Betkerur J. Guidelines for writing a research project synopsis or protocol. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2008;74:687-690
"Success is often the result of taking a mis - step in the right direction. "
Al Bernstein
A protocol or a synopsis of a research project is a document submitted to an authority or an institution for the purpose of
Synopsis is the gist of your planned project submitted for approval from competent authorities. It gives a panoramic view of your research for quick analysis by the reviewers.
Thus, a protocol or a synopsis forms an integral part of a research project or a thesis. Many universities have made it mandatory for the postgraduate degree student to prepare a thesis as a part of their postgraduate training. A good knowledge about how a protocol or a synopsis is written is imperative to all people involved in medical research.
Literally, protocol (Greek word, protokollon - first page) means a format procedure for carrying out a scientific research. Synopsis (Greek word, sun - together, opsis - seeing) means brief summary of something. Frequently, both the terms are used as synonyms but the term ′synopsis′ is used more often.
A synopsis should be constructed in a manner that facilitates the reviewer to understand the research project at a glance. It should be brief but precise. A synopsis can be structured in the following manner:
Title The title of the research project should be brief but informative; sensationalization of the title is best avoided. It should neither be too short nor too long. Any name of the institution, the number of cases to be studied should not be included. The hypothesis to be studied can be included.
a. "Study of ectopic pregnancy"
This was a title chosen for university registration. The title is too short. It does not state the problem or the hypothesis and is least informative. More meaningful title shall be, "Study of ectopic pregnancy in relation to morbidity, mortality, and intervention in a referral hospital".
b. "A novel sustained release matrix based on biodegradable poly (esteramides) and, impregnated with bacteriophages and an antibiotic shows promise in management of infected venous stasis ulcer and other poorly healing wounds", (Int. J Dermat vol 8 2002). The title is long and ill conceived. It gives a confusing picture about the study problem. Such long titles are best avoided. Certain amount of sensationalization is also present by using term ′novel′. More meaningful title shall be, "Response of venous stasis ulcers and other poorly healing wounds to a biodegradable matrix impregnated with bacteriophages and an antibiotic". The other details about the new method can be mentioned while stating the problem.
c. "Fine needle aspiration, as a diagnostic tool for papulonodular skin lesions". This is an acceptable, informative, and precise title. It states the hypothesis correctly.
Statement of the problem or hypothesis The problem being studied should be mentioned in precise and clear terms. Understanding the problem aids the researcher in constructing the research proposal. It also allows the person to formulate the hypothesis. The problem under study should be relevant to the present. A brief account of its utility at the local or national level has to be discussed. The present status of the problem and the necessity for taking up the study needs to be mentioned.
Hypothesis is mentioned as a tentative prediction or explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. Hypothesis should not be a haphazard guess but should reflect the knowledge, imagination, and experience of the investigator. Hypothesis can be formulated by understanding the problem, reviewing the literature on it, and considering other factors. A researcher can state the problem and the hypothesis in about 200 words covering all the aspects described above.
Aims and objectives All research projects should have objectives and aims and every effort should be made to achieve them. The objectives and aims should be only a few (2-3). They must pertain to the study problem. Usages of terms like "first study", "the only study", etc. should be avoided.
Review of literature Review of literature is a very important part of a research project. It achieves the following:
The review of literature in a synopsis need not be exhaustive. The relevant information should be covered in about 300 words quoting 8-10 authentic, easily retrievable references. Literature can be reviewed by using various scientific-information-gathering methods. These are journals, national or international; bulletins of organizations like WHO, CDC, and ICMR; books; computer-assisted searches like Medline and Medlar; and personal communications with other researchers. Internet provides a vast avenue for information gathering. Care must be taken to retrieve only relevant information. In this era of information technology review of literature is literally "just a click away".
Research methodology In a synopsis the research methodology adopted should be mentioned in about 150-200 words. The research methodology forms the core of the research project. The methodology should cover the following aspects:
Study settings
Study design The methodology starts with selection of study design. A single study design or a combination can be selected e.g.:
Descriptive designs
Cross-sectional study or survey
Epidemiological description of disease occurrence
Community diagnosis
Study of natural history of a disease
Observational analytical designs
Prospective study
Retrospective study
Follow-up study
Experimental designs
Animal studies
Therapeutic clinical trials - drugs
Prophylactic clinical trials- vaccines
Field trials
Operational designs
A mention about the research setting should be made. This includes information about the institution, facilities available, time of study, and population of study.
Sampling Sampling is selecting a sample of appropriate size for the study. The sample size depends on the study design. The study population can be population of cases, population of people, or population of recipients of certain treatment.
There are many methods for sampling like simple random, systemic and stratified sampling, cluster sampling, etc. Care should be taken to ensure that the sample size is adequate to produce meaningful results. The sample size should be adequate to apply all relevant tests of statistical significance. The samples should be representative of the population and should be reliable. This minimizes sampling errors.
Variables Variables are the factors that can change. These changes can affect the outcome of a research project. Thus, it is important to identify the variables at the planning stage. They should be quantified with a measurable unit. Knowledge of the various variables in a research project will assist in refining the objectives. Usually, objectives of a research will be to see the effect of independent variables on dependent variables. There are four types of variables.
Independent variables
These are the variables that can be manipulated by the researcher and the effects of that are observed on the other variables. For example, predisposing factors, risk factors and cause.
Dependent variables
The changes occur as a result of independent variables. For example, disease and outcome.
Intervening variables
These may influence the effect of independent variables on the dependent variables. For example, while studying the response of HIV-AIDS to HAART the outcome may be influenced by the presence of antitubercular drugs.
Background variables
These are changes that are relevant in the groups or population under study. These need to be included in the study. For example, age, sex, and ethnic origin.
Controls Control groups increase the validity of the research project. They usually consist of units of same population but differ in some respects. Controls are not necessary for all research projects. As far as possible they should be used in all analytical studies, drug trials, and intervention programs.
Study methods Here the researcher will have to describe the method of data collection, which may be in the form of:
A sample of the proforma should be prepared and attached. The possible cost involved and any financial assistance received must be mentioned.
Data collection A brief note on how data are collected should be included. The information should be about:
Data analysis Data analysis is an important part of a research project. A good analysis leads to good results. The plans for data analysis should be mentioned under the following heads Statistical methods, Computer program used, and Data sorting method. A general statement "appropriate statistical methods will be used." must be avoided.
