa Parish Board of Education

The U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana rejects a policy requiring teachers to read aloud a disclaimer when teaching evolution . Ruled intelligent design equivalent to creation science and the school board was endorsing a religion that is counter to other religious views with the disclaimer. In 2000 the U.S. Supreme Court declines to hear the School Board's appeal. See also 1994 & 2000

Successful challenge to university affirmative action policy in student admissions in Hopwood v. Texas

Four White students who are rejected admission to University of Texas at Austin's School of Law despite having better combined LSAT and grade scores than 36 of the 43 Latinos admitted, and 16 of the 18 Black students admitted challenge the school's admissions policy on equal protection grounds.

Seven years the Hopwood decision is abrogated by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2003 .

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265 (1978).

US. Department of Education urges schools to adopt uniforms as a strategy to reduce school violence. It claims to:

• Decrease violence and theft.
• Prevent gang members from wearing gang colors and signs at school.
• Help students learn to be more disciplined.
• Resist peer pressure.
• Identify non students that might be in school.

Brain and emotion

The Emotional Brain , written by Joseph E. LeDoux, an American neuroscientist, may be a landmark for greater acceptance of how little control people have over their emotional reactions and the power of emotions as motivators for the decisions we make. Especially brain and endocrine mechanisms related to memory, pleasure, love, anger, fear, anxiety, and addiction.

Report: What Matters Most: Teaching and America's Future, by the National Commission on Teaching and America's Future , 1996.

• Standards for teaching
• Connecting teacher standards to student standards
• Higher requirements for teacher licensure and renewal
• Rigorous testing of teacher knowledge
• Overhaul preservice teacher preparation programs and close program that don't meet national standards.
• Incentives and rewards for star teachers
• Peer assistance to help teachers needing improvement
• Dismissal of teachers not meeting standards
• Improved working and learning environments for teachers and students.

Vernonia School District v. Acton 1995 rules in favor of allowing drug testing of student athletes.

Opponents of bilingual education file lawsuits against school districts to stop bilingual education fail.

Bushwick Parents Organization v. Mills in New York claim that for ELL students to have the same educational opportunities as all other students they need to have the same opportunities as other students, not the different experiences provided ELL students. Additonal attempts also fail. Source

Early 1990's. Home schooling is legal in all fifty states with the help of the Home School Legal Defense Association HSLDA .

Lee v. Weisman U.S. supreme Court rules the government may not coerce anyone to support or participate in religion or it exercise.

Claims students have: "no real alterntive which [allow them] to avoid the fact or appearance of participation [in an] overt religious exercise in a secondary school environment."

Freeman v. Pitts

Makes it easier to get dsegregation orders rescinded.

The Milwaukee School Voucher Program is passed .

The Milwaukee Parental Choice Program provides public funds for low income students, in Milwaukee, to pay their tuition to private schools. It is the largest such program in the United States.

Wendy Kopp, founds Teach for America

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 1990.

PL 94-142 is renamed to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act ( IDEA ) .

• The document replaces the term, disability, with, handicap.
• Requires transition services for students.
• Adds autism and traumatic brain injury to the eligibility list.
• Congress is still underfunding services to special needs individuals by more than half of what is promised in 1975 PL 94-142.

The U. S. Educational Partnership Act passes

It is to encourage the creation of alliances between public elementary and secondary schools or institutions of higher education and representatives of the private sector in order to apply the resources of the private and nonprofit sectors of the community to the needs of the elementary and secondary schools.

Charter schools presented by

Albert Shanker, president of the American Federation of Teachers articulated a vision of a school where students would be diverse culturally, racially, and socioeconomically. Were teachers would collaborate and experiment with fresh innovative pedagogical approaches and curriculum. Where what they learned would be shared with traditional schools to improve them.

In his vision these schools were administratively included within current education schools districts or systems. He believed in democracy and the importance of students seeing it modeled first hand in their classes and by seeing teachers as active participants in the decision making of the charter school . He also believed unions played a critical role in democratic societies and wanted charter schools unionized.

His ideas were sparked with a visit to a school in Cologne, Germany, which was very unlike the traditional tightly tracked German schools. This school had teams of teachers who had considerable input in how the school was run and were empowered to make pedagogical decisions and curriculum choices. Teachers stayed with a class of students for six years. Students were of mixed abilities, family incomes and ethnic origins. Immigrants were educated alongside native students in mixed-ability groups. Resulting in 60% doing well enough to be admitted to a four-year college. This can be compared to 27% of students nationally.

See New York Times: The Original Charter School Vision for additional information.

National Certification

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards offers national certification for accomplished teachers.

Edwards v. Aguillard

The U.S. Supreme Court held Louisiana's Creationism Act unconstitutional since it lacks a clear secular purpose, endorses religion, and undermines science teaching when creation science is included as evolutionary science. See 1982 & 1994

New Jersey passes legislation in 1987 authorizing the state’s takeover of Jersey City schools the following year. The state goes on to take over operations of the:

• 1991 - Paterson schools
• 1995 - Newark public schools
• 2013 - Camden public schools

For a story of Newark's schools from 1995-2014 see The Prize by Dale Russakaoff. She does an excellent job of presenting an unbiased narrative of Newark's dilemma of how to improve failing schools in a dysfunctional educational and political culture. The complexities of building an education system based on corporate culture, profit, loss, incentives, bonuses, merit pay, closures, and firings. The prize - Newark's billion dollar budget. Where the only winners seem to be students who have parents who are able to negotiate a school system maze and enroll their child in a winning school. To achieve good schools where all students might be successful in Charters and Public Schools she concludes both must operate within a community where parents are involved, that medical and mental health services are available, community jobs or services overcome poverty, trauma, and neglect and students needs and interests are met. Will Newark become the charter school capital of the nation?

Connecticut’s Education Enhancement Act

After studing low performance in K-12 schools. Connecticut decides the best way to achieve its reform objectives is by raising teaching standards. Standards for teacher preparation, certification, induction, and career development which are enacted through the Education Enhancement Act. It will be highly successful in the coming years.

A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century, Carnegie Report

Claims a professionalized teaching force based on a new system of high standards is necessary for student success. A system with high academic achievement standards for students and high standards for teachers in curriculum, instruction, and assessment. Standards created and implemented by a national board of teachers who would be seen as leaders of the profession. When this is put in place, it claims students would succeed.

Court rules (7-2) student speech may be restricted if it interferes with the educational process in Bethel School District v. Fraser.

Matthew Fraser, a students at a High School assembly, gives a nomination speech for a classmate which includes what some think is graphic and sexual in nature. Matt is suspended three days. The court agreed political speech was protected, but vulgar and lewd speech was not since it was not within the fundamental values of public school education. Upholding his suspension.

In 2007 Chief Justice John Roberts says, "The mode of analysis employed in Fraser is not entirely clear." Chief Justice Burger claims fraser's speech isn't political, yet it is given at a school sponsored event for the purpose of the election of student government and advocated for one of the candidates. The claim it is sexually explicit and graphic is not accurate as he implied sexual references and innuendo similar to TV comedies and PG13 rated movies at the time. Finally, it did not include any standard for assessing a school officials' actions for restricting speech.

Accountability, Back to the Basics, and Standards , 1985.

• Total Quality Education (TQE) born from Total Quality Management (TQM) who W. E. Demings and others wrote and lectured that: frequent monitoring of a processes is necessary to achieve a quality desired outcome. Not really strong as total curriculum.
• Outcome-Based Education (OBE) a process to define goals, specific classroom behaviors, and outcomes with emphasis on outcomes. William Spady based it on 1. clarity of focus, 2. top down design, 3. high expectations, and 4. expanded opportunity.
• Performance Based Education ,
• Standards based education . While standards were being worked on the real impact was more 1990 and beyond. Standards
• High Performance Learning ,
• Transformational Education ,
• Competency-Based Education

First open enrollment law is passed in Minnesota , 1985.

In 1989 Arkansas, Iowa, Nebraska, and Ohio, pass open enrollment legislation and in 1990 Idaho, Utah, and Washington do.

Open enrollment may be voluntary or mandatory at a state or district level, and may allow intra district or inter district transfer.

• Voluntary allows individual schools or districts to decide whether they will accept students who live outside their boundaries.
• Mandatory requires all districts to provide the option and accept student requests, although a policy can be restricted by opt-out provisions, priorities , or desegregation provisions within different laws.
• Intra district policies allow student admission to a school outside their assigned district.
• Inter district policies allow student to attend schools across district boundaries as well as within districts.

Supreme Court rules the Fourth Amendment’s more lenient standard of reasonable suspicion may replace the ordinary standard of probable cause .

New Jersey v. T.L.O . A student is caught smoking, teacher searches her purse, finds cigarettes and marijuana. The student is suspended three days for smoking cigarettes in a nonsmoking area and seven days for possession of marijuana. A lower court ruled her Fourth Amendment rights were violate. However, the Supreme court overturned the ruling and says. A search will be permissible when it is reasonably related to the objectives of the search and not excessively intrusive in light of the age and sex of the student and the nature of the infraction.

In dissent Justice Stevens wrote.

“The schoolroom is the first opportunity most citizens have to experience the power of government, Through it passes every citizen and public official, from schoolteachers to policemen and prison guards. The values they learn there, they take with them in life.”

Transforming public schools into Constitutional free zones would harm the nation as a whole by distorting the relationship between citizens and their government as today’s students become tomorrow’s adults, they risk bringing with them impoverished understandings of constitutional protections.

Carl D Perkins Vocational Education Act passes

Ensure all students, especially disadvantaged have access to quality vocational education programs. See 2004 , 2019

The Reagan administration urges schools to partner with corporations to increase funding.

Opens the door to commercialization of public schools and some believe influences schools for profit. See 1929

Multiple Intelligences . 1983

Howard Gardner published, Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences . Where he introduced and described eight intelligences.

Description of the first eight and one more he added later

In 1985 Sternberg suggested three fundamental kinds of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical. These ideas can be used to describe authentic learning. They may also be applied to describe how each of the eight intelligences can be applied analytically, creatively, and practically.

A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform, published by the National Commission on Excellence in Education. 1983.

Claimed American schools were failing and suggested ideas for improvement:

• Greater accountability in terms of student achievement
• Standardization
• Standardized testing
• More empirical knowledge
• Greater time for science, mathematics and technology
• Longer school days, longer school year, and more homework
• Higher graduation requirements

Two quotes most often reported:

...the educational foundations of our society are presently being eroded by a rising tide of mediocrity that threatens our very future as a Nation and a people.. If an unfriendly foreign power had attempted to impose on America the mediocre educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as an act of war.

U. S. Supreme Court rules denying children an education because of their parent's status is not in any state's interest.

Plyler v. Doe State law allowes local school districts to refuse to pay for undocumented students and children of undocumented parents. Thus the Plyler School district charged tuition for said students and a case was filed on behalf of these students.

The Supreme Court rules the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, gives all persons equal protection of the laws and to deny them the ability to live within the structure of our civic institutions, would not allow them to contribute in even the smallest way to the progress of our Nation. Additionally the Court said, holding children accountable for their parents’ actions does not comport with fundamental conceptions of justice.”

U. S. Supreme Court rules there must be a legitimate pedagogical concern to remove books ( censor )

In Board of Education of Island Trees School District v. Pico the board of education over rules the recommendations of the school and community and removes the books: Slaughter House Five , Go Ask Alice , and Black Boy from the middle and high school libraries. The Supreme Court rules the board did not have the right to remove books, because they disagree with their content.

However, the ruling doesn't make a clear distinction of the conditions for book removal or retention.

The ruling also includes these additional remarks.

• Schools may remove library books because they are pervasively vulgar or aren’t age-appropriate or educationally suitable.
• School libraries are places where students must always remain free to inquire, to study and to evaluate, to gain new maturity and understanding. Justice Brennan
• In dissent Justice Rehnquist says ... elementary and secondary school libraries are not designed for free wheeling inquiry; they are tailored, as the public school curriculum is tailored … a place for the selective conveyance of ideas.
• Multiple judges objected to the idea that a right to receive ideas exists at all. Asking. What would be the limits?
• Justice O’Connor states. … it is not the function of the courts to make the decisions that have been properly relegated to the elected members of school boards.
• A year later in the Perry Educators’ Association case expands with … a school board may not act with an intent to discourage one viewpoint and advance another.

Future cases in lower courts rule:

• 1995 Case v. United School District rules removal of Annie on My Mind, about a romantic relationship between two teenage girls, denies students access to ideas with which they disagree is in violation of the First Amendment and Pico
• 2003 Counts v. Cedarville School District rules restricting the book Harry Potter would violate the First Amendment: …
• 2009 ACLU v. Miami-Dade County School Board Rules rremoval of Vamos a Cuba! is appropriate because it contains untruthful statements and a life in Cuba that does not exist.

Board of Education v. Rowley

The Supreme Court rules an appropriate education program is one from which a student [children with disabilities] might reasonably benefit .

This sets a vague and low-level standard, which often results in minimal outcomes that do not provide ambitious, challenging, and enriching services.

McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education

A federal court held a balanced treatment law violates the Establishment Clause of the U.S. Constitution. Concludes the Arkansas statute that requires public schools balance the teaching of creation science and evolution science only purpose is to promote religion since creation science is not factually a science. Therefore, they ruled the law unconstitutional. See 1968 & 1987

Due process for Nebraska teachers

Nebraska Legislature passes LB259 the Nebraska Continuing Contract Law . It establishes the legal basis of fair dismissal procedures and due process rights for Nebraska's teachers.

Castañeda v. Pickard

Castañeda charges the Raymondville Independent School District, Texas, is failing the needs of ELL students as mandated by the EEOA.

The court agrees Raymondville did not meet the requirements of the EEOA.

This results in the Castañeda standard to evaluate if the needs of ELLs, as required by the EEOA, are being met.

The Castañeda standard mandates programs for language-minority students must be:

• based on a sound educational theory,
• implemented effectively with sufficient resources and personnel, and
• evaluated to determine whether they are effective in helping students overcome language barriers.

The Castañeda standard builds on the Lau Remedies , and the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 (EEOA) to meet the needs of ELL students.

Problems with the Castañeda test include.

• How to determine if an educational theory is sufficient on which to base a program.
• What determines sufficient resources and personnel? and
• The amount of time it takes to evaluate a program to insure it is benefiting students.

1980, 1970, 1960

Computers and Curriculum

Computers added to the classroom and computer labs.

Seymore Papert in Mindstorms (1980) describes three ways for students to use computers, as a tutor, tutee, and tool. Wrote about the use of Microworlds for students to explore concepts, a term coined at the MIT Media Lab Learning and Common Sense Group .

1970 University of Illinois developed computer programs and the Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) system. Most notably for computerized instruction (CI) in general math and algebra.

1960 Patrick Suppes at Stanford University designs computer systems with branching, feedback, and tracking of student progress.

Otis-Lennon School Ability Test (OLSAT) first edition is published.

It is a group administered ability test of verbal and nonverbal abilities test created by Roger Lennon and Arthur Otis. It is easier and less expensive to administer than the Stanford Binet or Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children , however it's less reliable at higher levels. Source

Questions on what is a basic education for all students is discussed with respect to Vocational Education and in light of the Back to Basics movement emphasis on the three “Rs”—reading, 'riting and 'rithmetic.

• Paul Woodring asks in his article, Vocation Education: What kind, How much, and when? Kappan. 1979
• The Back to Basics Curriculum as a Social Control Mechanism . by Tom Rusk Vickery and Cynthia G Smith. 1979
• What Is the "Back to Basics" Movement?. by Elden M. Amundson February 22, 1976 Source ED122446.

Indochina Migration and Refugee Assistance Act .

This act allows approximately 130,000 refugees from South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia to enter the United States with a special status, and finances their transportation, processing, reception, and resettlement costs. Most were Vietnamese evacuated from Vietnam after the war. They were granted a parole status and processed through the parole system over seen by the Attorney General of the United States. The resettlement process was aided by dozens of immigration agencies throughout the United States.

Indian Education Act .

Education for All Handicapped Children Act ( EHA or PL 94-142 )

Mandates free appropriate public education for all students. Is revisited in 1979 and later in 1990 and renamed to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) .

It quickly becomes weakened by :

• Appropriate being defined to meet regulatory compliance with the use of standardized tests with a deficit model and not to meet the unique personalized needs of each individual learner with a brilliance model.
• Regulations and adding alternate placements for a continuum of special classes and schools, which maintains the idea of a need to remove disabled learners from the mainstream for their own benefit.
• Congress's pledge to fund 40% of additional costs to provide these services. As of 2019 it underfunds it by more than half.

U.S. Supreme Court rules students have a right to procedural due process within public school discipline actions.

May be the most significant case for the education of students in a liberal democracy.

Goss v. Lopez Nine students were suspended for 10 days and challenge the actions. The Supreme Court rules Ohio created a right to education and that right is protected by the Due Process Clause in the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution.

The Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act passes Congress

It requires states to have a mandatory reporting of physical child abuse to authorities before they can receive federal grants for child protection.

At first only doctors are incluided as mandatory reporters, but over the years it is expanded with different kinds of abuse and other people as mandatory reporters. Among them are teachers, who are the only mandatory reporters in all fifty states.

Milliken v. Bradley

Ends mandatory urban and suburban busing for desegregation and supports White flight

In Milliken (Michigan governor) v. Bradley the U. S. Supreme court orders the desegregation plan for Detroit and 85 surrounding school districts rescinded due to lack of evidence of de jure (by law) segregation across multiple school districts exists with discriminatory intent. Therefore, surrounding districts can not be mandated to desegregate. Claiming:

remedies for segregation and racial isolation that cross district borders are not required, unless it could be shown, that "racially discriminatory acts of the state or local school districts ... have been a substantial cause of the inter-district segregation.

The ruling limits the 1972 Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education decision.

Supreme Court rules against the Chinese community , declaring Brown applies to races.

In Guey Heung Lee v. Johnson and Johnson v. San Francisco Unified School District. Lee asks that students not be moved from neighborhood schools with bilingual English-Chinese programs for newcomer Chinese ELL students as required by the integration plan.

Districts required to implement bilingual education programs for LEP (limited English proficiencies) students .

In Lau v. Nichols the United States Supreme Court unanimously rules a lack of supplemental language instruction in public school for students with limited English proficiency violates the 1964 Civil Rights Act .

Justice William Douglass, writes in the court's opinion:

Under these state-imposed standards there is no equality of treatment merely by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers, and curriculum; for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education…. We know that those who do not understand English are certain to find their classroom experiences wholly incomprehensible and in no way meaningful.

This case first leads to the Lau Remedies and later the Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974 (EEOA) , which includes.

No state shall deny educational opportunities to an individual on account of his or her race, color, sex, or national origin by … (f) the failure of an educational agency to take appropriate action to overcome language barriers that impede equal participation by its students in its instructional programs.

Dorothy Raffel (14) tries to play competitive high school sports (basketball) in Pennsylvania.

The Women’s Equity Action League files a class action suit (Adams) against the federal U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare for failure to enforce Title IX in the 1972 Education Amendment. The complaint is never fully resolved.

U.S. Supreme Court rules a state can not fund textbook programs for schools who engage in racial discrimination . "Racial discrimination in state-operated schools is barred by the Constitution." Norwood v. Harrison (p. 464-465)

Judge jails three teachers for leading an insurrection of K-12 educators

Washington’s Evergreen Education Association (WEA) go on strike demanding a collective bargaining contract, improved pay, reduced class sizes, (currently some with 41 students), planning time, and better relationship between the superintendent and teachers.

• On May 17 a judge order the teaches back to work, the union refuses, and the judge orders union leaders Dick Johnson, and Fred Ensman jailed.
• On May 21 the judge orders them back to work, and the union leader John Zavodsky refuses to stop the strike and return to work and he is put in jail.
• The WEA elects a long time kindergarten teacher, Betty Cowell as interim president.
• She tells the board. In all my life, I’ve never had so much as a traffic ticket, but I’m telling you, right here and now, I’m prepared to go to jail tomorrow — and it’s your fault.
• May 22 Betty along with 300 other teachers, each carrying a plastic bag with underwear and a tooth brush arrive at court. They tell the judge they are here to surrender. The judge, tells the school board members to bargain in good faith or they’d be jailed. A federal mediator joins the negotiations.
• May 29 an agreement is reached and the teachers return to work. The three jailed teachers refuse to admit they were wrong and apologize so they Judge demands they continue serving their 90 day sentences.
• In June a new superintendent pleads for their release. It is granted after 45 days and 43.

Title IX Education Amendment, Section 1681- Sex .

Congress prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex . Like Brown v. Board of Education a law needs a way of enforcement.

No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.

Title IX basics .pdf

Supreme Court rules School finance is to be decided by the states, as there is no constitutional right for education

San Antonio Ind. school District v. Rodriguez Rodriquez challenged the equality of funding to his property poor school district compared to property rich districts. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled there is no constitutional right to public education and this disparity was not focused on any suspect classification of students that warrant legal protection.

While people generally view local school board control of education as positive, it neglects how to achieve equity among extreme financial disparity of rich and poor school districts across the country. Disparity that results from a reliance on local property taxes to fund education and not being able to receive additional sufficient funds from state or national governments.

Inequities in rural, urban, and areas in between, that restrict coarse offerings, quality of materials, quality and availability of teachers, administrators, support staff, and quality of services offered. Lack of funiding also affects before and after school activities, extra curricular activities, clubs, diverse of student populations, and stress associated from insufficient resources, low salaries, and difficulty to attract qualified employees.

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education The Supreme Court rules the federal courts have the discretion to use busing as a desegregation tool for racial balance. However, in Milliken v. Bradley restrictions are imposed.

The court bases the insufficiency of the current school systems on six aspects of school operation: student racial composition, faculty, staff, transportation, extracurricular activities, and facilities.

Later in 1971 in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education they expanded these factors to include the impact of school construction and closures, attendance zones, and school transfer policies on segregation and inequality between schools attended by students of different races.

While courts may determine meaningful accountability frameworks, much remains to be done to achieve equity for many students.

In Wisconsin v. Yoder the U. S. Supreme Court rules in favor of home schooling by the Amish.

Summary of instructional changes in the 1960's, 1970's & shortly beyond

Instruction and planning became systematized, standardized, and proceduralized

Mastery learning and mastery teaching 1967 +

Benjamin Bloom, Learning for Mastery (1968). Advocated, mastery learning, instruction that used assessment initially and periodically to identify what students know so feedback with corrective procedures could be determined that match students needs to enhance their learning so they might attain master of content at an accuracy level of 90% or higher. If students didn't achieve mastery, after initial instruction, they would cycle through more instruction. While those who were successful were given enrichment activities to elaborate and deepen their understanding.

Mastery Teaching

Madeline Hunter's approach to master was described in a seven step instructional, which she referred as elements of a lesson design . Briefly the first four steps; were to focus on, define, provide input, and model the intended learnings; followed by three assessment steps: to check for understanding, and assess during guided and independent practice. The planning guide was part of what she called an Instructional Theory into Practice Teaching Model (ITIP).

• Madeline Hunter Teach More–Faster! . (1967)
• Madeline Hunter Teaching Is Decision Making . (1979) Educational Leadership 37 (1):62–65.
• Madeline Hunter. Mastery Teaching . 1982

Source for more information about Madeline Hunter

Constructivist 1967 +

John Dewey and others advocated Constructivist teaching early in the early 1900's, however, it wasn't until 1967 that a systematized constructivist instructional theory was introduced: The Learning Cycle by Robert Karplus and Herbert Thier as a conceptual organizer to guide the teacher's interactions with a classroom of students. Three stages: exploration, invention, and discover were included that are characterized by:

• Student-centered. Accepts students have preconceived ideas they must explore and discover their value based on reasoning and data.
• Observation of concrete materials to use as evidence combined with primary sources must be used for students to explore, invent, and discover new ideas.
• People learn by equilibration.
• People learn with their exploration, categorization, communication, construction, negotiation, translation, extension, reflection, and self-assessment to construct explanations and understanding.
• Teachers understand learning is interactive and they must encourage students with questions, wait-time and encourages them to be open-minded as they negotiate construction of explanation and understanding.
• Embedded in the a learning cycle theory is initial recognition of the importance of self, beliefs, motivation, metacognition, cognitive theory, and knowledge expression (how what is deemed important to learn is defined and expressed, as subjects, literacy, integration, curriculum ...).

Cooperative learning 1974 +

Early contributions 1900-1950

• Social theory began to recognize cooperative learning was more effective and efficient in quantity, quality, and overall productivity than working alone.
• M. May and L. Doob found that people who cooperate to achieve common goals, were more successful, than independent people who completed the same goals. The independent achievers also demonstrated more competitive behavior.
• John Dewey's contributions to today's cooperative learning theory are: importance of school and democracy, students as active recipients of knowledge, students being engaged in the learning process, students communication with peers, and less teacher lecture.
• Kurt Lewin’s contributions to cooperative learning are: ideas of the importance of relationships between group members to achieve learning goals.
• Morton Deutsh’s contribution to cooperative learning was positive social interdependence, and student responsible to contribute to group learning.

These ideas were combined by David and Roger Johnson into a systematized planning and instructional procedure and cooperative learning theory from the mid 1970's into the 1980's and 1990's.

In 1975, they identified that cooperative learning promoted positive relationships between students, positive feelings about the subject matter, better communication, higher achievement, and greater use of higher-order social, personal and cognitive skills. Johnson and Johnson published the 5 elements positive interdependence, face-to-face interaction, individual and group accountability, interpersonal or small group skills, and group processing. Cooperative learning theory, benefits, elements, steps, strategies, and planning information .

Reciprocal teaching 1982 +

Brown & Paliscar developed reciprocal teaching , a type of cooperative learning developed for reading. It has been expanded for other subject areas with a more general procedure that can be used with pairs or small groups .

About 70% adolescents completed hight school and earned a diploma. See 1900

Supreme Court rules on the use of intelligence tests to discriminate.

Griggs v. Duke Power Company Black employees sued their employer, Duke Power Company, contending that it violated the Civil Rights Act of 1964 by requiring a high school diploma and a satisfactory intelligence test score for certain jobs previously limited to White employees. The Supreme Court ruled these employment requirements did not relate to the ability of an applicant to perform the job. Therefore, they discriminated against Black employees. Source

Kent State Riot . Kent, Ohio May 4, 1970. 2,000 students gathered to protest President Nixon's announcement to invade Cambodia when members of the National Guard fired 67 rounds into the crowd. In the following days small fires were set, window destroyed, and an ROTC building was set on fire. Four protesters were killed, and nine were injured.

After the Brown v. Board of Ed. ruling in 1954, additional cases were brought that questioned the decision’s application. Judges narrowed the application to the ruling by claiming it only applied to segregation created by laws or state action ( de jure segregation). Another limitation is the population of students.

In Cisneros v. Corpus Christi ISD the school segregated Mexican American student by claiming, since there was no law or state action for segregation of Mexican American students, any segregation of these students was de facto segregation, and Brown shouldn’t apply. The court rules, both de jure and de facto segregation existed in the Corpus Christi school board decisions about attendance zones, where to build, and student transfers perpetuate segregation.

Congress passes the Children with Specific Learning Disabilities Act . 1969

The first time federal law mandated support services for students with learning disabilities. It was The Elementary and Secondary Education Act Amendments of 1969: Title VI, Included in the Education of the Handicapped Act.

Source: history of disability legislation

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) . 1969

Created to assess the state of education in the U. S. It has been tauted as a model assessment program. It uses a matrix sampling design, does not require any student take the entire test in any subject, combines open-ended questioning with multiple-choice, is a criterion-referenced test, and is designed for longitudinal comparisons. With standards of comparison set high, student performance can cause questionable concerns that can be exploited with both positive and negative consequences.

Sesame Street debut . November 10, 1969

Joan Ganz Cooney, former documentary producer for public television, creates a pioneering TV show to teach young children. The show will evolve beyond teaching the alphabet and how to count, to include many issues relevant to young children. Its theme song Can you tell me how to get ... How to get to Sesame Street is one of the most recognized songs in the world. Sesame Street's setting is, today in a New York neighborhood. Characters are ethnically diverse. Plots are short fast moving vignettes that teach literacy and have themes with positive social messages. It debuts the Muppets created by Jim Henson. The World of Puppetry: A look through theatre history .

Fred Rogers appeared before the United States Senate Subcommittee on Communications in 1969. To gain support for funding for PBS and the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, in response to significant proposed cuts by President Nixon. See his 6:50 presentation recorded on Video .

The Supreme court rules for Tinker, but also claims school districts can restrict disruptive speech .

In December 1965 school officials hear some students plan to wear black armbands to school in support of a Vietnam truce. Students are warned that if they do, they would be sent home. Beth Tinker, John Tinker, & Christopher Eckhardt do and are sent home. Their parents file suit claiming a violation of their free speech.

Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District rules (7-2) in the favor of Tinker. Justice Abe Fortas writes in the majority opinion:

• Students have freedom of speech or expression:

It can hardly be argued ... students ... shed their constitutional rights to freedom of speech or expression at the schoolhouse gate.

