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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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9 Tips to Improve Readability and Language in Your Research Paper

“As far as he can achieve it, readability is as important for the scientific writer as it is for the novelist.” – Donald O. Hebb

Research paper language and its readability plays a crucial role in communicating your research ideas to the reader. People are busy and have no time to slog through long sentences or complex languages in research papers. However, research analyzing over 700,000 abstracts from 123 medical and science journals found that there has been a steady decrease in readability over the years. 1 These results are concerning for scientists and the wider public, including policymakers, as they impact both the reproducibility and accessibility of your research findings.

The more complex your research idea, the simpler your language should be. This will allow your readers to engage with the research ideas instead of struggling with the language of your research paper. There are several guidelines and toolkits from learned associations that help novice and seasoned authors alike to improve readability. For example, the European Association of Science Editing (EASE) provides author guidelines on preparing manuscripts, with suggestions aimed at improving the language quality of research works and manuscripts. 2

Reporting your research findings clearly and accurately in journals or conferences is a fundamental part of the scientific process, facilitating both knowledge dissemination and the reproducibility of results. One measure of your research quality is the influence your research work has on the field of study. For this, researchers must be confident in their study design, research methodology, results, interpretations, and conclusions. However, journals seek to publish high-quality research that meets their target audience’s demands and will reject papers with poor research paper language, poor readability or grammar errors in order to sustain their reputation.

The quality of your research and the manuscript are two different things. 3 While you might have a personal writing style as an author, it needs to be precise and unambiguous to be effective. If the language of research papers that you write is not readable and contains simple writing mistakes, it will probably decrease your chance of being accepted. Thus, the research paper language and its readability are the final factors determining your publishing success and your paper’s impact. It is important to spend time checking your research paper, as every good piece of writing requires many revisions. Once you draft your manuscript, it is advisable to check the paper repeatedly for grammar, consistency and accuracy in writing.

How to improve your research paper language and readability

• Proofread for elementary mistakes: Grammatically correct usage of the language of research papers is very important. Basic mistakes in spelling, punctuation, spacing, and grammar leave a very poor impression. A simple grammar check of your research paper can help avoid these often avoidable mistakes.
• Keep it simple: When it comes to the research paper language, keeping it simple will make your work more accessible to others. If you can delete something, then you should. If you can delete something, then you should.
• Maintain consistency and logical flow in your writing: Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.” As a writer, you should strive for consistency in using hyphens, units of measure, punctuation, grammar, symbols, capitalization, and acronyms.
• Avoid redundancy : Redundancy is the repetition of words and phrases that, if omitted, will not impair the meaning but make the text polished and easier to follow. Therefore, replace “due to the fact that” with “because,” “In the form of” with “As,” “In many cases” with “Often” and “has the ability to” with “can.”
• Use reader-friendly fonts: Most journals suggest using user-friendly fonts, such as Times New Roman, Arial, and Helvetica, which are easy on the eye.
• Shorten your words and sentences: Long sentences affect the readability of articles and the overall language of research papers. Check your paper for short and simple sentences, focusing on introducing ‘one idea per sentence.’ You can also read well-edited multi-disciplinary journals such as Science and Nature to learn more about the short and simple writing style.
• Frontload your sentences: The most important information should be mentioned at the beginning of the sentence rather than at the end. When a sentence is frontloaded, the reader can quickly assess significant information. This will attract the attention of your readers and make it more readable.
• Pay attention to reviewer comments: Common criticisms from reviewers concerning language of the research paper include unclear and poorly written manuscripts, inappropriate structure, lengthy manuscripts, unclear Discussion sections, and information redundancy. Focus on areas where you have received negative comments in your earlier manuscripts when working on your next one.
• Test your writing using readability formulas:  Finally, in the era of data metrics, you can check the average readability using an ‘r-index’ such as the New Dale-Chall (NDC) readability score or the Automated Readability Index. A grade level of 7 or 8 is considered good. 4
• Plaven-Sigray, P., Matheson, G.J., Schiffler, B. C., & Thompson, W.H. Research: The readability of scientific texts is decreasing over time. eLife,  27725 (2017).
• Kojima, T., & Barron, J.P. How Readability Can Improve Your Manuscript.  日本消化器外科学会雑誌 ,  48 (1), 83-84 (2015).
• Zimmerman, J.L. Improving a manuscript’s readability and likelihood of publication.  Issues in Accounting Education ,  4 (2), 458-466 (1989).
• Svider, P. F., Agarwal, N., Choudhry, O. J., Hajart, A. F., Baredes, S., Liu, J. K., & Eloy, J.A. Readability assessment of online patient education materials from academic otolaryngology–head and neck surgery departments.  American Journal of Otolaryngology ,  34 (1), 31-35 (2013).

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How to use appropriate academic language in research papers?

Many enter academic writing due to a passion for knowledge or to conduct independent research. Impactful writing in the academic world requires communicating ideas by using appropriate academic language, clarity, and grace. Most forms of writing such as email, texting, letters, etc. make use of informal language. Academic and scientific writing, however, requires the use of appropriate academic language. A good flow of writing leaves a lasting impression on the readers. Thus, it is essential to convey information and views concisely and clearly. This article offers insights on how to improve academic language in a paper.

Bloated language is not academic language

This misconception among writers is that supplementary words or sentences add more smartness and show in-depth knowledge about the subject. However, this unnecessary fluffing of words frustrates the reader and makes the content unnecessarily complex. A good academic paper is clear and concise. Wastage of words and repetition are avoided as many journals regulate a word limit. Some examples showing the difference between ‘bloated’ and concise sentences are shown below.

Get rid of redundant or wordy phrases

In the English language, there is the presence of many phrases that have multiple words. Although a writer needs to be cognizant of wordiness, a fine line exists between rambling and expressing. Therefore the use of these phrases must be avoided if they can be expressed in lesser words. For example:

Even, the word “etc.” should not be paired with “including”, “such as”, or “for example” because these words specifically mean that list is indicative and not exhaustive.

Everyday spoken language is not an academic language

Use appropriate academic language that is organized, and logical and avoids a detached tone. Usually, writers adapt to everyday spoken language, but the use of casual language should be avoided.

Use varying sentence structure

Sentence structure represents the physical structure of a sentence. For making an impactful research paper, it is important to use variegated words but avoid their overuse. Furthermore, repeating longer sentences may overshadow the argument and inundate the reader. Even frequent usage of short sentences makes arguments stunted or rushed. Therefore try to keep the length of sentences short and up to 20 words.

Use sufficient referencing and citation

Academic papers to a great extent rely on the review of existing information in the form of secondary research. When reviewing secondary studies, references must be provided. It helps to establish the validity and credibility of the information. Although there is no standard rule for the number of references to use in a study, as a hand rule consider an average, of 1 reference per 100- 150 words.