Ethical clearance Wherever necessary, ethical committee clearance from the institute should be obtained. The certificate must be attached. Ethical clearance is required in all human and animal studies.
References All references quoted in review of literature and anywhere else in the synopsis should be listed here. There are two styles for writing references, Vancouver style and Harvard style. Vancouver style is easy to follow as it depends on the numbers as quoted in text.
Official requirements A synopsis is incomplete if it does not contain the following information:
Synopsis writing is an important step in a research project. A good synopsis will give maximum information in minimum words. A well-conceived synopsis will go a long way in convincing the reviewer about the ability of the researcher to conduct the project. In cases of need for financial assistance, the request will be considered favorably. Thus, all research workers should make efforts to prepare a well-structured synopsis.
Acknowledgments
The author is thankful to M/s Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers for their permission to reproduce this article from the "Handbook on Health Professional Education" published by them. [21] [Table 1]
ed. London: Pergmon Press; 1994. | |
ed. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1983. | |
ed. New Delhi: 1985. | |
ed. Churchill Livingstone; 2000. | |
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A clinical research protocol is a roadmap. In order to have a clear roadmap, it is important for the investigator to have a succinct and relevant synopsis that others can review at a glance for a general sense of direction.
In Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland, the King says to the White Rabbit, “Begin at the beginning, then go until you reach the end. Then stop.” He could have been telling an investigator about the process of crafting a clinical trial protocol. The synopsis is often used when investigators apply for grants or seek to obtain resources and other support to undertake the study.
For medical school residents, a synopsis can be used as a discussion point with an advisor. For investigators seeking grants from pharmaceutical or device companies, the synopsis is a good way to “put out feelers” with potential sponsors.
Sometimes a well-crafted research protocol synopsis can be used in an informal review by IRB members to determine issues that may come up in a more formal review process.
Unfortunately, too many investigators wait to write their synopsis after they have written the entire protocol, using the extensive details they have gathered as a foundation for the two-page document. This means the investigator has already gone through the exhaustive protocol-writing process without the opportunity of vetting the idea for the study to see if it’s even feasible or needed.
These are the key elements of a strong synopsis:
The design of a study is an iterative process, with each step largely influenced by the answer to the previous question. Typically, the first question an investigator must answer is whether the study is a treatment study or an observational study.
As the investigator answers these initial questions, he or she will eventually be guided to one of several designs. Each design approach is better suited to study one over another kind of research question.
The endpoints (or outcomes), determined for each study participant, are the quantitative measurements required by the objectives. “Hard” endpoints are well-defined in the study protocol, definitive with respect to the disease process, and require no subjectivity. “Soft” endpoints are those that do not relate strongly to the disease process or require subjective assessments by investigators and/or patients.
The FDA says that a primary endpoint should generally not be a measure of something that is not important to the patient. Clinical endpoints, therefore, can include symptom benefits, biomarkers, response rates, or progression-free survival.Clinical trial design is driven by endpoints. Clinical endpoints influence the complexity of a trial. Methods for recruiting and enrolling participants; performing the study; gathering and analyzing the data are all directly related to the endpoints.
Research objectives should be measurable and directly answer the research question. A common mistake made by inexperienced investigators is overloading the protocol with too many objectives, making data collection difficult or impossible. It’s best to focus on a single primary objective.
Often, the objective is too vague. For example, “The objective of this protocol is to determine the safety and efficacy of drug x in disease y” is too vague and has no clear measurement. A better way of stating an objective would be to say, “We want to evaluate if 12 weeks of a specific dose of a drug is superior to placebo.”
Once the literature has been thoroughly researched, it is time to make an educated guess and develop a hypothesis. It is important to distinguish the hypothesis from the research question. The hypothesis should be an educated, testable prediction about what will happen in the “experiment.” A well written and defined hypothesis is the key to developing a research protocol. With a strong hypothesis, the investigator can then define specific objectives that will answer the research question.
Why is the study being done? What is the intent of the research? The research question should be interesting, novel and relevant. Investigators should know the literature to ensure this question has not already been answered. The importance of reviewing the literature can not be overemphasized. In combing the literature, you may find many studies similar to yours have already been conducted. What you learn from available research and data can help you shape your project and research hypothesis.
In addition to identifying the number of planned research subjects, you should also include a brief description of the population. This can include their health or disease stage, gender, age, and so on. You should also include inclusion and exclusion criteria for participant enrollment.
Keep these six key elements in mind to have a succinct and relevant synopsis that others can review at a glance for a general sense of direction.
English Editing Research Services
The synopsis is an essential summary of the protocol for your clinical trial. You may be tempted to think of it as similar to the abstract in a manuscript of original research; it allows readers to understand the main points—what, why, who, where, and how—without reading the entire protocol. But the synopsis of a clinical trial is so much more than an abstract.
On the surface, it appears that you are writing the synopsis of your clinical trial protocol for others: researchers in the field, funders assessing the merits of sponsoring your work, or regulators and policy-makers reviewing the ethics or feasibility of the work involved. However, the primary beneficiary of writing the synopsis is you .
Follow the five tips below to write a great clinical trial synopsis.
Instead of writing it after you’ve written the entire protocol, write the synopsis first . Use the synopsis as your tool for developing the protocol. If you write the protocol first and then summarize it in the synopsis, you lose a valuable opportunity to write a good, strong protocol in a systematic and thoughtful manner while minimizing stress. Save yourself time and aggravation by writing the synopsis first. This tactic enables you to do the hard thinking work up front, and writing the protocol will then become simply a matter of adding details to the statements you’ve made in the synopsis.
Use the synopsis to address each and every basic, major factor relating to the proposed clinical trial. What is the research question ? When you know what your research question is, you will know which study design to use in the trial. What are your objectives in the trial? Have only one or two objectives, and define them in very specific words. When you know what your objectives are, you will know which measurement endpoints to use in the trial. Will these endpoints complicate the conduct of the trial in terms of time, expense, or inconvenience to participants? What is your hypothesis ? Formulate your hypothesis after you conduct a search of the literature. The published literature will tell you what has been done in the field and what we know. The literature will also tell you whether your proposed research question has been answered already. If it has, save yourself time and revise your research question, objectives, and hypothesis.
A good synopsis is short. Do not stuff it with small details! The synopsis is not a repetition of the protocol . Leave the small details to the protocol and keep the synopsis succinct. Answer the major questions and then stop. Cramming too many details into the synopsis is a mistake. In a manuscript of an original research study, a 200-word abstract is good and a 400-word abstract is terrible. Similarly, the synopsis of a clinical trial protocol is not intended to include every detail. Stick to the high-level facts and statements.