• The state can not prevent students from expressing ideas simply because their message may run contrary to the state's preferred message.
• Emphasizes it is the school's responsibility to educate citizens capable of civic discourse and to do so requires free and open debate of all ideas.

The court considers three issues to consider when regulating student speech.

• If the school expects the speech to substantially disrupt or interfere with school activities. (Tinker did not.)
• If the speech materially and substantially interferes with the discipline in the operation of the school and collides with the rights of others. (Tinker did not.)
• School officials can not prohibit expression based on classmate's disruptive reaction to the speech. It must be the speaker themselves that disrupt school activities. (Tinker did not.) This is known as the heckler's veto .

If the [state] can silence the speaker, the law in effect acknowledges a veto power in the hecklers who can , by being hostile enough, get the law to silence any speaker of whom they do not approve. Harry Kalven 1965

Justice Abe Fortas summarizes the contentiousness of free speech.

Any variation from the majority's opinion may inspire fear. Any word spoken, in class, in the lunchroom, or on the campus, that deviated from the view of another person may start an argument or cause a disturbance. But our Constitution says we must take this risk, and our history says that it is this sort of hazardous freedom-that this kind of openness-that is the basis of our national strength and of the independence and vigor of Americans who grow up and live in this relatively permissive, often disputatious, society. Justice Abe Fortas

Mexican American students boycott

On December 9, 500 students walk out of Crystal City High School and begin a student boycott to demand the curriculum, teachers, and administration treat Mexican Americans fairly and respectfully. Among their demands is to respect the importance of bilingual education. Over the days the number of participants reaches over 2,000. After a month of negotiations the school boycott ends on January 6, 1970, The boycott encourages Mexican American parents to run for school board and people in other cities to become active in the civil rights movement. Source

Black studies and Black curriculum demands met

San Francisco State University student groups, Black Student Union (BSU) and Third World Students, go on strike and sit in for four months with 600 arrests. The strike ends when parents and community members come to the defense of the students and a compromise is reached.

Demands met include: a Black Studies Department, Black studies professors (however, demand of Nathan Hare to be its Chair is not met), BA in Black Studies is added, Black students previously admitted without traditional requirements were retained, increase of Black student enrollment, changes to better meet financial needs of Black students, amnesty for some students arrested (some would be put on an unofficial black ball list), and development of a School of Ethnic Studies.

The Black studies movement grew from the Black liberation movement, Black power, Black rights, and Civil Rights movements of the sixties.

Source African Studies … History … in The Journal of Pan African Studies, vol.5, no.7, October 2012

Mr. Roger's Neighborhood first appeared as a national program on WQED Pittsburgh PA. 2/19/1968.

Over the years, guests have included: Tony Bennett, Yo Yo Ma, Nicolas Ma (Only two times that he performed with his father), John Lithgow, Wynton Marsalis, Whoopi Goldberg, Joe Negri, Judd Apatow, Esparanza Spalding, Bob Rowsharne, Sarah Silverman, Koko, Jeff Erlanger, Ed Zach Perlman, Carol Spinney, Margaret Hamston, Chris Kratt, Joyce DiDonato (wicked witch in Wizard of Oz talks about real & pretend and puts on her witch costume) Big Bird (was only in Make believe since Big Bird wouldn't remove costume) Niki Hoeller, Empire Brass Quintet, Chuck Aber, Ella Jenkins.

Cast members: Michael Keaton, David Newell, Joe Negri, Betty Aberlin, Johnny Costa (house band)

Sample content:

• 1969 Mr Rogers and a Black police officer ( Froncois Clemmons ) share a pool and Fred dries his feet.
• Real v. pretend example with Joyce DiDonato - wicked witch in Wizard of Oz talks about real & pretend as she puts on her witch costume.
• Big Bird - is only in Make believe since Big Bird wouldn't remove its costume to show the difference between real and make believe.
• Live birth of kittens.
• Many documentaries of how different things are made.
• Describe how to be a good kid.
• Inspired us to be better.
• Song - It's You I Like

Sample themes:

• Friendship and love don't cost anything and are they are so important
• Feel good about doing and do something
• Showing what is possible.
• Modeled love of learning.
• Be willing to be vulnerable and learn.
• There is much to learn in the world,
• Willing to try without a fear of failure.
• Mistakes are part of learning.
• Somethings are hard to learn.
• It's okay to sometimes want to do things and other times not want to do things.
• Play together grow together
• It will be OK if you can talk about it

Other significant events: Fred Roger's Timeline

• April 5, 1955 The Children's Corner premieres hosted by Josie Carey and co-produced by Josie and Fred Rogers. Included the Neighborhood and Make Believe favorites: Daniel Striped Tiger, X the Owl, King Friday XIII and Lady Elaine voiced and operated by Fred Rogers.
• 1969 - Fred Rogers appears in Congress to support PBS .
• 1983 - Eddie Murphy debuts his Mister Robinson’s Neighborhood on SNL. Season 9, Episode 2.
• 2001 - The last new episode of Mister Rogers' Neighborhood airs. (8/31/2001)
• 2012 - Daniel Tiger’s Neighborhood premieres, produced by The Fred Rogers Company.
• 2018 - Won't You Be My Neighbor movie

Epperson v. Arkansas

The United States Supreme Court held an Arkansas law, that prohibited the teaching of evolution , unconstitutional. It ruled the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution does not allow a state to require teaching tailored to the principles or prohibitions of any particular religious sect or doctrine. See 1982

Green v. County School Board

Enables the federal government to enforce desegregation orders.

Professionalization of Nebraska public school teachers .

• Teaching K-12 is recognized as a profession (LB 457) and the Professional Practices Commission is created.
• K-12 teachers are given a three year probationary period after which they are protected against unwarranted and unjustified dismissal with a hearing process.
• Teachers are given the right to negotiate salaries and benefits (LB 485)
• Falls City Education Association is the first to complete a negotiation agreement and salary schedule under the provisions of LB 485.

Source The Voice February 2017, NSEA at 150.

American Educational Research Associate (AERA) splits from the National Education association (NEA)

A split that separates educational research from professional educators.

Public Broadcasting Corporation is created

Carnegie Commission on Educational TV report helps pass the Public Broadcasting Act , which establishes the Public Broadcasting Corporation . See 1969 for funding debate & Sesame Street Debut

Hobson v. Hansen

The federal court abolishes the District of Columbia’s tracking system.

Designed … as a means of protecting the school system against the ill effects of integrating with white children the Negro victims of de jure separate but unequal education.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (includes Title 1).

• Provides federal funding ($4 billion) based on the number of poor students (as part of President Johnson's war on poverty) in a school district through the Title I part of the act. Funding varies from one-fourth to one-half of what is promised for the next fifty years and counting.
• Funding requires integration as a way to enforce the Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka ruling.
• Support services include math and reading for children in low-income schools.
• Funding requires norm-referenced objective testing measures to identify students and evaluate their achievement .
• Evaluation measures will have a large impact on student assessment as most districts and a majority of elementary schools in the U.S. use these funds.
• In years to come Title I would be renamed Chapter 1.

Public reflects on academic and vocational education

Harris expresses his belief on the failure of a curricular emphasis on science, math, and language for everyone and a need for vocational education. However, while each track should prepare every student for different ways of work, all subjects should not be different for students in the different tracks, as all students need and deserve a liberal education:

"Suddenly parents, legislators, and citizens in general have discovered that a Sputnik -spawned curriculum has some drawbacks when applied to schools which serve all youth through their seventeenth year. Suddenly, there are no jobs for the new high school graduate with his modern math, and new physics, and three years of French. Suddenly, there is serious questioning of the validity of a high school curriculum which places two-thirds of its emphasis on the needs of one-third of the students. Suddenly, parents are asking, “Why doesn’t the high school give my boy an education which will prepare him for a job? And so we have come full circle. Vocational education, after dwelling in limbo for ten years, is fashionable again. (Redoubled Efforts and Dimly Seen Goals. Kappan April 1965. p. 360)

Lloyd Williams expresses his belief that both academic and vocational education are important:

"The liberal and vocational disciplines need one another. Life requires them both; an adequate personality demands them both. The vocational aspect of education and of life needs enrichment; it needs to be brought under the scrutiny of critical intelligence; it needs the illumination that comes with comparison; it need the clear delineation provided by historical perspective; it needs the invigoration that comes from lose involvement wit the liberal disciplines. But by the same logic, the liberal disciplines need focus; they need to be pointed in some useful direction; they need association with the practical to overcome their abstract remoteness; they need to be tempered by the world of human problems; they need the enrichment with functional studies. (The Struggle for Balance. Kappan April 1965. p. 359)

Voting Rights Act passes and signed by President Lyndon Johnson.

Largest student led protest is at the University of California Berkeley on December 2, 1964. 1,500 students protest the expulsion of students involved in a Free Speech Movement by camping out in a campus building before being removed by police. Over 750 students are arrested. The university choses not to expel them and lose tuition, which is a large amount of the school's budget.

Civil Rights Act passed and signed by President Lyndon Johnson. Includes lose of federal funds if schools didn't integrate and if they did, they could receive money through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act .

Learning disability .

The term learning disability is used for the first time by Samuel A. Kirk at a conference in Chicago.

James H. Meredith, is the first African American to graduate from The University of Mississippi on Aug. 19, 1963. The University ignored a court order to enroll him until President Kennedy sent U.S. troops, National Guardsmen, U.S. Marshals, and the Governor sent state highway patrolmen to the Ole Miss campus on September 29, 1962. Tear gas and gunfire left scores wounded and two men dead. Source

In Abington School District v. Schempp on June 17 the U.S. Supreme Court rules 8-1: Bible reading at school violated the principle of strict neutrality and

" ... no state law or school board may require that passages from the Bible be read or that the Lord's Prayer be recited in the public schools of a State at the beginning of each school day -- even if individual students may be excused from attending or participating in such exercises upon written request of their parents." Source

In Engel v. Vitale the U. S. Supreme Court bans organized prayer in schools

The Establishment Clause [in the first ammendmen of constitution] may be violated ... when the power prestige and financial support of government is placed behind a particular religious belief, the indirect coercive pressure upon religious minorities to conform to the previling officially approved religion is plain.

1960 see summary of 60's and 70's .

Child Centered Curriculum . 1960 +

Personal relevant curriculum

• Reconstruct society for a liberated existence: Paulo Freire rejects the present Banking Model of Education and calls for more relevant curriculum in Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970). and continues to speak for change until his last book, Pedagogy of freedom: ethics, democracy, and civic courage (1998).
• Whole language
• Open education and open schools
• Elective movement to provide personal relevance through choice in classrooms with learning centers, multiple activities, mini-lessons, multiple electives,and different tracks to graduation.

See also Progressive Education

• Jean Piaget - While most of Piaget's work on his theory of child development and cognition is in the 1940's, the arrival of his ideas to America are most influential after 1960 along with Inhelder. Ideas related to Piaget and Inhelder for child and adolescent development . No other theory has undergone such scrutiny and verification than his ideas for the development of mathematico-logical reasoning. Particularlly with respect to conservation and formal operational thinking. Questions with respect to the generalization of his ideas from research on his children to the world's population have been repeatedly investigated with virtually all cultures on Earth and have withstood all attempts to find counter examples. Further, his theory and subsequent studies have refuted Bruner's claim that anyone can learn anything at any age if it is presented to them in an appropriate instructional sequence.
• Sylvia Ashton-Warner
• Lucy Sprague Mitchell
• Jonathan Kozol
• Bank Street Schools and Progressive education
• Lillian Weber Bio. and papers

The Woods Hole Conference was held, as a response to the Soviet Union's launch of the Sputnik series of satellites, to identify the problems of science education and to recommend solutions.

American educators who, feared the Soviet Union has passed the United States in science, math, and foreign language achievement. Educators meet to discuss and consider what might be done. Their conclusions is to bring together distinguished people from different fields to plan and suggest general ways to improve education. Their suggestions center on conceptual learning of discipline-based subject matter and the need to identify instructional methodology that can improve student achievement.

National Defense Education Act - Millions of dollars are provided to expand math, science, foreign language, and guidance programs.

Iowa tests introduce computerized scoring and reports to schools.

Clifton Hillegass creates Cliff Notes

He creates them as a study guide to use while reading and studying the text for which each is written. He respected intellectual exploration, earned a graduate degree from the University of Nebraska, and endowed a professorship there. Was disappointed when students would misuse them.

Sputnik launch by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957 and American education is questioned.

Many educators call for teachers and curriculum to include more rigorous subject matter knowledge and information. At first, instructional methods are not mentioned. However, in a few years the quality of instructional methods along with curriculum is considered as necessary for student success. See Woods Hole Conference 1959.

Taxonomies of learning

• Benjamin Bloom, Handbook I: Cognitive (1956).
• Krathwohl, Bloom & Masia Handbook II: Affective (1965)

First female professor named at Harvard .

Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin after her death. Astronomer who discovers stars have millions more times hydrogen than previously believed. See What Stars Are Made of: The Life of Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin

Complaints about schools, teachers, and education becomes common

Publications like: Why Johnny Can’t Read , book and magazine article, fuel criticism about education in general, even though most think their schools are okay. It also starts the phonics v. look-say debate, which later becomes phonics v. whole language debates.

Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka.

The Legal Defense Fund filed a class action lawsuit on behalf of Black parents in Topeka, Kansas whose children are required to attend segregated schools for Black students. Their attorney, Thurgood Marshall , challenges the doctrine of, separate but equal, created in 1896 by the Supreme Court ruling in Plessy vs. Ferguson .

The equal protection ruling in Brown is later applied to laws and rulings for the right of equal access to public and political areas for all.

The Supreme Court rules 9-0 on May 17, 1954 that:

• Where a State has undertaken to provide an opportunity for an education in its public schools, such an opportunity is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms .
• Segregation of children in public schools solely on the basis of race deprives children of the minority group of equal educational opportunities , even though the physical facilities and other "tangible" factors may be equal.
• The " separate but equal " doctrine adopted in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 , has no place in the field of public education .
• Orders the integration of schools with all deliberate speed.

Chief justice Earl Warren

“Today, education is perhaps the most important function of state and local governments. Compulsory school attendance laws and the great expenditures for education both demonstrate our recognition of the importance of education to our democratic society.”

A down side of Brown is, Black schools close and the number of Black educators decrease. This severely limits the number Black teachers and role models available in schools. Which in turn limits the kind of necessary education they provided that taught the skills to resist and repair damage caused by racial discrimination of minorities so they could flourish in an oppressive world. Additionally this dehumanizes and erases minority cultures and achievements and distorts the nation’s history. Source Coming to terms with the power of teaching . By Deborah Loewenberg Ball. Kappan April 2022.

Little Rock Nine!

Inspired Blackbird by Paul McCarthy

Bolling v. Sharpe

The U. S. Supreme Court rules the District of Columbia’s racially segregated public school system violates the due process clause of the fifth amendment.

The invention of television causes reformers to believe educational television could improve education by with broadcasts by the best teachers. WQED in Pittsburgh develops arithmetic, reading, and French programs and begins to broadcast them in 1952.

Life Adjustment Curriculum.

Life Adjustment Education for Every Youth is published by U.S. Office of Education and a national conference on life adjustment is held in Washington D.C. Hundreds of thousands of teachers and administrators attend workshops, conferences, and state sponsored committees between 1951 and 1953. Source

The curriculum is meant to provide a better match for most students so they are prepared for adulthood and work. The belief that the current curriculum to be about 60%, who did not benefit from college prep or vocational ed. It was characterized by:

• Life skills: hygiene, family living, drivers’ ed, and social relations with peers
• Basic skills
• Curriculum that is more meaningful and relevant., that allows students to develop at different rates, that is related to student's ability, and had more general and specialized outcomes.
• Career and vocational education
• Emphasized the dignity of work
• Emphasized moral living

For example history became social science, integrated with geography, civics, political science, economics, anthropology, archeology, sociology, and psychology, in units of study of a state, city, or community to make it more dynamic and responsive by including areas of living to meet the needs of the child and adolescent for a social world. Prepare them for group living, family life, to create a home, live healthy, engage in civic and community life, enjoy and protect life. Social studies teachers coordinated their efforts with guidance counselors, who administered personality and ability tests to students to help them make decisions about careers and vocations.

History came to be seen as shallow, chronological, outdated, irrelevant, unnecessary, and impractical. Resulting in students not learning disciplined reasoning about the past to understand how it lead to the present and enables the future. Lost and replaced with an anti-intellectual view that history is bunk resulting in a complacent middle class unaware of their manipulation and ignorant in how to facilitate change.

Thomas D. Fallace believes the responsibility for the mind numbing aspects of the history curriculum after World War II is not John Dewey or the Committee on Social Studies in 1916, but the national and local curriculum writers who added Life Adjustment Education into curriculum. Source

Summary of change s 1850 - 1950

When Mississippi, in 1918, is the last state to make education compulsory for all. This not only makes school attendance mandatory, but in time it leads to an ever increasing role for state government in education; for setting and enforcing rules to regulate schools and their teachers, administrators, curriculum, and assessment. Tthe regulation of teachers leads to certification and the identification of requirements for teachers so that they move to being considered professionals.

Professionalization of teachers

These state regulations, along with the increasing numbers of educators who graduate with four year degrees from: land grant colleges, normal schools, and Universities such as Chicago and Columbia; along with the increase in literature relating to education by authors such as John Dewey ; and teacher organizations: National Teachers Organization (NEA) and American Federation of Teachers (AFT) along with a desire for higher wages; began to lead to the professionalization of teachers.

This professionalization

Unions form where there are labor and trade disputes as groups of people join together for the betterment of their cause. These groups are historically small and most likely local. See early twentieth century .

The industrial revolution and larger populations of the 1880's give rise to labor organizations like: The Knights of Labor in the late 1880s, but due to its leadership and poor organization it is unable to survive strong opposition from employers and government officials.

In 1886 the American Federation of Labor is founded, led by Samuel Gompers, and is much more successful. It starts as a loose coalition of local unions that begin to coordinate and support strikes. Franklin Delano Roosevelt is elected and in 1933 passes the National Industrial Recovery Act, which declares:

...employees shall have the right to organize and bargain collectively through representation of their own choosing, and shall be free from the interference, restraint, or coercion of employers. the right to organize into unions.

Fair Labor Standards Act passes in 1938. It establishes national minimum wages and hourly standards, including overtime pay or compensatory time for over 40 hours of work a week. The law does not provide protection for many employee’s. Teachers and doctors, lawyers, and other salaried employees are excluded. While this will work out well for doctors and lawyers, it will supress teacher’s salaries, which in turn drives down recruitment and retention.

Additionally the Fair Labor Standards Act excludes teachers from participating in social security. Without these benefits, teachers, will not have any retirement benefits. To address this, teachers in some cities and states organize to gain retirement benefits at the district or state levels. These benefits are one of two types. First, defined benefits , or pensions that provide benefits or a pension with a guaranteed steady income after retirement dependent on years of service. And undefined benefits, like a 401(k) or 403(b) which depends on investment strategies (stocks, bonds, or interest rates) for what’s invested, which is a highly variable and unreliable source for retirement.

One reason for teacher’s exclusion from social security is the public’s different views of whether teachers should be viewed as lifelong professionals, usually thought of as a male high school teacher, or temporary positions for young women before marriage, thought of as elementary teachers. Thus teaching, as a temporary job, rather than a professional job, can greatly reduce funding of education. And because teacher’s salaries are the biggest cost when providing education, which effects tax rates, tuition rates, and profits of private schools, a 30% reduction in salaries yields a large decrease in tax dollars required or a large increase in profits.

The National Industrial Recovery Act is declared unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1935.

It is replaced with the Wagner Act in 1935. The Wagner Act, legally protects the right of employees to organize in unions.

The Taft-Hartley Act amends the Wagner Act in 1947 to prohibit unfair labor practices of unions. In 1959 the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act , adds further restrictions for organized labor.

About 33% American White women over 25 completed high school and only 5% graduated college

Milton Friedman applies his idea of free market to education .

Friedman proposes changing public education to a free market system with school choice through charter schools , magnet schools , and cross-district choice to achieve greater privatization and marketing of schools.

He and his wife, Rose Friedman, start the Foundation for Educational Choice , later Edchoice .

Ralph Tyler claims curriculum design should include four steps: selecting objectives, determining learning experiences, organizing activities, and planning for evaluation. Curriculum documents followed this procedure and resulted in documents with:

• Observable behaviors and attitudes,
• Lists of suggested learning activities, and
• Suggestions to evaluate student achievement of the desired attitudes and behaviors.
• Organized content in units based on current interdisciplinary problems instead of as academic disciplines in chronological order.

Everson v. Board of Education

the Supreme Court rules taxes cannot be used to support

any religious activities or institutions, whatever they be called, or whatever form they may adopt to teach or practice religion.

California judge rules against segregation Five Mexican American families in Los Angels, CA seek to stop the segregation of their children. In Mendez v. Westminster , Mendez claims Mexicans are not included in the list of groups permitted to be segregated by California law. Westminster claims they were segregated to meet their instructional needs as English language learners. The judge found the segregation mostly based on the last name of the child as Latin or Mexican origin and not educational needs. The judge notes, student needs would be better met if they are placed among English speakers and the integration of students is imperative to perpetuate the American ideas and institutions. Whereas, segregation is misguided and thwarts an opportunity to develop a common cultural attitude.

This Bill combines previous bills, starting with the Morrill Act in 1863 which opens higher education to larger numbers of people. Making the United States a leader in the numbers of people going into higher education.

James Bryant Conant

Becomes President of Harvard University with a reform agenda. While president, Harvard abolished; class rankings, Latin requirements, and athletic scholarships. Harvard begins the use of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), co-educational classes , and admits women to Harvard Medical School and Harvard Law School for the first time.

He commissions a study into what kind of general education is needed for a free society. In 1945 their report: General Education in a Free Society , concludes the complete man must be a good man , take a balance of science and humanities course work with the goal to achieve a holistic liberal education that fosters creativity, flexibility, and open mindedness.

Supreme Court overturns 1940 compulsory flag Pledge decision.

West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette the school board requires all teachers and pupils to honor the Flag. If they refuse to salute, they were expelled and charged with delinquency. Justice Frankfurter notes, schools in every state had expelled 2,000 students for refusing to cite the Pledge as a result of previous rulings. See 1940 .

In this case the US. Supreme Court rules (6-3) a school could not force students to stand and say the Pledge of Allegiance and could not penalize them for not doing so and declare the Constitution protects all citizens against the State and all of its creatures.

Justice Jackson argued,

"If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein." “That [public schools] are educating the young for citizenship is reason for scrupulous protection of Constitutional freedoms of the individual, if we are not to strangle the free mind at its source and reach youth to discount important principles of our government as mere platitudes.”

This ruling is the first meaningful step establishing student constitutional rights within public schools.

Willard Youngdal, expresses his and others wide held belief on the importance of a liberal education on the kind of education required after the war for people in power who make good decisions .

"only those persons who are liberally educated can be trusted with the planning of the peace. A technically trained specialist does not have the depth of background or breadth of understanding necessary for an intelligent grasp of postwar problems." (Why Liberal Arts Now? Kappan. 1943. p. 136)

Eight-Year Study . 1942.

Conducted by Euros, Raths, Taba, Alberty, Traxler, French, Corey, Ryan, Mackenzie, Harap, and Tyler the study validates the progressive education movement ideas.

The researchers also found that secondary schools in the Eight-Year Study were stimulated to develop new programs which were better for young people, for their success in college, for success in life, and for the future of society. Source

The study includes the following ideas to improve instruction.

• Subjects to cut across subject-matter lines.
• Frequently use cooperative planning and teaching.
• Explore a wide range of relationships.
• Provide experiences valid for large groups.
• Include subject matter which does not require extended drill in specific skills (such as the operations).
• Use larger blocks of time than a single period.
• Used a wide range of source material techniques for gathering information and class room activities. Source

Unfortunately the release of the five volume report is over shadowed by events leading to WW II and the war itself.

See 1919 Progressive Education Association for other characteristics.

GED (General Education Development) . 1942

In November 1942, the United States Armed Forces Institute asks the American Council on Education (ACE) to develop a battery of tests to measure high school-level academic skills so military personnel and veterans might demonstrate their knowledge to get civilian jobs and enroll in post-secondary colleges and universities.

The University of Iowa is contracted to create the test and the test created is used until 1978. Since then several revisions have taken place with the latest in 2014 being an electronic version, the Pearson Vue .

United States Supreme Court rules forcing students to recite the Pledge of Allegiance does not violate the student’s first amendment rights.

Minersville School District v. Gobitis . Minersville School expels a student who is a Jehovah’s Witnesses for refusing to recite the Pledge of Allegiance. The court rules reciting the Pledge does not violate the student’s first amendment rights. The court claims it would be improper for the judiciary to overturn educator’s decisions or to debate educational policy, as the court lacks competence to do so. Judges should mind their own business and let educators do their business of molding minds. See 1943

Future Teachers of America is founded by Joy Elmer Morgan who is born in Callaway, Nebraska and graduates from the University of Nebraska, Lincoln. He becomes the first executive secretary of the National Teachers Association (NEA) in 1917, is director when the NEA has its first Representative Assembly in 1920, and moves its headquarters to Washington D.C. Where it is located today.

Source: The Voice March 2017

Indiana ex rel. Anderson v. Brand

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that tenured teachers could not lose their rights to a continuing contract through a repeal of the state's tenure statute.

First automated test scanner IBM 805 is developed and used into the early 2000's

Iowa basic skills standardized tests are made available outside Iowa

B. F. Skinner ( 1904 -1990) Behaviorism & Cultural transmission theory and philosophy.

Skinner builds on Thorndike's ideas that teaching could be reduced to highly controllable methods and explores systematic planning strategies for teaching and learning, teaching as a science, effective instruction, and teaching as a technocrat.

Behaviorism , behavioral psychology , and behavior modification as a philosophy or psychology explains people's actions as a result of their interactions with their environment (stimulus) and the type of reinforcement received as a result of their actions or behaviors (response). Direct instruction, Mastery learning , and educational technology have strong behavioral roots.

It assumes all people have potential and can change their behavior. A teacher could use a behavioral theory with a focus on each person's learning behavior. Identify specific objectives that describe targeted behaviors, use action verbs to describe tasks learners can do to demonstrate attainment of objectives, sequence learning tasks, decide on types of reinforcements, systematic implementation with timing of feedback and correction, praise, reward, and punishment to shape small incremental improvements toward the target behavior.

In its early years it rules out consideration of mental activity as not being observable and hence unscientific. Over the years it evolves to being described as a branch of psychology that focuses on the study and alteration of people's behaviors, including their actions, emotions and thoughts.

A focus on behavior is not necessarily behaviorist.

Other related contributors to Behaviorism: A. H. Thorndike , John Watson, John Locke in his An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. 1689, Ivan Pavlov,

Harvard adopts the SAT to select scholarship recipients. Decades of research will demonstrate its negative bias against minorities.

California judge rules against segregation of Mexican American students

Alvarez v. Lemon Grove . After completion of a new school building school officials claim, to best meet educational needs of all Mexican American students, it is necessary to segregate them in one school. The California judge rules state law did not authorize or permit separate schools for instruction of students with Mexican parents or descent.

Depression affects student welfare and school finance

The Great Depression causes many families, who can't provide for their needs, to become dependent on state and federal government for assistance. Education relies on property taxes, which decrease as businesses fail and land values fall. In 1934 Chicago borrows $22 million so it could pay teacher salaries that were owed for three years of work.

Independent School District (Del Rio, Texas) v. Salvatierra rules Mexican American children could be segregated for instructional purposes based on pedagogical expertise of school administrators, even if it results in racial segregation.

University of Iowa begins the first statewide testing program for high school students under the guidance of E.F. Lindquist.

The National Educationol. Association (NEA) publishes a report warning teachers about accepting free corporate classroom materials .

Report - The Problem of Indian Administration - calls for restructure of Native-American education.

Lum v. Rice rules Mississippi did not make a mistake by assigning a Chinese girl to the Black school rather than the White school.

Leslie Updegraph, writes on the importance and wide spread belief that public education has a moral responsibility to develop moral character with moral education.

It is now commonly recognized by our present day educators, as well as by a great number of laymen, that the chief aim of education is to develop noble manhood and womanhood. Turning their backs upon the former idea of sharpening the intellect and equipping the individual for personal success, the leaders in American education have replaced this thought with the ideal of molding personalities in such a way that they will use the instrument of the mind for the great good of humanity and live in harmony with the good of the whole. (Kappan. 1927. p. 137)

The Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) first administered.

The SAT is given to 8 000 students, 40% female. It lasts 90 minutes and has 315 questions to assess vocabulary and basic mathematics. It is used to determine if students were qualified for college. It is used to limit admission of academically weak applicants as well as undesirable ethnicities. See also first multiple choice test, 1915 .

U.S. Supreme court upholds parent's right to opt out of Public School Education

In Pierce (Governor of Oregon) v. Society of the Sisters of the Holy Names of Jesus and Mary.