Today, a vast number of elements contribute towards creating work-life balance in employees. The findings of Yadav & Dabhade (2014) identified rewards, mentally challenging work, favourable working conditions, supportive coworkers, and employee-friendly policies as some of the factors leading to work-life balance and job satisfaction. (Chaitra, Kumar, & Renuka, 2016) also identified some of the factors that impact work-life balance. The study collected data from 60 respondents and applied descriptive statistics and analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique for analyzing the data. It was found that over time, meetings, travelling to work, and training after working hours influence the work-life balance of the employees. (Sharma & Shekhawat, 2017) assessed the association between employee performance and work-life balance in the hotel industry of Rajasthan in India. The main aim of their analysis was to determine the factors affecting the work-life balance of the employees.

Refer to the right sources of secondary information

The type of secondary sources referred to while writing greatly affects the quality of the paper. For example, if you refer more to blogs and web pages then your content is likely to be ambiguous. This is because web pages are written to target the masses. For example –

The above figure shows that the flow of sentences is informal with the usage of first-person pronouns and the exclusion of references to validate the information. Thus, this article is less suitable for academic writing, whereas the below study is a more suitable source of information.

On the other hand, referring to more academic sources such as journal papers and books academic journals are more structured and precise with clear content. It is likely to make your content more technically sound with less redundant information.

Importance of grammar check in academic language

Making grammatical mistakes while writing is common but avoidable. Eliminating grammatical errors improves the quality of the paper. Fortunately, there are many applications available that help to track and correct these errors instantly. Grammarly is one of the most popular and convenient applications. Installing the Grammarly plug-in helps remove mistakes while writing.

The figure below presents an example of the use of Grammarly for grammar and spell check while writing. It shows that the phrase “in the event that” is redundant and can be reduced to “if”.

Academic writing is an organized and information-oriented work, that requires a clear, concise, powerful, and graceful representation of ideas. Though often due to lack of practice or knowledge, writers tend to make mistakes. However, for impactful study, it is essential to empower yourself with knowledge, mix the sentence structure, and write to express not impress.

• Lokhande, N., & Gundimeda, H. (2021). MGNREGA: The Guaranteed Refuge for Returning Migrants During COVID-19 Lockdown in India. The Indian Economic Journal . https://doi.org/10.1177/00194662211023848
• Natali, D., & Terlizzi, A. (2021). The impact of Covid-19 on the future of pensions in the EU. ETUC SociAll Project 2018/08 Thematic Report , 4–7.
• Spicer, A. (2020). Organizational Culture and COVID-19. Journal of Management Studies , 57 (8), 1737–1740. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12625
• Takyi, P. O., & Bentum-Ennin, I. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 on stock market performance in Africa: A Bayesian structural time series approach. Journal of Economics and Business , 115 (xxxx), 105968. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconbus.2020.105968
• Priya Chetty

I am a management graduate with specialisation in Marketing and Finance. I have over 12 years' experience in research and analysis. This includes fundamental and applied research in the domains of management and social sciences. I am well versed with academic research principles. Over the years i have developed a mastery in different types of data analysis on different applications like SPSS, Amos, and NVIVO. My expertise lies in inferring the findings and creating actionable strategies based on them. 

Over the past decade I have also built a profile as a researcher on Project Guru's Knowledge Tank division. I have penned over 200 articles that have earned me 400+ citations so far. My Google Scholar profile can be accessed here . 

I now consult university faculty through Faculty Development Programs (FDPs) on the latest developments in the field of research. I also guide individual researchers on how they can commercialise their inventions or research findings. Other developments im actively involved in at Project Guru include strengthening the "Publish" division as a bridge between industry and academia by bringing together experienced research persons, learners, and practitioners to collaboratively work on a common goal. 

I am a Senior Analyst at Project Guru, a research and analytics firm based in Gurugram since 2012. I hold a master’s degree in economics from Amity University (2019). Over 4 years, I have worked on worked on various research projects using a range of research tools like SPSS, STATA, VOSViewer, Python, EVIEWS, and NVIVO. My core strength lies in data analysis related to Economics, Accounting, and Financial Management fields.

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Language Skills in Research Paper Writing

• First Online: 17 June 2020

Cite this chapter

• Balachandra V. Adkoli 3 &
• Subhash Chandra Parija 4  

1242 Accesses

Scientific communication is a blend of scientific facts presented in a language that everyone can understand and appreciate. Experts claim that an effectively written research paper is more about a story, and not a study [1]. In fact, one of the virtues discussed in conducting research points to telling the story in a cohesive manner, which depends upon a powerful and skillful use of language [2].

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Adkoli, B.V., Parija, S.C. (2020). Language Skills in Research Paper Writing. In: Parija, S., Adkoli, B. (eds) Effective Medical Communication . Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-3409-6_14

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Mastering Scientific Language in Scientific Writing

You don’t need to master the English language as a native speaker to write excellent scientific papers. It is more important to make your research easy to grasp. Here, I’ll walk you through the three most essential scientific language hacks.

If you have followed me for a while, you’ll have noticed that I talk a lot about structure when it comes to writing a scientific paper that gets published in your target journal and cited a lot. Structure provides the skeleton of your scientific paper and is, therefore, the most crucial bit. I find the perfect structure is best achieved by using a story-telling approach . While structure is essential, knowing how to use English for scientific writing is important too.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE

All too often academics and scientists think that they have to sound fancy to be taken seriously as an expert. The consequence of that is that a major part of the scientific literature is inaccessible even to other researchers in your field. If your research paper is written badly, those who read your paper will have to invest a lot of time trying to understand what you are communicating. Or they may not actually grasp the point your are making (or never read the paper at all). Hence, they won’t cite you — which means that your work won’t contribute to building scientific knowledge.

SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE: CLEAR, SIMPLE, SHORT

Using scientific language properly when writing a paper means putting your reader first . Instead of sounding like the expert, what is most important when writing a paper is that your reader understands your scientific language easily without having to spend time and effort to decipher your writing. In other words, your scientific language should be clear and non-ambiguous.

There are two more guiding principles when it comes to scientific writing in English: Your writing should also be as short as possible and communicate your findings in the simplest way.

IT’S NOT ABOUT HAVING FLAWLESS ENGLISH FOR SCIENTIFIC WRITING

Once your scientific writing in English is clear, simple and short, having an advanced scientific writing vocabulary or mastering the English language and grammar at a native-speaker-level is not necessary. Or put differently, native English speakers don’t automatically know how to write a scientific paper .

If English is your second (or third, or fourth…) language, think twice before you pay an external editor to correct the language in your scientific paper. It may pay off a lot more important to a) tackle the structure of your writing first, and b) to implement the scientific language tips I’m sharing below.

USING ENGLISH FOR SCIENTIFIC WRITING

Here are three easy guidelines to follow to make your scientific language clear, short and simple. Just implementing these three hacks will make your scientific paper so much easier to read:

• Words to use in scientific writing: verbs instead of nouns
• What tense to use in scientific writing
• Words to avoid in scientific writing: inconsistent terminology

Let me explain.

1) WORDS TO USE IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING: VERBS INSTEAD OF NOUNS

Scientific writing in English that is very noun-heavy is really hard to read. On the contrary, sentences with powerful verbs are much quicker to grasp. Among the nouns that I notice academics use too often in their scientific papers are “agreement”, “disagreement”, “investigation”, “analysis”, “examination”, “comparison”, “increase”, “decrease” and “improvement” etc. I suggest you erase those from your scientific writing vocabulary right now!