Time for fresh eyes! You’ve been working intensively on formulating the basics of the clinical trial proposal, and it’s difficult to step back and see what is missing, unnecessary, or illogical in the document you wrote. Grab someone who has the scientific education to understand the synopsis but is not involved in the project, and let this person review the synopsis and ask you questions about it. In addition, remember that ambiguity and lack of clarity can arise from language barriers rather than from the scientific premise of the research question. If the language in which you wrote the synopsis is not your first language, get a professional editor to ensure that the synopsis is clear and easy to read. This will facilitate review board approval of your protocol and the scientific community’s interest in your objectives.
Should any sections of the synopsis be revised at this time? Look at the title: does it convey the objectives, design, and study population accurately? Is the participant timeline feasible, or will recruitment and the conduct of the trial take more time than you had originally estimated? Do you need to revise the calculated size of the sample required? Are the methods suitable to answering the research question in full, or should other endpoints be added or substituted?
Your synopsis is a tool for writing your protocol. Your protocol is the recipe for a successful trial. The synopsis is your tool, your map to writing an excellent protocol, and the protocol is the “recipe” for a successful clinical trial that will produce good insights and increase the knowledge base in the field. It all starts with the synopsis, step by step, answering one question at a time. Writing a good synopsis is the key to streamlining the process and creating the protocol for a clinical trial that would benefit everyone involved. Make that difference!
Dr Dean Meyer has a background in environmental science with a specialist interest in toxicology and public health. Her doctoral research work focused on molecular mechanisms of metal detoxification in an invertebrate model. Her other research interests include the mechanisms of toxicity and disease causation, and the occupational sources of xenobiotics and their physiological effects.
Dr Meyer spent 8 years working at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in Atlanta, and has an extensive background in the areas of laboratory safety and environmental health.
Dr Meyer is a certified Editor in the Life Sciences (ELS) and joined Edanz Group as an editor in 2015.
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How to write your first research paper.
Writing a research manuscript is an intimidating process for many novice writers in the sciences. One of the stumbling blocks is the beginning of the process and creating the first draft. This paper presents guidelines on how to initiate the writing process and draft each section of a research manuscript. The paper discusses seven rules that allow the writer to prepare a well-structured and comprehensive manuscript for a publication submission. In addition, the author lists different strategies for successful revision. Each of those strategies represents a step in the revision process and should help the writer improve the quality of the manuscript. The paper could be considered a brief manual for publication.
It is late at night. You have been struggling with your project for a year. You generated an enormous amount of interesting data. Your pipette feels like an extension of your hand, and running western blots has become part of your daily routine, similar to brushing your teeth. Your colleagues think you are ready to write a paper, and your lab mates tease you about your “slow” writing progress. Yet days pass, and you cannot force yourself to sit down to write. You have not written anything for a while (lab reports do not count), and you feel you have lost your stamina. How does the writing process work? How can you fit your writing into a daily schedule packed with experiments? What section should you start with? What distinguishes a good research paper from a bad one? How should you revise your paper? These and many other questions buzz in your head and keep you stressed. As a result, you procrastinate. In this paper, I will discuss the issues related to the writing process of a scientific paper. Specifically, I will focus on the best approaches to start a scientific paper, tips for writing each section, and the best revision strategies.
Whether you have written 100 papers or you are struggling with your first, starting the process is the most difficult part unless you have a rigid writing schedule. Writing is hard. It is a very difficult process of intense concentration and brain work. As stated in Hayes’ framework for the study of writing: “It is a generative activity requiring motivation, and it is an intellectual activity requiring cognitive processes and memory” [ 1 ]. In his book How to Write a Lot: A Practical Guide to Productive Academic Writing , Paul Silvia says that for some, “it’s easier to embalm the dead than to write an article about it” [ 2 ]. Just as with any type of hard work, you will not succeed unless you practice regularly. If you have not done physical exercises for a year, only regular workouts can get you into good shape again. The same kind of regular exercises, or I call them “writing sessions,” are required to be a productive author. Choose from 1- to 2-hour blocks in your daily work schedule and consider them as non-cancellable appointments. When figuring out which blocks of time will be set for writing, you should select the time that works best for this type of work. For many people, mornings are more productive. One Yale University graduate student spent a semester writing from 8 a.m. to 9 a.m. when her lab was empty. At the end of the semester, she was amazed at how much she accomplished without even interrupting her regular lab hours. In addition, doing the hardest task first thing in the morning contributes to the sense of accomplishment during the rest of the day. This positive feeling spills over into our work and life and has a very positive effect on our overall attitude.
2. start with an outline.
Now that you have scheduled time, you need to decide how to start writing. The best strategy is to start with an outline. This will not be an outline that you are used to, with Roman numerals for each section and neat parallel listing of topic sentences and supporting points. This outline will be similar to a template for your paper. Initially, the outline will form a structure for your paper; it will help generate ideas and formulate hypotheses. Following the advice of George M. Whitesides, “. . . start with a blank piece of paper, and write down, in any order, all important ideas that occur to you concerning the paper” [ 3 ]. Use Table 1 as a starting point for your outline. Include your visuals (figures, tables, formulas, equations, and algorithms), and list your findings. These will constitute the first level of your outline, which will eventually expand as you elaborate.
1. What is the topic of my paper? |
2. Why is this topic important? |
3. How could I formulate my hypothesis? |
4. What are my results (include visuals)? |
5. What is my major finding? |
The next stage is to add context and structure. Here you will group all your ideas into sections: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion ( Table 2 ). This step will help add coherence to your work and sift your ideas.
1. Why is your research important? |
2. What is known about the topic? |
3. What are your hypotheses? |
4. What are your objectives? |
1. What materials did you use? |
2. Who were the subjects of your study? |
3. What was the design of your research? |
4. What procedure did you follow? |
1. What are your most significant results? |
2. What are your supporting results? |
1. What are the studies major findings? |
2. What is the significance/implication of the results? |
Now that you have expanded your outline, you are ready for the next step: discussing the ideas for your paper with your colleagues and mentor. Many universities have a writing center where graduate students can schedule individual consultations and receive assistance with their paper drafts. Getting feedback during early stages of your draft can save a lot of time. Talking through ideas allows people to conceptualize and organize thoughts to find their direction without wasting time on unnecessary writing. Outlining is the most effective way of communicating your ideas and exchanging thoughts. Moreover, it is also the best stage to decide to which publication you will submit the paper. Many people come up with three choices and discuss them with their mentors and colleagues. Having a list of journal priorities can help you quickly resubmit your paper if your paper is rejected.