The citizens of Oregon are concerned about a negative influence of immigrants and their foreign values on American culture. To reduce this influence and attempt to insure a common American culture for all children they pass laws that require ALL students attend public schools.

The Society of Sisters challenge includes: parent's choice on how to educate their children and economic issues based on contracts and due process. Ruling includes:

• Justice McReynolds writes, authority on educational matters should not be mistaken for unbridled discretion; and the child is not a mere creature of the state.
• The U.S. Supreme court rules on choice and forcing students to accept instruction only from public schools infringes on the child's parents or guardian's liberty, protected by the Fourteenth Amendment, to decide how their children are educated.
• It ruled the state usurped it's right to educate children by making unreasonable demands and over reaching on viable state interests.
• supervise and examine private schools to determine that certain studies plainly essential to good citizenship must be taught.
• Justice Anthony Kennedy suggests, it could have been decided based on the First Amendment. However, the First Amendment was not deemed applicable against the states until a few days later.
• On the economic issue that schools' contracts with parents constitute property protection by the Fourteenth Amendment: The court rules schools were corporations, but they were not technically entitled to such protections. However, it concluded the passage of the Act was not proper power and was unlawful interference of the freedom of schools and families attempting to prevent rather than to rectify a problem. Relating the case to due process.

Source Pierce v. Society of Sisters

The Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, The Snyder Act

The U.S. Congress passes the The Indian Citizenship Act , which provides citizenship for all Indians.

Meyer v. Nebraska rules students and teachers have rights and they are protected by due process .

In Meyer v. Nebraska the U.S. Supreme Court rules that the Nebraska Simon Act, which sates:

No person, individually or as a teacher, shall, in any private, denominational, parochial or public school, teach any subject to any person in any language other than the English language.

violates student's civil liberties established in the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment , which makes it the first time the court claims students have civil rights in school.

Highlights from the opinion:

• Liberty protected by Due Process: denotes not merely freedom from bodily restraint but also the right of the individual to contract, to engage in any of the common occupations of life, to acquire useful knowledge, to marry, establish a home and bring up children, to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, and generally to enjoy those privileges long recognized in common law as essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men.
• Practically, education of the young is only possible in schools conducted by specially qualified persons who devote themselves thereto. The calling always has been regarded as useful and honorable, essential, indeed, to the public welfare. Mere knowledge of the German language cannot reasonably be regarded as harmful. Heretofore it has been commonly looked upon as helpful and desirable.
• [The] Plaintiff ... taught this language in school as part of his occupation. His right thus to teach and the right of parents to engage him so to instruct their children, we think, are within the liberty of the amendment.
• ... the Legislature has attempted materially to interfere with the calling of modern language teachers, with the opportunities of pupils to acquire knowledge, and with the power of parents to control the education of their own.
• ... the state may do much, go very far, indeed, in order to improve the quality of its citizens, physically, mentally and morally, is clear; but the individual has certain fundamental rights which must be respected. The protection of the Constitution extends to all, to those who speak other languages as well as to those born with English on the tongue. Perhaps it would be highly advantageous if all had ready understanding of our ordinary speech, but this cannot be coerced by methods which conflict with the Constitution​—​a desirable end cannot be promoted by prohibited means.
• Wartime circumstances might justify a different understanding, but that Nebraska had not demonstrated sufficient need "in time of peace and domestic tranquility" to justify "the consequent infringement of rights long freely enjoyed.

Source Meyer v. Nebraska

Equal Rights Amendment drafted and presented to Congress

Alice Paul, and other suffragists, argue the nineteenth amendment will not end discrimination based upon sex. Paul drafts the Equal Rights Amendment and presents it as the Lucretia Mott Amendment at the 75th anniversary of the Seneca Falls Convention with the Declaration of Sentiments .

• Later in 1923, it is introduced in Congress.
• It has always been controversial regarding the meaning of equality for women. Spokesmen for the working class were strongly opposed, arguing employed women need special protections regarding working conditions and hours.
• In 1972, it passes both houses of Congress and was submitted to the state legislatures for ratification.
• It seemed headed for quick approval until Phyllis Schlafly mobilizes women in opposition, arguing it would disadvantage housewives.
• Congress sets a ratification deadline of March 22, 1979.
• By 1977, the amendment has 35 of the necessary 38 states needed for ratification.
• Five states rescind their ratifications before the 1979 deadline.
• In 1978, a joint resolution of Congress extends the ratification deadline to June 30, 1982, but no further states ratify the amendment and it dies.

John Dewey comments on, the regrets of an increased reliance on standardized testing:

"Our mechanical industrial civilization is concerned with averages, with percents. The mental habit which reflects this social scene subordinates education and social arrangements based on average gross inferiorities and superiorities."

1921 First Ed. D. degree in education

The first Doctor of Education (Ed. D.) degree is granted by Harvard University.

A Higher education degree is seen as a step towards Education becoming a profession. Henry Holmes, the first dean to train school leaders, wants an emphasis on instruction and administration. Lawrence Lowell, Harvard president wants the college to be a research institution and therefore, pressures Holmes to include research, statistic courses, and completion of a dissertation.

The first Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.) degree in education is granted by Columbia University Teachers College in 1893 and they add an Ed. D. degree in 1934.

The lack of a distinction between the two devalues both, even though studies suggest there is little distinction across universities between the two.

Successful Farming publishes an ad for Case tractors that includes a short essay titled Keep the boy in school . It argues that if a farmer invest in a Case tractor, their production can be increased without keeping a son home from school for help, as is necessary when planting by horse, and better insure the future of the boy.

Nineteenth Amendment Grants women the unabridged right to vote.

Progressive Education Association is created

The association advocates instructional ideas such as the following:

• Focus on the learner's natural interests.
• Must consider the learner's developmental levels and needs.
• Learning is facilitated by the learner's active construction of their own knowledge.
• Learning is social and central to learning.
• The scientific method is the primary tool for learning.
• Learning is motivated by direct experience.
• Learners are to be empowered with choice.
• Learning is to be cooperative with school, home, and community.
• Schools are laboratories for learning.
• Individual development is the primary goal of education.

Members included John Dewey , William Kirkpatrick, George Counts, and Boyd H. Bode.

Progressive educational theory and philosophy is associated with Plato who saw mental development as the interaction of the child with the environment, John Dewey , and later Jean Piaget also see the child is an explorer, scientist, inquiring in the world to construct and organize his or her own development.

Education as Compulsory

Mississippi the last state to pass compulsory education laws.

Compulsory education leads to a stronger recognition in the U.S. of teachers as professionals

Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education (CRSE) NEA

Members are mostly from secondary schools.

Summarizes: The role of education in a democracy.

• Should be guided by a clear understanding of the meaning of democracy,
• Stated a democracy should organize society so each citizen may develop their personality through activities designed for the well being of their fellow members and society as a whole.
• Education in a democracy in and out of school should develop in each person the knowledge, interests, ideals, habits, and powers to find their place and use that place to shape them self and society toward noble ends.

Seven Cardinal Principles:

• command of fundamental processes,
• worthy home membership,
• citizenship,
• worthy use of leisure, and
• ethical character.

Critics lament the deminishment of the value of scholarship, intellectual thinking, individualism, academic relevance, reduction of the depth and breadth of learning attributed to these recommendations, and its contribution to the vast numbers of stupid and uninformed as a result of this commission's recommendations. Source

Smith-Hughes National Vocational Education Act of 1917

The Act provides money to train people for useful employment, including farm, trade and industrial work. It is the basis for both the promotion of vocational education and the creation of a separate curriculum path. It is an expansion of the Smith-Lever Act of 1914 and the Morrill Land Grant Act of 1859 - 1862. See later G.I. Bill 1944 . & later Perkins .

Charles Allen Prosser's, Report of the National Commission on Aid to Vocational Education , is instrumental in the passing of the act. Woodlawn High School in Woodlawn, Virginia is the first public secondary school in the United States to offer agricultural education classes under this act.

These acts assume teaching is a profession capable of achieving the desired specified results.

New York Mayor Mitchel wants all New York schools to implement the Gary Indiana plan . Parents are upset with the idea of their children learning industrial skills as they want a path to be lawyers and doctors. Unrest and the election of Hylan as Mayor stops the change. New York goes on to write texts for its own curriculum.

U.S. Army IQ test

Arthur Otis, student of Lewis Terman, along with others develop a group multiple choice intelligence tests for the U.S. Army. Two version: 1. Army Alpha (for literates) and 2. Army Beta (for illiterates). Otis creates it to be cheaper and take less time to administer, than Alfred Binet's individually administered intelligence test.

1.7 million WW I recruits take the Army Alpha and the results are published in 1921. Results cause many to believe schools are failing to educate students as needed for the military.

American Federation of Teachers is found to seek better wages and benefits for teachers.

First Multiple Choice Test

Fredrick Kelly creates the Kansas Silent Reading Test . A timed reading test that can be given to groups of students at the same time, require little or no writing, is easily scored, and claims to be objective.

The Smith–Lever Act of 1914

Establishes the cooperative extension services to educate citizens on recent information and methods in agriculture, home economics, public policy, government, 4-H, economic development, coastal issues, and many other related subjects. The delivery of these services is given to land-grant universities to implement. See also the Smith-Hughs Vocational Education Act 1917 .

Judge rules Mexican American children may attend schools of their choice

Francisco Maestas et al. v. George H. Shone et al . Maestas argue their Mexican-American students are being segregated by race. The school board argues students are separated on the basis of language and since Mexican-Americans are White (based on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ) the district isn’t segregating them on the basis of race. Judge Holbrook notes English speaking Mexican Americans are segregated and rules the board can not prevent English speaking Mexican American children from attending schools of their choice, particularly schools near their homes.

Ford English School is created by Henry Ford to teach basic reading and speaking comprehension skills. Mostly foreign born factory workers attend.

3% American women graduated college

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is founded

W. E. B. Du Bois is a co-founder of NAACP. Source

William Edward Burghardt (W. E. B.) Du Bois graduates from Harvard and is the first African American to earn a doctorate. He rises to national prominence as a leader of the Niagara Movement . A group of African-Americans who insist on full equal civil rights and political representation for Blacks. He and his supporters oppose the Atlanta compromise, an agreement crafted by Booker T. Washington which provides Southern Blacks work if they submit to White political rule, and Southern Whites guarantee that Blacks would receive basic educational and economic opportunities, see 1881 .

Du Bois is troubled by why the White working class in the United States refuses to align with formerly enslaved Black Americans to challenge their common oppression. He dies in 1963, one day before Mr. Luther King Jr speaks at the March on Washington.

Carnegie unit is defined to set a standard to consider if students are prepared for college.

Henry Prichett is president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching . The foundation emphasizes the role of school as teaching content and recommends a definition of a unit as a course of five periods weekly through out an academic year with a period being about 55 minutes long, Carnegie unit . The trustees recommend that colleges require the completion of 14 units before admission.

U.S. Steel company opens a new plant in Gary Indiana and builds a city for its employees that include a new progressive school around the philosophy of learn by doing promoted by superintendent William Wirt's work-study-play program. Becomes known across the country as the Gary Plan or industrial plan and influences 1917 legislation.

Daytona Normal and Industrial Institute is founded by Mary McLeod Bethune

Mary McLeod Bethune , an American educator, starts a private school for African-American students in Daytona Beach, Florida, which is now Bethune-Cookman University.

• Elected president of the American Teachers Association, 1924.
• Appointed director of African American Affairs by President Franklin Roosevelt, 1936.
• Founds the National Council of Negro Women , 1935.

About 6% of adolescents complete high school and earn a diploma.

Native Americans and education

Born on the Omaha Reservation in northeast Nebraska he attends the Presbyterian Mission School for Indian children. The school is first located in Bellevue, Nebraska in 1845, then moves to the reservation in northeast Nebraska in 1857. The book is a series of stories that together document the abuse Indian children suffer in a reeducation curriculum and the antics of five boys as they unite to survive and grab fleeting moments of control when opportunities are presented.

Learning how to survive being away from family during the school week or longer. Being told their culture is for heathens and savages and best forgotten. Being required to only speak English and forbidden to speak their Omaha language, even young children, that knew no English, were punished when they spoke Omaha. Having their hair cut, native clothes taken away, sleeping in a dormitory three to a bed... Learning arithmetic, geography, history, and language to a fifth level reader.

Stories of being orally quizzed to show off for visitors. Participating in a spelling bee when a visitor requested it so he might present the winner the new spelling book used to give the words for the bee. Story of making sleds that were later stolen by Ponca boys, who they chased down so they might recover their sleds after a good fight. Mental math and problems related to their sled making, and much more. A moving story for those who seek to envision the difficulty in walking among two cultures and becoming educated with some of the best from both to not only survive, but prosper on their own terms.

Later he attends George Washington University Law School in Washington, DC and earns undergraduate and master's degrees. He is the first Native American anthropologist. Works with the Smithsonian Institution, documents his Omaha and Osage culture. Works as a translator and researcher with anthropologist Alice C. Fletcher. Makes valuable original recordings of Native American songs and chants. Collaborates with composer Charles Wakefield Cadman to write the opera, Da O Ma starting in 1908 until it was performed in 1912. It is an opera, based on his stories of Omaha life. Source

His sister, Susette (Bright Eyes) La Flesche also attends the Mission school and is an interpreter for chief Standing Bear when he is on trial. Standing Bear v. George Crook See 1879 . And when he is an expert witness on Indian issues and during his lecture tour of the eastern United States, 1879-1880. She is accompanied by her brother Francis who shares translation duties. Source She is also a journalist for the Omaha, NE World-Herald and The Independent newspaper in Lincoln, NE.

His half sister, Suzanne LaFlesche Picotte (1865–1915) begins her education at the Presbyterian Mission School. Then she attends the Elizabeth Institute for Young Ladies in Elizabeth, NJ and later the Hampton Institute in Virginia. After that Alice Fletcher, whom Susan cares for during an illness, and Dr. Martha M. Waldron, a physician at the Institute, helps her become the first person to receive federal aid for professional education by getting funds from the U.S. Office of Indian Affairs to attend the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania. She graduates in 1889 at the top of her class and becomes the first female Native American physician (Omaha). She practices medicine in Bancroft, NE and its surrounding communities. She also advocates for public health, Native American issues, and the legal allocation of land for members of the Omaha tribe. Source

The Genoa Indian School , in Nebraska, enrolls 599 students from 40 Tribal Nations between 1884 and 1934. Source

• It includes 30 buildings on 640 acres.
• Education is based on a military model with classes on blacksmithing, carpentry, harness making, and tailoring for men.
• With women trained in culinary arts, sewing, nursing, and housekeeping.

By 1900, across the United States, 21,000 Native children attend similar residential schools, away from their families. Read, This Tender Land by William Kent Krueger, who wrote about four orphans who attend Lincoln Indian Training School in Minnesota.

College Entrance Examination Board is established

In Cummig v. Richmond County Board of Education the U.S. Supreme Court rules the school board did not violate the Constitution when it closed the only Black high school and kept the White high school open. The decision, based on Plessy v. Ferguson, claims it is reasonable that separate but equal could apply as the Black elementary school is kept open and since there is a small number of Black high school students, they could attend a Black school else where.

The first public school class for students with disabilities is established by Elizabeth Ferrell in New York City public schools is documented.

Edward Thorndike (1874 -1949)

1898 - The idea that teaching could be reduced to highly controllable methods.

See Skinner 1934 .

Plessy v. Ferguson

The Supreme Court rules, that separate rail cars for Black and White passengers did not violate the 14th Amendments and the equal protection clause is legal, as long as the difference is reasonable.

The separate but equal decision makes racial segregation legal and delays ruling equality as a universal standard.

The court attempts to establish a distinction between civil and social equality to justify White supremacy. And upholds the constitutionality of the Jim Crow laws. It holds until 1954 with Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka .

See more about Homer Plessy, Judge Ferguson and this case.

John Dewey (1859-1952) as a Professor at the University of Chicago starts the first lab school to test progressive education techniques (1896).

• 1896 School and Society
• 1897 My Pedagogic Creed
• 1899, 1900 The School and Society lectures
• 1902 The Child and the Curriculum
• 1916 Democracy and Education: an introduction to the philosophy of education
• 1938 Experience and Education

Termed mis-educative experiences as that which has the effect of arresting or distorting the growth of further experience. Which is a barrier to freedom. 1938 Experience and Education pp 64-65

The Atlanta Compromise

Booker T. Washington gives his Atlanta compromise speech in Atlanta. It enables him to rise to national prominence with support of the rich White upper class. The speech introduces his belief that Blacks should be patient, accept a working class existence, and avoid confrontation over Jim Crow segregation. He says Blacks should make progress through self-help, education, and entrepreneurship. He mobilizes a national coalition of middle-class Blacks, church leaders, White philanthropists and politicians around his ideology that Blacks should be educated as a working class, which he institutes at Tuskegee University , and does not seek equality with Whites.

W. E. B. Du Bois , at first supported the Atlanta compromise but after the founding of the NAACP in 1909 he challenges Booker T. Washington with a more demanding style of leadership for the Black community. It is years after B. T. Washington's death that the Civil Rights movement and the NAACP take a different stance.

National Education Association's Committee of Ten Chair Charles W. Eliot

Affirm the purpose of high school is to emphasize mental discipline through language, humanities, and science.

• The report includes answers to a set of eleven questions
• Outlines curricular knowledge for 1. Latin; 2. English; 3. Greek; 4. other modern languages; 5. mathematics; and 6. physics, astronomy, and chemistry; 7. Natural history (biology, botany, zoology, and physiology), 8. history, civil government, and political economy; 9. Geography (physical geography, geology, astronomy)
• Recommends 12 years of education, 8 - elementary and 4 - high school.
• Addresses tracking, or course differentiation based on postsecondary pursuit and unanimously states every subject should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupil no matter what.
• Claims it [standardization] would promote equality in instruction.
• Claims this [standardization] would also simplify school instruction and training of new teachers
• Identifies a need for more highly qualified educators.
• Proposes universities enhance training by offering subject-education courses, and lowering tuition.
• Provide pay for classroom teachers, superintendents, principals or other leading teachers to show other teachers how to [teach] better.
• Democratize education and access to it.

Minority report focuses on considerations for deviation of the recommendations by local schools.

Source Report

Ellen G. White - Christian education and Seventh Day Adventist Church

She first writes educational essays in 1872 and then writes detailed descriptions for a Christian educational system in 1893, 1894 and 1903. Her writings include:

• Education is God's glorious purpose of the human race.
• Christian Education is essential for a healthy society.
• The most important factor in education is the parents.
• Parents early interactions with their child is critical.
• Teachers should teach with self control, patience, forbearance, gentleness and love.
• School should be a sanctuary.
• Education is necessary for the whole body, mind, and spirit.
• To care for themself and the living environment.
• Respectful for self, others, & cultures.
• Education needs to be place based.
• Education should be practical.
• Job skills.
• Healthy living.
• Good vegetarian diet.
• Community living.
• Community service.
• That science teachs how God works.

Source Blueprint for Learning .

The Committee on Secondary School Studies by NEA (National Education Association)

• The average length of a school term is 135 days with the average attendance per student being 86.
• High school curriculum is very similar to a college curriculum.

Recommends:

• A more standard curriculum to benefit students and provide a common academic background in preparation for university.
• Specific subjects to be taught: Latin, Greek, English, modern languages, mathematics, science, history, and geography.
• Leaves vocational education as an option, but desired subjects should be taught in the same manner and extent to every pupil no matter their intended educational goals.
• Claims secondary schools do not wholly exist for the purpose of preparing boys and girls for college, but to prepare them for the duties of life.

However, since preparation of students for college is considered important for the welfare of the nation. The main goal remains to prepare the small number of students who can achieve a college education and whose parents are able to support them. Which is further rationalized with the idea that the best preparation for college is also the best preparation for life.

However, the major objection of favoring a more practical education will over time chip away at the classical tradition curriculum, but the focus of secondary education remains college admission with the belief a focus on higher ed. is also preparation for life.

Maria Montessori - (1870-1952) Italy

Montessori teaching method, is a child centered approach that allows and encourages students to freely interact with a real world kind of environment, provided by the teacher, for them to independently explore their interests. The teacher controls the environment to provide order and set limits. Students begin their learning by playing, which provides opportunities to develop social, emotional, and intellectual growth with real world concrete experiences to take initiative and become self-confident independent critical thinkers.

College entrance exam

Harvard President Charles William Eliot proposes a common entrance exam to be used by all colleges and professional schools in the U.S.

Adolf Kussamaul, German physician

Uses the word: dyslexia to describe a very great difficulty in interpreting written or printed symbols.

Tuskegee University - a dream of Lewis Adams.

W. F. Foster, approaches Lewis Adams and asks him what he wants to help him turn out the African-American vote in Macon County for his re-election to the Alabama Senate. Adams answers: he wants an educational institution for his people. After elected Foster gets the legislature to appropriate $2,000 for teachers’ salaries and forms a board of commissioners to get the school organized. Members included: Lewis Adams, Thomas Dryer, and M. B. Swanson. George W. Campbell, who becames the second commissioner and selects Booker T. Washington from Hampton Institute as their first teacher. Source See 1895 The Atlanta Compromise.

Classroom 1881 Source Library of congress

Standing Bear v. George Crook , Native Americans are ruled persons

Presiding Judge Elmer Dundy of the US District Court in Omaha, NE (15th and Dodge?)

Standing Bear and other Ponca Indians are living; on their reservation in Niobrara, NE. Farming and sending their children to school before being removed and taken south to Indian Territory in Oklahoma. There crops do not grow and 158 people die. Among them his son. Honoring his son's wish, to be buried in his homeland, a small group head north and are captured on the Omaha reservation. They are brought to Omaha, NE where a writ of habeas corpus is filed at the court house at 15th and Dodge.

The case centers on: do Indians have a legal right to a writ of habeas corpus (a court order, that literally means to produce the body, or a court order to bring a person into the court room to decide if the person has been detained, jailed, or imprisoned legally). Standing Bear's attorneys argues the government has no justification to arrest and detain them. They claim the law is clear. It says nothing about being a citizen. It says only: any person or party has a legal right to apply for a writ.

The government's attorney argues the court overstepped its legal boundaries and has no legal right to compel the government to justify its arrest and relocation of the Indians, because an Indian has no legal right to sue in federal court. Further no writ has ever been issued for an Indian and can not be.

Dundy rules : It is illogical to assume that since no Indian ever sought a writ of habeas corpus , that Standing Bear could not seek one. The court has jurisdiction, because Standing Bear and the Ponca were restrained of their liberty in violation of a treaty provision and only the federal court can determine if the prisoners' constitutional rights were violated.

"It would be a sad commentary on the justice and impartiality of our laws, to hold that Indians, though natives of our own country, cannot test the validity of an alleged illegal imprisonment."

As to who could legally apply for a writ. The government steadfastly argues only citizens could. And since Indians are not citizens, they could not sue. However, Dundy rules person not citizen is the required criteria and writes:

" ... a reasonable definition of a person can be found by consulting a dictionary. "Webster describes a person as‚ a living soul; a self conscious being; a moral agent; especially a living human being; a man, woman or child; an individual of the human race." This, he said, "is comprehensive enough, it would seem, to include even an Indian."

Dundy says, Standing Bear and the Ponca have done all they could to terminate their tribal allegiance (expatriate) to become independent farmers, provide education for their children, and adopt the ways of civilization.

He notes that on July 27, 1868, Congress declares the right of expatriation (to withdraw oneself from residence of one's native country) is a natural and inherent right of all people, indisputable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

All this leads Dundy to the decision:

"An Indian possesses the clear and God-given right to withdraw from his tribe and forever live away from it, as though it had no further existence."

Finally, does the government have a legal right to remove Standing Bear and the Ponca from the Omaha Reservation and send them back to the Oklahoma Indian Territory?

An Indian, “possesses the clear and God-given right to withdraw from his tribe and forever live away from it, as though it had no further existence.”

Finally, did the government have a legal right to remove Standing Bear and the Ponca from the Omaha Reservation and send them back to the southern Indian Territory?

Dundy writes, no such power exists. The government can not arbitrarily round up Indians who had severed their tribal ties and simply move them whenever and wherever it wanted. Unless, they were deemed detrimental to the peace and welfare of the reservation. But in such cases, the law requires they must be turned over to civilian's not military' authorities.

In summary, Judge Dundy concludes,

• An Indian is a PERSON within the meaning of the laws of the United States, and has therefore the right to sue out a writ of habeas corpus in a federal court.
• General Crook illegally detained the Ponca prisoners.
• The military has no legal authority to force removal of the Ponca to Indian Territory.
• Indians possess the inherent right of expatriation as well as the more fortunate White race, and have the inalienable right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness ...
• And, since they have been illegally detained in violation of their constitutional rights, the Ponca must be discharged from custody.

Judge Dundy does something unprecedented:

He grants the hearing and declares, for the first time in the nation's history, an Indian is a person within the meaning of U.S. law with legal rights Whites are required to uphold. Unfortunately, Judge Dundy does not address the issue of citizenship for Indians. It would not be until 1924 when Congress passes the Citizenship Act, which provides citizenship for all Indians.

• Court source ...
• Ponca tribe history source ...

First use of the idea of dyslexia

Adolf Kussamaul, German neurologist, uses the phrase, word blindness, to describe a person with complete text blindness in spite of being sighted, having intellect, and the powers of speech intact.

First official college football game is played in New Jersey: Rutgers vs Princeton

Kindergarten

Susan Blow travels to Germany where she observes classrooms inspired by the work of Friedrich Froebel . She watches young children learn language, math, and science through play. She returns to America and works to provide this kind of education to young children.

She opens the first kindergarten in September 1873 at Des Peres School in Carondelet within the Saint Louis School District.

Her kindergarten classroom is bright and cheerful with tables and benches and many plants, books, toys, balls, blocks, and other simple objects for children to use to play and learn about colors, shapes, language, numbers, and health issues about keeping clean, eating well, and getting regular exercise.

Source: State Historical Society of Missouri

• Margarethe Schurz , opens a kindergarten in Watertown, Wisconsin in 1856.
• Elizabeth Peabody , opens one in Boston in 1873.
• The National Education Association, supports kindergarten in 1872, and establishes a department of kindergarten instruction in 1884. Source

Christmas is declared a federal holiday

Nebraska State Education Association (NSEA) is founded in Brownsville, Nebraska on October 16, 1867. It is the oldest professional organization in Nebraska. At the time less than 40% of school aged children attended school.

Morrill Land Grant Acts 1859 - 1862

Congress passes the Morrill Land Grant Act in 1859 . It allocates land to states based on the number of senators and representatives each state has in Congress to fund agricultural schools similar to Michigan State University at the time. However, it is vetoed by President James Buchanan.

In 1861, it is amended to include teaching of military tactics as well as engineering and agriculture. This change, and the fact some states that did not support it are now in the Confederacy, allos it to pass and is signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln in 1862. See later acts, The Smith–Lever Act of 1914 , Smith-Hughes Act 1917 , and later G.I. Bill 1944 .

First Black teacher and school in Virginia Mary Peake & Hampton Normal School

With the Union Army in control of Fort Monroe in Hampton, Virginia, Union Major General Benjamin Butler decrees any enslaved people who crosses into Union lines are contraband of war and would not be returned. This brought many enslaved people to the first self-contained African American community.

The Emancipation Oak still stands and is on the grounds of Hampton University .

Mary Peake's class evolves to became the Butler School for Negro children, where students are taught reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and grammar, as well as various housekeeping skills. Then in 1868 The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, which today is Hampton University , opens next to the Butler School.

The Butler School, is succeeded in 1889 by the Whittier School, which is a lab-school or teaching school for the Hampton Normal School.

Source and additional information about the history of Hampton University

National Education Association

NEA is founded to professionalize teaching. Previously it is the National Teachers Association (NTA). Membership is limited to gentlemen and women are honorary members. However, Hannah Conrad and Agnes Beecher are included on the list of original members. In 1866 the constitution is ammended. Gentleman is changed to person.

In 1910 women reject nominations by the nomination committee and elect Ella Flagg Young as their first female president. Previously the first female superintendent of Chicago schools and Illinois Education Association president. Source NEA

See also 1937 Future Teachers of America

Massachusetts is the first state legislature to pass a law banning segregated schools

Nebraska passes legislation to create free public schools

The act creates a territorial superintendent of schools and librarian who is to over see county superintendents who shall be elected by popular vote.

Superintendents shall divide their county into districts and notify their residents to organize their schools. Each county is to levy a tax between three and five mill on all taxable property in the county and distribute the revenue based on the number of White children between the ages of five and 22. A local school board, of three members for each district, shall organize and manage each district school.

The average building is about 22 x 32 feet and 12 feet high made with sides of rough logs and roof of sod. For a cost of about $1,000 furnished. However, most are built larger to use for public gatherings.