If you use the corresponding verbs instead, your sentences will be way less convoluted, and faster to read. Let me show you an example:

• We present an analysis of the catalyst performance. Because we observed a slight improvement in activity, our results are in agreement with the literature.

is better phrased as

• We analysed the catalyst performance. Because the activity improved slightly, our results agree with the literature.

Did you notice how much easier it was to read the second version compared to the first? And that’s not all: The second example contains only two thirds of the words of the first. Thus, using verbs instead of nouns is also a great technique to cut down your word count .

2) WHAT TENSE TO USE IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING

As a graduate student, I kept being confused about what tense to use in scientific writing. I’m not surprised if you are too because so many authors of scientific papers are not using the tenses correctly. When I or our other academic writing coaches review writing for members of our online program, the Researchers’ Writing Academy, we make a note about the tense used almost every time.

I’m not talking about what tense to use in scientific writing to make sure your writing is grammatically correct but rather because the wrong tense can easily confuse a reader.

Generally, if you describe actions that took place in the past, such as the findings of past research, your own experiments and specific observations, the past tense is the correct one.

Here are some examples of sentences that should be written in past tense:

• Janssen et al. observed that….
• We measured the diameter of the nanoparticles using…
• The activity was dependent on… *

* if this is for a specific experiment

So, when should you use the present tense ? This tense is reserved for established facts, truths, generalisations and things that your scientific paper covers.

• Platinum is a transition metal commonly used as a catalyst.
• The activity depends on…**
• In this paper, we show that…

* if this is a general trend, and not only the result of a specific experiment

3) WORDS TO AVOID IN SCIENTIFIC WRITING: INCONSISTENT TERMINOLOGY

If you asked me which words to avoid in scientific writing, I’d say: synonyms! I know you may be afraid of repeating yourself risking to make your writing boring, but the truth is: Your reader will get confused if you call the same thing many different things. I promise, they won’t get bored reading your text. They are not reading your paper to get entertained but rather to understand something, so always remember rule #1 about scientific language: Be clear.

A simple intervention to make your scientific writing in English clearer is by defining a term clearly and then using that term consistently throughout your whole manuscript.

I’ll give you an example:

“Signal”, “electron count”, the invented abbreviation “EC”, and “intensity” may be used interchangeably. Instead of using all of these synonyms in different places in your manuscript, decide on one synonym and stick with it!

MASTERING SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE – CONCLUSION

Repeat after me: Clear, simple, short — that encapsulates everything you need to know about scientific writing in English. If you feel like you’re not effective at communicating clearly and concisely, maybe are getting desk-rejected a lot, I have a free resource for you!

In this free online training, I will introduce you to my step-by-step system to write clear & concise papers for your target journals. Click the button below to watch now or save for later.

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Language Of Research

Learning about research is a lot like learning about anything else. To start, you need to learn the jargon people use, the big controversies they fight over, and the different factions that define the major players. We’ll start by considering five really big multi-syllable words that researchers sometimes use to describe what they do. We’ll only do a few for now, to give you an idea of just how esoteric the discussion can get (but not enough to cause you to give up in total despair). We can then take on some of the major issues in research like the types of questions we can ask in a project, the role of time in research , and the different types of relationships we can estimate. Then we have to consider defining some basic terms like variable , hypothesis , data , and unit of analysis . If you’re like me, you hate learning vocabulary, so we’ll quickly move along to consideration of two of the major fallacies of research, just to give you an idea of how wrong even researchers can be if they’re not careful (of course, there’s always a certainly probability that they’ll be wrong even if they’re extremely careful).

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How Language Affects Research

Many researchers experience pressure to publish their work in English, even if it is a challenge. Here, we discuss why and provide resources to help.

Updated on June 23, 2017

Did you know that there are more than 7,000 spoken languages in the world?

And yet, even with all of the different languages, many researchers are under so much pressure to publish their work in English.

Why? And what can be done?

First, some background information:

We were curious why out of all the languages in the world, researchers experience undue pressure to publish primarily in one language: English.

In our research, we found that this was not always the case. In fact, if we were to look back 100 years ago, we would find that French, German, and English were the primary languages that research was communicated in. But even for centuries before that, scientists used Latin to communicate globally . They often published their work in their native language, and then published it in Latin so that it would benefit scientists in other regions.

So how did English rise to the forefront? Scientists first began publishing in Latin less, and after the World Wars, they also published in German and French less. Eventually, over time, English became the dominant language by which research was published and communicated.

Although English-only journals do account for a little more than half of those currently indexed in the DOAJ, that the journals that publish in another language account for almost half, as well. We're thrilled to see some global visibility for these journals.

We also noticed that until 2010, the number of open access journals that were indexed that offer an alternative language to English exceeded the number of journals that publish only in English. English-only journals seem to have just taken the lead on indexing over alternative language journals in the last 7 years.

The trend will be interesting to watch, but if journals continue to expand the number of languages that they offer publication in, research can be shared more broadly.

The challenges that come with English being the dominant language in research:

Have you ever tried asking for directions from someone who did not speak the same language as you? How did it go? It likely would have been a little easier if you both shared a language.

Considering that in-person interactions are challenging when the other person doesn't speak the same language, written communication is even more difficult. Additionally, having a complicated language like English as the foundation for communicating research adds to the challenge of non-native English researchers being able to share their work globally.

With English being largely the preferred language for the research atmosphere, it is easy to understand that there are dynamics beyond writing the research manuscript that are affected by this.

For instance, communicating with journal editors and reviewers can be especially challenging . Many of these interactions take place electronically, which already makes it hard to understand a person's tone. When the language is confusing (for either participant), that can further contribute to a rocky interaction.

Researcher conferences are another aspect that can be impacted by having English as the central language. There are many benefits of conferences , some of which include poster presentations, teaching sessions, and of course, networking. But many research conferences are conducted in solely in English, which makes it difficult for anyone whose native language is not English.

Good research is being done all over the world, by native English researchers and non-native English researchers. What is most unfortunate is when language is a barrier for that work to be widely shared and understood by others.

How to overcome the pressure to publish your research in English:

One of the reasons international researchers want to publish their work in English is because many notable journals are published in English, and having their manuscript accepted can be critical for career advancement.

However, it's important to remember that there are also great journals published in other languages, and you may be able to find one in your native language. If you can, this can help alleviate the pressure to publish your work in English.

Here are some things to consider when looking for any journal, in English or in any language.

1. Consider the benefits of publishing in a regional journal .

Having your manuscript published in a regional scholarly journal can eliminate barriers in international publishing. If your work is especially relevant to your region where other researchers would benefit from reading it, this may be an option you want to think about.

2. Research journals to try to choose the right one for your research .

Deciding which journal to submit your manuscript to can be difficult for any researcher. However, looking through a journal's guidelines, the aims and scope, and their past articles can be a good starting point to determine if the journal would be a good match for your research.

3. Learn how to identify predatory journals , particularly open access ones.

As you search for journals, you will likely decide between publishing in an open access or a traditional journal . There are many benefits to publishing your research in open access journals, and there are many credible OA journals. However, predatory publishing has increased in recent years, so it's important to know what to look out for.