3. continue with drafts.
After you get enough feedback and decide on the journal you will submit to, the process of real writing begins. Copy your outline into a separate file and expand on each of the points, adding data and elaborating on the details. When you create the first draft, do not succumb to the temptation of editing. Do not slow down to choose a better word or better phrase; do not halt to improve your sentence structure. Pour your ideas into the paper and leave revision and editing for later. As Paul Silvia explains, “Revising while you generate text is like drinking decaffeinated coffee in the early morning: noble idea, wrong time” [ 2 ].
Many students complain that they are not productive writers because they experience writer’s block. Staring at an empty screen is frustrating, but your screen is not really empty: You have a template of your article, and all you need to do is fill in the blanks. Indeed, writer’s block is a logical fallacy for a scientist ― it is just an excuse to procrastinate. When scientists start writing a research paper, they already have their files with data, lab notes with materials and experimental designs, some visuals, and tables with results. All they need to do is scrutinize these pieces and put them together into a comprehensive paper.
If you still struggle with starting a paper, then write the Materials and Methods section first. Since you have all your notes, it should not be problematic for you to describe the experimental design and procedures. Your most important goal in this section is to be as explicit as possible by providing enough detail and references. In the end, the purpose of this section is to allow other researchers to evaluate and repeat your work. So do not run into the same problems as the writers of the sentences in (1):
1a. Bacteria were pelleted by centrifugation. 1b. To isolate T cells, lymph nodes were collected.
As you can see, crucial pieces of information are missing: the speed of centrifuging your bacteria, the time, and the temperature in (1a); the source of lymph nodes for collection in (b). The sentences can be improved when information is added, as in (2a) and (2b), respectfully:
2a. Bacteria were pelleted by centrifugation at 3000g for 15 min at 25°C. 2b. To isolate T cells, mediastinal and mesenteric lymph nodes from Balb/c mice were collected at day 7 after immunization with ovabumin.
If your method has previously been published and is well-known, then you should provide only the literature reference, as in (3a). If your method is unpublished, then you need to make sure you provide all essential details, as in (3b).
3a. Stem cells were isolated, according to Johnson [23]. 3b. Stem cells were isolated using biotinylated carbon nanotubes coated with anti-CD34 antibodies.
Furthermore, cohesion and fluency are crucial in this section. One of the malpractices resulting in disrupted fluency is switching from passive voice to active and vice versa within the same paragraph, as shown in (4). This switching misleads and distracts the reader.
4. Behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 were programmed by using E-Prime. We took ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods). The preferred and unpreferred status of the music was operationalized along a continuum of pleasantness [ 4 ].
The problem with (4) is that the reader has to switch from the point of view of the experiment (passive voice) to the point of view of the experimenter (active voice). This switch causes confusion about the performer of the actions in the first and the third sentences. To improve the coherence and fluency of the paragraph above, you should be consistent in choosing the point of view: first person “we” or passive voice [ 5 ]. Let’s consider two revised examples in (5).
5a. We programmed behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 by using E-Prime. We took ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods) as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music. We operationalized the preferred and unpreferred status of the music along a continuum of pleasantness. 5b. Behavioral computer-based experiments of Study 1 were programmed by using E-Prime. Ratings of enjoyment, mood, and arousal were taken as the patients listened to preferred pleasant music and unpreferred music by using Visual Analogue Scales (SI Methods). The preferred and unpreferred status of the music was operationalized along a continuum of pleasantness.
If you choose the point of view of the experimenter, then you may end up with repetitive “we did this” sentences. For many readers, paragraphs with sentences all beginning with “we” may also sound disruptive. So if you choose active sentences, you need to keep the number of “we” subjects to a minimum and vary the beginnings of the sentences [ 6 ].
Interestingly, recent studies have reported that the Materials and Methods section is the only section in research papers in which passive voice predominantly overrides the use of the active voice [ 5 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. For example, Martínez shows a significant drop in active voice use in the Methods sections based on the corpus of 1 million words of experimental full text research articles in the biological sciences [ 7 ]. According to the author, the active voice patterned with “we” is used only as a tool to reveal personal responsibility for the procedural decisions in designing and performing experimental work. This means that while all other sections of the research paper use active voice, passive voice is still the most predominant in Materials and Methods sections.
Writing Materials and Methods sections is a meticulous and time consuming task requiring extreme accuracy and clarity. This is why when you complete your draft, you should ask for as much feedback from your colleagues as possible. Numerous readers of this section will help you identify the missing links and improve the technical style of this section.
3.2. writing results section.
For many authors, writing the Results section is more intimidating than writing the Materials and Methods section . If people are interested in your paper, they are interested in your results. That is why it is vital to use all your writing skills to objectively present your key findings in an orderly and logical sequence using illustrative materials and text.
Your Results should be organized into different segments or subsections where each one presents the purpose of the experiment, your experimental approach, data including text and visuals (tables, figures, schematics, algorithms, and formulas), and data commentary. For most journals, your data commentary will include a meaningful summary of the data presented in the visuals and an explanation of the most significant findings. This data presentation should not repeat the data in the visuals, but rather highlight the most important points. In the “standard” research paper approach, your Results section should exclude data interpretation, leaving it for the Discussion section. However, interpretations gradually and secretly creep into research papers: “Reducing the data, generalizing from the data, and highlighting scientific cases are all highly interpretive processes. It should be clear by now that we do not let the data speak for themselves in research reports; in summarizing our results, we interpret them for the reader” [ 10 ]. As a result, many journals including the Journal of Experimental Medicine and the Journal of Clinical Investigation use joint Results/Discussion sections, where results are immediately followed by interpretations.
Another important aspect of this section is to create a comprehensive and supported argument or a well-researched case. This means that you should be selective in presenting data and choose only those experimental details that are essential for your reader to understand your findings. You might have conducted an experiment 20 times and collected numerous records, but this does not mean that you should present all those records in your paper. You need to distinguish your results from your data and be able to discard excessive experimental details that could distract and confuse the reader. However, creating a picture or an argument should not be confused with data manipulation or falsification, which is a willful distortion of data and results. If some of your findings contradict your ideas, you have to mention this and find a plausible explanation for the contradiction.