Superintendents certify teachers, but it is customary for local school boards to approve their proficiency in spelling, reading, writing, geography, history of the United States and English grammar … Salaries are about $30 for men and about $26 for women. Source

The Ashmun Institute receives its charter from the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania on April 29, 1854

It is the nation's first degree-granting Historically Black College and University (HBCU). Located in southern Chester County in Pennsylvania. In 1866 it is renamed Lincoln University in honor of President Abraham Lincoln. The history of Lincoln University dates even earlier to 1794 when John Miller Dickey, and his wife, Sarah Emlen Cresson contribute to the education of African-Americans in Philadelphia. Source

Compulsory education state law

In 1852 Massachusetts is the first state to pass a law for compulsory education. It requires every town to create and operate a grammar school. It also allows fines to be levied on parents who do not send their children to school and if they do not comply, they could be found unfit to properly educate their children, and their children could be taken and apprenticed.

Compulsory education laws are passed in other states until the last state, Mississippi, does in 1918.

Massachusetts originally enacts the first compulsory education law in the American colonies in 1647.

Early American education and its roots: 1776 - 1850

Summary of changes 1776 -1850.

Education during this time is seen as the responsibility of the family.

Cornish School Mistress

However, as more people want to educate their children they collectively organize to provide schooling. With one of their educational goals being to maintain a democracy for all rather than an elite minority, they begin to work through government to provide schooling.

The Country School Winslow Homer

Analysis of multimedia framework

Thus, education becomes a governmental function seen as an important way to establish a capable citizenry to maintain a democracy. A citizenry composed of people beyond the sons of the elite affluent families or a few who are lucky and gifted enough to rise to the top (meritocracy). As to whether people understood majority as a simple majority or a majority more toward all with the inclusion of all diverse kinds of people is not fully defined and would lead to controversies in years to come.

Early American Education is also evolving from the influence of ideas brought to America and applied with an American flavor. Among them the exploration of universal education for larger numbers of children, education outside the home, increases in the percentage of girls and women being educated, funding of schools by cities and states, classical education, and large class sizes.

Most schools still have a strong religious influence and high ethical standards.

Curriculum is narrowing in a sense to reading, writing, and arithmetic in the younger grades and in the secondary preparation for college and university. Trades and agriculture are kept outside the curriculum and are learned from family members, apprenticeships, or on the job training.

Colleges and universities begin to increase in number and begin to alter their European medieval curriculum in ways to make it more American.

Curriculum includes traditional content in subjects or topics. Texts used for instruction are increasingly being written in English, as opposed to Latin and Greek. This creates a decline of the use of Latin in the classroom and requirements for Greek are removed, except for students who prepare for the ministry.

Other changes are the continual addition of seat time in school and the addition of courses such as natural science, trade, commerce, agriculture, and merchandise.

From 1790 - 1800 the use of syllogistic disputations at most colleges is reduced and the use of forensic debate increased.

Roberts v. Boston - a case seeking to end racial discrimination in Boston public schools

Sarah C. Roberts , a five-year-old African-American girl, is enrolled in an underfunded all Black school. She is denied admission to the nearer Whites-only Smith school on the basis of her race, Her father writes to the state legislature for a solution.

The solution first involves the Massachusetts's Supreme Court, where Roberts asks for integration and is denied it in 1846.

Some African-Americans argue for integration and others argue for separate but equal schools. Some Blacks and Whites question the education their children would receive from integration. see Atlanta Compromise . While, others recognize, true equality can only be achieved through integration.

• In 1855 the issue is brought to the Massachusetts state legislature which writes and passes a law banning segregated schools. It is the first state law prohibiting segregated schools .
• Roberts appeals to the U.S. Supreme Court and it rules in favor of Boston, finding no constitutional basis for the suit. See Robert Morris lawyer , the first Black attorney to ever file a lawsuit in the United States, who argues this case.
• The Roberts v. Boston case is cited in both the Plessy v. Ferguson decision in 1896, which rules in favor of separate but equal; and in Brown v. Board of Board of Education decision in 1954, which rules against separate but equal.

Reformers push for new, clean, neat well kept buildings to educate productive caring citizens.

Without them they …

• Worry poor school facilities would supersede the school’s moral lessons, transforming students into thieves, midnight assassins, and incendiaries. 1853, Holbrook
• Believe big roomy, hygienic buildings in which the noblest of feelings of the human heart might be trained … instead of the ruthless disposition to destroy. 1856, Burrowes
• Run down schools corrupt children … neatness in the the furnishing induces or begets habits of neatness in the pupils and prevent future destruction. 1868, Freese

Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions are written at the convention for woman's rights. held at Seneca Falls on July 19-20, 1848.

The Philadelphia Riots (Prayer Riots, Bible Riots and Native American Riots)

They are several riots between May 6 and 8 and July 6 and 7, 1844, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and the adjacent districts of Kensington and Southwark. Thirteen people die, Catholic Irish churches are attacked and two burn to the ground.

A major issue is whose religious interest would be represented in school , not a separation of church and state issue. The city is divided by anti Catholic and a Nativists anti immigrant sentiments. The use of a protestant Bible in public schools, derogatory religious and heritage wording in other texts and language by the teachers spark the riots. Source

The seperation of church and state and it's desire for public money will continue. A cartoon in 1887 illustrates this with Pope Leo XIII below grapes labeled public school:

Prussian / German influence

Prussia's defeat by Napoleon Bonaparte, 1806, motivates the government to implement sweeping educational reforms. King Frederick William III designs a system to create citizens who would obey and submit without question. It is a three tier design:

• 1/2% of students taught how to manage: materials, men, and situations.
• 5-8% of students, prepared as politicians, doctors, lawyers, & engineers.
• 92-94% of students, to learn to be obedient, cooperative, and have the correct attitudes, be literate, and know the official state fabricated history.

The purpose to make 95% of the citizens subservient to the ruling house and state. Source : Schools on Trial , Nikhil Goyal p. 43-44. See 1873 kindergarten , 1837 Horace Mann

Elizabeth Barrett Browning writes the poem The Cry of the Children . to create greater support for child labor laws to remove children from suffering and dying in factories and other means of employment.

Catharine Beecher advocates that public education needs women teachers

Catharine Beecher sees public school enrollment grow and the quality of teachers decrease. Her concern that children's moral, physical, and intellectual development might suffer, causes her to advocate for a greater role of women in education. She believes this would: improve public schools as women are natural teachers, provide opportunities for women to become better educated, provide women job opportunities, and met the increasing demand for teachers. She works toward these goals:

• 1821, becomes a schoolteacher.
• 1823, co-founds the Hartford Female Seminary , to train women to be mothers and teachers.
• 1829, publishes an essay on the importance of women as teachers, Suggestions Respecting Improvements in Education .
• 1830, moves west and campaigns for more schools and teachers on the Midwestern frontier.
• 1841, publishes, A Treatise on Domestic Economy . In it she stresses the importance of women's labor and claims a single woman could be a teacher and could choose not to marry.
• 1852, founds the American Woman's Educational Association to recruit and train teachers.

Unfortunately as more women become teachers, the social esteem for the teaching profession declines. However, with teaching being one of the few educational opportunities for women it provides many gifted teachers to the profession that in later years will seek different occupations, which some claim as a reason for a decline in American education.

Great School's Debate of 1840

John Hughes, Bishop of New York, petitions the New York public schools to fund Catholic schools to offer proper religious training to their congregation's children. Religious instruction in public schools includes basic prayers and passages from the Protestant, King James Bible without commentary or interpretation, which he deems insufficient and inappropriate. He also complains about derogatory ethnic Irish passages in the textbooks. Much of his congregation is Irish immigrants.

• After a three day debate, his petition is rejected.
• However, legislation in 1842 declares no sectarian religious instruction is to be offered in public schools .
• A committee reviews textbooks for ethnic bias and removes offensive passages.
• The public response in 1843 is to elect a school board that rules: reading the Bible in class is not - sectarian.
• John Hughes creates Catholic Schools for Catholic children to attend, which result in the expansion of the parochial school systems in the U.S.

The inclusion of Bible reading in public schools persists across the U. S. until 1963 when the U. S. Supreme Court bans organized prayer in the schools. Source

First public Normal schools

A normal school trains high school graduates to be teachers by teaching standards or norms, hence its name. Most such schools are now called teachers' colleges. In the United States and Canada they trained teachers to teach in primary school. In Europe they educated teachers for primary, secondary, and post-secondary levels.

In 1839, a public Normal School is established in Lexington, Massachusetts. It operates today as Bridgewater State University.

In 1685, Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, founds the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools , in Reims, France. The first normal school .

Horace Mann accepts the position as the first Secretary of Massachusetts School Board

Horace Mann ( 1796-1859) advocates for a free common school for all children. Paid with taxes from all citizens. Summary of his work, philosophy and policies:

"No one did more than he to establish in the minds of the American people the conception that education should be universal, non-sectarian, free, and that its aims should be social efficiency, civic virtue, and character , rather than mere learning or the advancement of sectarian ends." Public Education in the United States (1919) Ellwood P. Cubberley. p. 167.

While Mann and others, at this time, want each student to develop their innate capabilities of a diverse self-culture , not job creation, but enlightenment. Some who follow later, see a bureaucratic system to create obedient productive workers.

Publicly funded schools are created and controlled by local and state government with a narrow New England Puritan centric curriculum.

While Secretary of education the state of Massachusetts, he:

• Advocates for common texts as a standard curriculum.
• Advocates for expertly trained teachers, high salaries, and improved curriculum and instruction.
• Establishes Normal Schools to regulate teacher preparation.
• Implements state collection of education data.
• Establishes state approved school libraries in each district, who were assigned the responsibility for the adoption of textbooks.
• Repeatedly refuses to condemn segregation of White and Black student in Boston.

Horace Mann suggests the purpose of collecting educational data [ assessment ]

• To evaluate the effectiveness of educational systems and programs to provide feedback to students and teachers.
• To measure student achievement in a manner that would equitably describe student's level of knowledge and skill and classify students for various purpose: one being certification, and
• To suggest reform to change and improve teaching and learning.
• And under his supervision Massachusetts is first to use standardized written examinations (1938). Source

Horace Mann is self educated by reading books he paid for by braiding straw. He Graduated Brown University. His valedictorian oration was The Gradual Advancement of the Human Species in Dignity and Happiness . He taught Latin and Greek at Brown, got a law degree, is elected to MA House, Senate, and then President of the Board of Education. The first in the United States.

Visited Germany and brought back ideas in 1843 that became the Prussian German Influence .

African Institute , later renamed Cheyney University (1914), is founded with support from Richard Humphreys to help young African Americans get a skilled trade. It offered basics in reading, writing, math, mechanics, and agriculture. Richard hoped a domino effect would be created as students from his Institute would spread education among other young, Blacks.

First Kindergarten .

In Germany Friedrich Froebel (1782 -1852) establishes the first kindergarten. He believes children need to play and interact socially with other children to learn. Therefore, his writings and practices for kindergarten are thought to be outrageous by many in German communities who believe children need more discipline and burn his book ( The Education of Man ). See Kindergarten in U.S. 1873.

Mc Guffy Readers .

William Holmes McGuffey publishes his first McGuffey Reader . Samuel Worcester and his publisher file suit for plagiarism. McGuffey removes all passages listed in the suit and republishes. McGuffy makes several revisions over the years that his readers are printed. Source and Samples

The Commonwealth of Massachusetts

Passes a law that towns, of five hundred or more families, shall establish and maintain high schools with a ten month program.

University of Virginia is founded by Thomas Jefferson

First training school for teachers

The first training school for teachers, Concord Academy , in the United States is founded in Concord, Vermont, by Samuel Read Hall. His, Lectures on School Keeping , published in 1829, is the first American instructional book for teachers. He is also involved with teacher education at Phillips Academy’s, Holmes-Plymouth Academy, and Craftsbury Academy. He establishes the American Institute of Instruction , the oldest educational organization in America.

See also 1839 , first public Normal Schools

Public money for private schools

New York City gives public money to religious organizations (Catholic, Presbyterian , Quakers, Jewish, Methodist, Lutheran, Episcopalian, and Baptist) to use for non religious educational purposes. The Free School claims New York is the only city where religious schools receive common funds and petitions the Board of Alderman, “that our civil and religious rights are abridged and injuriously affected by the operation of the Common School System,” and payments should be stop. The board agrees and stops payments. Source

First school west of the Missouri River

Col. Henry Leavenworth establishes a U. S. Army post at Fort Atkinson (west of the Missouri River in what's today Nebraska). On February 4, 1822 he orders school to start under the direction of Sergeant Mumford who teaches the rudiments of the three R’s. Source

Federal funds are allocated for schools on Native American reservations.

Mass instruction, monitorial system, peer tutoring

Mass instruction, peer tutoring, monitorial system, and mutual instruction is included in the Bell-Lancaster or Lancaster method. Named after the British educators who independently developed it, Dr Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster. It starts with a large open room with seating for thousands. It has a raise areas for a teacher with students seated on benches rising on auditorium style seating with least advanced learners at the front and advanced at the rear. Around the sides are learners who are teaching assistants, who act as peer tutors. It increases class size and decreases the cost of instruction. Lancaster's motto: He who teaches, learns. It is criticized by taking the teaching assistants or tutor away from their own learning. Reformers import it to America. DeWitt Clinton in New York, later to Philadelphia, and Washington D.C. It is soon declared a failure by parents, students and teachers.

Noah Webster publishes A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language , the first American dictionary . Today it is the Merriam-Webster Dictionary .

Dickinson College and Benjamin Rush on education.

Dickinson College is named after John Dickinson, governor of Pennsylvania and leader in the American Revolution. However, it is Benjamin Rush who envisions it, wrote its charter, and works to get it approved by the Pennsylvania legislature on September 9, 1783, six days after the signing of the Treaty of Paris . Making it the first college created in the new nation. Previously, it was a grammar school in Carlisle, PA founded in 1773. Source

Benjamin Rush (1745-1813) is a strong supporter of education, especially for women. He believes education is essential for the prosperity and independence of the nation. He supports free schools in every town with a hundred or more families, to teach reading, writing, arithmetic, republicanism, and character to unite the country. While Rush advocates for women to be educated, however, his views do not rise to the level of gender equality. See more in Benjamin Rush and Women's Education: A Revolutionary's Disappointment, A Nation's Achievement by Jodi Campbell. See also Benjamin Rush's Views on Women's Education by Jean S. Straub.

First American spelling book by Noah Webster

Noah Webster is paid to write and publish his first speller. The first of a three part series:

• A Grammatical Institute of the English Language .
• A grammar and

His goal is to provide the country with a standard system for an American national language, pronunciations , spelling, and ideas to unify a national culture. Criticized for the wording of the title he revises and reprints it in 1787 with the new title, The American Spelling Book . It sells more than 15 million copies by 1837 while the U.S. population in 1840 is 17 million.

Noah believes Americans need their own national government, distinct from the rest of the world. Their own history, character, and Americanized language. He advocates to remove all English books and creates an American history and language. Therefore, his spellers have a nationalist tone and many non English spellings. It is the fore runner of the Noah Webster's dictionary See 1806 .

Bill for public education

As part of his work in revising the laws of Virginia during the late 1770s and early 1780s, Thomas Jefferson puts forth a bill that becomes one of his most enduring works on the subject of education: Bill 79, "A Bill for the More General Diffusion of Knowledge."

When presenting this bill he claims to insure public happiness, people who are endowed with genius and virtue must receive a liberal education, at the public's expense, so they may guard the sacred rights and liberties of their fellow citizens.

The Bill is presented in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1778 and 1780, but does not pass. James Madison presents the bill several more times while Jefferson is serving as Minister to France. In 1796 the Act to Establish Public Schools is passed.

Johann Friedrich Herbart - believes education should focus on moral character

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi - writes How Gertrude Educates Her Children

Colonial Education and its roots: prior to 1776

Summary of changes prior 1776.

Early periods of education are characterized by what each person, family, or parent feel is appropriate for them, their family, and children. They are free to determine how they and their children are educated within their particular economic situation. It would involve children modeling their parents or other adult or skilled person. Parents teaching their children and others within a household. Parents and families hire others as nannys, tutors, private teachers, or contract to teach them at home. Some send their kids to private lesson, private schools, apprenticeships, into indentured servitude, and are sold or forced into slavery.

Three famous Americans apprentices: Ben Franklin printer. George Washington mason surveyor. Paul Revere silversmith.

As populations grow families began to collaborate and meet at churches, libraries, community centers, museums, informal day care centers or dame schools to provide basic literacy and numeracy skills in an affordable way. These are more like individual and small group lessons than school. Schooling experiences and advanced learning is very limited and thought necessary for only a few.

Schooling focuses on reading with initial instruction beginning with a Hornbook , to teach letters. Hornbooks are first used in England as early as 1450 . Much education is centered around religion and high ethical standards. There is no standard primary or secondary curriculum which results in a diversity of study related to agriculture, military, trades, scholars, and religious sects. Often a book or list of books is used as the curriculum, usually classical authors. Early Americans, Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin have lists of recommended books along with other recommendations for learning that can be found in their writings they send to their children and other acquaintances.

Colleges and universities begin to appear and use a European medieval curriculum. Attendance is limited to White males who could afford to support the use of their time in study or those who are talented toward this type of learning, motivated to learn, and lucky enough to attain financial support privately and or in a few cases publicly.

Curriculum includes content in subjects or topics such as: Latin and Greek composition, classical literature, rhetorical studies, logic, ethics, philosophy, criticism, classical readings followed by original orations and writings based on classical models, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, logarithms. Later sciences (chemistry, botany, astronomy), history, geography, natural and civil law, civil history, laws and government, politics, trade, commerce, agriculture, merchandise, and modern foreign languages are added to the curriculum.

Instructional methods include: reading, lecture, recitation, translation of text, syllogistic disputations and declamations. Disputation is an academic exercise in oral defense of a thesis by discussion or debate using formal logic. Sample Declamations are students interpretations of famous speeches they re-give to demonstrate their ability to understand and apply the purpose and power of the speech and skill in public speaking. Samples

Tutors are hired to teach one or a small number of students in several areas who are later tested by the college president or select members of the educational community to see if they are ready to be admitted, move from course to course or advance to the next year, and ready to graduate. Tutors are replaced with faculty who are assigned to teach specific subject areas. At Harvard the first appointment is in 1722 in religion with other subject areas added until 1766 when the tutorial system is abolished and professors and tutors are assigned subjects rather than classes of students to prepare in all areas.

Trades are seen, not only as important to learn a trade, but could be important for all of society as noted by: Ben Franklin …

a proper education for all boys should be “suffer’d to spend some time at shops of artificers observing their manner of working.

T he tutorial system of one person instructing one person or a small group of students in all areas is abolished at Harvard and professors and tutors are assigned subjects rather than classes.

John Morgan and William Shippen, Jr. founded the first medical school in North America

The Medical School of the College of Philadelphia.

It is considered the first educational philosophy book as well as the first child psychology book . Thus, Rousseau is sometimes referred to as the father of modern child psychology .

Rousseau claims children have a natural goodness and can become critical life long learners and educated citizens if they can survive a corrupted society. These ideas lead to child labor being seen as exploitation instead of a form of moral education and protection from idleness and laziness.

From his ideas two philosophical learning theories or educational philosophies emerge.

Maturationist theory based on the idea learning comes from within each child. It can be thought of as genetically determined and naturally unfolding as each child grows. Rousseau and others would disagree over the amount of predetermined, innate, inherited, genetic influence there is; as opposed to the amount of environmental or external influence.

Romanticism theory based on the idea the inner good will dominate over the inner bad. The child is like a plant who will grow according to the genetic information provided in the seed. A good or bad environment to nourish it will maximize or retard its growth.

Anthony Benezet creates the first public girls' school and first School for Black children in Philadelphia

Anthony Benezet began teaching in 1739. In 1742, he moves to the Friends' English School of Philadelphia (now the William Penn Charter School) and in 1750 begins teaching night classes there for Black slaves.

In 1754, he left the Friends' English School and begins the first public girls' school on the American continent. Students include Deborah Norris and Sally Wister.

In 1770, he founds the Negro School at Philadelphia for Black children. Abigail Hopper Gibbons teaches there.

He also founds the first anti-slavery society, the Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage. After his death in 1784, Benjamin Franklin and Dr. Benjamin Rush reconstituted this association as the Pennsylvania Society for Promoting the Abolition of Slavery.

The College of Philadelphia (later the University of Pennsylvania)

The College of Philadelphia begins college prep in 1751. It is believed to be the first curriculum that develops a curriculum that is not based on the traditional medieval curriculum and without religious objectives.

In 1752 William Smith publishes A General Idea of the College of Mirania .

He sends a copy to Franklin, who is impressed so in May 1754 Smith is appointed to teach logic, rhetoric, ethics, and natural philosophy at the College of Philadelphia.

In March 1755 he is made provost. While this curriculum has subjects similar to those of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton there is a different emphasis. A three year program of study with the first year of Latin and Greek composition; arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and logarithms; and classical and rhetorical studies. The second year includes more mathematics, logic and ethics, and added natural philosophy and classical readings followed by original orations written using classical models. The third year includes natural and civil law, civil history, laws and government, trade and commerce, and more natural philosophy. Emphasis is one-third classics, one-third mathematics and science, and one-third logic, ethics, metaphysics and oratory. The new emphasis continues with syllogistic disputations and declamations as an instructional method and for student assessment.

First women physicians in the United States

Elizabeth Blackwell becomes the first woman physician in the United States. Her sister, Emily Blackwell, becomes the second. Together the sisters open the New York Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children , the first hospital with an all women staff. They add a Women’s Medical College with a rigorous progressive curriculum. Elizabeth writes, lectures, and promotes medical education specifically for women. Emily becomes a very qualified: obstetrician, gynecologist, surgeon and also professor.

Read more in The Doctors Blackwell .

Benjamin Franklin helps open the The Philadelphia Academy and Charitable School or The Academy and College of Philadelphia

This may have been the first American academy. In 1749 Benjamin Franklin draws up its constitution and is appointed its first president. It opens as a secondary school on August 1751, is granted a charter in 1755, and graduates its first class, seven men, in May 1757.

It is a secondary school to prepare people for life or to enter business and other vocations. Students study English, instead of Latin, the classics, modern language, and science. Secondary schools became popular, because they provide preparation for university cheaper than hiring tutors. Academies are sported by endowments, tuition, and in some cases state governments. Academies fill a need until compulsory public education becomes the norm. See 1852 .

... "THAT some Persons of Leisure and publick Spirit, apply for a CHARTER, by which they may be incorporated, with Power to erect an ACADEMY for the Education of Youth, to govern the same, provide Masters, make Rules, receive Donations, purchase Lands, &c. and to add to their Number, from Time to Time such other Persons as they shall judge suitable. That the Members of the Corporation make it their Pleasure, and in some Degree their Business, to visit the Academy often, encourage and (* 2) countenance the Youth, countenance and assist the Masters, and by all Means in their Power advance the Usefulness and Reputation of the Design; that they look on the Students as in some Sort their Children, treat them with Familiarity and Affection, and when they have behav'd well, and gone through their Studies, and are to enter the World, zealously unite, and make all the Interest that can be made to establish them (* 3), whether in Business, Offices, Marriages, or any other Thing for their Advantage, preferably to all other Persons whatsoever even of equal Merit. And if Men may, and frequently do, catch such a Taste for cultivating Flowers, Planting, Grafting, Inoculating, and the like, as to despise all other Amusements for their Sake, why may not we expect they should acquire a Relish for that more useful Culture of young Minds. Thompson says, "

Early school for girls in New Orleans

Eight women convert a house to a convent school to educate girls of all races and classes in the French quarters of New Orleans, Louisiana. The group later builds the Ursuline Convent that relocates multiple times over the years. In 1729 they take in 30 orphan Natchez Indian girls. Over the years they are willing to educate all races, classes and free or slave. Being catholic and female creates special problems for colonial and later times as they work to achieve their mission. Source

Benjamin Franklin , who never attended college, visits Harvard

Later, he writes. [Harvard as] "the Temple of Learning, where, for want of a suitable Genius, ... [students] learn little more than how to carry themselves handsomely, and enter a Room genteely, (which might as well be acquir'd at a Dancing-School,) and from whence they return, after Abundance of Trouble and Charge, as great Blockheads as ever, only more proud and self-conceited." Source

Later he opens his academy .

Dame schools are usually in the homes of the women (dames) who teach the children. The curriculum is letter & number recognition, reading & writing simple words, and memorization of prayers. Similar to many preschools from 1950-2015.

Etching at right is from 1713.

First American school for slaves and Native Americans in NYC

Elias Neau asks and receives support from the Church of England and the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel to open a school for slaves and Native Americans in New York City. A 1764 report states:

“not a single Black” instructed and baptized through the school “had turned out badly or in any way disgraced his profession.”

This encourages additional support for schools assisting African Americans and Indigenous people in other places.

John Locke wrote An Essay Concerning Human Understanding . The book is divided into four parts. The following are some key ideas presented.

• Argues humans are born without innate ideas already in their mind.
• Argues everything in our mind is one of two types of ideas: Sensory ideas or ideas create by the mind with its own operations .
• Presents a philosophy of language. Language of words that do not refer to things in the world but to the ideas in our heads formed in general terms from specific objects of the world.
• Intuitive , which he claims is self-evident and at the top. Examples: Something is either present or absent. Two is more than three. Black is not White.
• Demonstrative is created with reason and is in the middle. Examples: Two apples in one hand and three apples in another hand equals five apples. A feather fall slower than a coin, because air slows it. and
• Sensitive knowledge is that which comes from our senses and is at a lower level more of a pseudo- knowledge. Illusions can trick us. Smell like a rose, but is it a candle, perfume, shampoo? Water or a mirage?

Look into his book Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693).

John Evelyn and William Petty publish compileda description of the trades in History of Arts Illiberal and Mechanical

In it Petty explains ...

bare words are not sufficient, all instrument and tools must be pictured, and color added, when the descriptions cannot be made intelligible without them.

Thomas Sprat added, histories of trade would encourage the invention of improvements by members of the society.

Father of modern education ?

John Amos Comenius , Czech Jan Ámos Komenský, (1592,-1670,), Czech educational reformer flees the Thirty Years’ War and goes to Poland. There he plans how to rebuild his homeland, after the war, through educational reform.

He advocates: all children should attend school full time, be taught the Czech, and European culture, with efficient methods that are natural and centered on the way children learn, which he describes in his books: The Great Didactic (for educators) and The School of Infancy (for mothers).

To make the European culture accessible to all students, he believes it is necessary to learn Latin. However, he doesn’t like the present grammar rule based instructional method and advocates for a natural way to learn it. He writes textbooks, Janua Linguarum Reserata that presents facts about the world, side by side, in Latin and Czech. A language teaching revolution at the time. His book is translated into 16 languages. Source

The Massachusetts Act of 1647 or the Old Deluder, Satan Act

Mandates each town, with fifty families or more, establish a grammar school, where a master shall instruct youth to be fitted for university. It is referred to as the Old Deluder, Satan Act because education is seen as protection against the devil, whose purpose is to keep men from the knowledge of the scriptures. Made towns responsible for educational facilities .

The Massachusetts Act of 1642

Requires each town to determine whether its young people could read or write. If children are determined as not being able to read, have knowledge of the Capital Laws, instruction in religion and generally brought up to be able to achieve higher employment. Parents and people with apprentices , who did not meet the standards, could be fined or even lose custody of their children. Makes parents responsible for their children's education. Source

First printing press in the American Colonies is assembled at Harvard College.

1636 , 1723

Harvard University first named New College

Harvard University , the oldest institution of higher education in the United States, is founded in 1636. The oldest institution of higher education in the United States with its mission to train clergy. Harvard receives its official name on March 13, 1639, when John Harvard donates half of his estate and his library of over 400 books. .. see also 1209 Cambridge...

Harvard curriculum (1636) is designed as a four year program of study. However, it is initially reduced to three years because of poor selection of its first master and withdrawal of students as a result of his tyrannical teaching methods.

The curriculum includes logic as a basic subject necessary for disciplined thinking, divinity, history and the nature of plants taught in the first year. Rhetoric (effective persuasive speaking or writing) and other compositional techniques are studied by reading a collection of literary pieces which students critique and give two speeches in Latin and Greek before small groups weekly and also monthly before the entire school. Students translated the Old and New Testament from Hebrew into Greek at daily prayer services. Arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, politics and ethics in the later year curriculum. However, politics is Aristotle's Politica and ethics is a practical subject, separate from religion. Instructional methodology follows the advice of Pierre de La Ramee that students should listen to a lecture on each subject, followed by individual study, recitation, discussion, and disputation. In 1655, the first year is expanded to two years with more Greek, Hebrew, logic, and metaphysics returning to the originally plan of four years.

M.A. degree is a three year post-graduate program of individual study with no residence requirement. Study is guided by a minister. A sermon presented to the student body and a written synopsis or compendium of logic is required. Natural philosophy, moral philosophy, arithmetic, geometry or astronomy are studied and presented problems three times and twice had to present a solution in a rhetorical speech before the society. However, flexibility seems to have been allowed in permitting other activities as substitutes.