Resources if you do want to publish your manuscript in English:

If you decide that you want to publish your manuscript in English, here are some tips for writing, English editing, and other resources.

1. Remember to maintain a formal tone .

Writing in English for a scientific or academic journal can differ from speaking in English. Be sure not to use phrases that are too informal or casual. A thesaurus can be a great tool to help find words that are concise and have a more formal tone.

2. Don't use hedge terms too often.

Hedge terms are words that make the author sound uncertain. Using hedge terms when discussing new data is common. However, if you reference literature that is widely accepted in your area of study, use words that are more definitive and certain.

3. Write shorter sentences .

Shorter sentences in English are more concise and easier to read. Have you ever tried shortening a sentence? The activity is challenging, but the result is often that your idea is communicated more directly. If you usually write longer sentences to pack in a lot of information, try turning them into two or three shorter sentences. Your readers will thank you.

4. Have a colleague review your manuscript.

If you have a colleague whose native language is English or who has had research manuscripts accepted in English journals, ask them to review and edit your manuscript. They will likely have good suggestions, and doing this before you submit to the journal can be very helpful. Consider using this template for developmental editing of a scientific manuscript.

5. Consider using a translation or editing service.

Using a translation or editing service to refine the grammar, spelling, and word choice will improve your manuscript and can help you make a good first impression on journal editors. Some services provide the option of unlimited English re-editing. At AJE, unlimited re-editing is included in our Academic Translation service and in our Premium Editing service.

Whether you decide to publish your research in English or in another language, the important thing is that you are sharing your findings with the research community. By doing that, you are moving science and society forward. Ultimately, we know that the true language of research is not a specific alphabet, but a desire for discovery enabled by rigorous, data-driven methods.

Thanks to Ben Mudrak for contributing to this article.

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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on September 5, 2024.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

The five steps in this article will help you put together an effective introduction for either type of research paper.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

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The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Scribbr’s paraphrasing tool can help you rephrase sentences to give a clear overview of your arguments.

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

Cite this Scribbr article

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Strategies for overcoming language barriers in research

Allison squires.

1 Rory Meyers College of Nursing, New York University, New York City, New York

2 School of Medicine, New York University, New York City, New York

Tina Sadarangani

Simon jones.

3 Population Health, School of Medicine, New York University, New York City, New York

AS, TS and SJ: Made substantial contributions to conception and design, or acquisition of data, or analysis and interpretation of data. AS, TS and SJ: Involved in drafting the manuscript or revising it critically for important intellectual content. AS, TS and SJ: Given final approval of the version to be published. Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for appropriate portions of the content. AS, TS and SJ: Agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

This paper seeks to describe best practices for conducting cross-language research with individuals who have a language barrier.

Discussion paper.

Data Sources

Research methods papers addressing cross-language research issues published between 2000–2017.

Implications for Nursing

Rigorous cross-language research involves the appropriate use of interpreters during the research process, systematic planning for how to address the language barrier between participant and researcher and the use of reliably and validly translated survey instruments (when applicable). Biases rooted in those who enter data into “big data” systems may influence data quality and analytic approaches in large observational studies focused on linking patient language preference to health outcomes.

Cross-language research methods can help ensure that those individuals with language barriers have their voices contributing to the evidence informing healthcare practice and policies that shape health services implementation and financing. Understanding the inherent conscious and unconscious biases of those conducting research with this population and how this may emerge in research studies is also an important part of producing rigorous, reliable, and valid cross-language research.

• This study synthesized methodological recommendations for cross-language research studies with the goal to improve the quality of future research and expand the evidence-base for clinical practice.
• Clear methodological recommendations were generated that can improve research rigor and quality of cross-language qualitative and quantitative studies.
• The recommendations generated here have the potential to have an impact on the health and well-being of migrants around the world.

1. INTRODUCTION

Global migration has reached unprecedented levels in human history in the twenty-first century, with 3.3% of the world’s population having migrated internationally and 740 million people have migrated in their own countries ( International Organization for Migration, 2017 ). Medical tourism is also on the rise and language concordance is not always a guarantee between nurses and their patients in those cases ( Kanchanachitra et al., 2011 ; Reitig & Squires, 2015 ). For nurses and other healthcare researchers, migration creates a common challenge for healthcare research: language barriers.

Individuals with language barriers present new opportunities and challenges for researchers seeking to strengthen the evidence-base for clinical nursing practice and education around the world. Research with this population is also critical for understanding health outcomes, how individuals who have moved countries access (or the barriers to) health services and developing and testing effective strategies for health literacy promotion to name a few. Research will also help ensure that individuals with language barriers do not face discrimination in their health systems and subsequently develop costly health disparities.

It is surprising, however, how many researchers do not minimize the threats to research rigor posed by language barriers with their subjects. Patient and health services focused research on language barriers has historically been lacking and limited to a small group of researchers globally, even as incentives for such research have appeared in many countries ( Schwei et al., 2016 ). In the case of nursing, the literature has focused more on researching the language skills (or lack thereof) of internationally educated nurses rather than their patients ( Allan & Westwood, 2016 ; Müller, 2016 ). A cursory search of PubMed and CINAHL reveal that publications linked to nurses about language barriers since the year 2000 number, after removal of duplicates, only 280 of 303. Approximately one third of those are practice-based papers not involving research, editorials, or opinions—the lowest level of the evidence-based practice pyramid. Whilst there may be more publications, inappropriate use of key words may keep many hidden from systematic searches.

In this discussion paper, we draw from an international, interdisciplinary body of research that has explored and successfully addressed methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative research involving language barriers in health care, known as cross-language research methods. We seek to highlight the key methodological implications of doing research involving language barriers by drawing from methodological developments in the literature since the year 2000 through 20,217—a period representing unprecedented growth in scientific studies and cross-language methodological developments. Both qualitative and quantitative methodological implications are reviewed from selected studies.

2. BACKGROUND

This section provides an overview of two key areas associated with cross-language research in nursing: language barriers and interpreter types. It aims to provide the reader with a basic conceptual understanding of core linguistic principles involved with addressing language barriers in research.

2.1. Language barriers in nursing and health care

Language barriers have been part of nursing practice since the formal inception of the profession in the nineteenth century when Nightingale was caring for soldiers from across Europe during the Crimean War. In the twenty-first century with global migration rates at record levels, language barriers present multiple challenges for health systems delivery ( Bloemraad & Sheares, 2017 ; Czaika & de Haas, 2013 ).

Research is needed to devise the best, context specific strategies for meeting the needs of patients with language barriers. Conducting research in a patient’s preferred language offers the best opportunity to truly capture reliable and valid results representative of their experiences. A preferred language is the person’s “language of the heart”, the one that they want to speak when they feel at their most vulnerable. The conduct of research when a language barrier is involved has two aspects. First, understanding linguistic competency and literacy of participants and planning the study around those factors. The second aspect focuses on addressing the language of health care and research itself, known as language for specific purposes (LSP).

