analyzing history strengthens your critical thinking skills

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Using History to Teach Critical Thinking Skills

Feb 26, 2019

Exploring Historical Perspectives for Critical Thinking Development

One of the most important tools we can give our students is the ability to think critically.  In this age of unlimited social media sharing, fake news, and hidden agendas, it has never been more important to be able to look at information and its source and determine if the information is accurate and true.  Dictionary.com defines critical thinking as clear, rational, open-minded, and informed by evidence.  In a good history class, one that moves beyond the textbook, thinking critically is part of the package.

Students of history look at an event from many different perspectives.  The use of both primary (first-hand accounts) and secondary (recounting with interpretation and analysis) sources helps students see an event from many different angles.  Imagine an event like the Boston Massacre.  The account of the British soldier involved would be very different from the patriot on the street. Likewise, Paul Revere, Thomas Jefferson, and King George III would all see the Boston Massacre from a different place.  A twenty-first century historian would add another view of the event. A British historian and an American historian would likely see the event in two different lights.  A student of history learns to read all the accounts and make judgments about the event.  Were the patriots justified in their actions?  Were the soldiers?  Why did Paul Revere refer to the event as a massacre?  How did the event contribute to the tensions between the colonies and the crown leading up to the American Revolution?

Looking at different sources, the perspective of the author, and the bias brought to the event help students learn to discern and think critically.  This important skill can be extrapolated to their non-academic life to determine if a news article, tweet, or report is valid or bait.

Becky Frank has been steeped in American History from her early days growing up on the family farm in Northeastern North Carolina. Although Barrow Creek Farm has been in her family since the 1680s, her parents were the first to live on it in three generations. On the farm she learned to milk cows, sheer sheep, and drive a tractor.

After an internship at Historic Edenton, she received a B.S. in Public History from Appalachian State University in 1992. Answering God’s call to teach in a classroom setting, she added teacher certification from East Carolina University to her degree in 1998. Becky then taught social studies in Gates County, North Carolina where her classes included U.S. History, World History, Economics, Government, and Humanities. In 2003 she married her husband John and left the classroom to start a family.

Becky has been teaching online for more than 10 years.  She also homeschools her three children and is an active leader in the Children’s and Youth’s ministry at her church. She also enjoys gardening, cooking, scrapbooking and long walks with her kids and the family dog. Sharing the heritage of our great country is one of her passions as well. Her lifelong dream is to return to the family farm and make a portion of the acreage a living history site.

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3. Historical Analysis and Interpretation

One of the most common problems in helping students to become thoughtful readers of historical narrative is the compulsion students feel to find the one right answer, the one essential fact, the one authoritative interpretation. “Am I on the right track?” “Is this what you want?” they ask. Or, worse yet, they rush to closure, reporting back as self-evident truths the facts or conclusions presented in the document or text.

These problems are deeply rooted in the conventional ways in which textbooks have presented history: a succession of facts marching straight to a settled outcome. To overcome these problems requires the use of more than a single source: of history books other than textbooks and of a rich variety of historical documents and artifacts that present alternative voices, accounts, and interpretations or perspectives on the past.

Students need to realize that historians may differ on the facts they incorporate in the development of their narratives and disagree as well on how those facts are to be interpreted. Thus, “history” is usually taken to mean what happened in the past; but written history is a dialogue among historians, not only about what happened but about why and how events unfolded. The study of history is not only remembering answers. It requires following and evaluating arguments and arriving at usable, even if tentative, conclusions based on the available evidence.

To engage in  historical analysis and interpretation  students must draw upon their skills of historical comprehension . In fact, there is no sharp line separating the two categories. Certain of the skills involved in comprehension overlap the skills involved in analysis and are essential to it. For example, identifying the author or source of a historical document or narrative and assessing its credibility (comprehension) is prerequisite to comparing competing historical narratives (analysis). Analysis builds upon the skills of comprehension; it obliges the student to assess the evidence on which the historian has drawn and determine the soundness of interpretations created from that evidence. It goes without saying that in acquiring these analytical skills students must develop the ability to differentiate between expressions of opinion, no matter how passionately delivered, and informed hypotheses grounded in historical evidence.