Curriculum in 1723 :

• Freshman year curriculum is a review of Latin and Greek grammar, a beginning study of Hebrew, and logic.
• Sophomore curriculum includes a continued study of logic, classical literature, and beginning to study natural philosophy.
• Junior curriculum added ethics, geography, and metaphysics with more natural philosophy.
• Senior curriculum added arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy.

First Latin Grammar school in Boston opens

Latin grammar school curriculum is meant for the class of people who will become leaders of religion and government. Clergy, ministers, governors, mayors, lawyers, judges, and other learned men.

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) publishes his Novum Organum , where he describes a system of logic he believes is superior to Aristotle's syllogism (360 BCE ) or deductive reasoning. It becomes known as the Baconian method, inductive reasoning and the scientific method

• Publishes Novum Organum , where he describes a system of logic he believes is superior to Aristotle's syllogism (360 BCE ) or deductive reasoning. It becomes known as the Baconian method, inductive reasoning, and the scientific method. Bacon may have been inspired by Ibn al-Haytham's Optics ( Kitab al-manazir ) .
• He believes this new logic is the best way to draw conclusions about the natural world. An inductive approach of skeptical observation and experimentation with facts and explanations leading to conclusions. Because of this he has been called the father of empiricism and the father of the scientific method.
• Bacon asks for a writing of a history of trades to serve as a foundation of his new science.
• In 1624 he plans for Salomon’s House (a research center) where different groups of people can decide, at different points of time, what to research and what to develop. For example, what experiments to discover the true nature of things, what discoveries are valid, how to use them, what are best practice for man’s life and knowledge, and how to deliver to the public the stuff of progress.
• In 1620 he calls for a series of natural histories of trades to describe tools, techniques, and processes to enhance the greatness of man through new and practical science.

Pilgrims land on Plymouth Rock

Their religious views, ethics, and ideas on education will dominate education in the New England colonies and influence American Education.

Bernard Palsy writes Discourse Admirable

In it he invites scholars to his workshop to see theories of many philosophers, even the most ancient and famous ones, to point out that many are erroneous in many ways.

Elizabethan statutes of 1561

Requires each student be proficient in rhetoric, logic, and philosophy, and to be tested in them by public disputations before earning a degree. This includes the seven liberal arts: the trivium of grammar, rhetoric, logic; and the quadrivium of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (see 55 CE ). With the three philosophies: natural, moral, mental added in the later years. Instruction is by tutor, who is responsible for four or five students.

Henry VIII believes citizens should be educated to govern well. And to do so they need to speak well, reason well, practice moderation and balance, and be suffused with humanity in all its senses: including how real human stories played out in the past.

As such, he educates his daughters, as he expects them to play a political role and have a moral responsibility.

• Mary is tutored by Juan Luis Vives and
• Elizabeth by Roger Ascham

Desiderius Erasmus -

Thomas Aquinas -

First recorded student protests at the University of Paris leads to the school being closed for two plus years.

Cambridge is found by a group of scholars who leave the University of Oxford after a dispute with the towns people. It is the second oldest English-speaking universities and the fourth-oldest university in the world that is still operating.

1284 Cambridge curriculum is to perfect the student's knowledge of Latin and Greek, introduce him to the method of scholasticism, and respect of the authority of the ancients. There was no prescribed course of study other than attendance of public lectures for three years, study theology, Old Testament languages, Hebrew, participate in disputations, and, give three personal opposing responses.

The birth of a common culture of education

Charlemagne (Charles the Great or Charles I) recognizes unity can be achieved through a common culture. A culture centralized with a strong central government (becomes the Holy Roman Empire) that uses religion and education to achieve this unity.

He creates a more fair rule of law empire, fuller participation of the church in the daily life of the people, encourages a common language by making Latin the official language of the state, and develops education for all citizens.

To achieve his educational goals, Charlemagne recruites teachers from England and Ireland. Alcuin (732–804) of Britain, is recruited to be head of the palace school. He develops programs to bring literacy to European clergy and their followers. As head he becomes very influential in promoting scholarship and the founding of a library in York. Many of his students go on to staff schools across Europe at all levels and many people benefit by their educated minds and the quality curriculum they bring with them.

• Charlemagne and Alcuin realize shared learning is part of a shared culture and their abilities to implement their ideas across a diverse population unite much of Europe and create the Holy Roman Empire.
• Insists on education for his daughters.
• A curriculum of three basic subjects ( trivium ) of grammar, rhetoric, and logic is their core and becomes the curriculum of secular knowledge for liberal arts universities.
• Their curriculum evolves and expands over the years after Charlemagne and Alcuin. By the 12th century, it includes seven subjects: the trivium and a quadrivium , consisting of arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy.
• Develops a new more legible script to make scribe’s texts easier to read - Carolingian or Caroline Minuscule .

Saint Augustine

354 - 430 philosophy of education - learners must be aroused by the teacher to discover that which they already hold within themselves.

Quintilian 35 - 95

Institution oratoria is the model used to educate an ideal citizen as an orator. The curriculum of the Trivium and the Quadrivium is used in schools and universities into the 1900's. Trivium included: grammar, rhetoric, and logic; and the quadrivium included: arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music.

C. E. -------------------- B. C. E.

World's first university

Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences in Khozettan, Iran is started.

Greek Hellenistic education goal is to prepare free adult males with sound minds and sound bodies (mental & physical abilities) to make sense of the world and be good citizens. Humanism explores the nature of the world with humans at the center. Later in Latin humanitas means a cultured free man. Much later becomes humanistic education.

Education to make an educated adult. It is not child centered as suggested by Rouseau in Emile . Everyday Greek education and later Roman education is the responsibility of a pedagogue : male nanny, often a trusted slave, who cares for a child and nurtures them to learn how to behave in life and inspire them to learn for life. Source As well as taking them to a teacher to teach literacy, rhetoric, reasoning, and ethics.

Aristotle - 380 - 322 BCE

Continued with teaching of rhetoric and added syllogism , use of logic as a device for determining the truth. (Categorical syllogism uses two premises and a conclusion: All humans are vertebrates; no insect is a vertebrate; therefore no humans are insects.

He teaches:

• Education should be controlled by the State.
• People learn to be virtuous with practice.
• Ethics, involves performing just acts.
• Learning becomes doing or acting.
• If what is being done is virtuous, then learning is intrinsically valuable for the individual and society: the State.
• All citizens should participate in a Democracy. Therefore, a welfare state is necessary so all people live out of poverty and can contribute to the government.
• In Politics : some people should rule and others should be ruled is not only necessary, but expedient. All relations are relations of hierarchy: man rules over animals, men over women, masters over slaves. Slavery was not a matter of law but a matter of nature. Those who are by nature possessions are those who have a lesser capacity for reason ... better for them to be slaves and under the rule of a master. Reasoning used to justify slavery into the 1800's.
• If what is being done is virtuous, then learning is intrinsically valuable for the individual and society - the State.

Plato and Socrates 347 - 427 BCE

• Plato suggests education is a public concern. That children, both boys and girls, should be educated to become virtuous well rounded citizens who are concerned for the well-being of human society. However, Greek schools are private and mostly for boys.
• Curriculum includes learning to read, write, count, and study of the poets: art, music, and literature for learners to develop their abilities to the fullest, which will achieve philosophic truth, for both individual justice and social justice.
• Starts The Academy in 387 BC, the first institution of higher learning in Greece. Its mission is for its students to achieve philosophic truth by question and answer; argumentation, and discussion. It continues until it is dissolved by Justin in 529 A.D.
• He rejects relativism on the basis that if each person can determine reality, then nothing is infallible. He claims this is false logic. Reasoning, if a person thinks relativism is false, then according to Protagoras , it is their reality and it would be true. Therefore, if relativism is true, it must be false. Think on that ...
• Logically and practically this means for people to be able to cooperate and make progress they must agree on a common knowledge (truth).
• Socrates develops a philosophy of education - learning happens when the teacher asks key questions. Socratic Method . Source The Republic . Key beliefs and ideas.
• Education is based on interests, abilities, and stations in life.
• Utopian ideal is to produce philosopher kings or guardians to rule the State.
• Built on Greek rhetoric : the art and process of effective public speaking. First taught by the sophists (480 BCE).
• Dialectic reasoning or dialectics ( Socratic method, Hindu, Buddhist, Medieval, Hegelian dialectics, Marxist, Talmudic, and Neo-orthodoxy), and modern debate. All involve conversations between two or more people arguing different points of view for the purpose of establishing truth with reasoned argument.
• Socrates values truth as the highest value. Truth discovered through conversation with reason and logic ( dialectic reasoning ). Logic, not emotion, to discover truth for persuasion and make choices to guide one's life. To Socrates , truth, not art, is the greater good to guide one's life. Therefore, Socrates opposes the sophists and their teaching of rhetoric as art and as emotional oratory requiring neither logic nor proof.
• Dialectic method , rhetoric , and debate can have fundamental differences. In theory debate may be considered as unemotional and committed to rational argument. However, in practice debaters can present emotionally charged ideas to suppress rational thought, hoping to persuade others to their point of view. See rhetoric (480 BCE) and sophists

Sophists - 480 - 390 BCE

In the Greek world Sophists are wise men who teach by example: skills of civic life and explore a wide range of human experiences about Greek culture. Not being Athenians, they often clash culturally and philosophically with Athenians. Among them is Protagoras

• Sophists are the first teachers of rhetoric (an art, arte , and process of effective public speaking).

A method or art of speaking or discourse/ conversation to persuade, inform, or motivate an audience. Concepts of rhetoric include:

• Pathos appeals to emotions and feelings (fear, anger, joy rest). The words sympathy and empathy are derived from pathos. You should get vaccinated or you may end up like like Kevin and Misty Mitchem an unvaccinated couple from Virginia who tragically died fifteen days apart died and let their four children orphans.
• Ethos appeal through character and credibility. The word ethics is derived from ethos. I am a doctor who has been studied vaccinations for years. I know it is safe and you should get vaccinated.
• Logos , Uses logic, reason, statistics, and data with facts and figures. Logos comes from the Greek word for reason. You should get vaccinated. Multiple studies show vaccinated people are 90% less likely to die or be hospitalized.

Aristotle gave fairly equal treatment to them all to intentionally use to persuade and convince people of a particular idea or argument. However, humans are generally more convinced with pathos than logos. We are emotional beings. Use pathos to set up ethos and logos. If that's Greek to you, then think, use emotions to set up credibility and facts presented logically to achieve persuasion. Read Aristotle's Rhetoric

• Sophists taught art and thought it has the highest value in life. Therefore, it should be used to make choices and people should seek it out in all things. The artistic quality of a speech or oration is the power it had to motivate, influence, and please people. Therefore, oration is taught as an art form, used to please, motivate, and influence other people through quality speaking.
• It is most likely the historical basis for Declamations , which are student’s interpretations of famous speeches regiven to demonstrate the student's ability to understand and apply the purpose and power of the speech and skill in public speaking. Samples
• Among the Sophists is Protagoras who claims: Man is the measure of all things . Which will be interpreted by Plato as, not being any objective truth. However, Protagoras writes: each person's own personal history, experiences and expectations, determine their judgments, opinions, and truths . Plato interprets this as relativism where each person decides what is true and false. See Plato's logic
• Protagoras tells the story of how two Titans, Prometheus and Epimetheus, steal fire. Along with arts of farming, sewing, building, language, and religious observances from the gods. When Zeus sees it he adds an extra gift: the capacity for forming friendships and cooperation so they can develop and thrive in a well managed society by learning and teaching each other. His philosophy for education and life.

Related resources:

• School: The Story of American Public Education DVD , Videos - 4 episodes, 55 minutes each

Home:   Pedagogy - theory, curriculum, learning, human development, & teaching

Dr. Robert Sweetland's notes homeofbob.com & thehob.net

Historical Timeline of Public Education in the US

1647 The General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony decrees that every town of fifty families should have an elementary school and that every town of 100 families should have a Latin school. The goal is to ensure that Puritan children learn to read the Bible and receive basic information about their Calvinist religion.

1779 Thomas Jefferson proposes a two-track educational system, with different tracks in his words for "the laboring and the learned." Scholarship would allow a very few of the laboring class to advance, Jefferson says, by "raking a few geniuses from the rubbish."

1785 The Continental Congress (before the U.S. Constitution was ratified) passes a law calling for a survey of the "Northwest Territory" which included what was to become the state of Ohio. The law created "townships," reserving a portion of each township for a local school. From these "land grants" eventually came the U.S. system of "land grant universities," the state public universities that exist today. Of course in order to create these townships, the Continental Congress assumes it has the right to give away or sell land that is already occupied by Native people.

1790 Pennsylvania state constitution calls for free public education but only for poor children. It is expected that rich people will pay for their children's schooling.

1805 New York Public School Society formed by wealthy businessmen to provide education for poor children. Schools are run on the "Lancasterian" model, in which one "master" can teach hundreds of students in a single room. The master gives a rote lesson to the older students, who then pass it down to the younger students. These schools emphasize discipline and obedience qualities that factory owners want in their workers.

1817 A petition presented in the Boston Town Meeting calls for establishing of a system of free public primary schools. Main support comes from local merchants, businessmen and wealthier artisans. Many wage earners oppose it, because they don't want to pay the taxes.

1820 First public high school in the U.S., Boston English, opens.

1827 Massachusetts passes a law making all grades of public school open to all pupils free of charge.

1830s By this time, most southern states have laws forbidding teaching people in slavery to read. Even so, around 5 percent become literate at great personal risk.

1820-1860 The percentage of people working in agriculture plummets as family farms are gobbled up by larger agricultural businesses and people are forced to look for work in towns and cities. At the same time, cities grow tremendously, fueled by new manufacturing industries, the influx of people from rural areas and many immigrants from Europe. During the 10 years from 1846 to 1856, 3.1 million immigrants arrive a number equal to one eighth of the entire U.S. population. Owners of industry needed a docile, obedient workforce and look to public schools to provide it.

1836 Slave-owner James Bowie and Indian-killer Davy Crockett are among those killed in the Battle of the Alamo in Texas, in their attempt to take Texas by force from Mexico.

1837 Horace Mann becomes head of the newly formed Massachusetts State Board of Education. Edmund Dwight, a major industrialist, thinks a state board of education was so important to factory owners that he offered to supplement the state salary with extra money of his own.

1840s Over a million Irish immigrants arrive in the United States, driven out of their homes in Ireland by the potato famine. Irish Catholics in New York City struggle for local neighborhood control of schools as a way of preventing their children from being force-fed a Protestant curriculum.

1845 The United States annexes Texas.

1846 President James Polk orders the invasion of Mexico.

Massachusetts Reform School at Westboro opens, where children who have refused to attend public schools are sent. This begins a long tradition of "reform schools," which combine the education and juvenile justice systems.

1848 The war against Mexico ends with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, which gives the United States almost half of what was then Mexico. This includes all of what is now the U.S. Southwest, plus parts of Utah, Nevada and Wyoming and most of California.The treaty guarantees citizenship rights to everyone living in these areas mostly Mexicans and Native people. It also guarantees the continued use of the Spanish language, including in education. One hundred fifty years later, in 1998, California breaks that treaty, by passing Proposition 227, which would make it illegal for teachers to speak Spanish in public schools.

1851 State of Massachusetts passes first its compulsory education law. The goal is to make sure that the children of poor immigrants get "civilized" and learn obedience and restraint, so they make good workers and don't contribute to social upheaval.

1864 Congress makes it illegal for Native Americans to be taught in their native languages. Native children as young as four years old are taken from their parents and sent to Bureau of Indian Affairs off-reservation boarding schools, whose goal, as one BIA official put it, is to "kill the Indian to save the man."

1865-1877 African Americans mobilize to bring public education to the South for the first time. After the Civil War, and with the legal end of slavery, African Americans in the South make alliances with white Republicans to push for many political changes, including for the first time rewriting state constitutions to guarantee free public education. In practice, white children benefit more than Black children.

1877-1900 Reconstruction ends in 1877 when federal troops, which had occupied the South since the end of the Civil War are withdrawn. Whites regain political control of the South and lay the foundations of legal segregation.

1893-1913 Size of school boards in the country's 28 biggest cities is cut in half. Most local district (or "ward") based positions are eliminated, in favor of city-wide elections. This means that local immigrant communities lose control of their local schools. Makeup of school boards changes from small local businessmen and some wage earners to professionals (like doctors and lawyers), big businessmen and other members of the richest classes.

1896 Plessy v. Ferguson decision. The U.S. Supreme Court rules that the state of Louisiana has the right to require "separate but equal" railroad cars for Blacks and whites. This decision means that the federal government officially recognizes segregation as legal. One result is that southern states pass laws requiring racial segregation in public schools.

1905 The U.S. Supreme Court requires California to extend public education to the children of Chinese immigrants.

1917 Smith-Hughes Act passes, providing federal funding for vocational education. Big manufacturing corporations push this, because they want to remove job skill training from the apprenticeship programs of trade unions and bring it under their own control.

1924 An act of Congress makes Native Americans U.S. citizens for the first time.

1930-1950 The NAACP brings a series of suits over unequal teachers' pay for Blacks and whites in southern states. At the same time, southern states realize they are losing African American labor to the northern cities. These two sources of pressure resulted in some increase of spending on Black schools in the South.

1932 A survey of 150 school districts reveals that three quarters of them are using so-called intelligence testing to place students in different academic tracks.

1945 At the end of World War 2, the G.I. Bill of Rights gives thousands of working class men college scholarships for the first time in U.S. history.

1948 Educational Testing Service is formed, merging the College Entrance Examination Board, the Cooperative Test Service, the Graduate Records Office, the National Committee on Teachers Examinations and others, with huge grants from the Rockefeller and Carnegie foundations. These testing services continued the work of eugenicists like Carl Brigham (originator of the SAT) who did research "proving" that immigrants were feeble-minded.

1954 Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. The Supreme Court unanimously agrees that segregated schools are "inherently unequal" and must be abolished. Almost 45 years later in 1998, schools, especially in the north, are as segregated as ever.

1957 A federal court orders integration of Little Rock, Arkansas public schools. Governor Orval Faubus sends his National Guard to physically prevent nine African American students from enrolling at all-white Central High School. Reluctantly, President Eisenhower sends federal troops to enforce the court order not because he supports desegregation, but because he can't let a state governor use military power to defy the U.S. federal government.

1968 African American parents and white teachers clash in the Ocean Hill-Brownsville area of New York City, over the issue of community control of the schools. Teachers go on strike, and the community organizes freedom schools while the public schools are closed.

1974 Milliken v. Bradley. A Supreme Court made up of Richard Nixon's appointees rules that schools may not be desegregated across school districts. This effectively legally segregates students of color in inner-city districts from white students in wealthier white suburban districts.

Late 1970s The so-called "taxpayers' revolt" leads to the passage of Proposition 13 in California, and copy-cat measures like Proposition 2-1/2 in Massachusetts. These propositions freeze property taxes, which are a major source of funding for public schools. As a result, in twenty years California drops from first in the nation in per-student spending in 1978 to number 43 in 1998.

1980s The federal Tribal Colleges Act establishes a community college on every Indian reservation, which allows young people to go to college without leaving their families.

1994 Proposition 187 passes in California, making it illegal for children of undocumented immigrants to attend public school. Federal courts hold Proposition 187 unconstitutional, but anti-immigrant feeling spreads across the country.

1996 Leading the way backwards again, California passes Proposition 209, which outlaws affirmative action in public employment, public contracting and public education. Other states jump on the bandwagon with their own initiatives and right wing elements hope to pass similar legislation on a federal level.

1998 California again! This time a multi-millionaire named Ron Unz manages to put a measure on the June 1998 ballot outlawing bilingual education in California.

• Subject List
• Take a Tour
• For Authors
• Subscriber Services
• Publications
• African American Studies
• African Studies
• American Literature
• Anthropology
• Architecture Planning and Preservation
• Art History
• Atlantic History
• Biblical Studies
• British and Irish Literature
• Childhood Studies
• Chinese Studies
• Cinema and Media Studies
• Communication
• Criminology
• Environmental Science
• Evolutionary Biology
• International Law
• International Relations
• Islamic Studies
• Jewish Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Latino Studies
• Linguistics
• Literary and Critical Theory
• Medieval Studies
• Military History
• Political Science
• Public Health
• Renaissance and Reformation
• Social Work
• Urban Studies
• Victorian Literature
• Browse All Subjects
• How to Subscribe
• Free Trials

In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section History of Education in the United States

Introduction, professional societies, revisionists, traditionalists, general histories, african americans, asian americans, higher education, native americans, women, gender, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (lbgt).

• Alternative Schools

Education Reform and Policy

Related articles expand or collapse the "related articles" section about, about related articles close popup.

Lorem Ipsum Sit Dolor Amet

Vestibulum ante ipsum primis in faucibus orci luctus et ultrices posuere cubilia Curae; Aliquam ligula odio, euismod ut aliquam et, vestibulum nec risus. Nulla viverra, arcu et iaculis consequat, justo diam ornare tellus, semper ultrices tellus nunc eu tellus.

• Desegregation and Integration
• Historical Evolution of Higher Education in the United States
• Student Engagement in Tertiary Education

Other Subject Areas

Forthcoming articles expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section.

• Cyber Safety in Schools
• Girls' Education in the Developing World
• History of Education in Europe
• Find more forthcoming articles...
• Export Citations
• Share This Facebook LinkedIn Twitter

History of Education in the United States by Christopher M. Span LAST REVIEWED: 29 October 2013 LAST MODIFIED: 29 October 2013 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0013

This annotated bibliography concentrates on the history of education in the United States. This history can be divided into two distinct areas: teacher training, and scholarship and research. Well before 1860, history of education, as a course of study, was associated with the professional education training of American teachers. To date, nearly all teacher education programs in the United States still incorporate the history of American education—even if only as part of a social foundations course—as a course requirement in its preservice teacher education programs. The assumption is that providing teachers with a general overview or survey of the most important developments in the history of education in the United States allows them to be self-reflective about the past and better understand the society in which they will teach. As a field of research, history of education has its earliest beginnings in the late 19th century, but by the mid-20th century it was a well-established field of study.

A number of journals specifically publish research on the history of education. The three most prominent journals in the field are the History of Education Quarterly (HEQ), History of Education , and Paedagogica Historica . Other important journals in the field are the American Educational History Journal , Historical Studies in Education/Revue d’histoire de l’éducation , and History of Education Review .

American Educational History Journal .

Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The official annual publication of the Organization of Educational Historians (OEH), formerly the Midwest History of Education Society (MHES). The main criteria for publication in this journal is that authors present a cogent and coherent historical analysis at its annual conference.

Find this resource:

• Google Preview»

Historical Studies in Education/Revue d’histoire de l’éducation . 1989–.

Published twice a year, in both English and French, this peer-reviewed journal is the official journal of the Canadian History of Education Association (CHEA). The journal publishes all aspect of the history of education from informal to formal schooling, and from preschool to the university, as it relates primarily to Canada.

History of Education . 1972–.

This peer-reviewed journal is the official journal of the History of Education Society in the United Kingdom. It publishes six issues a year, and its aim and scope is to provide an outlet for the publication of theoretical, methodological, and historiographical articles on the history of education in Europe, Canada, and the United States.

History of Education Review .

This is the official journal of the Australian and New Zealand History of Education Society (ANZHES). Published biannually, the international journal publishes peer-reviewed research on the history of education, focusing primarily on Australia and New Zealand.

History of Education Quarterly . 1949–.

This outstanding peer-reviewed journal is the official journal of the History of Education Society (HES). First published under this title in 1961, the journal has been the primary publication outlet for scholars who seek to publish original research on the history of education in the United States. Between 1949 and 1961, the journal was published under the title History of Education Journal .

Paedagogica Historica: International Journal of the History of Education . 1961–.

This peer-reviewed journal is one of the leading journals in the field. It is the official journal of the International Standing Conference for the History of Education (ISCHE). Published six times a year and in three languages—English, French, and German—the scope of the research in the journal discusses education issues from a historical, theoretical, and methodological perspective.

There are a number of professional societies for historians of education. These professional societies allow historians of education the opportunity to present their research findings. The most prominent are the American Educational Research Association (AERA), Division F: History and Historiography , the American Educational Studies Association (AESA) , the Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) , History of Education Society (HES) , History of Education Society, UK (HES) , the International Standing Conference for the History of Education (ISCHE) , and the Organization of Educational Historians (OEH) .

American Educational Research Association, Division F: History and Historiography .

Division F (History and Historiography) is dedicated to the study and practice of history and historiography. It is a division in the 25,000-member organization of the American Educational Research Association (AERA). It meets annually at different locations in the United States.

American Educational Studies Association .

The American Educational Studies Association (AESA) is a society primarily composed of college and university professors who teach and do research in the field of education, utilizing one or more of the liberal arts disciplines of philosophy, history, politics, sociology, anthropology, or economics, as well as comparative/international and cultural studies. It meets annually at different locations in the United States.

Association for the Study of Higher Education .

The Association for the Study of Higher Education (ASHE) is a scholarly society with about two thousand members dedicated to higher education as a field of study. It meets annually at different locations in the United States.

History of Education Society .

The History of Education Society (HES) is an international scholarly society whose purpose is to promote and improve the teaching of the history of education and encourage scholarly research in the history of education. It meets annually at different locations in the United States.

The UK History of Education Society (HES) promotes the study and teaching of history of education and is the annual conference for scholars and historians interested in presenting their research. It meets annually in the United Kingdom.

International Standing Conference for the History of Education .

The International Standing Conference for the History of Education (ISCHE) was founded in 1978 for the presentation of scholarship related to the history of education outside the United States. It meets annually at different locations in the world.

Organization of Educational Historians .

The Organization of Educational Historians (OEH) is an academic society for scholars interested in the history of education. It was formerly known as the Midwest History of Education Society. It meets annually in Chicago, Illinois.

A number of textbooks are available for the teaching of the history of education in the United States. These textbooks provide a comprehensive overview of the social, philosophical, historical, and economic foundations of education in the United States. The most noteworthy and widely used textbooks in the field are Mondale 2002 , Urban and Wagoner 2008 , Spring 2011 , and Tozer, et al. 2012 . These textbooks provide the most comprehensive information related to the social foundations of American education. An excellent documentary history of the United States is Fraser 2009 , a collection of primary sources of some of the most important personalities and milestones in the history of schools in the United States. Other textbooks that offer added value and alternative perspectives on the history of education in the United States include Gutek 2010 , Spring 2012 , and Rury 2012 .

Fraser, James W. 2009. The school in the United States: A documentary history . New York: Routledge.

This text uses primary sources to detail the educational history of the United States. Particular attention is paid to the role religion, race, language, gender, and the law played in determining who would have access to public schooling.

Gutek, Gerald L. 2010. Historical and philosophical foundations of education: A biographical introduction . 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Through the biographies of some of the leading educational theorists in the history of humanity, this textbook illustrates how education and schools evolved because of their ideas.

Mondale, Sarah. 2002. School: The story of American public education . Boston: Beacon.

This short history is a compilation of essays from esteemed scholars in the field of history of education. It chronicles the evolution of schooling in the United States from the colonial era to the near present. It is the companion book to the PBS video documentary School .

Rury, John. 2012. Education and social change: Contours in the history of American schooling . 4th ed. New York: Routledge.

This short history of American schooling concentrates on the forever changing contours and evolution of schools. Considerable analysis is spent on the educational experiences of women, African Americans, and Native Americans.

Spring, Joel. 2011. American education . 15th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

This textbook offers a comprehensive overview of the history of American education. It is revised every two years to provide up-to-date analysis on the historical, social, and legal foundation of American education. It is formatted thematically around relevant issues of the day, such as educational equity and opportunity, diversity, and the politicization of American education.

Spring, Joel. 2012. Deculturalization and the struggle for equality: A brief history of the education of dominated cultures in the United States . 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

This textbook offers a short educational history of groups—African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos, women, etc.—historically marginalized in the United States. It has a specific focus on the impact of race and racism, segregation, and the deculturalization of Native Americans.

Tozer, Steven, Guy Senese, and Paul Violas. 2012. School and society: Historical and contemporary perspectives . 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.

This textbook illustrates the how schools arose in the United States and how certain issues—such as race, gender, region, socioeconomic status, and language—determined the overall schooling experiences of children in the United States. The text relies on a triangulated analytic framework of how schools, ideology, and political economy shaped schools from the colonial era to the present.

Urban, Wayne J., and Jennings L. Wagoner Jr. 2008. American education: A history . 4th ed. New York: Routledge.

One of the most widely used textbooks on the history of education in the United States from the colonial era to the present. Well-written, and very inclusive of the diversity and ever-changing demographics of the nation, it offers an excellent chronology of the history of education (K-12 and higher education) in the United States.