First, to be able to communicate effectively with another person individuals need to have what linguists call discourse competence in a language. That means they can have a conversation with someone relatively easily and do not have to stop and look up words or phrases ( Danesi, 1996 ; Savignon, 1997 ; Squires, 2008 ). For example, immigrant children may have this level of language competence, but they usually lack a more sophisticated understanding of the language since most of the time, they do not receive formal education in their parents’ language. They will not have the vocabulary to speak “health care” either. They are known as “heritage” speakers of a language ( Montrul, 2010 ).

Health care, as we know, is its own language and fits the criteria of a language for a specific purpose ( Hull, 2016 ). LSP is the vernacular of the discipline. The professions all have their own language as do the different realms of the social sciences. When students study to become members of the discipline or profession, part of their socialization is learning the language. Therefore, effective communication with LSP depends on the person’s ability to translate not only the disciplinary vernacular, but also the standard language ( Hull, 2016 ).

We see “failures” of translating LSP with patients who speak our own language when we cannot improve their health literacy. In the case of language translation issues between patients and providers, for example, miscommunication related to translation increases the patient’s risk for hospital readmission, adverse events, and delays in care, to name a few ( De Gagne, Oh, So, & Kim, 2014 ; Dowsey, Broadhead, Stoney, & Choong, 2009 ; Durstenfeld, Ogedegbe, Katz, Park, & Blecker, 2016 ; Karliner, Kim, Meltzer, & Auerbach, 2010 ; Whittal & Lippke, 2016 ). Therefore, the same threats mistranslation poses to patients’ health and well-being will threaten the rigor of research studies involving translation.

2.2. An overview of types of healthcare interpreters and their potential research roles

Interpreters are an important part of mitigating threats to rigor in research. There is a difference, however, between an interpreter and a translator. An Interpreter is a person who conducts “live” interpretation between two people. A Translator is someone who translates text-based documents between the source language and the target language ( Squires, 2008 ; Temple, 2002 ). Qualified interpreters and translators will have had their language skills formally evaluated by an independent source ( Hull, 2016 ). The next sections focus on the roles of interpreters in research with roles of translators discussed specifically in the section focused on research implementation.

To begin, in the case of interpreters, they will play an important role in research data collection and potentially, analysis. Any interpreter contributing to a study ideally will have some experience facilitating research implementation, but that is not always possible ( Squires, 2008 ). There are five types of interpreters or services that can be used in research, each with pros and cons and budgetary implications.

The first type of interpreter we will discuss is the Dual Role Interpreter. This is usually a healthcare provider who has had their language proficiency formally evaluated by an independent source. They may have grown up speaking the language and continued studying it as they progressed in their education or alternatively, learned the language through intensive study or living and working abroad. In many countries, it is common for healthcare providers to speak multiple languages, especially when there are several official languages in a country. Again, it is important to remember that their level of language proficiency for healthcare language may vary.

The advantage of the dual role interpreter (especially if they also have research training) is that their contributions to the study will be informed by their experiences working with patients with language barriers. There is the potential for a more nuanced understanding of experiences or the challenges of measurement with specific populations with language barriers. A dual role interpreter, however, may bring their own set of biases into how results are interpreted from the study because of their experiences. This aspect of interpreter identity, even in quantitative studies, should be factored into study design and discussed in the limitations.

An in-person interpreter is an individual who has received specialized training. In health care, they have learned healthcare vocabulary as part of their training so they can effectively translate health care’s language—a definite advantage for study implementation. For research purposes, these interpreters are the best option if the study will involve communicating complex healthcare information to a study participant, such as might occur in randomized controlled trials.

In-person interpreters in research can also have no healthcare experience, which can provide an advantage for researchers who seek to minimize bias in participant responses in studies involving the patient experience. Like any healthcare worker, healthcare interpreters may have their own biases from interactions with healthcare providers, navigating systems issues and memorable patient interactions. Even though they may try to stay objective, the risk for them inserting bias into the findings increases if this threat to rigor is not managed well.

Technology-based interpreting is the kind that most clinicians are familiar with and it comes in the form of telephone or video-based interpreting services. When research funds are limited, using this service—especially if it is already part of the institution’s resources—can offer the most cost-effective option for conducting research. A threat to rigor from this type of interpreting is that the technology- based interpreting industry is largely unregulated globally and relies on companies to conduct their own internal quality checks of interpreter performance.

Finally, two other ways of bridging language barriers could threaten the rigor of research findings: Online translation services and family members. Online translation services have not yet developed the ability to effectively translate health care’s language. While they can seem like a good way to translate, for example, transcripts in qualitative research, many translation errors will happen—especially with patient interviews because they may often use obscure slang words from their particular dialect that the computer will mistranslate. A qualified translator will still be needed to check the translation, which could still take just as much time as if they did it themselves.

Family members may or may not make for effective interpreters for a research study. Just like during a healthcare encounter where sensitive or culturally taboo topics may emerge; the family member may influence the translation and information provided. Unless the study design includes the family member in it, using independent interpreters presents the best mediating option for threats to rigor from translation by family members. Nonetheless, with the participant’s consent, a family member could help enhance data quality by either improving its precision (in the case of a survey) or helping the participant to remember important experiential details (in the case of qualitative research).

3. DATA SOURCES

Cross-language research refers to research studies where a language barrier is present and data collection must involve the use of interpreters at some stage during the research process ( Croot et al., 2011 ; Squires, 2009 ; Squires et al., 2013 ). A critical factor of crosslanguage research, regardless of methodological approach, is that it must be completed in teams ( Chapple & Ziebland, 2018 ; Esposito, 2001 ; Im et al., 2017 ; Paulus, Jackson, & Davidson, 2017 ; Shordike et al., 2010 ; Stanley & Slattery, 2003 ). Cross-language research cannot be rigorous unless a team was involved because the interpretation of the data would be subject to the individual biases of a single researcher and are likely to be less representative of the population of interest. The team will include the researcher, coinvestigators, project managers and very importantly, interpreters. The following recommendations were drawn from 73 methods articles addressing some dimension of cross-language qualitative or quantitative research published between 2000 and 2017.

4. IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

When the target population for a research study has a language barrier, careful planning is required. In this section, we offer considerations for the design of qualitative and quantitative studies where language barriers are an issue that could threaten the rigor of a study.

4.1. Qualitative research considerations

Cross-language qualitative research has grown extensively since the year 2000. Methods have evolved and several common methodological considerations emerged. Importantly, cross-language researchers uniformly agree that translation poses a threat to the trustworthiness of qualitative data ( Court & Abbas, 2013 ; Esposito, 2001 ; Im et al., 2017 ; Jones & Boyle, 2011 ; Larkin, Dierckx de Casterlé, & Schotsmans, 2007 ; MacKenzie, 2015 ; Temple, 2002 , 2005 ; Temple & Young, 2004 ; Wong & Poon, 2010 ; Xian, 2008 ). Squires (2009) developed criteria from a systematic review of cross-language studies for evaluating how researchers managed translation and then Croot et al. (2011) tested the criteria. The latter concluded that the criteria offered researchers useful direction both with study design and critical appraisal of existing studies, albeit with several caveats related to resources dictating interpreter usage.