Well-written historical narrative has the power to promote students’ analysis of historical causality–of how change occurs in society, of how human intentions matter, and how ends are influenced by the means of carrying them out, in what has been called the tangle of process and outcomes. Few challenges can be more fascinating to students than unraveling the often dramatic complications of cause. And nothing is more dangerous than a simple, monocausal explanation of past experiences and present problems.

Finally, well-written historical narratives can also alert students to the traps of  lineality and inevitability . Students must understand the relevance of the past to their own times, but they need also to avoid the trap of lineality, of drawing straight lines between past and present, as though earlier movements were being propelled teleologically toward some rendezvous with destiny in the late 20th century.

A related trap is that of thinking that events have unfolded inevitably–that the way things are is the way they had to be, and thus that individuals lack free will and the capacity for making choices. Unless students can conceive that history could have turned out differently, they may unconsciously accept the notion that the future is also inevitable or predetermined, and that human agency and individual action count for nothing. No attitude is more likely to feed civic apathy, cynicism, and resignation–precisely what we hope the study of history will fend off. Whether in dealing with the main narrative or with a topic in depth, we must always try, in one historian’s words, to “restore to the past the options it once had.”

HISTORICAL THINKING STANDARD 3

The student engages in historical analysis and interpretation:

Therefore, the student is able to:

• Compare and contrast differing sets of ideas , values, personalities, behaviors, and institutions by identifying likenesses and differences.
• Consider multiple perspectives  of various peoples in the past by demonstrating their differing motives, beliefs, interests, hopes, and fears.
• Analyze cause-and-effect relationships  bearing in mind  multiple causation including (a)  the importance of the individual  in history; (b)  the influence of ideas , human interests, and beliefs; and (c) the role of chance, the accidental and the irrational.
• Draw comparisons across eras and regions in order to define enduring issues as well as large-scale or long-term developments that transcend regional and temporal boundaries.
• Distinguish between unsupported expressions of opinion and informed hypotheses grounded in historical evidence.
• Compare competing historical narratives.
• Challenge arguments of historical inevitability  by formulating examples of historical contingency, of how different choices could have led to different consequences.
• Hold interpretations of history as tentative , subject to changes as new information is uncovered, new voices heard, and new interpretations broached.
• Evaluate major debates among historians  concerning alternative interpretations of the past.
• Hypothesize the influence of the past , including both the limitations and opportunities made possible by past decisions.

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History classes provide students with a peek into the human experience across times, cultures, and continents. And their relevance goes far beyond an understanding of the past! More than hitting curriculum standards, learning history shows students why we live the way we do today, helping them develop valuable historical and critical thinking skills to navigate their present and prepare them for the challenges of the future.

Let’s look at how to emphasize the importance of learning history for students and how Kialo Edu discussions can help students engage meaningfully with this subject.

Why is it important for students to learn history?

Though there are undoubtedly a lot of dates and facts in history textbooks, they only scratch the surface of what students can learn in history classrooms. Here are some of the many benefits you can give to your students next time they ask you, “why should we learn this?”

1. Studying history gives students insight into recurring themes

From power struggles to technological advancements, students learn about the complexity of human behavior and the challenges people have faced throughout time.

2. Studying history can help students understand their own and other cultural identities

History lessons help preserve the diverse voices and experiences of individuals and communities which may otherwise be lost to time. This helps students understand their own place in the world, as well as develop consideration for others’ experiences.

3. Studying history encourages students to become informed and active citizens

By reflecting on democratic roots, values, and principles present throughout history, students can gain the knowledge to help them become active participants in society.