Very little meaningful scholarship was published that surmised the history of education prior to 1950. Much of the pre-1950 scholarship pertained to statewide reports of schools or were cursory chapters embedded in dense tomes devoted to broader topics in the discipline of history. The earliest publications, such as Boone 1907 , Thwing 1910 , Dexter 1916 , or Cubberly 1919 , served as “house histories” or textbooks for professional teacher education courses. They were flowery narratives that chronicled the early history of schools in the United States. Minimal attention was paid to the role gender, race, religion, socioeconomic status, region, language, or special needs played in the educational experiences and lives of teachers, parents, administrators, or school children. The only publications to articulate aspects of these specifics were typically written by historians, who wrote counter-narratives to these traditional turn-of-the-century histories on American education; these works include Blandin 1909 , Woodson 1919 , Bond 1934 , and Du Bois 1935 .

Blandin, Isabella Margaret Elizabeth. 1909. History of higher education of women in the South prior to 1860 . New York: Neale.

Offers a very early history of the higher educational opportunities of women in the United States prior to the Civil War. Particular attention is paid to women’s access to college in the South and the type of curriculum they were offered. Very little can be discerned as to what impact these collegiate experiences had on these women’s lives.

Bond, Horace Mann. 1934. The education of the Negro in the American social order . New York: Prentice-Hall.

First full-length history of the African American educational experience in the United States from the end of the Civil War to the contemporary present. Considerable attention is paid to the perceived role African Americans were to play in society, because this determined the type of schooling opportunities they would be afforded.

Boone, Richard Gause. 1907. Education in the United States . New York: Appleton.

Offers a flowery and cursory overview of the earliest examples of schooling in the United States. Illustrates the differentiation in education—theological education, legal education, medical education, teacher training, etc.—at the time. Book is available through Google e-books.

Cubberly, Ellwood P. 1919. Public education in the United States: A study and interpretation of American educational history . New York: Houghton Mifflin.

This work is an early textbook that illustrates the history of schooling in the United States from the colonial era to the early 20th century. Particular attention is paid to colonial Massachusetts, educational developments in the early republic, and the reorganization of the nation’s system of schools following the Civil War. Book is available through Google e-books.

Dexter, Edwin Grant. 1916. A history of education in the United States . London: Macmillan.

An early textbook that offers a chronological history of schools in the United States from colonial Virginia to the beginning of the 20th century. Teacher training programs, higher education institutions, and regional analyses is the primary focus of the book. Book is available through Google e-books.

Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt. 1935. Founding the public school. Chapter 15 in Black Reconstruction in America: An essay toward a history on the part which black folk played in the attempt to reconstruct democracy in America, 1860–1880 . By William Edward Burghardt Du Bois. London: Oxford Univ. Press.

Magnificent social history on the role African Americans played in the social, political, economic, and educational reconstruction of the American South following the Civil War. The book provides the first comprehensive assessment on the founding of public education in the American South and the role former slaves played in this development.

Thwing, Charles Franklin. 1910. A history of education in the United States since the Civil War . New York: Houghton Mifflin.

Offers a romantic overview of the major philosophical thoughts and organizational practices that defined schooling in the United States following the Civil War. Very little attention is paid to the diverse demographics of the nation and their schooling experiences, or how time, region, or context impacted the development of schools during this era. Book is available through Google e-books.

Woodson, Carter G. 1919. The education of the Negro prior to 1861: A history of the education of the colored people of the United States from the beginning of slavery to the Civil War . Washington, DC: Associated Publishers.

Arguably the first history devoted to the education of African Americans in the United States. Great attention is paid to the role education played in the lives of enslaved and freeborn African Americans in the North and South, and how religion served as the primary catalyst for the earliest schooling opportunities of African Americans. Book is available through Google e-books.

It was only in the 1950s, as history of education came under assault by schools and colleges of education across the nation, that scholars in the field began to write a completely different kind of history of both the purpose of schooling and the pedagogical value of history of education in the teacher-training curriculum. Historians such as Arthur Bestor spurred this shift (see Bestor 1953 ). He argued that schools or colleges of education were failing to train teachers to understand the past to educate the present and future. Historians of education responded in a series of publications defending the functionality and relevance of both their pedagogy and field of expertise. The most prominent of these publications came in a series of articles published in the first three issues of Volume 7 of the History of Education Journal in 1955–1956. The general themes of the issue focused on the past, present, and future role of history of education in the teacher-training curriculum, preparation of doctoral students as future academicians, and the advancement of scholarship based on original sources and research. Key texts in this effort were Butts and Cremin 1953 , Cremin 1955 , Cremin 1956 , and Anderson 1956 , written by three of the most prominent historians in the field. Some historians, such as Louis Harlan, wrote histories to explain contemporary issues, such as legal segregation in public schools ( Harlan 1958 ). It was another way of demonstrating the functional role the history of education played in addressing some of the most pressing problems in American education.

Anderson, Archibald W. 1956. Bases of proposals concerning the history of education. History of Education Journal 7.2: 37–98.

Establishes the premise that the history of education as a course of study in the professional development of teachers is very functional and needed to enhance the everyday knowledge of teachers in their professional careers.

Bestor, Arthur. 1953. Educational wastelands: The retreat from learning in our public schools . Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.

Scathing critique of the educational philosophy, curriculum, and practices of schools during the Progressive Era. Bestor calls on the nation to abandon Progressive educational reform because he felt the nation’s schoolchildren had regressed under its guise. He calls for a return to the traditional curriculum that heavily emphasized literacy, rhetoric, and numeracy.

Butts, R. Freeman, and Lawrence Cremin. 1953. A history of education in American culture . New York: Holt.

Offers a detailed overview of the history of education in the United States and synthesizes the aesthetics of American iconography and culture into this analysis. The central argument is that the way schools developed and evolved in the United States, writ large, is unique compared to any other nation-state.

Cremin, Lawrence A. 1955. The recent development of the history of education as a field of study in the United States. History of Education Journal 7.1: 1–35.

Offers a short overview of the role the history of education has played in the professional development of teachers in the United States, and why it is necessary for the field to remain in colleges or schools of education rather than shift to departments of history.

Cremin, Lawrence A. 1956. The role of the history of education in the professional preparation of teachers: Recommendations of the committee. History of Education Journal 7.3: 99–132.

This article lists five recommendations as to how history of education can continue to play a prominent role in the professional preparation of teachers, colleges of education, and the discipline of history.

Harlan, Louis R. 1958. Separate and unequal: Public school campaigns and racism in the southern seaboard states, 1900–1915 . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

First book to illustrate in great detail the impact racism had on the educational advancement of African Americans in the first decades of the 20th century. Written during the mass movements for human freedom in the United States, it utilizes the struggles of the times as the primary impetus for retracing this educational history.

History of education evolved tremendously during these two decades as a distinct field of study. In addition to more detailed histories being written on the development of systems of education in the United States and abroad, historians of this time period began to write about the challenges facing contemporary society and how schools have been historically called upon to answer or provide remedy to these challenges. Bailyn 1960 , Cremin 1961 , Karier 1967 , Katz 1968 , and Tyack 1974 all established the argument that schools shaped the progress of the United States. How schools developed and evolved in essence determined the progress of society. As such, many publications during this time period both promoted and challenged the premise that schooling was the panacea to societal problems. No longer was there a uniformed opinion on why schools were created, that they were positive developments, or what their overall purpose was in the nation. The historians who wrote in this era can be divided into two distinct groups: revisionists and traditionalists (discussed in detail in the next two subsections). The histories written by both groups pushed the boundaries of how the history of American education was previously written. They synthesized the history of education into broader considerations in American history; they illustrated both the success and failures of schooling in the United States; and they disaggregated populations such as students, teachers, communities, administrators, theorists, and school communities to provide a more nuanced history of how systems of education evolved in the United States.

Bailyn, Bernard. 1960. Education in the forming of American society: Needs and opportunities for study . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

Provides a broader definition of education to illustrate the fundamental shifts in American education. Education was not just the formal pedagogy or practice of teaching in schools; it was the entirety of the American culture transmitted from one generation to the next. Ideology, political economy, and schools all shaped and reshaped each other, and this, in turn, formed American society.

Cremin, Lawrence A. 1961. The transformation of the school: Progressivism in American education, 1876–1957 . New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Details the rise and decline of Progressive education in the United States. Similar to Bailyn, the book expands the definition of education to include the myriad of cultures in American society.

Karier, Clarence J. 1967. Man, society, and education: A history of American educational ideas . Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.

This book presents a history of the history of educational ideas and how they shaped American society and schools. It directly challenges earlier and contemporary histories that argued that schooling is by nature good for society. Karier argues that no real differences existed between liberalism and conservativism, since proponents of both ideologies deemed schools to be beneficial to societal advancement.

Katz, Michael. 1968. The irony of early school reform: Education innovation in mid-nineteenth century Massachusetts . Boston: Beacon.

Offers an analysis of the development of schooling in Massachusetts during the 19th century. It particularly details the philosophies and practices of Massachusetts educational reformers. Whereas early histories offered sweeping overviews of the development of schools in Massachusetts, Katz situates his history in what he called a “small, concrete situation,” (p. 15) to illustrate how schools evolved in Massachusetts.

Tyack, David B. 1974. The one best system: A history of American urban education . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

This history details the origins and challenges of education in urban America. It discusses the rise of massive levels of educational bureaucracy, decentralization, standardized testing, segregation, and ability tracking, and how education theorists and bureaucrats sought to develop one system of education to best meet the needs of all, regardless of their differences in access, ability, and outcome.

Some historians, including those mentioned in the previous section, insisted that schooling was rarely if ever beneficial to everyone in the United States. They sought to offer a revision or corrective history to earlier or contemporary histories that offered interpretations that schooling was universally beneficial to the advancement of the nation and its citizenry. Revisionist historians argued in their respective publications that schools in the 18th, 19th, and first half of the 20th century were not beneficial to most Americans. These works include Karier 1972 ; Karier, et al. 1973 ; Clifford 1975 ; Bowles and Gintis 1976 ; Katz 1976 ; Webber 1978 ; Franklin 1979 ; and Butchart 1980 . They argued that schools were established to replicate the status quo, to control discontent, to control the educational access and outcomes of marginalized populations, to be an engine for coercive assimilation, to determine access of opportunity to limited resources, to simply prepare individuals for employment, and a host of other factors. Using an array of primary source evidence, these historians set out to write the educational histories of how schools and society advanced democracy for some literally at the expense of others. Their emphasis pertained to writing histories of people who had been historically marginalized or simply denied schooling altogether. Their histories illustrated that schools were particularly harmful or unbeneficial, in general, to women, African Americans, Native Americans, Latinos, the poor, and immigrants.

Bowles, Samuel, and Herbert Gintis. 1976. Schooling in capitalist America: Education reform and the contradictions of economic life . New York: Basic Books.

Offers a quantitative and economic regression analysis of how schools have served to advance capitalism in the United States at the expense of advancing the overall livelihood of the average citizen. Discusses the uneven distribution of school resources, the origins of standardized testing, and the impact of intergenerational wealth and poverty on school performance and outcome.

Butchart, Ronald E. 1980. Northern schools, southern blacks, and Reconstruction . Westport, CT: Greenwood.

A corrective history to earlier publications written on the role of northern teachers who taught freedpeople during and after the Civil War. Previous scholarship was deeply sympathetic to the South’s defeat following the Civil War. This book challenged this historiography and illustrates a more accurate portrayal of the northern teachers who taught African Americans—free and freed.

Clifford, Geraldine Joncich. 1975. Saints, sinners, and people: A position paper on the historiography of American education. History of Education Quarterly 15.3: 257–272.

DOI: 10.2307/367844 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This Division F Vice-Presidential Address details the more recent publications in the history of education and suggests future directions of where the field should continue to grow and conduct research. A comprehensive bibliography of all the known publications on the history of education in the Midwest.

Franklin, Vincent P. 1979. The education of black Philadelphia: The social and education history of a minority community, 1900–1950 . Philadelphia: Univ. of Pennsylvania Press.

A detailed history on the education of African Americans in Philadelphia. The book illustrates how African Americans were purposefully denied a quality education because they were thought to be inferior to whites. It also shows that the type of schooling afforded to African Americans served more as an impediment to the group’s social advancement rather than as a resource.

Karier, Clarence J. 1972. Liberalism and the quest for orderly change. History of Education Quarterly 12.1: 57–80.

DOI: 10.2307/367148 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Offered a sharp critique of liberalism as an ideology for social change and good with regard to schools, particularly when there is a crisis or difficult situation. The essay is the first of its kind to offer a critical assessment of John Dewey, the Progressive Era, and the limited impact schools have had in addressing systemic and structural problems in society.

Karier, Clarence J., Paul C. Violas, and Joel Spring. 1973. Roots of crisis: American education in the twentieth century . Chicago: Rand McNally.

This book offers a revisionist history of education in the first half of the 20th century. It challenges established interpretations that important personalities and milestones in education in the United States were not producers of social good, but instead were producers and maintainers of social control. This book quickly became the standard for revisionist educational history.

Katz, Michael. 1976. The origins of public education: A reassessment. History of Education Quarterly 16.4: 381–407.

DOI: 10.2307/367722 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This article offers a revisionist critique and response to scholars opposed to Katz’s interpretation and findings in The Irony of Early School Reform ( Katz 1968 , cited under 1960–1980 ). It offers additional interpretation as to why and how public schools in the United States were established and what outcomes can be ascertained from their development and maintenance.

Webber, Thomas L. 1978. Deep Like the Rivers: Education in the Slave Quarter Community, 1831–1865 . New York: W. W. Norton.

First comprehensive study of the formal and informal education of enslaved African Americans during the antebellum era.

Contemporaries of revisionist historians were quick to respond and defend their historical interpretations that proffered schooling as essentially the quintessential hallmark of American democracy. Historians such as Jill Conway, Lawrence Cremin, Edward Krug, and Diane Ravitch argued that schooling contributed to a more productive economy, gave the average citizen greater access to resources and opportunities, and alleviated societal ills (see Conway 1974 , Cremin 1970 , Cremin 1980 , Krug 1972 , Ravitch 1974 , and Ravitch 1978 ). Despite the limited progress some groups in the United States had achieved, schools were not the primary culprit of their underdevelopment, according to these historians; instead, it was the very reason many individuals within these marginalized groups achieved economic and social mobility. Schools were a story of democracy at its best, of places where opportunities abounded if one applied one’s talents, and of places that defined the very meaning of societal progress. Without schools there would be no societal advancement, so schools, according to traditionalists, were not as detrimental as the revisionists wrote. Notwithstanding this belief, the challenge for traditionalist historians was that as primary source evidence became increasingly available, and as people from historically marginalized or denied populations demanded their histories be written and told, it became nearly impossible to adhere to the interpretation that schools did more good than harm in remedying the needs and wants of these, and many other, groups in American society. As such, fewer and fewer histories were written from this perspective in the decades that followed.

Conway, Jill K. 1974. Perspectives on the history of women’s education in the United States. History of Education Quarterly 14.1: 1–12.

DOI: 10.2307/367602 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Offers a brief overview of the early educational opportunities of women in the United States. The article is part of a themed issue in the Quarterly on “Reinterpreting Women’s Education.”

Cremin, Lawrence A. 1970. American education: The colonial experience, 1607–1783 . New York: Harper & Row.

The first of a three-volume synthesis of the history of American education. The books adheres to the argument that American culture—an American Paideia —defined how schools and democracy, writ large, would be developed in colonial America and beyond.

Cremin, Lawrence A. 1980. American education: The national experience, 1783–1876 . New York: Harper & Row.

The second of Cremin’s three-volume synthesis on the history of American education. Despite the greater emphasis on specificity of example and analysis in other contemporary histories of education, the book still adheres to a broad definition and interpretation of education. This interpretive framework made it difficult to assess the strengths and limitations of schooling in the United States during this time period.

Krug, Edward A. 1972. The shaping of the American high school, 1920–1941 . Madison, WI: Univ. of Wisconsin Press.

Offers one of the earliest and most complete histories of the rise of the high school during the Progressive Era.

Ravitch, Diane. 1974. The great school wars: New York City, 1805–1973; A history of the public schools as battlefield of social change . New York: Basic Books.

Details the early educational history of the denouncement of the common school model in New York City. The book highlights the influential work of Catholic Bishop John Hughes, who singlehandedly defended the culture and religion of Irish Catholics in the city, the rise of parochial education as an alternative to public schooling, and how New York City public schools evolved in the 20th century.

Ravitch, Diane. 1978. The revisionists revised: A critique of the radical attack on the schools . New York: Basic Books.

A series of essays that challenge contemporary histories written by historians critical of historical scholarship, and emphasizing the progress schooling historically had on society.

1981–Present

Since 1980, scholarship in history of education has become more nuanced, complicated, and abundant. Every possible topic related to the field of education has been effectively research by historians of education. Some areas—such as the African American educational experience, the history of higher education, women’s educational experiences, and the history teachers in the United States—have been more thoroughly research than other areas—such as the history of special education, or the Asian American, Native American, and Latino educational experience. These subsections contain the foremost publications in each of these respective areas.

There are a number of general histories in the field of history of education that provide excellent insights regarding the development and advancements of schools in the United States. Histories such as Kaestle 1983 , Ravitch 1983 , Mirel 1993 , Beatty 1995 , Tyack and Cuban 1995 , Angus and Mirel 1999 , Donato and Lazerson 2000 , and Graham 2005 are still the standard interpretations in their respective field of specialty in history of education. These publications vary in style and emphasis. Some are longitudinal regional studies, and others are more concise state or case studies. Nonetheless, all are well researched and/or ask questions relevant to future directions of the field of history of education. They illustrate to current and future historians how to effectively use evidence and historical methodology to write histories of education relevant to questions and concerns in the present, and to American history in general.

Angus, David F., and Jeffrey E. Mirel. 1999. The failed promise of the American high school, 1890–1995 . New York: Teachers College.

This book is a reinterpretation of the history of the high school in the United States. It illustrates the rise of the differentiated curriculum, struggles over educational equity, and the perceived role of the high school in preparing youth for citizenship and employment. Latter chapters offer insight as to how the federal educational reform of the 1980s shaped educational outcomes and curriculum.

Beatty, Barbara. 1995. Preschool education: The culture of young children from the colonial era to the present . New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

This book offers a comprehensive history that details the policies and programs that shaped preschool education in the United States from the colonial era to the present. This well-researched book illustrates that preschools, despite their effectiveness in preparing children for formal schooling at the elementary level, have not been universally accepted as part of the public school system.

Donato, Ruben, and Marvin Lazerson. 2000. New directions in American educational history: Problems and prospects. Educational Researcher 29.4: 4–15.

DOI: 10.3102/0013189X029008004 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Important article that discusses the state of the field and the role historians of education will need to play in 21st-century educational reform. Forty historians of education gathered to reflect upon the past and speculate about the future of the field.

Graham, Patricia A. 2005. Schooling America: How the public schools meet the nation’s changing needs . New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

This book is a comprehensive history of schooling in the 20th century. Assimilation, desegregation, access to special education programs for the gifted and disabled, and the role everyday people play in the education of children are all illustrated in this magnificent publication.

Kaestle, Carl F. 1983. Pillars of the republic: Common schools and American society, 1780–1860 . New York: Hill and Wang.

This book still serves as the standard in the field on the history of common schools in the United States. Kaestle details the development of public schools being funded through local taxation, the establishment of teacher education training institutes, the debates over the uniformity of a standard curriculum, and the overall purpose that schools served in 19th-century America.

Mirel, Jeffrey. 1993. The rise and fall of an urban school system: Detroit, 1907–81 . Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.

This book is an excellent, well-research history on the Detroit public school system in the 20th century. Arguably the most detailed case study of a major metropolis ever published in the field.

Ravitch, Diane. 1983. The troubled crusade: American education, 1945–1980 . New York: Basic Books.

This book traces the educational developments of the mid-20th century. It argues that educational reforms during the mid-20th century were mediocre at best, and offers an interpretation of why schools failed during this era.

Tyack, David, and Larry Cuban. 1995. Tinkering toward Utopia: A century of public school reform . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

This book asks great questions about the role of educational reform, why society thinks schools have regressed, and why it is so difficult to change or shift school culture and practices. It is an excellent resource for anyone interested in assessing current school reform with past considerations.

One subfield of history of education that has been well researched is the educational history of African Americans. The standard interpretation in this subfield is provided by Anderson 1988 . Most histories written after this important publication either reference or borrow the important theses proffered by Anderson. The best historiographic essay published in this subfield is Butchart 1988 . The other publications listed in this subsection— Walker 1996 , Williams 2005 , Fairclough 2007 , Moss 2009 , Span 2009 , and Butchart 2010 —are quickly becoming standard interpretations in the field, as they extend one’s understanding of the educational history of African Americans from their arrival in 1619 to the present.

Anderson, James D. 1988. The education of blacks in the South, 1860–1935 . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

DOI: 10.5149/uncp/9780807842218 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Pioneering study, arguably the best book ever written on the subject. This book is still the standard interpretation in the field regarding the education of African Americans in the South. Virtually all publications related to the history of the African American educational experience have either complemented or challenged the central and subsidiary theses in this book since its initial publication.

Butchart, Ronald E. 1988. “Outthinking and outflanking the owners of the world”: A historiography of the African American struggle for education. History of Education Quarterly 28.3: 333–366.

DOI: 10.2307/369087 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

To date, the only historiographical essay on the African American educational experience. Provides tremendous insight with regards to the ways historians and social scientists wrote the earliest educational histories of African Americans.

Butchart, Ronald E. 2010. Schooling the freed people: Teaching, learning, and the struggle for black freedom, 1861–1876 . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

Rich in primary source evidence, and extremely well written, this book offers an excellent reinterpretation of the teachers who taught southern blacks following the Civil War. Answers to questions such as who the teachers were, where they came from, and what they taught are all provided in great detail in this magnificent history.

Fairclough, Adam. 2007. A class of their own: Black teachers in the segregated South . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Pioneering study on the lives of African American teachers in the segregated South. The book adds a much-needed layer of complexity to the lives of these teachers and is a far departure from the general assessment that African American teachers were powerless in the face of segregation by law.

Moss, Hillary J. 2009. Schooling citizens: The struggle for African American education in antebellum America . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226542515.001.0001 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A magnificent study that traces the early schooling opportunities of African Americans in three antebellum cities. The book highlights the tension between the rise of universal schooling for all and the rise of systemic racism that precluded African Americans from being able to gain full access to public schools and other accommodations of public life.

Span, Christopher M. 2009. From cotton field to schoolhouse: African American education in Mississippi, 1862–1875 . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

Excellent case study of African American education following the Civil War. The book illustrates the educational motivation of formerly enslaved African Americans in Mississippi and how they sought to develop a system of schools for themselves and their children. It is the first comprehensive history of African American education in Mississippi.

Walker, Vanessa Siddle. Their highest potential: An African American school community in the segregated South . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1996.

DOI: 10.5149/uncp/9780807845813 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Groundbreaking case study on a segregated school community in North Carolina. Through primary source evidence and interviews, Walker illustrates how one African American school community succeeded in providing a nurturing educational environment to its students. This book is required reading for anyone doing research on the African American educational experience in the 20th century.

Williams, Heather Andrea. 2005. Self-taught: African American education in slavery and freedom . Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press.

This book is the standard interpretation in the field as it relates to the role African Americans played in advancing their own education during and after the Civil War. It is arguably the best book in the field on the subject.

This subfield in the history of education in the United States is an emerging field of inquiry. The standard interpretations— Ng, et al. 2007 ; Pak 2001 ; Tamara 1994 ; and Tamara 2001 —illustrate the educational histories of Asian Americans and their important contributions to the United States. Asian Americans have been advocating for equal schooling in the United States since the mid-19th century. These publications are important because they offer corrective histories to past publications that ignored or underresearched the educational experiences of Asian Americans in the history of schooling in the United States.

Ng, Jennifer C., Sharon S. Lee, and Yoon K. Pak. 2007. Contesting the model minority and perpetual foreigner stereotypes: A critical review of literature on Asian Americans in education. Review of Research in Education 31.1:95–130.

DOI: 10.3102/0091732X06298015 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Excellent historiography of the Asian American educational experience and the challenges this group has historically faced in the United States. It is a must read for any interested in this field of inquiry.

Pak, Yoon K. 2001. Wherever I go I will always be a loyal American: Seattle’s Japanese American schoolchildren during World War II . New York: Routledge.

This book is the standard interpretation in the field and illustrates the educational history of Japanese American schoolchildren during World War II. Pak interviews some of these children as adults to further detail this painful history. The combined use of oral and archival history makes for a narrative that is both methodologically sound and engaging.

Tamara, Eileen H. 1994. Americanization, acculturation, and ethnic identity: The Nisei generation in Hawaii . Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.

Exceptional history that examines the widespread discrimination against the Nisei—children of Japanese immigrants—experienced in Hawaii during World War II. Well written and well researched, this book is one of the earliest histories on the Asian American experience in the United States.

Tamara, Eileen H. 2001. Asian Americans in the History of Education: An Historiographical Essay. History of Education Quarterly 41.1: 58–71.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5959.2001.tb00074.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A historiographical essay that details the limited research and publications related to the educational history of Asian Americans.

Higher education, as a subfield of the history of education, has a long history. Midcentury publications such as Rudolf 1962 and Veysey 1965 still serve as important interpretations in the field. More contemporary histories offer a more detailed overview of higher education in general. The most notable of these publications are Lucas 1994 and Thelin 2004 . Thelin 2004 is the standard interpretation in this subfield. More recent scholarship, notably Gasman 2007 and Loss 2011 , has positioned the impact higher education has had on the overall development of the everyday citizen, or on those institutions of higher education that have been historically marginalized, such as the historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs). There is also a growing body of scholarship on the history and impact of the community college, the most notable being Brint and Karabel 1989 .

Brint, Steven, and Jerome Karabel. 1989. The diverted dream: Community colleges and the promise of educational opportunity in America, 1900–1985 . New York: Oxford Univ. Press.

This book details the rise and evolution of the community college in the United States. It illustrates the important role it played in offering higher educational opportunities to adults unable or uninterested in attending a traditional four-year baccalaureate university. This book is one of the earliest comprehensive histories on the community college.

Gasman, Marybeth. 2007. Envisioning black colleges: A history of the United Negro College Fund . Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press.

This book addresses an important gap in the historiography of higher education as it relates to philanthropy and African American education. It demonstrates the struggles historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) have faced since their creation in the late 19th century to sustain themselves in the wake of ever-increasing costs and dwindling revenue.

Loss, Christopher P. 2011. Between citizens and the state: The politics of American higher education in the 20th century . Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.

Informative social history that deepens our understanding of American higher education. The book illustrates the meaningful role higher education has had in shaping progress in the American social order.

Lucas, Christopher J. 1994. American Higher Education: A History . New York: St. Martin’s.

This book offers a general overview of the history of higher education in the United States. It illustrates that the origins of higher education in the United States come from Europe, and it chronicles important events and developments that shaped the history of higher education in the United States.

Rudolf, Frederick. 1962. The American college and university: A history . New York: Knopf.

This book was the first to offer a detailed history of higher education in the United States. Despite the outgrowth of higher education opportunities in the United States in its publication, the book is still deemed a standard in the field.

Thelin, John R. 2004. A history of American higher education . Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press.

Magnificent publication and the standard interpretation in the field on the history of higher education. This book details the long history of higher education in the United States from the colonial era to the present. It is a must read by any in the field of the history of higher education.

Veysey, Laurence R. 1965. The emergence of the American university . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

This book is a complementary publication to Rudolf’s history of higher education in the United States ( Rudolf 1962 ). Veysey concentrates on the development of the American university at the close of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century. He offers a more nuanced assessment of the everyday experiences of students, faculty, and administrators in the university setting.

Since the 1980s, historians of education have chronicled the educational experiences of Native Americans. The standard interpretation in this specific subfield of the history of education is Adams 1995 . Virtually all other important contributions in this subfield— Lomawaima 1995 , Deyhle and Swisher 1997 , Szasz 1999 , Reyhner and Eder 2004 , and Lawrence 2011 —reference or complement the theses offered by Adams. The challenges Native Americans faced in the United States are unique to any other population, and historians of this era have chronicled this history well. From their earliest informal educational experiences among English colonists in the early 17th century to the present, no group in the United States has had their overall livelihood obstructed and altered as have Native Americans.

Adams, David Wallace. 1995. Education for extinction: American Indians and the boarding school experience, 1875–1928 . Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas.

Offers the first comprehensive history of boarding schools for Native Americans in the United States. Arguably the best book written thus far on the history of Native American education.

Deyhle, Donna, and Karen Swisher. 1997. Research in American Indian and Alaska Native education: From assimilation to self-determination. Review of Research in Education 22:113–194.

Extensive review of literature on the educational experiences and history of Native Americans. Arguably the most comprehensive review of literature on the subject.

Lawrence, Adrea. 2011. Lessons from an Indian day school: Negotiating colonization in northern New Mexico, 1902–1907 . Lawrence: Univ. Press of Kansas.

This book offers a biographical sketch of two educators in an Indian day school in Santa Clara Pueblo in northern New Mexico. It addresses important gaps in the historiography of Native American education.