In addition, your text should not include irrelevant and peripheral information, including overview sentences, as in (6).
6. To show our results, we first introduce all components of experimental system and then describe the outcome of infections.
Indeed, wordiness convolutes your sentences and conceals your ideas from readers. One common source of wordiness is unnecessary intensifiers. Adverbial intensifiers such as “clearly,” “essential,” “quite,” “basically,” “rather,” “fairly,” “really,” and “virtually” not only add verbosity to your sentences, but also lower your results’ credibility. They appeal to the reader’s emotions but lower objectivity, as in the common examples in (7):
7a. Table 3 clearly shows that … 7b. It is obvious from figure 4 that …
Another source of wordiness is nominalizations, i.e., nouns derived from verbs and adjectives paired with weak verbs including “be,” “have,” “do,” “make,” “cause,” “provide,” and “get” and constructions such as “there is/are.”
8a. We tested the hypothesis that there is a disruption of membrane asymmetry. 8b. In this paper we provide an argument that stem cells repopulate injured organs.
In the sentences above, the abstract nominalizations “disruption” and “argument” do not contribute to the clarity of the sentences, but rather clutter them with useless vocabulary that distracts from the meaning. To improve your sentences, avoid unnecessary nominalizations and change passive verbs and constructions into active and direct sentences.
9a. We tested the hypothesis that the membrane asymmetry is disrupted. 9b. In this paper we argue that stem cells repopulate injured organs.
Your Results section is the heart of your paper, representing a year or more of your daily research. So lead your reader through your story by writing direct, concise, and clear sentences.
3.3. now it is time for your introduction.
Now that you are almost half through drafting your research paper, it is time to update your outline. While describing your Methods and Results, many of you diverged from the original outline and re-focused your ideas. So before you move on to create your Introduction, re-read your Methods and Results sections and change your outline to match your research focus. The updated outline will help you review the general picture of your paper, the topic, the main idea, and the purpose, which are all important for writing your introduction.
The best way to structure your introduction is to follow the three-move approach shown in Table 3 .
a. Show that the general research area is important, central, interesting, and problematic in some way; |
a. Indicate a gap in the previous research, or extend previous knowledge in some way. |
a. Outline purposes or state the nature of the present research; |
b. List research questions or hypotheses; |
c. Announce principle findings; |
d. State the value of the present research; |
e. Indicate the structure of the research paper. |
Adapted from Swales and Feak [ 11 ].
The moves and information from your outline can help to create your Introduction efficiently and without missing steps. These moves are traffic signs that lead the reader through the road of your ideas. Each move plays an important role in your paper and should be presented with deep thought and care. When you establish the territory, you place your research in context and highlight the importance of your research topic. By finding the niche, you outline the scope of your research problem and enter the scientific dialogue. The final move, “occupying the niche,” is where you explain your research in a nutshell and highlight your paper’s significance. The three moves allow your readers to evaluate their interest in your paper and play a significant role in the paper review process, determining your paper reviewers.
Some academic writers assume that the reader “should follow the paper” to find the answers about your methodology and your findings. As a result, many novice writers do not present their experimental approach and the major findings, wrongly believing that the reader will locate the necessary information later while reading the subsequent sections [ 5 ]. However, this “suspense” approach is not appropriate for scientific writing. To interest the reader, scientific authors should be direct and straightforward and present informative one-sentence summaries of the results and the approach.
Another problem is that writers understate the significance of the Introduction. Many new researchers mistakenly think that all their readers understand the importance of the research question and omit this part. However, this assumption is faulty because the purpose of the section is not to evaluate the importance of the research question in general. The goal is to present the importance of your research contribution and your findings. Therefore, you should be explicit and clear in describing the benefit of the paper.
The Introduction should not be long. Indeed, for most journals, this is a very brief section of about 250 to 600 words, but it might be the most difficult section due to its importance.
3.4. discussion of the results.
For many scientists, writing a Discussion section is as scary as starting a paper. Most of the fear comes from the variation in the section. Since every paper has its unique results and findings, the Discussion section differs in its length, shape, and structure. However, some general principles of writing this section still exist. Knowing these rules, or “moves,” can change your attitude about this section and help you create a comprehensive interpretation of your results.
The purpose of the Discussion section is to place your findings in the research context and “to explain the meaning of the findings and why they are important, without appearing arrogant, condescending, or patronizing” [ 11 ]. The structure of the first two moves is almost a mirror reflection of the one in the Introduction. In the Introduction, you zoom in from general to specific and from the background to your research question; in the Discussion section, you zoom out from the summary of your findings to the research context, as shown in Table 4 .
a. State the study’s major findings. |
b. Explain the meaning and importance of your finding. |
c. Consider alternative explanations of the findings. |
a. Compare and contrast your findings with those of other published results. |
b. Explain any discrepancies and unexpected findings. |
c. State the limitations, weaknesses, and assumptions of your study. |
a. Summarize the answers to the research questions. |
b. Indicate the importance of the work by stating applications, recommendations, and implications. |
Adapted from Swales and Feak and Hess [ 11 , 12 ].
The biggest challenge for many writers is the opening paragraph of the Discussion section. Following the moves in Table 1 , the best choice is to start with the study’s major findings that provide the answer to the research question in your Introduction. The most common starting phrases are “Our findings demonstrate . . .,” or “In this study, we have shown that . . .,” or “Our results suggest . . .” In some cases, however, reminding the reader about the research question or even providing a brief context and then stating the answer would make more sense. This is important in those cases where the researcher presents a number of findings or where more than one research question was presented. Your summary of the study’s major findings should be followed by your presentation of the importance of these findings. One of the most frequent mistakes of the novice writer is to assume the importance of his findings. Even if the importance is clear to you, it may not be obvious to your reader. Digesting the findings and their importance to your reader is as crucial as stating your research question.
Another useful strategy is to be proactive in the first move by predicting and commenting on the alternative explanations of the results. Addressing potential doubts will save you from painful comments about the wrong interpretation of your results and will present you as a thoughtful and considerate researcher. Moreover, the evaluation of the alternative explanations might help you create a logical step to the next move of the discussion section: the research context.