4. Learning history helps hone five critical thinking skills that have lifelong benefits

Finally, engaging with history gives students the opportunity to develop a broad perspective and hone their critical thinking skills. The American Historical Association outlines five of the key historical thinking skills for students to develop in the classroom, which can benefit them outside the classroom as well:

• Chronological Thinking

Chronological Thinking builds a framework for organizing historical knowledge, allowing students to understand the sequence of events and how they relate to one another across contexts and time periods.

• Historical Comprehension

Historical Comprehension is the ability to understand historical data and narratives. Students can contextualize the causes and outcomes of historical events and understand the motivations of the people involved.

• Historical Analysis and Interpretation

Historical Analysis and Interpretation is the ability to compare and contrast differing perspectives and views of history for students to come to their own conclusions and challenge common assumptions.

• Historical Research Skills

Historical Research Skills allow students to formulate meaningful questions and to gather, evaluate, and present information from a range of primary and secondary sources .

• Historical Issues: Analysis and Decision-Making

With this skill, students will be able to evaluate complex historical problems and decisions with an awareness of the ethical dimensions, priorities of those involved, and consideration of alternative approaches that may have yielded different outcomes.

Taken together, historical thinking equips students with knowledge and skills that will benefit them far beyond academic settings.

Let’s take a look at just some of the ways Kialo discussions can hit curriculum standards while making history exciting and relevant for students in the classroom!

Five engaging activities for the history classroom with Kialo Edu

1. Use Kialo discussions to connect the past to the present

Learning objective: Students will be able to evaluate the relevance of historical events and themes and explore how they might apply them to their own lives.

Looking at current events through a historical lens gives students the broader context to assess the factors that shape their world, from the backdrop to political upheaval to the formation of social movements. Not only that, but by drawing parallels between historical events and events today, students can apply the lessons learned from the past to the challenges of today.

You can assign students a Kialo discussion that explicitly links the past to the present. For example, you might ask them to reflect on questions of reparations for former colonies of European countries or to weigh up the effects of the Industrial Revolution .

A discussion on whether we should remove statues of problematic historical figures can explore contemporary views of these figures set against the era they belonged to.

Kialo discussions are a supportive space to explore topical issues in the headlines, as you can monitor and offer guidance as needed. And by adding carefully chosen starter claims to the discussion of your choice, educators can open up dedicated lines of inquiry to help students learn about the background of the issue at hand, be that geopolitical tensions or understanding responses to the COVID-19 pandemic.

2. Use Kialo discussions to question assumptions and contextualize historical narratives

Learning objective: Students will be able to compare and contrast the evidence from different perspectives on the same topic.

Should we still celebrate Columbus Day? — kialo-edu.com

Without questioning the way history is presented, student understanding of the past may be incomplete or even distorted. Educators can encourage students to examine the background and perspectives of those who usually “write” history for the biases that may be present.

The argument-mapping structure of Kialo discussions can scaffold this process. By breaking down the issues into manageable chunks, discussions help highlight inconsistencies in the arguments presented for a historical topic. Have the class actively seek out gaps and contradictions in their claims to prompt wider class discussion of the potential for bias. You can even add comments or new claims to direct students’ attention where it’s needed.

Broader discussions on the historiography, or the nature of history itself, can also put these issues front and center. Have students consider the challenges historians face in finding an accurate representation of historical events by asking them “can we ever truly know history?” . Or, discuss how context shapes the lens through which we view history with a discussion on whether ethical judgments should be part of history . 

3. Use Kialo discussions to deepen topic comprehension and develop critical analysis

Learning objective: Students will be able to develop historical reading skills , including sourcing, corroboration, close reading, and contextualization.

Was the American Revolution justified? — kialo-edu.com

By reading and interpreting a number of texts and sources, students learn to build knowledge rather than exclusively memorize information.

Educators can help students gain a fuller view of history by giving them strategies for reading historical texts and documents. The Historical Thinking Chart by the Digital Inquiry Group (formerly the Stanford History Education Group) provides a series of questions to support students in this process.