Lomawaima, K. Tsianina. 1995. They called it prairie light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School . Lincoln: Univ. of Nebraska Press.

History of an off-reservation boarding school designed to assimilate Native American children into white Anglo-Saxon Protestant culture. It utilizes the first-person testimonies of former students to both recall the hardships of attending the school and the love and support they developed with their fellow students while attending Chilocco.

Reyhner, Jon, and Jeanne Eder. 2004. American Indian education: A history . Norman: Univ. of Oklahoma Press.

A comprehensive history of Native American education from the precolonial era to the present. Thematically written, the book offers an excellent synopsis of the events, developments, and personalities that shaped schooling for Native Americans in the United States.

Szasz, Margaret Connell. 1999. Education and the American Indian: The road to self-determination since 1928 . 3d ed. Albuquerque: Univ. of New Mexico Press.

This book traces the evolution of the federal reforms related to Native American education from the 1928 Meriam Report to the passage of the Indian Education Act in 1972. It is the first comprehensive history to detail the education of Native Americans and their struggles both in and outside of schools in the 20th century.

Another emerging subfield in the history of education in recent decades is the history of Latinos in the United States. The majority of publications in this subfield have offered case studies of the educational experiences of people of Mexican, Central American, Puerto Rican, and South American origin. More recent contributions such as McDonald 2001 and McDonald 2004 extend our understanding of the long educational history of Latinos in the United States. McDonald’s scholarship also points to how this group has been misrepresented and under-studied in the field of history of education. Much of the scholarship on Latinos has concentrated on their schooling experiences in the 20th century. San Miguel 1987 , San Miguel 2001 , Gonzalez 1990 , and Donato 1997 have all established important interpretations of the agency and expectations of Latinos in the California, Colorado, and Texas, and during important milestones in American history such as the rise of compulsory schooling and the high school during the Progressive Era (1910–1940) and the civil rights movement (1954–1968).

Donato, Ruben. 1997. The other struggle for equal schools: Mexican Americans during the civil rights era . Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.

An excellent book on the educational history of Mexican Americans during the Civil War. Emphasis is placed on the role Mexican Americans played in advancing the legal and educational rights of all in American society. The book addresses an important gap in the civil rights historiography.

Gonzalez, Gilbert G. 1990. Chicano education in the era of segregation . Philadelphia: Balch Institute.

This book examines the history of Chicano education in the American Southwest between 1910 and 1950. It illustrates the immense inequality Chicanos faced with regard to schools, economic opportunities, and political empowerment. It also proffers that the type of segregated schooling Chicanos received made them a permanent and subordinate underclass in American society during this era.

McDonald, Victoria-María. 2001. Hispanic, Latino, Chicano, or “Other”?: Deconstructing the relationship between historians and Hispanic-American educational history. History of Education Quarterly 41.3: 365–413.

DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5959.2001.tb00093.x Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Historiographical essay on the educational history of Spanish-speaking people in the United States. The article is both a survey and critical examination of the historical works written on this group. It is a must read for anyone in this specific field of inquiry.

McDonald, Victoria-María, ed. 2004. Latino education in the United States: A narrated history from 1513–2000 . New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

A documentary history of Latino education from 1513 to 2000. First documentary history to detail the different educational experiences of Spanish-speaking people in the United States. An important contribution to an ever-growing field of study.

San Miguel, Guadalupe, Jr. 1987. “Let all of them take heed”: Mexican Americans and the campaign for educational equality in Texas, 1910–1981 . Austin: Univ. of Texas Press.

This history illustrates the efforts of Mexican Americans to achieve educational equality in Texas in the 20th century. It is a well-researched and well-written book that documents the challenges segregation and inferior schooling posed for Mexican American children.

San Miguel, Guadalupe, Jr.. 2001. Brown not white: School integration and the Chicano movement in Houston . College Station: Texas A & M Univ. Press.

This book offers a comprehensive history of the efforts of Chicanos in Houston to achieve public school integration. The book illustrates the complexities of concepts like race and ethnicity and highlights how local white officials sought to legally define Chicanos as “white” in order to achieve their desegregation efforts and avoid sending white children to school with African Americans and Latinos.

In recent years, no subgroup has been more thoroughly researched in the field of history of education than women. Since the beginning of the 20th century, historians have written about or included the educational experiences of women, but these histories were generally flowery descriptions of their inclusion in education settings. Since the 1980s, however, countless scholars have historicized the role women have played as active agents of change in schools. Solomon 1985 and Eisenmann 2007 contextualize their role as students in both K-12 and higher education very well. Few works have articulated their roles or identities as teachers better than Rousmaniere 1997 , Weiler 1998 , Blount 2006 , and Graves 2009 . In addition, Gordon 1990 and Nash 2005 , general overview histories on the education of women in the United States, provide excellent context and depth on the role women have played as administrators, parents, and advocates.

Blount, Jackie M. 2006. Fit to teach: Same-sex desire, gender, and school work in the twentieth century . Albany: State Univ. of New York Press.

This book is the standard interpretation in the field. It is impressively researched and is arguably the most important book published on the subject. It is the first comprehensive history on same-sex issues in public schools in the United States.

Gordon, Lynn D. 1990. Gender and higher education in the Progressive Era . New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Early history on the women in higher education during the Progressive Era. It highlights the second generation of women to attend college and how this group of women differed from their predecessors.

Graves, Karen L. 2009. And they were wonderful teachers: Florida’s purge of gay and lesbian teachers . Urbana: Univ. of Illinois Press.

This book is the first state study to historicize the challenges gay and lesbian teachers faced in their profession. It is an important contribution to a growing body of historical research on gay and lesbian experiences in schools in the United States.

Eisenmann, Linda. 2007. Higher education for women in postwar America, 1945–1965 . Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ.

Groundbreaking book about the impact higher education opportunities had on women following World War II. It is the standard interpretation in the field and is a must read for historians of higher education and women.

Nash, Margaret A. 2005. Women’s education in the United States, 1780–1840 . New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Comprehensive national study on women in higher education. This book is another standard interpretation in the field that highlights the social, economic, and cultural forces that shaped and reshaped the educational experiences of women in the 18th and 19th centuries. It is an extremely important book in the field.

Rousmaniere, Kate. 1997. City teachers: Teaching and school reform in historical perspective . New York: Teachers College.

Arguably the best book written on the history of teaching. Rousmaniere interviews teachers from the 1920s and combines their testimonies with an astonishing cache of archival source materials. It is the first history to utilize the firsthand perspective of former teachers.

Solomon, Barbara. 1985. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education in America . New Haven, CT: Yale Univ. Press.

Early comprehensive history of women in higher education. It reads as a contributionist history that acknowledges a major gap in the historiography of higher education at the time, when women were excluded from such analyses.

Weiler, Kathleen. 1998. Country schoolwomen: Teaching in rural California, 1850–1950 . Stanford, CA: Stanford Univ. Press.

This book focuses on the lives of female teachers in rural California. It offers an excellent social history and biographical sketch of the successes and challenges of teachers on the frontier.

Scholarship on alternative schooling is growing in the United States. Ravitch 1974 was one of the first to offer a history of Catholic or parochial schools in the United States; this was the first alternative school system in the United States. This book was followed up by a short history, Buetow 1986 . In recent decades, many more publications have concentrated on alternative school models to public schooling. Home schooling, the rise of charter schools, and the new push to offer virtual public schooling all serve as examples of the evolution of alternative schools in the United States. Holt 1964 was the first to articulate the need for another alternative to public, private, and parochial schools, and Holt questioned the way federal educational reforms like the National Defense Education Act (1958) changed what children would learn in school. His efforts led to the push for home schooling in the United States. During the 1980s and 1990s, the federal report A Nation at Risk similarly forced many Americans to rethink the advantages of public schools. It was during these decades that many parents chose to send their children to a parochial or charter school rather than a traditional public school. Arguably the best educational history on these contemporary issues regarding alternative schooling is Labaree 2007 .

Buetow, Harold A. 1986. A history of United States Catholic schooling . New York: National Catholic Education.

Short history of Catholic schooling in the United States. Illustrates the earliest establishment of the Catholic school system in New York City, the three plenaries of the 19th century, and how Catholic schools evolved in the 20th century.

Holt, John. 1964. How children fail . New York: Pitman.

Nonfiction polemic on the impact federal educational reform and poor public school options had on children reaching their highest potential. Holt argues that one remedy to the poor preparation schoolchildren received from their educational environments was for parents to educate their children at home. This book ushered in the rise of home schooling in the United States.

Labaree, David F. 2007. Education, markets, and the public good: Selected works of David F. Labaree . London: Routledge.

This books details the market indicators that impact public schools. The collection of essays in the book challenges the notion that education is a necessary public good and that alternative models of schooling such as vouchers, charter schools, and parochial schools are necessary disruptors to ensure that all children receive a high-quality education in the United States.

Historians of education in the United States have also written on education reform and policy and their impact on schools. The most notable of these publications are Ravitch and Vinovskis 1995 , Vinovskis 2005 , and Vinovskis 2008 . Vinovskis has singlehandedly written the standard histories and interpretations in the field on this subject. Others, such as Charles Payne, Jane David, and Larry Cuban, have used their expertise as historians to weigh in on important debates and issues about education reform (see Payne 2008 , David and Cuban 2010 ).

David, Jane L., and Larry Cuban. 2010. Cutting through the hype: The essential guide to school reform . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education.

A book about how educators can address the countless education reforms and policies they have to endure while teaching or administering their schools. The book particularly highlights the difficulties educators have with education reforms and expectations in impoverished school communities with a high minority population.

Payne, Charles M. 2008. So much reform, so little change: The persistence of failure in urban schools . Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education.

This books assesses thirty years of school reform in Chicago, Illinois, and how little has changed for the better. It shows the challenges of overcoming decades of neglect, poverty, racism, and low expectations. It is a must read for anyone interested in urban education reform and policy.

Ravitch, Diane, and Maris Vinovskis. 1995. Learning from the past: What history teaches us about school reform . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press.

Important contribution to understanding the impact federal education policy has had on the evolution of schooling in the United States.

Vinovskis, Maris. 2005. The birth of Head Start: Preschool education policies in the Kennedy and Johnson administrations . Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press.

DOI: 10.7208/chicago/9780226856735.001.0001 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Illustrates the rise of educational reforms and policy related to the establishment of preschool education in the United States.

Vinovskis, Maris. 2008. From A Nation at Risk to No Child Left Behind: National education goals and the creation of federal education policy . New York: Teachers College.

Offers a detailed history of the impact federal educational reforms and policy in the last two decades of the 20th century had on schools in the United States. Illustrates the long history of educational reform and policy in 20th-century schooling.

back to top

• About Education »
• Meet the Editorial Board »
• Academic Achievement
• Academic Audit for Universities
• Academic Freedom and Tenure in the United States
• Action Research in Education
• Adjuncts in Higher Education in the United States
• Administrator Preparation
• Adolescence
• Advanced Placement and International Baccalaureate Courses
• Advocacy and Activism in Early Childhood
• African American Racial Identity and Learning
• Alaska Native Education
• Alternative Certification Programs for Educators
• American Indian Education
• Animals in Environmental Education
• Art Education
• Artificial Intelligence and Learning
• Assessing School Leader Effectiveness
• Assessment, Behavioral
• Assessment, Educational
• Assessment in Early Childhood Education
• Assistive Technology
• Augmented Reality in Education
• Beginning-Teacher Induction
• Bilingual Education and Bilingualism
• Black Undergraduate Women: Critical Race and Gender Perspe...
• Black Women in Academia
• Blended Learning
• Case Study in Education Research
• Changing Professional and Academic Identities
• Character Education
• Children’s and Young Adult Literature
• Children's Beliefs about Intelligence
• Children's Rights in Early Childhood Education
• Citizenship Education
• Civic and Social Engagement of Higher Education
• Classroom Learning Environments: Assessing and Investigati...
• Classroom Management
• Coherent Instructional Systems at the School and School Sy...
• College Admissions in the United States
• College Athletics in the United States
• Community Relations
• Comparative Education
• Computer-Assisted Language Learning
• Computer-Based Testing
• Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Evaluating Improvement Net...
• Continuous Improvement and "High Leverage" Educational Pro...
• Counseling in Schools
• Critical Approaches to Gender in Higher Education
• Critical Perspectives on Educational Innovation and Improv...
• Critical Race Theory
• Crossborder and Transnational Higher Education
• Cross-National Research on Continuous Improvement
• Cross-Sector Research on Continuous Learning and Improveme...
• Cultural Diversity in Early Childhood Education
• Culturally Responsive Leadership
• Culturally Responsive Pedagogies
• Culturally Responsive Teacher Education in the United Stat...
• Curriculum Design
• Data Collection in Educational Research
• Data-driven Decision Making in the United States
• Deaf Education
• Design Thinking and the Learning Sciences: Theoretical, Pr...
• Development, Moral
• Dialogic Pedagogy
• Digital Age Teacher, The
• Digital Citizenship
• Digital Divides
• Disabilities
• Distance Learning
• Distributed Leadership
• Doctoral Education and Training
• Early Childhood Education and Care (ECEC) in Denmark
• Early Childhood Education and Development in Mexico
• Early Childhood Education in Aotearoa New Zealand
• Early Childhood Education in Australia
• Early Childhood Education in China
• Early Childhood Education in Europe
• Early Childhood Education in Sub-Saharan Africa
• Early Childhood Education in Sweden
• Early Childhood Education Pedagogy
• Early Childhood Education Policy
• Early Childhood Education, The Arts in
• Early Childhood Mathematics
• Early Childhood Science
• Early Childhood Teacher Education
• Early Childhood Teachers in Aotearoa New Zealand
• Early Years Professionalism and Professionalization Polici...
• Economics of Education
• Education For Children with Autism
• Education for Sustainable Development
• Education Leadership, Empirical Perspectives in
• Education of Native Hawaiian Students
• Education Reform and School Change
• Educational Research Approaches: A Comparison
• Educational Statistics for Longitudinal Research
• Educator Partnerships with Parents and Families with a Foc...
• Emotional and Affective Issues in Environmental and Sustai...
• Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
• English as an International Language for Academic Publishi...
• Environmental and Science Education: Overlaps and Issues
• Environmental Education
• Environmental Education in Brazil
• Epistemic Beliefs
• Equity and Improvement: Engaging Communities in Educationa...
• Equity, Ethnicity, Diversity, and Excellence in Education
• Ethical Research with Young Children
• Ethics and Education
• Ethics of Teaching
• Ethnic Studies
• Evidence-Based Communication Assessment and Intervention
• Family and Community Partnerships in Education
• Family Day Care
• Federal Government Programs and Issues
• Feminization of Labor in Academia
• Finance, Education
• Financial Aid
• Formative Assessment
• Future-Focused Education
• Gender and Achievement
• Gender and Alternative Education
• Gender, Power and Politics in the Academy
• Gender-Based Violence on University Campuses
• Gifted Education
• Global Mindedness and Global Citizenship Education
• Global University Rankings
• Governance, Education
• Grounded Theory
• Growth of Effective Mental Health Services in Schools in t...
• Higher Education and Globalization
• Higher Education and the Developing World
• Higher Education Faculty Characteristics and Trends in the...
• Higher Education Finance
• Higher Education Governance
• Higher Education Graduate Outcomes and Destinations
• Higher Education in Africa
• Higher Education in China
• Higher Education in Latin America
• Higher Education in the United States, Historical Evolutio...
• Higher Education, International Issues in
• Higher Education Management
• Higher Education Policy
• Higher Education Research
• Higher Education Student Assessment
• High-stakes Testing
• History of Early Childhood Education in the United States
• History of Education in the United States
• History of Technology Integration in Education
• Homeschooling
• Inclusion in Early Childhood: Difference, Disability, and ...
• Inclusive Education
• Indigenous Education in a Global Context
• Indigenous Learning Environments
• Indigenous Students in Higher Education in the United Stat...
• Infant and Toddler Pedagogy
• Inservice Teacher Education
• Integrating Art across the Curriculum
• Intelligence
• Intensive Interventions for Children and Adolescents with ...
• International Perspectives on Academic Freedom
• Intersectionality and Education
• Knowledge Development in Early Childhood
• Leadership Development, Coaching and Feedback for
• Leadership in Early Childhood Education
• Leadership Training with an Emphasis on the United States
• Learning Analytics in Higher Education
• Learning Difficulties
• Learning, Lifelong
• Learning, Multimedia
• Learning Strategies
• Legal Matters and Education Law
• LGBT Youth in Schools
• Linguistic Diversity
• Linguistically Inclusive Pedagogy
• Literacy Development and Language Acquisition
• Literature Reviews
• Mathematics Identity
• Mathematics Instruction and Interventions for Students wit...
• Mathematics Teacher Education
• Measurement for Improvement in Education
• Measurement in Education in the United States
• Meta-Analysis and Research Synthesis in Education
• Methodological Approaches for Impact Evaluation in Educati...
• Methodologies for Conducting Education Research
• Mindfulness, Learning, and Education
• Mixed Methods Research
• Motherscholars
• Multiliteracies in Early Childhood Education
• Multiple Documents Literacy: Theory, Research, and Applica...
• Multivariate Research Methodology
• Museums, Education, and Curriculum
• Music Education
• Narrative Research in Education
• Native American Studies
• Nonformal and Informal Environmental Education
• Note-Taking
• Numeracy Education
• One-to-One Technology in the K-12 Classroom
• Online Education
• Open Education
• Organizing for Continuous Improvement in Education
• Organizing Schools for the Inclusion of Students with Disa...
• Outdoor Play and Learning
• Outdoor Play and Learning in Early Childhood Education
• Pedagogical Leadership
• Pedagogy of Teacher Education, A
• Performance Objectives and Measurement
• Performance-based Research Assessment in Higher Education
• Performance-based Research Funding
• Phenomenology in Educational Research
• Philosophy of Education
• Physical Education
• Podcasts in Education
• Policy Context of United States Educational Innovation and...
• Politics of Education
• Portable Technology Use in Special Education Programs and ...
• Post-humanism and Environmental Education
• Pre-Service Teacher Education
• Problem Solving
• Productivity and Higher Education
• Professional Development
• Professional Learning Communities
• Program Evaluation
• Programs and Services for Students with Emotional or Behav...
• Psychology Learning and Teaching
• Psychometric Issues in the Assessment of English Language ...
• Qualitative Data Analysis Techniques
• Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Research Samp...
• Qualitative Research Design
• Quantitative Research Designs in Educational Research
• Queering the English Language Arts (ELA) Writing Classroom
• Race and Affirmative Action in Higher Education
• Reading Education
• Refugee and New Immigrant Learners
• Relational and Developmental Trauma and Schools
• Relational Pedagogies in Early Childhood Education
• Reliability in Educational Assessments
• Religion in Elementary and Secondary Education in the Unit...
• Researcher Development and Skills Training within the Cont...
• Research-Practice Partnerships in Education within the Uni...
• Response to Intervention
• Restorative Practices
• Risky Play in Early Childhood Education
• Role of Gender Equity Work on University Campuses through ...
• Scale and Sustainability of Education Innovation and Impro...
• Scaling Up Research-based Educational Practices
• School Accreditation
• School Choice
• School Culture
• School District Budgeting and Financial Management in the ...
• School Improvement through Inclusive Education
• School Reform
• Schools, Private and Independent
• School-Wide Positive Behavior Support
• Science Education
• Secondary to Postsecondary Transition Issues
• Self-Regulated Learning
• Self-Study of Teacher Education Practices
• Service-Learning
• Severe Disabilities
• Single Salary Schedule
• Single-sex Education
• Single-Subject Research Design
• Social Context of Education
• Social Justice
• Social Network Analysis
• Social Pedagogy
• Social Science and Education Research
• Social Studies Education
• Sociology of Education
• Standards-Based Education
• Statistical Assumptions
• Student Access, Equity, and Diversity in Higher Education
• Student Assignment Policy
• Student Learning, Development, Engagement, and Motivation ...
• Student Participation
• Student Voice in Teacher Development
• Sustainability Education in Early Childhood Education
• Sustainability in Early Childhood Education
• Sustainability in Higher Education
• Teacher Beliefs and Epistemologies
• Teacher Collaboration in School Improvement
• Teacher Evaluation and Teacher Effectiveness
• Teacher Preparation
• Teacher Training and Development
• Teacher Unions and Associations
• Teacher-Student Relationships
• Teaching Critical Thinking
• Technologies, Teaching, and Learning in Higher Education
• Technology Education in Early Childhood
• Technology, Educational
• Technology-based Assessment
• The Bologna Process
• The Regulation of Standards in Higher Education
• Theories of Educational Leadership
• Three Conceptions of Literacy: Media, Narrative, and Gamin...
• Tracking and Detracking
• Traditions of Quality Improvement in Education
• Transformative Learning
• Transitions in Early Childhood Education
• Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities in the Unite...
• Understanding the Psycho-Social Dimensions of Schools and ...
• University Faculty Roles and Responsibilities in the Unite...
• Using Ethnography in Educational Research
• Value of Higher Education for Students and Other Stakehold...
• Virtual Learning Environments
• Vocational and Technical Education
• Wellness and Well-Being in Education
• Women's and Gender Studies
• Young Children and Spirituality
• Young Children's Learning Dispositions
• Young Children's Working Theories
• Privacy Policy
• Cookie Policy
• Legal Notice
• Accessibility

Powered by:

• [185.80.150.64]
• 185.80.150.64

Make your reading count!

You Earned a Ticket!

Which school do you want to support?

• 1. Education is…
• 2. Students...
• 3. Teachers
• 4. Spending Time...
• 5. Places For Learning
• 6. The Right Stuff
• 7. And a System…
• 8. …with Resources…
• 10. So Now What?

History of Education: How have Schools Changed Over Time?

Public schools are evolving toward equity, a brief history of public education.

School should be free and mandatory for all kids. It's obvious, right?

Actually, it's kind of a new idea.

In This Lesson

What is a public school, what is a blaine amendment, what is the history of public schools, how did we put children in schools 100 years ago, when did school become mandatory in america, what was the keating-owen act, when did the school lunch program start, what is the elementary and secondary education act (esea), how did sputnik affect education in america, how did "a nation at risk" change education, what was the standards movement, what was no child left behind, what was race to the top, how has covid-19 changed education, ▶   watch the video summary, ★   try the chapter discussion guide.

This lesson summarizes major milestones in history of public education in the United States.

Large-scale public education in America began in Massachusetts in the 1850s under the leadership of Horace Mann (pictured). Mann developed an organization of over a thousand compulsory schools modeled on the Prussian system of common schools.

Public education expanded further under President Ulysses S. Grant, who in 1875 campaigned for a constitutional amendment to mandate free public schools and prohibit public funding of religious schools. This amendment (known as the Blaine Amendment) failed , but the policy was adopted in most state constitutions. The idea that free public schools should be widely available and separate from religious institutions began to become part of the fabric of America.

Free public education and the end of child labor

Tuition-free basic education has been generally required in America for more than 100 years. It was a big transition. In 1910, more than a quarter of children in America did not attend school. At the time, even radicals in America viewed tuition-free universal education as a dream.

Tuition-free basic education has been universal in America for more than 100 years.

Putting children in school required first extracting them from fields and factories , where the poorest endured horrifying conditions with few protections. Around the turn of the 20th century, American journalists drew attention to the dreadful working conditions in factories. Women organized in protest, collaborating with the labor movement to press for policy changes.

By 1916 most states, following examples in Europe and Massachusetts, had passed laws to outlaw, discourage or at least regulate childhood labor. As states developed laws regarding child labor, they also changed public expectations about public schooling.

Milestones in the history of universal education

Over the last hundred years, a broad theme in the evolution of public education has been to make access to it more universal.

Since the 1970s, state and national education policies have increasingly reflected this principle of universal access, including a growing sense that students should have equal access to not just a school, but a good school. Students must also have equal opportunity to succeed at school: they are protected from discrimination in the classroom and on the athletic field. Issues of funding equity and adequacy have driven policy decisions for more than four decades.

A century of steadily expanding and improving access to education has fundamentally changed America, both economically and socially. Universal public education is a major proof point for America's self-image: this is a land of opportunity for all.

Education is a strategy for national defense

National security concerns have strongly influenced the history of America's educational system.

In the early years of the Cold War, the Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik sparked concern that America was falling behind, and failing to produce the scientists and inventors needed for a nuclear age. This sparked a wave of investment in science programs in America's schools and universities. Today it is widely accepted that education is connected not only to economic and military security, but social aims as well.

In 1983, " A Nation at Risk " called for sweeping changes in U.S. education, and kicked off a series of national conversations about standards . The goal was to improve what children know and are able to do at each grade level so the U.S. could stay safe and competitive in a global economy. A widespread consensus led to passage of the federal No Child Left Behind Act ( NCLB ), passed in 2001. The big-picture goal of NCLB was to gradually raise the achievement bar, year by year, so that all children, including those usually "left behind", would receive a solid education. The law required each state to establish grade-level standards and to test all students annually in order to evaluate each school’s success.

As the bar rose, many schools did not meet the expectations, especially for their students living in poverty. Popular support for the law collapsed. In 2015, a bipartisan consensus in Congress replaced NCLB with the Every Child Succeeds Act ( ESSA ), which kept the requirement for annual testing but significantly reduced the federal role in pressing for measurable improvement in test scores.

Education is a strategy for national inclusion

NCLB revealed that the 50 states expected widely different things from their students. Many states' standards had been written clumsily, with a narrow definition of success. In 2009, the National Governors Association initiated a project to make standards more meaningful and useful by defining a new set of shared standards that became known as the Common Core State Standards . (More about that in Lesson 6.1 .)

These standards originated with the states, but federal funding was key to their adoption. The Obama administration used a competitive federal matching grant program called Race to the Top (RTT) to challenge states to develop strong implementation plans. California set 2015 as the year it would begin evaluating the performance of its students and schools based on these new standards.

How the pandemic changed education

In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic suddenly changed education for virtually all students in at least three ways. First, it evaporated the notion that all children must always attend school in person. Second, it demonstrated that relationships matter for learning. Third, it further widened the educational gap between students of different backgrounds.

When the Pandemic hit, school districts scrambled to provide children with ways they could continue learning at home — especially with digital resources for distance learning. Their efforts were partially successful , but it quickly became clear that the internet had become the new #2 pencil — school just doesn't work without it.

Access to computing devices and high speed internet is unequal across socioeconomic classes. Online learning works pretty well for students who have experience with technology, access to tutors, and a quiet place to work. Rich kids have all that. Poor kids don't.

The lessons of the Pandemic for education will take years to be clearly understood, but it is already clear that it widened the educational gap between students of different backgrounds.

Education is a bipartisan issue

Like national defense and social security, America has enjoyed a rough national consensus that education is important and worth investing in. This consensus is vital because universal public education costs serious money and requires serious taxes. As discussed in Lesson 1.1, most developed nations and states commit about 3% to 5% of their economy to public education through high school. California falls on the low end of this spectrum, but 3% of the economy is still serious money.

Why have lawmakers over time cared about education policies? Because their constituents care about them. Policymaking is hard. People disagree vehemently, and the path to wise policy is rarely clear. Lawmakers choose their point of view with expert advice from advocacy organizations and think tanks (Lesson 7.7), of course, but when parent leaders and student leaders present a clearly developed point of view they listen with attention.

What’s Ed100’s role in this scrum, you ask? We help members of parent organizations and student organizations become well-informed constituents. With knowledge, they can develop their own point of view, empathize with other points of view, and prepare to have a voice in the room where it happens.

Reason for hope

People disagree about public education policies in a way that has become noisy and partisan. Disagreements simmer about charter school policies , for example, or the role of unions , or how much money to spend.

But it's worth noting how little we argue these days about the basic principle that all children should have the chance to attend quality schools and meet high academic standards. Horace Mann would be pleased.

Last updated September 2023 Previous updates include: September 2022 December 2021 July 2021 December 2020 December 2019 August 2018 May 2017

True or False? Elementary education has been free and required throughout America for over 100 years.

Answer the question correctly and earn a ticket. Learn More

Questions & Comments

To comment or reply, please sign in .

Eliza Sauer January 29, 2020 at 7:00 am

Caryn january 30, 2020 at 9:23 am, caryn january 30, 2020 at 9:26 am, francisco molina august 13, 2019 at 12:22 am, jeff camp july 4, 2018 at 11:46 am, sonya hendren september 6, 2018 at 2:32 am, carol kocivar july 14, 2016 at 8:39 pm, arienneadamcikova april 20, 2015 at 10:22 pm, jeff camp - founder april 20, 2015 at 11:23 pm, alice griesemer march 23, 2015 at 5:49 am, veli waller april 2, 2015 at 12:26 pm, jeff camp - founder april 2, 2015 at 2:17 pm, anamendozasantiago february 11, 2015 at 5:24 pm, kim april 9, 2016 at 6:41 pm, celia4pta september 25, 2014 at 9:26 pm, jeff camp - founder october 2, 2014 at 12:17 pm, education is….