The goal of the research context move is to show how your findings fit into the general picture of the current research and how you contribute to the existing knowledge on the topic. This is also the place to discuss any discrepancies and unexpected findings that may otherwise distort the general picture of your paper. Moreover, outlining the scope of your research by showing the limitations, weaknesses, and assumptions is essential and adds modesty to your image as a scientist. However, make sure that you do not end your paper with the problems that override your findings. Try to suggest feasible explanations and solutions.
If your submission does not require a separate Conclusion section, then adding another paragraph about the “take-home message” is a must. This should be a general statement reiterating your answer to the research question and adding its scientific implications, practical application, or advice.
Just as in all other sections of your paper, the clear and precise language and concise comprehensive sentences are vital. However, in addition to that, your writing should convey confidence and authority. The easiest way to illustrate your tone is to use the active voice and the first person pronouns. Accompanied by clarity and succinctness, these tools are the best to convince your readers of your point and your ideas.
4. choosing the best working revision strategies.
Now that you have created the first draft, your attitude toward your writing should have improved. Moreover, you should feel more confident that you are able to accomplish your project and submit your paper within a reasonable timeframe. You also have worked out your writing schedule and followed it precisely. Do not stop ― you are only at the midpoint from your destination. Just as the best and most precious diamond is no more than an unattractive stone recognized only by trained professionals, your ideas and your results may go unnoticed if they are not polished and brushed. Despite your attempts to present your ideas in a logical and comprehensive way, first drafts are frequently a mess. Use the advice of Paul Silvia: “Your first drafts should sound like they were hastily translated from Icelandic by a non-native speaker” [ 2 ]. The degree of your success will depend on how you are able to revise and edit your paper.
The revision can be done at the macrostructure and the microstructure levels [ 13 ]. The macrostructure revision includes the revision of the organization, content, and flow. The microstructure level includes individual words, sentence structure, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
The best way to approach the macrostructure revision is through the outline of the ideas in your paper. The last time you updated your outline was before writing the Introduction and the Discussion. Now that you have the beginning and the conclusion, you can take a bird’s-eye view of the whole paper. The outline will allow you to see if the ideas of your paper are coherently structured, if your results are logically built, and if the discussion is linked to the research question in the Introduction. You will be able to see if something is missing in any of the sections or if you need to rearrange your information to make your point.
The next step is to revise each of the sections starting from the beginning. Ideally, you should limit yourself to working on small sections of about five pages at a time [ 14 ]. After these short sections, your eyes get used to your writing and your efficiency in spotting problems decreases. When reading for content and organization, you should control your urge to edit your paper for sentence structure and grammar and focus only on the flow of your ideas and logic of your presentation. Experienced researchers tend to make almost three times the number of changes to meaning than novice writers [ 15 , 16 ]. Revising is a difficult but useful skill, which academic writers obtain with years of practice.
In contrast to the macrostructure revision, which is a linear process and is done usually through a detailed outline and by sections, microstructure revision is a non-linear process. While the goal of the macrostructure revision is to analyze your ideas and their logic, the goal of the microstructure editing is to scrutinize the form of your ideas: your paragraphs, sentences, and words. You do not need and are not recommended to follow the order of the paper to perform this type of revision. You can start from the end or from different sections. You can even revise by reading sentences backward, sentence by sentence and word by word.
One of the microstructure revision strategies frequently used during writing center consultations is to read the paper aloud [ 17 ]. You may read aloud to yourself, to a tape recorder, or to a colleague or friend. When reading and listening to your paper, you are more likely to notice the places where the fluency is disrupted and where you stumble because of a very long and unclear sentence or a wrong connector.
Another revision strategy is to learn your common errors and to do a targeted search for them [ 13 ]. All writers have a set of problems that are specific to them, i.e., their writing idiosyncrasies. Remembering these problems is as important for an academic writer as remembering your friends’ birthdays. Create a list of these idiosyncrasies and run a search for these problems using your word processor. If your problem is demonstrative pronouns without summary words, then search for “this/these/those” in your text and check if you used the word appropriately. If you have a problem with intensifiers, then search for “really” or “very” and delete them from the text. The same targeted search can be done to eliminate wordiness. Searching for “there is/are” or “and” can help you avoid the bulky sentences.
The final strategy is working with a hard copy and a pencil. Print a double space copy with font size 14 and re-read your paper in several steps. Try reading your paper line by line with the rest of the text covered with a piece of paper. When you are forced to see only a small portion of your writing, you are less likely to get distracted and are more likely to notice problems. You will end up spotting more unnecessary words, wrongly worded phrases, or unparallel constructions.
After you apply all these strategies, you are ready to share your writing with your friends, colleagues, and a writing advisor in the writing center. Get as much feedback as you can, especially from non-specialists in your field. Patiently listen to what others say to you ― you are not expected to defend your writing or explain what you wanted to say. You may decide what you want to change and how after you receive the feedback and sort it in your head. Even though some researchers make the revision an endless process and can hardly stop after a 14th draft; having from five to seven drafts of your paper is a norm in the sciences. If you can’t stop revising, then set a deadline for yourself and stick to it. Deadlines always help.
5. it is time to submit.
It is late at night again. You are still in your lab finishing revisions and getting ready to submit your paper. You feel happy ― you have finally finished a year’s worth of work. You will submit your paper tomorrow, and regardless of the outcome, you know that you can do it. If one journal does not take your paper, you will take advantage of the feedback and resubmit again. You will have a publication, and this is the most important achievement.
What is even more important is that you have your scheduled writing time that you are going to keep for your future publications, for reading and taking notes, for writing grants, and for reviewing papers. You are not going to lose stamina this time, and you will become a productive scientist. But for now, let’s celebrate the end of the paper.
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If you’re a writer, you definitely need to know how to write a synopsis for a book. Why? Because when you query an agent or publisher, you’ll need to include a synopsis with your submission.
But writers aren’t the only people who need to know how to write a synopsis. From students to scientists, all kinds of people will find themselves having to write one at some point. Thankfully, the process isn’t complicated. By following a few basic steps and guidelines, you’ll know how to write a synopsis in no time.
Forget about how to write a synopsis. First, you need to know what a synopsis is! Put simply, a synopsis is a detailed summary of all the important aspects of a book, project, or study. There are different types of synopses, but a book synopsis briefly explains the key points from the plot as well as things like setting, characters, tone, and any important themes.
Knowing how to write a synopsis for a book means knowing not just what a synopsis is, but what a synopsis isn’t. Below, we’ll discuss some other types of summaries that differ from synopses.