First, have students consider the source of a document to determine its reliability. Then, students should contextualize the document by considering the broader context within which it was written. Students then look at whether they can corroborate the information by comparing it to other relevant texts, and finally do a close reading of the text, exploring the author’s claims and language choices in greater detail.

In Kialo discussions, students can aggregate all the information they encounter for a particular historical topic as evidence for their claims. This might include the different perspectives encountered, considerations of broader context, disagreement and counter-narratives, and the supporting evidence provided for these sources.

For example, if your students are exploring the causes of World War I , or considering the outcomes of the 1848 Revolutions , they can delve into these details collaboratively through the various sources available on these topics. You might start the discussion at the beginning of a module and have students return to add to their discussion as your class progresses through the materials available to them.

4. Use Kialo to explore and evaluate sources

Learning objective: Students will be able to use primary and secondary sources as evidence for their arguments.

With access to so much valuable information online, the challenge for students often lies in evaluating the evidence rather than gathering it. Many websites may seem reputable, but in reality push damaging myths or beliefs about historical events.

Educators can help students determine appropriate sources and teach strategies for “ critical ignoring .” In doing so, students learn to filter out the noise and focus their critical thinking skills (and energy!) on the sources which merit their attention.

Kialo discussions encourage students to add evidence for their arguments by adding links or references to their claims where appropriate. Educators can also provide students with a selection of primary and secondary sources to work across them to come to well-reasoned (and evidenced) conclusions on the thesis.

Students could also work in groups to consider the strengths and limitations of each source, acknowledging anything that impacts their reliability in the Add Quote/Note box or comments. You can even set a task for adding sources to make expectations clear on how many students should add to each discussion. 

5. Use Kialo discussions to engage younger students in the past

Learning objective: Students will be able to develop an understanding of what people’s lives were like in the past.

By learning about how people lived in the past, students gain an understanding of how the world has changed, the challenges faced back then, and how the richness of ancient cultures has influenced us today.

Kialo discussions can thus encourage younger students to think creatively about the past. They might use their imagination to fill in the gaps in known information about ancient times, with a discussion on whether they’d prefer to visit ancient Egypt or ancient Greece . You might have them reflect on what life was like during the Bronze and Iron Ages or debate whether Vikings reall y deserve their bad reputation ! 

For younger students, another engaging activity could be to determine where historical fiction meets fact in investigating the case for the existence of King Arthur . In doing so, students can gain a meaningful understanding of the past and how people lived.

Kialo’s Topic Library is full of rich history topics ready for your students to explore. If you have a thesis you think belongs in the library or any tips for the history classroom, please do get in touch at [email protected] or on any of our social media channels.

Want to try Kialo Edu with your class?

Sign up for free and use Kialo Edu to have thoughtful classroom discussions and train students’ argumentation and critical thinking skills.

• Source Criticism

How to analyse historical sources

When using sources for evidence, you need to be able to demonstrate your knowledge of them by identifying their historical background.

To do this, you need to analyse your sources.

What is 'source analysis'?

Analysis is the ability to demonstrate an understanding of the elements that contributed to the creation of a historical source.

It answers the question: 'Why does this source exist in its current form?'

There are six analysis skills that you need to master:

How do you analyse a source?

In order to demonstrate a knowledge of the six analysis skills, you need to do two things:

• Carefully read the source to find information that is explicit and implicit
• Conduct background research  about the creator  of the source

After completing these two steps, you can begin to show your understanding about the six features of historical sources.

Based upon what you found in your reading and background research, answer the following questions for each of the six analysis skills.

Watch a video explanation on the History Skills YouTube channel:

Watch on YouTube

How do you write an analysis paragraph?

Once you have been able to answer all of the question above, you are ready to demonstrate your complete source analysis.

An analysis paragraph should demonstrate your awareness of all six analysis skills in a short paragraph.

This letter was written by John Smith to record the events of the battle for his family at home . It is from the perspective of an Australian soldier who had just experienced the Gallipoli landing on the 25th April, 1915 , and specifically mentions “running like hell” for survival.