Another point of consensus in cross-language research is that interpreter identity matters, with pros and cons for each choice made. Interpreters with translation work experience are uniformly recommended for cross-language studies to minimize the threats to trustworthiness of results posed by translation. The use of students, undergraduate or graduate, for interpreting may create good research socialization opportunities, but could also affect data quality due to their inexperience with both research and translation ( Lincoln, González y González, & Aroztegui Massera, 2016 ).

Interpreter timing during data collection also matters and well-planned studies account for this factor during study design ( Im et al., 2016 ; Santos, Black, & Sandelowski, 2014 ). Timing is rooted in the role design of the interpreter in the study. Researchers may find Role Theory useful in interpreter role design when planning a study ( Lynch, 2007 ; Morgeson, Delaney-Klinger, & Hemingway, 2005 ). For example, a functionalist role for an interpreter means the expectation of the interpreter is to adhere to their essential function: interpretation and translation. This would be defined as the “correct behaviours” that functionalist role theory emphasizes. Timing would be limited to the interview data collection point, transcription (if that is part of their role) and translation of the transcript.

An interpreter in an interactionist role, however, offers flexible boundaries to the interpreter that are less proscribed ( Lynch, 2007 ). Interactionist contributions of the interpreter would include not only interpretation and translation of the data, but also contributions to data analysis ( Squires, 2008 ). An interactionist role also allows the interpreter to integrate their role as a cultural broker between the parties, thereby contributing potential explanations to themes and categories that have emerged in the analysis or by providing culturally appropriate names for them.

Finally, transcription quality is always a critical part of any qualitative research study and this is where translators will help mitigate threats to rigor ( Poland, 1995 ; Tilley, 2003 ). Transcriptions are the final point of interpreter-mediated vulnerability in a research study because the quality of translation will affect the entire data analysis process. Clark, Birkhead, Fernandez, and Egger (2017) offer useful recommendations for quality checking the transcription and translation process. These include two independent checks on translation, hiring professional transcription services, achieving consensus around the translation of culturally unique words and slang phrases with the minimal goal of achieving semantic equivalence and the aspirational goal of conceptual equivalence.

4.2. Quantitative research considerations

Language barriers or patient language preferences can affect any kind of quantitative study. Most observational studies (e.g., cross-sectional, cohort, case control, etc.) and randomized control trials may involve the use of some survey design and methodological consensus has emerged around what constitutes rigorous survey instrument translation. “Big Data”, being newer, means that we do not fully understand where language preference and language barriers manifest themselves in patient outcomes in large datasets. Nonetheless, there are still salient points for discussion even in the early stages of the science.

4.2.1. Survey instruments and translation

There are many instruments with existing reliable and valid translations, or so it may appear. When making the method choice to use an existing translation, researchers should first research the history of the instrument to determine: (a) when it was developed; (b) how it was psychometrically evaluated in its original language; and (d) when and how the translation was completed. Flaws in the process tied with the original instrument translation process will not produce reliable and valid results in the translation. There is also the possibility that factor structures and other psychometric measures may change across cultures and contexts ( Brzyski, Kózka, Squires, & Brzostek, 2016 ; Choi et al., 2009 ; Mallinckrodt & Wang, 2004 ; Yu, Lee, & Woo, 2004 ). Sometimes these changes are not significant, but the researcher must differentiate when they are or are not using the appropriate methods. Just because it has been published does not mean it is a good quality translation. A translator is critical to help evaluate the quality of the survey’s translation during this phase of study planning. Some surveys, like the Maslach Burnout Inventory, have professional translations that are available, protected by copyright and may require a fee for their use in research studies ( Squires et al., 2014 ). Failure to appropriately use this kind of survey translation may place the researcher at risk for copyright violations.

Survey instrument translation appropriateness with specific populations is also affected by nativity and dialects—both of which are associated with social risk factors influencing health outcomes ( National Academies of Sciences Engineering & Medicine, 2017 ). Many countries have multiple official languages where citizens will speak all of them or at least one or two with a high level of proficiency. They may not read or write in the other languages.

Examples of this phenomenon come from every part of the world. In Sub-Saharan Africa, it is common for people to speak their tribal language (which may or may not be written), the language of their former colonizers and other languages common to the economic engine of the country ( Levin, 2006 ). Latin America has 448 indigenous languages spoken there, aside from Spanish, Portuguese, or French. China has the unifying scholarly language of Mandarin, with Cantonese the second most spoken language in the country. Yet each village and region in China can have a sub-dialect that only people from those regions understand ( Aroian, Wu, & Tran, 2005 ; Chidarikire, Cross, Skinner, & Cleary, 2018 ). Former Soviet Union States may still speak Russian but most have reasserted their country’s language as the primary language ( Shpilko, 2006 ). The languages of India and Pakistan remain numerous as well ( Abdelrahim et al., 2017 ). In the Middle East, Arabic is much like Spanish where the version of the language is specific to the country of origin of the person speaking it. Academic Arabic could be read by any educated person, but dialect specificity is important for accurate translation ( Al-Amer, Ramjan, Glew, Darwish, & Salamonson, 2016 ). For survey research, this means that a translation of a survey may not work well if it does not match the participant’s nativity—especially when measuring symptoms, coping strategies and other health related phenomenon where slang and linguistic variation by country become measurement factors.

Nonetheless, consensus has emerged in several areas around appropriate strategies for ensuring the most reliable, valid and culturally appropriate translation of a survey instrument. Flaherty et al. (1988) were one of the first groups to set early criteria for evaluating instrument translations. Their criteria include researchers taking steps during the translation process to ensure conceptual, semantic, technical, content, and construct equivalence. In time, it has also become clear that forward and backward translation alone are insufficient to ensure reliable and valid translations because that process alone cannot meet the five measures of equivalence ( Maneesriwongul & Dixon, 2004 ; Perneger, Leplège, & Etter, 1999 ; Squires et al., 2013 ). Systematic approaches to survey instrument translation, therefore, offer the best option to ensure reliable, valid, and culturally representative translations. Most of these approaches offer some combination of content validity indexing ( Brzostek et al., 2015 ; Liu, Squires, & You, 2011 ; Squires et al., 2012 , 2013 , 2014 ), cognitive interviewing ( Benitez & Padilla, 2014 ; Benitez, Padilla, van de Vijver, & Cuevas, 2018 ; Park, Sha, & Willis, 2016 ; Reeve et al., 2011 ), and interpreter timing ( Cha, Kim, & Erlen, 2007 ; Erkut, 2010 ; Johnson, 2006 ; Sidani, Guruge, Miranda, Ford-Gilboe, & Varcoe, 2010 ; Weeks, Swerissen, & Belfrage, 2007 ; Xian, 2008 ; Yu et al., 2004 ). Finally, conducting pre-data collection evaluations of the survey instrument with the migrant population will not only help determine if they understand the questions being asked in the instrument, but if the wording and literacy level is appropriate for the local population being studied.