• Education is… Overview of Chapter 1
• California Context Are California’s Schools Really Behind?
• International Context Are U.S. Schools Behind the World?
• Economic Context Schools for Knowledge Work
• Bad Apples The High Social Costs of Educational Failure
• Wishful thinking Grade inflation and cognitive biases
• Progress Are Schools Improving?
• History of Education How have Schools Changed Over Time?
• Purpose What is Education For, Really?
• Grade-level Expectations How Do Common Core Standards Work?
• STEM Science, Technology, Engineering and Math
• Tests Why Tests Matter and How They Work
• Personal Finance Learning to Earn
• Blow It Up? Big Ideas For Education Change

Sharing is caring!

Password reset.

Change your mind? Sign In.

Search all lesson and blog content here.

Not a member? Join now.

Login with Email

We will send your Login Link to your email address. Click on the link and you will be logged into Ed100. No more passwords to remember!

Share via Email

Or Create Account

Your Email Address

Ed100 Requires an Email Address

Language of Preference

Can't find school? Search by City or contact us . More than one school? Select the school of your youngest child enrolled in K-12. No School? Type "No School" and click the "Next" button.

Are you one of the leaders in a PTA, PTSA, PTO or Parent Group?

Great! Please tell us how you help:

You will be going to your first lesson in

Your Ed100 Team

Hmm. Looks like you are already a user. We can send you a link to log into your account.

8. History of American Education

8.1 history of american education, learning objectives.

• Identify important points during the timeline of American Education
• Explain how past events continue to affect current education and educational policy.
• Locate and explain, by referencing examples in a Nation at Risk, the three competing goals of public education: democratic equality, social efficiency, and social mobility.
• Explain the Nation at Risk commission’s recommendations.
• Identify two recommendations that affect current educational policies.

Portrait of Noah Webster

In this chapter, by studying the history of education in America, a better understanding of what currently exists in the educational landscape and why can be achieved. Important innovations have occurred throughout the history of education. In contrast, not every policy or strategy resulted in better education. In the beginning, education was not very widespread and definitely not available to all children.

Thomas Jefferson (1779) had a radical idea that every child should receive an education at the public’s expense. The education Jefferson proposed was limited in scope compared with the amount of time spent by a student currently. One of the needs in a democratic society required the ability to read and understand what was read. Jefferson’s efforts met with stiff resistance while all efforts to obtain legislative approval failed.

After the Revolution, America needed to separate itself from Britain. Noah Webster called for the elimination of British texts. He wrote the popular Blue Back Speller that Americanized the spelling of many words. Other authors began writing texts that promoted national ideals. Education was being used to make America a unique country.

Daguerreotype of Horace Mann

In the early 1800s Horace Mann began the make-over of the Massachusetts school system as the state superintendent of education. Mann began visiting schools, making reports, and publicly arguing for a free education for all children. In addition, Mann argued for teacher preparation and standardized equipment. His ideas resulted in common schools that were free, had standard curriculums, were funded by taxes, and gave some local control back to the state. Shortly after Mann’s death ,  he was recognized as a leader in public education  and  Massachusetts  passed public, tax supported, compulsory education.  

Slavery had been abolished in Massachusetts early, but African American children were mistreated and harassed in integrated schools leading to segregated schools. A concern about the growth of prejudice generated by segregation in schools and a resentment among African American parents over supporting schools their children could not attend led to unsuccessful petitions to close segregated schools. Roberts v City of Boston (1850) argued before the state supreme court failed because the court cited provisions had been made for the African American children to have a school even though it was segregated. In 1855 the state legislature abolished segregation in schools.

Since the beginning of American education, the Protestant faith was a dominant influence with philosophy, holidays, and even prayers. Besides wide spread prejudice against Catholics, they did not want their children exposed to religious beliefs not supported at home. Well attended Great School Debates argued by Cardinal Hughes against a multitude of Protestant ministers occurred. Hughes wanted public funds to start Catholic schools, but the NY City School Board held the line on funding only public schools. The Catholic school system started by breaking away from the public-school system.

At the end of the Civil War, slavery was abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment. Unfortunately, although African Americans were no longer slaves, states of the former Confederacy actively fought integration. Reconstruction ended with the Compromise of 1877 signaling the beginning of the Jim Crow era and the erosion of black civil rights and liberties. By 1896, states had been using the doctrine of separate but equal to justify segregation. Facilities and equipment were vastly inferior for African American students, not equal. Plessy v. Ferguson had worked its way up to the US Supreme Court. Plessy argued Louisiana’s law of separate but equal violated the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments and that segregation labeled African American people as inferior. The Supreme Court ruled that separate but equal did not violate the Constitution.

Brown County’s Sod High School

As more and more people migrated to the West for opportunity, state constitutions touted free public educations. So many schools were opening that a new source of teachers was needed. Katherine Beecher established teaching as a female moral calling. Beecher’s stand allowed females to journey into the vast expanse of the western plains. With the influx of female teachers, care came into the American classrooms. Students also received moral education through the very popular McGuffey’s Readers.

By 1890, America’s public schools were educating more students than any other nation on Earth. Unfortunately, many minorities were segregated from public education including, African Americans, Native Americans, and Mexicans. In 1896, John Dewey open his first progressive laboratory in Massachusetts. The progressive philosophy practiced hands-on learning that led to problem solving and critical thinking. Progressivism was popular until World War II.

In 1954, a unanimous decision crafted by Chief Justice Earl Warren in the case of Brown v. the Topeka Board of Education heard before the US Supreme Court ended segregation in public schools. Cases from Kansas, Delaware, Washington, DC, South Carolina, and Virginia were combined. In Topeka, each of the students who tried to enroll in a neighborhood school were denied admission. Thurgood Marshall, a future Supreme Court Justice, was one of the lawyers who argued the case for the NAACP. The justices stated that separate facilities are inherently unequal, and that education is a right. Not much changed, the southern states resisted integration, and African American faculty of students who were integrated lost their jobs. As nine students, the Little Rock Nine, tried to integrate a white high school the Alabama National Guard under the direction of the governor prevented the students from entering the school. President Eisenhower federalized the national guard and sent federal troops to enforce the integration in 1959. Finally, when the Civil Rights Act was passed in 1964 stipulating that noncompliance in integration would result in the loss of federal funds, states complied with the Court’s order. By 1972, 91% of students attended integrated schools.

In 1958, the Russians launched Sputnik, the world’s first satellite. America found itself behind in the resulting space race. The National Defense Education Act called for finding and educating more talent in science, mathematics, foreign languages, and technology. Monetary support was given to states and students. Vocational education received funding, also. A call for experimentation and research in media to improve the presentation of academic subject matter with training given to teachers.

In 1965, Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act to provide all students a fair and equal opportunity to achieve an exceptional education. Part of the act’s goal was to close the achievement gap between poor students and all other students. The three major titles of the act are: Title I – Financial Assistance for the Education of Low-Income Families; Title VI – Aid to Handicapped Children; and Title VII – Bilingual Education Programs, which established the federal fingerprints on education. Congress reauthorized the act in 2001 as the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). A major provision added testing of all students in grades 3 through 8 in reading and mathematics with each state setting their own standards. Wide spread criticism caused Congress to reauthorize the act as the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) in 2015. Although the testing continued, accountability was transferred to the states. States submit goals and standards with a plan on how they will be achieved. States also determine the consequences for low-achieving schools (bottom 10%). In addition, all schools are to offer college and career counseling and Advanced Placement courses to all students.

In 1968, Mexican American students from three Los Angelis East Side high schools (Garfield, Roosevelt, and Lincoln) walked out over high dropout rates, lack of college prep courses, rundown schools, and a low number of Mexican American teachers. Student walkouts were a part of a larger scope of activism in the Mexican American community that grew out of treatment as second-class citizens. The walkouts lasted more than a week with student speeches and clashes with the police culminating with students presenting demands at a board of education meeting. The board of education granted the request for smaller class sizes and more bilingual counselors and teachers immediately. A grand jury indicted the activists, the “Eastside 13,” but an appeals court vacated the indictment in 1970. Actions taken by the students cultivated a sense of possibility in the community.

By 1971, Detroit and its suburbs presented areas of entrenched segregation as a result of white flight, real estate policies, neighborhood associations, and town policies. A judge approved the Detroit metro plan as a remedy, but the plan failed to garner support from most of the groups involved. In fact, the plan failed to reverse segregation and did not raise the quality of education. When the Supreme Court struck down busing as a means of achieving integration in the Milliken v Bradley case, integration was deemed the responsibility of the city. Detroit is still searching for a solution to this thorny issue.

In 1972, Congress passed Title IX of the Education Amendments Act that states: “No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance” (US Congress). Title IX corrected an oversight by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which did not prohibit sex discrimination against persons employed at educational institutions. If a school discriminated on the basis of gender, federal funds would be withheld from the school. Enforcement fell to lawsuits brought by the federal government. The act resulted in the creation of public-school sports teams for girls.

Lau v. Nicols (1974) was decided unanimously by the Supreme Court. Supplemental language instruction was denied to most Chinese students who were integrated into the San Francisco public school system; therefore, these students did not receive a meaningful education. In fact, few students throughout the country received supplemental English instruction since funding was limited and participation was voluntary. The Court stated that supplemental instruction was required because the school district received federal funds. The Court argued that a “sink or swim” policy for learning was prohibited. Subsequent decisions required plaintiffs to provide proof of intentional discrimination which weakened the Lau finding.

In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act was passed by Congress that required “public schools receiving federal funds to provide equal education to students with physical and mental disabilities” (US Congress). To ensure that the education provided students with disabilities closely aligned with the education of non-disabled students, students with disabilities were evaluated and an educational plan with parent input was created. Schools were required to provide procedures for parents to dispute decisions with judicial review as a last resort. The act required disabled students to be placed in the least restrictive environment with the greatest opportunity to interact with non-disabled students. Only when the nature and severity of the disability prevented education in a regular classroom were separate schools allowed.

• Foundations of Education. Authored by : SUNY Oneonta Education Department. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Portrait of Noah Webster. Authored by : Painted by Samuel Finley Breese Morse. Located at : https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Noah_Webster.jpg . License : Public Domain: No Known Copyright

Privacy Policy

Independent Analysis, Innovative Ideas

• High-Quality Tutoring
• Artificial Intelligence
• Chronic Absenteeism

Historical Milestones in American Education

If you have any events to add, send them to Bella DiMarco at [email protected]

Published: August 28, 2023

Like what you're reading? Share with a colleague.

The latest leadership changes in the education sector

A listing of upcoming events at FutureEd and throughout the education sector

FutureEd in the News

Media mentions and our work on other platforms

This link is opening a new tab or window in your browser.

You’ve clicked on a link that is set to open in a new tab or window, depending on your browser settings.

• Create a Timeline

Education History Timeline

The history of education is a fascinating journey that spans thousands of years and involves various civilizations and cultures. this timeline explores important milestones and developments in education, from the earliest learning methods to the establishment of formal educational institutions. more less, ancient education, development of the ancient greek education system.

500 BC - 499 BC

Ancient Greece introduced the concept of formal education for citizens, emphasizing physical education, music, mathematics, and philosophy, with notable philosophers like Socrates and Plato contributing to educational theories.

Image source: Education in ancient Greece

Medieval and Renaissance Education

Foundation of the first university in bologna.

The University of Bologna, established in Italy, is recognized as the world's oldest university, laying the groundwork for higher education institutions that followed.

Image source: University of Bologna

Gutenberg's Printing Press Revolutionizes Education

Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press enabled the mass production of books, making knowledge more accessible and accelerating the spread of education.

Image source: Printing press

Modern Education Systems

Establishment of the first public school in boston.

Apr 23, 1635

The Boston Latin School, founded as the first public school in the United States, aimed to provide education to all, regardless of social status or wealth.

Creation of the First Normal School in France

The École normale, established in France, served as the first teacher training institution, shaping modern teacher education programs worldwide.

Image source: Normal school

Compulsory Education Laws Enacted

1800 - 1999

Many countries introduced compulsory education laws, making it mandatory for children to attend school, ensuring widespread access to education and reducing illiteracy rates.

Image source: Compulsory education

Introduction of the First Kindergarten by Friedrich Fröbel

Friedrich Fröbel's establishment of the first kindergarten in Germany revolutionized early childhood education, emphasizing play-based learning and social development.

Image source: Friedrich Fröbel

The Morrill Act Establishes Land-Grant Universities

Jul 2, 1862

The Morrill Act in the United States granted federal land for the establishment of universities focused on agriculture, engineering, and practical education, expanding access to higher education.

Image source: Morrill Land-Grant Acts

Formation of UNESCO

Nov 16, 1945

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) was established to promote international cooperation in education, science, culture, and communication.

Image source: UNESCO

Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court Ruling

May 17, 1954

The landmark Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, leading to the desegregation of schools in the United States.

Image source: Brown v. Board of Education

Establishment of the International Baccalaureate Organization

The International Baccalaureate (IB) organization was founded, offering an internationally recognized curriculum and assessment system for students worldwide.

Image source: International Baccalaureate

Implementation of the Bologna Process in European Higher Education

Jun 19, 1999

The Bologna Process aimed to harmonize higher education systems across Europe, facilitating student mobility, and promoting the recognition of qualifications.

Image source: Bologna Process

Introduction of the No Child Left Behind Act

Jan 8, 2002

The No Child Left Behind Act in the United States aimed to improve educational standards and accountability, emphasizing standardized testing and increased federal involvement.

COVID-19 Pandemic Impacts Education Globally

The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted education worldwide, leading to school closures, the rapid adoption of online learning, and highlighting the importance of digital infrastructure and remote teaching.

Image source: Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education

Educational Reform and Innovations

Introduction of montessori education.

Maria Montessori developed a child-centered educational approach, emphasizing self-directed learning and hands-on activities, which had a significant impact on early childhood education.

Image source: Montessori education

Establishment of Open University

Jan 1, 1971

The Open University in the United Kingdom was founded, pioneering distance learning and providing accessible higher education opportunities to non-traditional students.

Image source: Open University

Introduction of the One Laptop per Child Initiative

The One Laptop per Child (OLPC) initiative aimed to provide low-cost laptops to children in developing countries, bridging the digital divide and enhancing educational opportunities.

Image source: One Laptop per Child

Launch of Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

MOOCs, such as those offered by platforms like Coursera and edX, revolutionized online learning by providing free or affordable courses from prestigious universities to a global audience.

Image source: Massive open online course

Adoption of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal 4

Sep 25, 2015

The United Nations adopted Sustainable Development Goal 4, aiming to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education for all, promoting lifelong learning opportunities.

Image source: Sustainable Development Goal 4

• Education has been a fundamental aspect of human societies since prehistoric times.
• In ancient civilizations such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China, education was mainly reserved for the elite and focused on preparing individuals for specific careers.
• The establishment of the first universities, such as the University of Bologna in Italy, marked a significant milestone in the history of education.
• The Industrial Revolution in the 18th and 19th centuries brought about major changes in education, with the introduction of public schools and compulsory education laws.
• In the 20th century, education became more accessible to a wider population, with the establishment of free public schools and advancements in technology that led to distance learning and online education.

This Education History timeline was generated with the help of AI using information found on the internet.

We strive to make these timelines as accurate as possible, but occasionally inaccurates slip in. If you notice anything amiss, let us know at [email protected] and we'll correct it for future visitors.

Create a timeline like this one for free

Preceden lets you create stunning timelines using AI or manually.

Customize your timeline with one of our low-cost paid plans

Export your timeline, add your own events, edit or remove AI-generated events, and much more

No credit card required.

Cancel anytime.

Common Questions

Can i cancel anytime.

Yes. You can cancel your subscription from your account page at anytime which will ensure you are not charged again. If you cancel you can still access your subscription for the full time period you paid for.

Will you send an annual renewal reminder?

Yes, we will email you a reminder prior to the annual renewal and will also email you a receipt.

Do you offer refunds?

Yes. You can email us within 15 days of any payment and we will issue you a full refund.

What if I have more questions?

Check out our pricing docs or send us an email anytime: [email protected] .

Download PDF

More options, download image.

25 ways American education has changed in the last decade

In 1852, Massachusetts became the first state in the country to pass a mandatory education law . The law required that every town and city in the state have a public primary school that focused on teaching children grammar and basic arithmetic. Parents were obligated to send their children to school for 12 weeks each year until the child was 14 years old. If they failed to comply with the law, parents could be fined or even stripped of their parental rights. In 1917, Mississippi passed its mandatory education law , the last state in the union to do so, and it became standard that all American children would have at least an elementary education.

Plenty of things about American education have changed since then. For example, in 1925 the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) defended John Scopes in the Tennessee v. John Scopes trial which addressed the legality of teaching evolution in schools. While Scopes lost that trial, the anti-evolution legislation was challenged decades later, and today evolution is taught in most science classes around the country. In 1954, the landmark Brown v. Board of Education trial ruled that segregation on the basis of race in schools was unconstitutional, and children of all races, creeds, and colors have learned alongside each other in classrooms ever since.

In this article, Stacker is limiting that historical scope somewhat, looking at 25 ways American education has changed over the last decade alone. Using a variety of sources, we've compiled a list of statistical changes, policy changes, subject changes, national standard changes, and changes in teaching methods and student life. Of course, not every change in American education has been sensational or positive, but looking at where the education system has come from makes it easier to see both where it can go and how it can continue to improve.

From class size to the creation of a college-bound culture, read on to see how different education is today than it was in 2010.

The U.S. has fewer children under 18, but higher school enrolment rates

There were more children under 18 in America in 2010 than there were in 2018 (the most recent year data was available): 74 million versus 73 million, according to the Kids Count Data Center . That being said, the National Center for Education Statistics reports there are more children enrolled in both public and private schools in 2019 than there were in 2010. In the fall of 2019, 56 million students enrolled in pre-K through 12th grade at both public and private schools, while in the fall of 2010 that same number was 54.8 million.

Classrooms have become more crowded

Unsurprisingly, as the number of children enrolled in public schools has grown, so has the size of individual classes. The country is not building new schools at the same rate as children are enrolling in schools, leaving some educators feeling as if their primary function is running crowd control rather than teaching . Take, for example, classrooms in Nevada which have seen the biggest jump: during the 2009–2010 school year the average class size was 28, by 2016–2017 it had jumped to 36.

Homeschooling is on the decline

Homeschooling was once a popular form of education that allowed individual families more control over what their children were learning and the pace at which they were moving, but over the last decade, it’s fallen out of fashion. The National Center for Education Statistics takes incremental data on homeschooled students aged 5–17, and its two most recent reports—from 2012 and 2016—reveal a 6% decrease in homeschooled students during that time.

Charter schools have seen the most growth

There has been a lot of buzz in the lead-up to the 2020 presidential election about charter schools and their proposed funding. According to the National Center for Education Statistics , public charter schools have seen the most growth of any type of school over the last two decades. In 2000, public charter school enrollment was 0.4 million, increasing to 3 million in 2016.

Student demographics are changing

In 2010 the vast majority of students enrolled in public schools were white. The National Center for Education Statistics reported that 52.4% of PK–12 students were white, while only 23.1% were Hispanic and 2.4% were two or more races. In the fall of 2019, NCES reported that the percentage of white students had dropped to 46.6%, while Hispanic enrollment had increased to 27.4%, and students of two or more races accounted for 4.2% of all enrollment. Research shows that increased diversity in the classroom goes hand in hand with academic accomplishments.

There has been an increase in English-language learners in public schools

Increased diversity brings more than just different worldviews and life experiences; it also brings a wider collection of languages into the classroom. In the American education system, English-language learners (ELLs) are non-native English-speaking students who participate in language assistance programs to help ensure they attain English proficiency and meet the same academic standards that all students are required to meet. There has been a steady increase in the number of ELLs over the last two decades: in the fall of 2016, 9.6% of public school students were ELLs versus 8.1% in the fall of 2000 . Amongst these students, the most common language spoken at home is Spanish, at 77% .

Nature preschools and forest kindergartens are at record levels

The number of early childhood education programs that center around the outdoors are at an all-time high in the U.S., with the number of nature preschools and forest kindergartens growing 66% between 2016 and 2017 alone, according to a study by the Natural Start Alliance . In these programs, which seek to counter behavioral issues, childhood obesity rates, and connect young people to skill sets beyond academics while developing their brains, students are outside for 75% of their school days on average. Washington in September 2019 became the first state to officially license outdoor preschools . While the programs exist all over the U.S., Washington will now be able to offer full-day programming as well as financial aid to students.

Teachers are making less

According to the National Education Association , the average teacher salary has gone down 4.5% over the last decade. The association reports that in 63% of school districts around the country starting salaries for public school teachers are below $40,000. Nationally, teachers are paid 21.4% less than similarly educated professionals in other lines of work.

You may also like: How much teachers make around the world

Overall school spending has increased

In the fall of 2019, the National Center for Education projected that U.S. primary and secondary schools would spend just over $680 billion over the new school year. The average amount to be spent per public school pupil was $13,440. Both numbers were way up from what the country spent a decade ago, during the 2010–2011 school year: $527.3 billion overall and $10,663 per pupil.

A college-bound culture

In 2009, Congress passed the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, which contained new college reporting requirements for school districts across the country. The intention was to hone in on the best education practices which would enable the public school system to send more students to college. While overall college enrollment has actually gone down since the act passed, school culture has undoubtedly changed from one of child development to one with college as the primary end goal.

Playtime is disappearing

A 2019 study published in the American Journal of Play found that American schools have a “sad” lack of play. As schools and teachers find themselves under increasing pressure to improve test scores, due to things like 2009’s American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, play has taken a backseat to necessary test prep. As a result, the study found students aren’t learning valuable social skills or how to do things like resolve conflict or decide what’s fair.

Students have increased anxiety about school performance

For students in the American education system, there has been an undeniable shift in the amount of anxiety they feel when it comes to their performance in school. In 2013, 45% of students reported that they felt stressed by school pressures, by 2019 61% of teens reported the same thing. Many professionals link this change to the increasing pressure students face to attend a four-year college or university after graduation.

The student-to-counselor ratio is decreasing

School counselors are a key resource for students who are struggling with this increase in anxiety over school performance, and on this front, there’s good news. The American School Counselor Association reported that the national student-to-counselor ratio was 455-to-1 during the 2016–2017 school year (the most recent year from which data was available). This marked a decrease from the previous year when the ratio was 464-to-1, which was the lowest ratio not only in the past decade but in the past 31 years.

Schools are pushing for later start times

While the benefits of a good night’s sleep have been known to scientists for years, the American school system has widely disregarded them when it comes to start times for its students. Recently, however, there’s been a major push to move those start times back an hour or two so that students can get the sleep they need in order to grow and develop properly. In 2019, California passed a law pushing back start times for its middle schoolers and high schoolers, and it looks like Maryland and Seattle schools might follow their lead soon. 

The Introduction of the Common Core

The Common Core State Standards , which provide benchmarks for what students should be able to do in math and language arts from kindergarten to 12th grade were created in 2009 and 2010. However, the standards didn't become the basis for state tests until 2015 . After that year, the Common Core moved from theory to reality and began to have practical impacts on how and what teachers around the country were teaching.

There’s a focus on STEM

In 2013 , Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS), the science curriculum equivalent of Common Core, was released. This curriculum change played a role in schools’ increased investments in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and math) programs which provided a clear guide for how to meet these rigorous standards. The emphasis on the NGSS and STEM has only continued to grow over the last decade, with the Trump administration allocating $279 million in STEM discretionary grant funds during the 2018 fiscal year.

Schools have implemented active shooter response plans

As the number of school shootings has risen in recent years , the percentage of schools with an active shooter response plan rose as well. The National Center for Education Statistics reported that 84.3% of all public schools had a crisis plan in place for an active shooter during the 2009–2010 school year, while 92% of schools have one in place for the current 2019–2020 school year.

Schools are filling students’ bellies

In 1966 the School Breakfast Program, a federally assisted meal program in public schools, began as a pilot program. In 1975, it was made a permanent entitlement program by Congress. In 2010, the program fed 11.67 million children during the school year, but by 2016, that number jumped to 14.57 million . In 2018 the School Breakfast Program served 2.4 billion breakfasts to qualifying children.

Graduation rates are improving

Calculated for the first time in 2010, the adjusted cohort graduation rate (ACGR) accounts for transfers, dropouts, and deaths during the course of a class’s four-year high school experience, resulting in a more accurate number of on-time graduations. Over the handful of times, the ACGR has been calculated it has shown a clear upward trend in graduation rates in the United States. In 2010 the country’s average ACGR was 79%, as of 2017, it was 85% .

Postsecondary enrolment rates are decreasing

With the implementation of the Common Core, which is designed to ensure that public school students are better prepared for college, and increasing graduation rates, it would make sense that postsecondary education rates would be increasing, too. But that's simply not the case ; enrollment in higher education institutions peaked in 2010 at 29.5 million and has been slowly declining ever since, dropping off at 26.4 million during the 2017–2018 school year.

#21. Student loan debt is changing the way high-schoolers think

Student debt has been growing at an astonishing rate over the last decade. In 2010, outstanding student loan debt totaled $830 billion, by 2019 it exploded to $1.41 trillion . The overwhelming debt has had a major impact on the way high-schoolers are thinking about their futures. Traditionally, college prep—from scoring well on the SAT/ACT to choosing the best university and program—has been a huge part of the high school experience. These days, due in part to the paralyzing debt situation , many high school students (and their parents) are choosing to skip college altogether in favor of other alternatives, forgoing the college visits and application process altogether.

The job market is dictating plans for after high school

Another reason the number of high schoolers skipping college has increased is the strong job market . A decade ago, high unemployment and the promise of more money with a college degree lured many a senior into a four-year program. These days, a tight labor market offers an exciting alternative to teenagers. This shift undeniably changes how high school students think about their education, and the amount of effort that goes into earning a top GPA, as many must feel that their grade point average won’t matter after they have their diploma in hand and a job offer on the horizon.

Online education has exploded

A decade ago, online learning was mostly reserved for the college set. In 2010, there were only 1.5 million students taking online courses. By 2013 that number had grown to 2.7 million, and by 2017 a Brown Center Chalkboard study found that 20% of all high school and middle school credits were being completed through a single online learning program and that 40% of high school seniors had taken at least one class through the program. While there are certainly benefits to allowing students more flexibility when it comes to their learning, the Brown Center Chalkboard study found that there was a wealth of negative impacts, including “ability grouping” and a lack of engagement with the material.

The overall quality of American education has gone down

The Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development’s Program for International Student Assessment measures reading ability, math, and science literacy and other key skills among 15 year olds in 70 countries around the world. In 2010 , the United States ranked 17th in the world for science and 25th for math. Despite parents’ and politicians’ efforts to improve the country’s educational standards, the United States has continued to underperform, falling to 38th for math and 24th for science by 2015 .

Accountability in education has increased

Finally, there's been increasing emphasis placed on accountability in education over the last decade. For example, President Barack Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act into law in 2015, which extended the work of President George W. Bush's No Child Left Behind Act while increasing the country's education standards, equipping teachers with better resources with which to meet the demands, and ensuring that, state by state, policymakers, principals, and educators are being held accountable for the education of each and every child that passes through our public schools. This accountability is the first step in guaranteeing that America is primed to be a leader in education for years to come.

Trending Now

Best law & order svu episodes.

100 best 'SNL' episodes

100 best John Wayne movies

50 best movies of the '60s

• Women's History
• African American History
• Collections

An American timeline

If you are planning a visit to the museum, please stop in at the Nina and Ivan Selin Welcome Center to see our new addition, “An American Timeline.” The timeline is a multitouch application on a tabletop computer that features 101 moments of consequence in American history. With so many significant events in the history of the United States how did we pick just 101?

It started with a long list of events that I personally believe to be integral to the identity of the American people.  I asked for comments and criticism from our staff at the museum as well as prominent public historians like David McCullough.  After a few rounds of (sometimes) intense debate, I trimmed the list down to where it stands at 101. 

When you sit down at the table, you will see a long, scrollable timeline with numerous points that can be selected.  Touch one and it will open up to reveal a description of why this event was important along with a related image. If you want to read more about your selection, simply press a button and you will see more images and text to explore. 

For example, when you touch “Declaration of Independence,” you can see eight screens that provide background about people and events that shaped the American Revolution. You can also enlarge the document and read it for yourself. And you can see objects from our collection including the writing table on which Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration and a rare ceramic teapot, made in England, that says “No Stamp Act” and “American Liberty Restored” dating from the mid-1760s when the controversial tax was repealed. For some events on the timeline, for example the Model-T Ford, we have even included a silent movie!

Remember to stop by the Welcome Center when you come to your National Museum of American History. Take a look at what I think are the 101 most important events in American history.  If you disagree—or have something to add—be sure to let us know either by phone, or here on the museum blog in the comments.

Brent D. Glass is Director of the National Museum of American History.

10 Most Important Events in the History of American Education

Common school- horace mann.

Freedman's Bureau

The Kalamazoo School Case

Compulsory School Attendance Laws

American Federal of Teachers (AFT) was founded

Brown vs. Board of Education

Central High

Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA)

First Charter School

No Child Left Behind (NCBL)