What do you do with your analysis?

Your source analysis becomes a vital step in your ability to evaluate your sources in your assessment pieces .

This is most important in written essays , source investigations and short response exams .

You will use different parts of your analysis to help justify a source's usefulness and reliability .

Test your learning

No personal information is collected as part of this quiz. Only the selected responses to the questions are recorded.

Additional resources

What do you need help with, download ready-to-use digital learning resources.

Copyright © History Skills 2014-2024.

Contact  via email

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Historical content matters: a response to the critical thinking skills agenda

Katie barclay | 06 november 2019.

Executive Summary

• Historical knowledge is a significant form of ‘common sense’ knowledge that shapes decision-making
• Academic histories play a key role in shaping this ‘common sense’ knowledge
• As a result, academic historical scholarship plays a significant and undervalued role in producing social, economic and political outcomes in all areas
• Universities, policymakers and society should take greater heed of historical research as vital to the healthy functioning of societies, economies and polities
• The value of history degrees is not just an important skillset in critical thinking, but the historical content that it provides students

Introduction

History is regularly deployed by people from all walks of life for all sorts of purposes. Pro-Brexit campaigners have variously called upon Britain’s imperial heritage or nostalgic imaginings of whiter British past to justify their retreat from the European Union. Remainers have responded with their own histories of Empire and migration. Both sides have wielded experts in universities to support their points, or posed with historical writings in piles behind them as they make political arguments. The Christchurch shooter carved the dates of Crusade battles into his weapon, locating his action – he claimed – in a long history of Christian-Muslim conflict. Recent debates around sex education in schools have deployed arguments about ‘traditional’ family structures , that LGBT families are meant to sit outside. More benignly, journalists and the public display surprise when they encounter academic scholarship that sheds light on contemporary issues, claiming these ‘hidden’ histories have been withheld from them. It is a degree of surprise, sometimes outrage, that is suggestive that the public recognise that history does important work in shaping how we feel about the world, and that gaps in knowledge are somehow unjust or designed to deceive the public.

For all these people, history matters. And it matters to historians that the public has access to the best and most cutting-edge histories to help inform these discussions. One of the key purposes of History & Policy is to direct the knowledge and findings produced by historians towards those addressing similar problems in the present. Historians, deeply appreciative of the importance of context, are loathe to suggest that ‘lessons from the past’ can be directly applied to a new set of circumstances. But equally we argue that understanding the past can help people make better decisions when encountering similar circumstances today. It can be particularly useful for highlighting how a specific problem has arisen, and for offering an appreciation of the scope of an impact of a choice and the variety of dimensions that need to be considered. Thus, for example, research on children and institutions illuminates why institutions have repeatedly failed many of the children that have been brought into them and why these same problems continue into the present. Historical knowledge, however, is also significant because it shapes our understanding of who we are, our identities, and our potential as people. It is important not just where it can be directly applied but as a source of general information that informs how we engage with the world. That it plays this role ensures that we should not only consider historical research and teaching critical when it has an instrumental and applied value but also because of its role in producing people, inclusive democracies, and nations.

Histories and the everyday

Historical knowledge is all around us. It is transmitted through families, fact and fiction books, television, museums and heritage sites, in language, and as ‘common sense’ information that we use to make decisions. Our first encounters with the past are often in the stories told about own ancestors – parents and grandparents – designed to help us understand what is valued in our family or how our childhood experience might have differed in a previous era. These stories offer a set of common sense information that help us locate our own experiences in relation to time and place, to significant events, and to other people. They can be incredibly varied, ranging across histories of childhood, school, workplaces and occupations, political parties and geopolitics, climate and environment, arts and culture, love and friendship, science, medicine and technology to name a few. As we age and encounter other histories, perhaps at school or in books, our knowledge of the world expands and we learn both about diversity and how historical events have differential impacts on groups.