4.2.2. Big data, patient language preference, and large dataset observational studies

Whilst there is a huge attraction to use big data to analyse health related issues tied to patient language preference, bigger does not always mean better ( Cohen et al., 2015 ; O’Halloran, Tan, Pham, Bateman, & Vande Moere, 2018 ). In addition to the many known problems that come with working with large datasets in health care, isolating language barrier related relationships and effects have their own challenges in observational studies. First, data generated from administrative files is not collected with the rigor and consistency that aligns with research practices. It requires multiple people and multiple incentives to get it right. Consequently, organizations that do not place a value on capturing patient language preference will likely have poor data to work with as capturing patient language preference data reflects organizational values for caring for migrants.

A logical leap from this issue then would be the use of missing data management techniques. Patient language preference data are often missing, thus presenting unique challenges for data analysis that are often reflective of biases and potentially, prejudices of who entered the data. Thus, missing language preference data are unlikely to be missing at random. For example, research from the UK shows that it is common to have missing race/ethnicity classifications of “white” ( Tippu et al., 2017 ). That missing data, with no language preference recorded, would leave out whites who do not speak English yet still comprise a substantial portion of the migrant population in the country. Other datasets might reflect similar patterns.

Another issue affecting large datasets where researchers want to consider language preference is that there are no standards for recording it in health care in terms of naming languages in EHRs. For example, organizations may have a language preference option of “Chinese”, when in fact there is no such language. Mandarin is the official language of China and Cantonese is a widely spoken dialect in the country that uses the same alphabet. As previously mentioned, China has multiple dialects—some just at the village level —and those are rarely considered for language preference. For older patients who may migrated in the twentieth century, their village dialect may represent the language of their heart.

Lastly, when trying to use large datasets to compare the impact of language preference on patient outcomes, how demographics are measured and have changed over time become important methodological considerations. In societies that were largely linguistically homogenous before the population changed, these differences present unique challenges for healthcare research. Longitudinal studies, therefore, become critical for studying the impact of changes in language preferences of populations over time and how these impact health outcomes and any resulting disparities.

4.3. Budgeting for interpretation and translation

Interpreting and translation can add significant costs to a research study. Costs are determined based on (a) the language being translated; (b) the source and target languages for translation; and (c) the extent of interpreter involvement in the research process.

Straightforward translation of survey instruments or transcription and translation of qualitative interviews have costs dictated by the time involved and the country where the researchers are seeking services. Many professional translation companies contract with translators in other countries to ensure the best quality translation and in some cases, this can save on costs. Country specific translations also ensure that the slang words or other country specific vernacular receives the correct interpretation. Professional translation services, however, are the most expensive.

The alternative is to hire research team members who speak the same language as the target population of the study. This can involve hiring research assistants on a part- or full-time basis and the total costs of their participation will depend on the country’s labour laws or organization’s employment requirements. Funding for the study may limit how long interpreters can be involved with it unless they can contribute to other parts of the study besides data collection. If researchers do want their language concordant staff to remain part of the entire study, they should budget funds to support their involvement for the duration. Depending on the funding source, this may or may not contribute significantly to the study’s total costs.

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Research will play a critical role in helping health systems, workers and patients determine the most effective ways to bridge language barriers between patients, providers and systems in ways that optimize health and system outcomes. Improved research rigor in studies involving language barriers in health care are also needed to create evidence-based policies at the organizational, local, national, and international levels.

All recommendations are made mindful of the possibility that any researcher or member of their team could be subject to ethnocentric assumptions in their work and thus, should operate from a place of being conscious of their own biases when implementing and interpreting studies involving language barriers. Using cross-language research methods to generate better, more rigorous evidence specific to the experiences of people with language barriers is critical for strengthening health care’s evidence base that informs clinical practice and policy.

Acknowledgments

Funding information This paper was informed by research funded by the United States’ Agency for Health Care Research and Quality, R01HS23593.

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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MLA Overview and Workshop

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What is MLA Style?

MLA Style establishes standards of written communication concerning:

• formatting and page layout
• applying stylistic technicalities (e.g. abbreviations, footnotes, quotations)
• citing sources
• preparing a manuscript for publication in certain disciplines.

Why Use MLA?

Using MLA Style properly makes it easier for readers to navigate and comprehend a text through familiar cues that refer to sources and borrowed information. Editors and instructors also encourage everyone to use the same format so there is consistency of style within a given field. Abiding by MLA's standards as a writer will allow you to:

• Provide your readers with cues they can use to follow your ideas more efficiently and to locate information of interest to them
• Allow readers to focus more on your ideas by not distracting them with unfamiliar or complicated formatting
• Establish your credibility or ethos in the field by demonstrating an awareness of your audience and their needs as fellow researchers (particularly concerning the citing of references)

Who Should Use MLA?

MLA Style is typically reserved for writers and students preparing manuscripts in various humanities disciplines such as:

• English Studies - Language and Literature
• Foreign Languages and Literatures
• Literary Criticism
• Comparative Literature
• Cultural Studies

MLA Formatting and Notation Style

You should start by becoming familiar with the general formatting requirements of MLA Style, as well as the different standards for notation that MLA writers are expected to use. Because MLA is different than other writing styles, such as APA, you should pay attention to every detail of the Style, from general paper layout to abbreviations. The following pages will introduce you to some of these basic requirements to get you started in the right direction.

General Format

• Covers the basic requirements of page layout for a typical MLA manuscript
• Includes general guidelines to apply throughout the document and specific formatting details for the first page of the paper
• Provides an image of the first page of a sample essay written in MLA Style

Footnotes and Endnotes

• Explains the necessity for using both types of notes and how to use them effectively in an MLA paper
• Covers different reasons for why you may use a footnote or endnote to supplement the main body of your paper
• Describes how to number and format the notes to be consistent with MLA guidelines

Formatting Quotations

• Describes how to format quotations borrowed from secondary sources
• Addresses both short quotations worked into the writer's own sentences and long quotations that are blocked off as distinct material
• Explains how to omit or add in words properly to clarify the meaning of a quotation

Abbreviations

• Covers MLA standards for abbreviating words commonly used in academic prose
• Describes the different categories of abbreviations: times, locations, academic references, and publishers
• Includes guidelines for abbreviating information in citations on a Works Cited page

MLA Citations and Works Cited Page

As with any publishing style, the most difficult aspects of MLA Style are the requirements for citing secondary sources accurately. The pages included here walk you through the details of incorporating citations into the text of your paper as well as how to compose a Works Cited page of references at the end of your paper.  Read these guidelines carefully.  It is important that you refer to your sources according to MLA Style so your readers can quickly follow the citations to the reference page and then, from there, locate any sources that might be of interest to them. They will expect this information to be presented in a particular style, and any deviations from that style could result in confusing your readers.