It’s important to know the difference between a synopsis and an outline. An outline is like a “skeleton” for your book that you can create to help you write by then fleshing out your outline with details. A synopsis, on the other hand, is a complete summary of your book that you use to give agents and editors an in-depth, complete account of all the key details from beginning to end.
An abstract is a short and general book summary and doesn’t include every detail. The goal of an abstract is to give a brief and general summary of the book. A synopsis goes into every detail, with a deeper dive into specifics.
A good synopsis vs. abstract rule of thumb is to consider whether you need a very general summary or a specific and detailed one. If you need a detailed one, then you need to know how to write a synopsis.
When considering the question of synopsis vs. pitch, remember that a pitch is the shortest type of summary, and a synopsis is one of the longest. A pitch is designed to make your book sound appealing in just a few sentences, so it’s designed for maximum impact—sort of like a marketing tagline or log line. Pitches are quick and impactful, whereas synopses give all the important details.
Sometimes a synopsis is a dry, straight summary that is written for informational purposes rather than emotional impact. Other times, it is written to be entertaining and showcase the writer’s creative voice. This will depend on the target audience of your synopsis.
There are several different types of synopses, depending on what you are writing about.
A project synopsis is often used in science and engineering fields and summarizes a project’s goals, processes, and conclusions. It often starts with a statement summarizing the problem that the project aims to solve. It delves into methods used and other details that are important to the project, such as relevant details about the project’s participants.
Of the three main types of synopses, research and project synopses are most often used by research and scientific institutions. Like a project synopsis, a research synopsis summarizes the problem or question the research is attempting to solve and then describes how the research was conducted.
Research synopses also give details on the researchers themselves, such as any relevant academic degrees they hold.
A literary synopsis is a synopsis of a work of fiction. It summarizes all the critical elements of a book so that an agent or publisher understands, to a high level of detail, what a book is about without having read it.
That’s it! Now you know how to write a synopsis.
A one-page synopsis has to be even leaner than a three- or four-page synopsis, so it’s important that it contain only the most important details. If you find that your synopsis is too long, find ways to be more succinct, cutting out any information that isn’t absolutely critical to understanding the book. For example, did you describe characters that aren’t essential to the most important plot plots? Did you include details that do nothing to move the actual story along? Cut them out to strengthen—and shorten—your synopsis.
Once you know how to write a synopsis for a book, research project, or study, the process is the same every time. So whether you’re a budding novelist or a student working on an English-class project, use the information in this post to build a formula for writing different types of synopses.
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Your professional summary describes your expertise to prospective patients, students, residents and fellows. It forms the core of your presence on the UBMD website and appears on your faculty profile on the medical school website.
Follow these guidelines to write a professional summary that communicates your expertise clearly to non-specialists. Use it to highlight the most unique or impressive points of data you enter into UB Profile.
Describe what distinguishes you from other physicians in your specialty, connect your work to a specific patient base, include numbers where they add to your profile, prioritize and organize your content, follow our core style guidelines.
Consult this sample professional summary for an example.
Potential patients want to gauge at a glance whether you have expertise they need. This sample of a few opening sentences gives a quick but detailed snapshot of the individual’s abilities and experience:
My clinical expertise focuses on comprehensive pain management for acute (postoperative) and chronic pain patients and the administration of anesthesia for a wide variety of surgical cases. As a physician for the inpatient Acute Pain Service, I attend to the needs of postoperative pain patients, including those with epidural and peripheral nerve catheters. In my role in the multidisciplinary outpatient Chronic Pain Clinic, I evaluate and treat patients with a variety of chronic and cancer-related pain.
Often, clinical interests are tied to particular patient types. Make those connections explicit wherever you can:
My clinical interests include a comprehensive array of hand and upper extremity disorders such as fractures, tendon and nerve injuries, paralytic disorders and arthritic conditions. I have a particular interest in surgery of the upper limb in patients who have suffered strokes or traumatic head injuries.
Include at least one sentence indicating how your expertise and ongoing research supports patient care: Will your work help to develop new kinds of antibiotics? What specific kinds of people does your work help (expectant mothers, MS patients, people in underserved communities)?
Where they will strengthen the sense of your capability and expertise, include numbers such as years of experience, approximate numbers of patients treated and so on. Whenever possible, quantify with terms and figures that don’t require frequent updates. For example:
I employ both technological advances and more than a decade of experience in pain management practice to provide effective pain relief for cancer and non-cancer patients.
Even when using broader terms for numbers and time periods, remember that you still need to periodically update this type of information to keep your profile current.
Use separate paragraphs for each topic within your profile.
If you are part of UBMD, describe your clinical expertise first. This will help potential patients quickly assess whether you can help them when they read your profile on the UBMD website.
If you have expertise in multiple clinical areas, describe each one in its own paragraph. If you practice as a clinician and conduct research, use one paragraph to describe your clinical expertise and approach and another to describe your research.
Consider devoting a paragraph to your approach to teaching. Although this information matters most to potential students, it also signals your dedication and friendliness to patients.
If you have room, briefly mention a few details that would help a prospective patient envision your practice. For example, do you work as part of a larger office or hospital clinic? Are you involved with local research institutes? What kinds of nursing or other support staff can patients expect?
When something is missing from your profile, readers assume it doesn’t exist. Use UB Profile’s full capabilities to back up your professional summary with greater detail. List in the appropriate categories all of your practice locations, insurance information, hospital affiliations, activities and achievements, and update this information regularly.
You may want to mention major national or regional leadership roles and other professional positions in your professional summary, even if you have also filled in that information in UB Profile:
I am chair of the Committee on Obstetric Practice for the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and an oral examiner for the American Board of Obstetrics and Gynecology.
Before retiring as a colonel in the U.S. Air Force in 2005, I served as department chair at Wilford Hall Medical Center, as chief consultant to the Surgeon General for Maternal-Fetal Medicine and as commander of the 407th Expeditionary Medical Group in Iraq.
I also serve as medical director for trial design at the Clinical Research Institute, where I am involved in the design of clinical trials and post-marketing studies of cardiovascular devices.
These positions testify to the respect leaders in your field have for you, which sends a powerful message to potential patients that they can trust you with their health.
Be sure to check all of your specialties in UB Profile’s Specialties category. Basic sciences faculty use the same category to specify their Specialty/Research Focus .
Do not list titles of your publications in your professional summary. Go to the Publications section in UB Profile and follow the directions for importing your publications automatically from PubMed/Medline. Readers will then be able to refer to them easily for greater detail on your work.