As the histories that help us make sense of our experiences, these accounts become central to how we understand our personal identity, that of others, and our role in the nation. Given our investments in our identity and attachments to our pasts, these stories also ensure that history becomes politically significant in the public sphere. That the public intuitively recognises this can be seen in the debates, protests and highly emotive engagements with public statues associated with controversial figures, such as the imperialist Cecil Rhodes or US confederate leader Robert E. Lee , or in museum displays associated with local conflicts, such as The Troubles in Northern Ireland or Aboriginal-settler conflict in Australia. What is represented in public histories becomes central to debates about who we are, who is included and excluded, who holds power, and the production of contemporary values and rights.

These ‘everyday histories’ are related to academic scholarship in important ways. The popular histories that are taught at school and museums and appear on television, in children’s books, even fiction, typically draw on academic research. If they are sometimes less rigorous or flatten complex arguments, they nonetheless draw on a body of research conducted by professional historians. Increasingly academics also produce public-facing historical writing to aid with this process. The histories that shape identities grow from academic scholarship. Historians play a significant role in determining what is important to remember. A move from histories of monarchs and diplomacy to that of women and workers may have been encouraged by grassroots civil rights movements in the middle of the twentieth century, but it was historians who determined the key features of the new social histories that emerged.

Historical research is often considered an art because the historian plays such a key role in shaping their accounts of the past. It is the questions that they consider to be important that determine what they look for in the archive. It is their sifting and selection from often sizeable collections of material that determine what makes it into history books and what is forgotten. It is these choices, and that others might make different choices, that produce historical debate and argument, and which informs the evolution of the field as a new generation of scholars bring a different set of concerns to the material that survives from the past. Thus the knowledges that we grow up with and that shape our understanding of ourselves and identities reflect the trends and critical questions within the historical discipline in our formative years. It is perhaps natural then that new histories produced by a new generation of scholars can be challenging to those whose identities were shaped by older understandings of the past, just as those same histories have been liberating for many – such as women, the LGBT community, or ethnic minorities – who lacked stories of people like them when they were growing up. Yet this evolution is critical in producing history that remains relevant to our contemporary experience and identity-making, and to answering questions raised by new circumstances and contexts.

Research and teaching history

In recent years, the value of historical research, and indeed humanities research in general, has been questioned. Right-wing commentators have suggested that universities are increasingly driven by ‘identity politics’ . Critics fear that the history curriculum has fragmented into a wide range of modules driven by the politics of their teachers. Others have questioned the value of research that is not seen to hold a direct and measurable social, but especially economic, impact. This has become particularly significant for the student market where degrees are increasingly promoted with claims of a direct and obvious employment route. Both criticisms demand a straightforward account of what a history degree teaches, and a single type of job that those with history degrees take up. Without this, critics argue, history is useless knowledge. Universities have sought to counter such claims by locating the value of history not in historical knowledge – the content of what was learned – but in ‘critical thinking’, ‘writing and communication’ and similar important but generic skills . For such commentators, the historical content is of less significance than the opportunity to read widely, think deeply, research, and solve problems, a skillset that can be applied in any context.

No one would contest that a history degree offers these benefits, but it is an account that fails to recognise the importance of historical knowledge in the everyday. The histories we use are significant in interpreting everyday experiences and identity. Indeed, critical thinking requires historical knowledge. What we determine to be ‘common sense’, how we understand the world to operate, does not arise naturally but is based upon the everyday histories that we are taught in childhood and across our lives. This is the case when we, for example, make an assumption about normative family forms in the past, or when we draw on an interpretation of the causes of the First World War when producing foreign policy. Such ‘common sense’ histories are always partial, reflective of our experience and our encounters with the historical knowledge available to us. Access to a broader, more sophisticated body of historical research counters these ‘common sense’ accounts by offering a firmer grounding for decision-making and critical analysis. This can be seen in the now famous example of the US Supreme Court decision for marriage equality, that referenced the scholarship of key marriage and sexuality historians , and transformed the legal rights of LGBT individuals across the US.