How to Document Sources in MLA Style: An Overview

• Covers the process for developing Works Cited pages and in-text citations using MLA (9th ed.)
• Explains "containers," a concept new to the eighth edition, including how to apply them to develop citations

In-Text Citations: The Basics

• Addresses the MLA Style formatting requirements for citing secondary sources within the text of your essay
• Offers a few basic rules for using parenthetical citations, including when not to use them
• Includes examples of in-text citations
• Explains the author-page formatting of the parenthetical citation and how that applies to different types of sources
• Provides examples of in-text citations based on the kind of source being cited, such as a literary work, an anonymous work, and a work with multiple authors
• Describes how to cite a source indirectly referenced in another source

Works Cited Page: Basic Format

• Guides you through the general rules that apply to any Works Cited page using MLA Style, including where the page appears and how to organize the works
• Walks you through how to construct a reference entry for different types of texts, starting with a focus on authors
• Serves as a primer on formatting that will be expanded in all of the following pages addressing MLA Works Cited entries for different types of sources
• Includes an example Works Cited Page

Works Cited Page: Books

• Builds from the basic format page with a focus on how to create citations for certain commonly referenced book sources
• Includes guidelines and examples for a variety of books depending on the number of authors, whether the work is a piece is a larger work, or the book itself is part of multivolume collection

Works Cited Page: Other Common Sources

• Provides guidelines on how to reference other sources you may encounter during research that are considered books or non-periodical works
• Includes works that you might likely use but that have unusual publication information, such as a government document, pamphlet, or dissertation

Works Cited Page: Periodicals

• Covers the guidelines for developing a citation entry for works found in periodicals (typically articles in circulating publications that have different dates and volume/issue numbers)
• Lists types of entries depending on the kind of journal (e.g. one paginated by volume), if the source is a magazine vs. a newspaper, or the kind of article (e.g. a letter to the editor)

Works Cited Page: Electronic Sources

• Demonstrates the basic requirements and unique qualifications for constructing references for different types of electronic sources
• Covers more standard sources—from online periodicals and scholarly databases—to less conventional sources, like emails and video recordings found online
• Includes OWL suggestions on how to cite blog entries and comments posted to blogs (NOTE: consult your instructor to find out if these are acceptable research sources to use for your assignment)

Works Cited Page: Other Non-Print Sources

• Applies the basic MLA citation rules to non-print sources you may use in your research, such as interviews and images
• Provides directions and examples of how to cite video and sound recordings, as well as three dimensional works like sculptures

Please Note:  If you know exactly what you're looking for concerning MLA, you can use the OWL Navigation to the left by looking under "Research and Citation" and clicking on "MLA Formatting and Style Guide." You may also use the search option in the navigation bar to find resources.

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Widespread signs of paper milling discovered in materials science and engineering papers

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Misidentification of scanning electron microscopes (SEM) in peer-reviewed papers could be a sign that they were produced by paper mills, researchers have claimed in a preprint .

Source: © Reese AK Richardson, OSF Preprints 2024, CC-By Attribution 4.0 International

A study has revealed that in thousands of materials science engineering papers the metadata on scanning electron microscopy images doesn’t match the instrument listed by the article

According to the researchers, who are based at Northwestern University in the US, published research in materials science and engineering has, up until now, escaped questions about reliability and reproducibility that have recently hit other scientific fields.

However, users of post-publication peer review sites, such as PubPeer, have recently identified a significant number of articles where the make and model of the SEM listed in the text of the paper does not match the instrument’s metadata in images in the published article.

To get a sense of the scale of the problem in published studies in materials science and engineering, the researchers developed a semi-automated process to scan figures for the image metadata and check it against the SEM instrument identified in the text. They analysed over a million articles published since 2010 in 50 journals with impact factors ranging from 2.1 to 24.2, published by four different publishers (Elsevier, Frontiers Media, Springer Nature and PLoS). In all, they identified just over 11,000 images for which the SEM make and model could be identified from the metadata.

Poor practice or paper mill?

Overall, they found that for just over a fifth of these articles the image metadata did not match the SEM manufacturer or model and, for another quarter, some of the instruments used in the study were not reported. ‘We found out that in a very large fraction it did not match,’ says Luís Nunes Amaral , a chemist and biological engineer at Northwestern, who led the team. ‘It’s even more worrisome that there was another 20% that didn’t even bother to report in the paper which instrument they were using. And this, in terms of reproducible science, in terms of accountability is really, really poor practice.’

Failure to identify the scanning electron microscope used in a paper was another frequent issue the authors identified, although this is more likely a sign of sloppy research than fraud

‘I’m not saying that all those 20% that do not report are fraudulent science, but they are definitely sloppy science – I have no respect for people that don’t do a good job and care for what they are doing.’

Among those articles that have misidentified instruments they recorded other issues, such as the presence of repeated authorship. The five most common authors of articles with misidentified SEMs authored between 13 and 42 problematic articles. Other problems identified included shared image watermarks and shared textual artefacts. The team said that these unexplained commonalities could be a sign of paper mill activity – businesses that write and sell authorship on fraudulent scientific manuscripts.

‘What we know with paper mills is that people just pick up images from here and there,’ says Amaral. ‘They pick up random text and they change little things to make it past plagiarism detectors and stuff like that. But these are not careful forgeries and so these papers are full of other issues … you find images that are duplicated. You find authors in collaborations that don’t make any sense, you get claims that the experiment were done in Iran, and there is no Iranian author. It’s completely absurd stuff that all seeps into these, which makes it even more strange that these things get in print.’

Amaral says the issue pervades science at all levels. ‘We are having new students that are being raised as scientists in this environment of everything goes … you feel compelled to engage in unethical behaviour, because you feel it’s the only way that you survive in science – and that is a terrifying thought,’ he adds.

‘We need to face this problem – we need to acknowledge [it]. We need there to be consequences. And we also need a revaluation of what we are doing as scientists.’

Weird errors and templates

Elisabeth Bik , a microbiologist and scientific integrity expert, says that although she has encountered the issue of misidentification of SEM instruments before she has never been able to carry out a systematic analysis on the scale the Northwestern researchers achieved. ‘We see these papers with SEM photos that have all kinds of other problems where there are some graphs that have repetitive elements, or photos that are overlapping, or photos that have been photoshopped … it has become an extra thing to look out for in my own tool set.’

Problem articles were far more likely to come from countries that already have a documented problem with paper mills

She agrees with the researchers that the error could indicate a paper mill at work. ‘It’s just a weird error and it is a sign of paper mills, because these paper mill papers are very hastily put together. They’re put together using a template usually, so they have some structure to them and once you start to analyse several of them you can see they all follow the same structure, the same language. And since they are hastily put together in an effort, presumably to churn out as many as possible and make the most money, they make small errors.’

Bik warns that paper mills are going to become harder to identify as methods of fabrication become more sophisticated. ‘We can only point out the tip of the iceberg – for every paper that we found all these errors … those are the dumb fraudsters because they leave traces for us to find. From now on, all the paper mills are going to add that as an extra check mark to make sure that they don’t make that mistake. So it’s going to be much harder to catch the next generation of paper mill papers.’

‘With generative AI we’re all going to be screwed in the sense that it’s going to be much harder to even see that these images are fake,’ she adds.

Bik says that journal publishers need to do a better job of screening papers for all these signs of paper milling. ‘Publishers have access to extra information we don’t have – is it one person submitting all these papers? Are there cover letters written all in the same language? We don’t have access to that data. They should be much more vigilant and strict in screening papers.’

RAK Richardson et al , 2024, arXiv: 2409.00104

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• DOI: 10.54254/2755-2721/71/20241636
• Corpus ID: 272026344

Application of large language models based on knowledge graphs in question-answering systems: A review

• Published in Applied and Computational… 27 August 2024
• Computer Science, Linguistics

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