You may want, however, to mention particularly notable publications as part of your professional summary narrative if they support your image as a competent, caring physician: My research focuses on clinical anesthesia of children, which led to me revising the leading textbook on pediatric anesthesia.
Do not provide time-sensitive information such as pending grants for projects. The information in your professional summary should be able to remain current for at least a year. Do, however, give full details for all your ongoing grants under Grants .
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Published on 24.6.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)
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1. Format your title page following your instructor's guidelines. In general, the title page of a research synopsis includes the title of the research project, your name, the degree and discipline for which you're writing the synopsis, and the names of your supervisor, department, institution, and university.
this video is a guide to #synopsis writing for #FCPS residents of college of physicians and surgeons pakistan. in this video requirements or prerequisites ...
A research synopsis is a short outline of what your research thesis is and all the steps you propose to follow in order to achieve them. It gives you and you...
A research article usually has seven major sections: Title, Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, and References. The first thing you should do is to decide why you need to summarize the article. If the purpose of the summary is to take notes to later remind yourself about the article you may want to write a longer summary ...
The synopsis is a brief out line (about four A-4 size pages or 1000 words is the maximum limit) of your future work. A synopsis must have the following headings: TITLE: Should reflect the objectives of the study. It must be written after the whole synopsis has been written so that it is a true representative of the plan (i.e. the synopsis).
Writing a Synopsis. A synopsis is a brief summary which gives readers an overview of the main points. In an academic context, this is usually a summary of a text (a journal article, book, report etc) but in some instances you might be writing a synopsis of a talk, film or other form of presentation. A synopsis is a neutral summary, objectively ...
A good knowledge about how a protocol or a synopsis is written is imperative to all people involved in medical research. Literally, protocol (Greek word, protokollon - first page) means a format procedure for carrying out a scientific research. Synopsis (Greek word, sun - together, opsis - seeing) means brief summary of something.
If you're planning to write a clinical paper summary or scientific literature review of a published journal article from a peer-reviewed medical journal, these useful suggestions will help guide your writing.. Reading clinical research in medicine and science forms the foundation of medical writing. Your reading might be used to inform your health writing projects and articles, or for ...
Synopsis is one of the first important research document you write for your PhD. A great synopsis is the one that delivers maximum information in minimum wor...
These are the key elements of a strong synopsis: Design a study to achieve your goals. The design of a study is an iterative process, with each step largely influenced by the answer to the previous question. Typically, the first question an investigator must answer is whether the study is a treatment study or an observational study.
A reference to articles serves to guide readers to a connected body of literature. Conference abstracts should not be used as references. They can be cited in the text, in parentheses, but not as page footnotes. References to papers accepted but not yet published should be designated as 'in press' or 'forthcoming'.
However, the primary beneficiary of writing the synopsis is you. Follow the five tips below to write a great clinical trial synopsis. Tip #1: Write the synopsis before you write the protocol. Instead of writing it after you've written the entire protocol, write the synopsis first. Use the synopsis as your tool for developing the protocol.
guidelines: 2. Size of the paper should be A4 (8.5" x 11.5") except for maps, drawing, and graphs. 3. The text should be typed on one side of the paper leaving a margin of 4 cm on left hand. side ...
Once you have defined your project, you will need to write a synopsis. This usually includes: A background or literature review of the studies conducted till now culminating into the open questions. This should be followed by your hypothesis and research objectives. Proposed methodology and work plan for conducting the defined research.
Write no more than 300 words. Use clear, plain-English sentences. Use first-person pronouns (I, my lab, my research) throughout.Use strong, active verbs wherever possible. Passive verb: A goal of my work is to develop vaccines for. . . Changed to an active verb: My work pursues vaccine development for. . . Passive verb: Breast-feeding is well documented to protect against a variety of infections.
After you get enough feedback and decide on the journal you will submit to, the process of real writing begins. Copy your outline into a separate file and expand on each of the points, adding data and elaborating on the details. When you create the first draft, do not succumb to the temptation of editing.
Writing the research protocol. 5.1 Introduction. After proper and complete planning of the study, the plan should be written down. The protocol is the detailed plan of the study. Every research study should have a protocol, and the protocol should be written. The written protocol: •.
How to Write a Synopsis for Your Finished Manuscript in Five Easy Steps. Make a list of your book's key elements. These include the most critical story and plot points, conflict, characters, settings, themes, and tone. For the plot, go through each chapter, and write down one to three of the most important plot developments from each.
"Medical Research is an essential need for any Nation but mostly ignored in developing countries". Synopsis writing and manuscript writings are two main pillars in medical research, clinical practice and medical educa-tions, so for that three things are very important, what you need to know, what you need to do and how much
As part of a team, I address the medical and neurological needs of my patients using evidence-based care protocols. I assess and care for my patients' pain and comfort needs daily. I also plan for their medical care needs after their hospital stay, with attention to their post-hospital setting, e.g., their home or a rehabilitation facility.
A lot of research studies have shown a patient summary significantly improves patient outcomes. So, given the importance, what are the best strategies to write a good patient summary?
states that "all medical research subjects should be given the option of being informed about the general outcome and results of the study ". Further, EU Clinical Trials Regulation 536/ 2014 states that sponsors should provide a summary of clinical trial results in a format that can be understood by a lay audience (i.e., lay
Write no more than 300 words. Use clear, plain-English sentences. Use first-person pronouns (I, my practice, we, our) throughout.Use strong, active verbs wherever possible. Passive verb: Our work is highly relevant to advancing therapeutic options for patients with heart failure. Active verb: Our work will make more advanced therapeutic options available to patients with heart failure.
Ketamine is a type of anesthetic. Doctors also prescribe ketamine to treat treatment-resistant depression (TRD). Some research suggests that if taken correctly for TRD, it is unlikely to become ...
The characteristics of medical images were described using summary statistics. The association between the source of full-text availability and image availability on Google Images was tested using logistic regressions. Finally, we examined the trend of finding patient photographs using generalized estimating equations. ... Interactive Journal ...
জাতীয় বিজ্ঞান ও প্রযুক্তি ফেলোশিপে কীভাবে আবেদন করবেন? কীভাবে রিসার্চ ...
Tap to reveal a summary of a long email in the Mail app and cut to the chase. You can also view summaries of email right from your inbox. You can also view summaries of email right from your inbox. Just hit record in the Notes or Phone apps to capture audio recordings and transcripts.