New histories are therefore important for the work they do in shaping individuals and society. A democratic society – one where all members of the polity have a place – requires inclusive accounts that acknowledge and recognise all parts of the community. This is even more critical for groups who have been subject to disadvantage, harm or exploitation, where their histories act as an acknowledgement and first step in redress for past wrongs. It is vital for minorities who need histories of others like them to explain their experience and role in the world. New histories are also important in giving us accounts of art, culture, science, technology, business, economy and more that help us interpret the present, much as History & Policy promotes. Importantly, for a rich account of the past to emerge, a variety of topics and perspectives becomes critical.

In the present moment, a popular television show such as Downton Abbey, exploring changing social relations in early twentieth-century Britain, can draw on histories of war, economy, society, fashion, popular culture, material culture, accent and language use, technology, medicine and more, in its rich ‘world-building’. This is possible due to the work of dozens of scholars and years of effort, which itself builds upon generations of earlier work, though this work is usually unacknowledged within television credits. Such a history is richer, more interesting, perhaps a fuller capture of the past. Its strength lies in collaboration and the representation of a diversity of perspectives. With significant viewing figures both in the UK and internationally, Downton Abbey is an account of the past that will inform how many of us interpret our present experiences. Yet it is an account that is not usually acknowledged as either ‘history’ that people will use in making sense of themselves, nor as rooted in academic historical research – despite it being both. Remarkably, despite the fact that governments and increasingly university campaigns targeting students have sought to instrumentalise historical knowledge by emphasising its benefits for public policy , for productivity and growth, and for future employment, the important and everyday impacts of history – the ways that it is used by ordinary people in their own lives – is rarely considered as a domain shaped by historical research.

For an informed and productive society, the historical knowledge disseminated to the public must be broad, diverse and evolving to reflect new research. Universities are a key space where new accounts of the past can be taught and disseminated. That there is not a core history curriculum taught at every university, as some conservatives suggest there should be, is not a flaw, but a feature. It is not possible for every member of society, nor every historian, to know everything about the past. History courses thus specialise, and disseminate diverse accounts of the past. As history students from different institutions spread outwards, taking their specialist knowledges to an array of workplaces nationally and internationally, they share their educations with others, increasing the opportunity for knowledge to reach those that will find it most useful. Acknowledging the significance of the historical content of degrees may also offer opportunities for individuals to be targeted by employers or communities for historical learning that gives them expertise and critical thinking in specific areas.

Importantly, this is not an account of historical knowledge that attends only to the modern histories that explain the immediate experiences of those in the polity. Historical knowledges have long legacies in culture and society, requiring investment and dissemination in histories both deep and wide. This can be seen most recently in the use of crusading history both by the Christchurch shooter and by conservative political parties in Australia  (where Senator Cori Bernardi recently tabled a motion asking the Senate to note the anniversary of the breaking of the siege of Vienna in 1529), to promote a right-wing agenda. But it can also be seen in our contemporary understanding of love and sex that was first forged in conflicts within the medieval church. Knowing this – like our more well-known modern histories of sex and gender – may well open up new ways of thinking about something so central to our everyday lives. A successful and inclusive democratic state requires not just research skills, but historical knowledge.

Historical knowledge shapes how people interpret their experiences, and those of others. It aids critical thinking and decision-making. Providing people with richer, more sophisticated, and up to date historical content therefore contributes not only to a better educated public but one that can make better decisions in a vast array of areas of life. Acknowledging this requires a move from promoting history degrees for their generic critical thinking and communication skillset to celebrating historical knowledge as a key form of information required by productive members of society. This has implications for how universities promote their history research and teaching, but also for policymakers as they seek to produce the best outcomes in areas as diverse as education, health, industry, politics, economy, technology, arts, and society.

• Barclay, Katie
• History in practice

Further Reading

Anna Green, ‘Intergenerational Family Stories: Private, Parochial, Pathological?,’ Journal of Family History 38, no. 4 (2013): 387-402

Shurlee Swain and Nell Musgrove, ‘We are the Stories We Tell About Ourselves: Child Welfare Records and the Construction of Identity among Australians who, as Children, Experienced Out-of-Home “Care”,’ Archives and Manuscripts 40, no. 1 (2012): 4-14

Penny Summerfield, ‘Culture and Composure: Creating Narratives of the Gendered Self in Oral History Interviews,’ Cultural and Social History 1 (2004): 65-93

Jay Winter, Sites of Memory, Sites of Mourning: The Great War in European Cultural History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995)

About the author

Katie Barclay is Deputy-Director of the ARC Centre for Excellence in the History of Emotions and Associate Professor in History, University of Adelaide. Her research explores the transmission of knowledge across generations within families and the implications for self, identity and nation.

Related Policy Papers

How history matters now, ludmilla jordanova | 27 november 2008, in defence of applied history: the history and policy website, john tosh | 10 february 2006, why history matters, john tosh | 20 november 2008, why history matters - and why medieval history also matters, john arnold | 28 november 2008, related opinion articles, back to the past for the school history curriculum, nicola sheldon | 20 february 2013, papers by author, papers by theme, digital download.

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Explicitly Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in a History Course

• Published: 20 March 2017
• Volume 26 , pages 93–105, ( 2017 )

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• Anne Collins McLaughlin 1 &
• Alicia Ebbitt McGill 2  

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Critical thinking skills are often assessed via student beliefs in non-scientific ways of thinking, (e.g, pseudoscience). Courses aimed at reducing such beliefs have been studied in the STEM fields with the most successful focusing on skeptical thinking. However, critical thinking is not unique to the sciences; it is crucial in the humanities and to historical thinking and analysis. We investigated the effects of a history course on epistemically unwarranted beliefs in two class sections. Beliefs were measured pre- and post-semester. Beliefs declined for history students compared to a control class and the effect was strongest for the honors section. This study provides evidence that a humanities education engenders critical thinking. Further, there may be individual differences in ability or preparedness in developing such skills, suggesting different foci for critical thinking coursework.

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Appendix 1: Pew test of science knowledge

All radioactivity is man-made. Is this statement true or false?

Correct Answer: False

Electrons are smaller than atoms. Is this statement true or false?

Correct Answer: True

Lasers work by focusing sound waves. Is this statement true or false?

The continents on which we live have been moving their location for millions of years and will continue to move in the future. Is this statement true or false?

Which one of the following types of solar radiation does sunscreen protect the skin from?

Correct Answer: Ultraviolet

Does nanotechnology deal with things that are extremely...

Correct Answer: small

Which gas makes up most of the Earth’s atmosphere?

Correct Answer: Nitrogen

Carbon Dioxide

What is the main function of red blood cells?

Correct Answer: Carry oxygen to all parts of the body

Help the blood to clot

Fight disease in the body

Which of these is a major concern about the overuse of antibiotics?

Correct Answer: It can lead to antibiotic-resistant bacteria

People will become addicted to antibiotics

Antibiotics are very expensive

Which is an example of a chemical reaction?

Correct Answer: Nails rusting

Water boiling

Sugar dissolving

Which is the better way to determine whether a new drug is effective in treating a disease? If a scientist has a group of 1000 volunteers with the disease to study, should she...

Correct Answer: Give the drug to half of them but not to the other half, and compare how many in each group get better

Give the drug to all of them and see how many get better

What gas do most scientists believe causes temperatures in the atmosphere to rise?

Correct Answer: Carbon dioxide

Which natural resource is extracted in a process known as “fracking”?

Correct Answer: Natural gas

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McLaughlin, A.C., McGill, A.E. Explicitly Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in a History Course. Sci & Educ 26 , 93–105 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-017-9878-2

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Published : 20 March 2017

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-017-9878-2

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The discipline of history focuses on critical analysis of text-based evidence from the past and seeks a detailed, complex understanding of individual and collective human behaviors as they have emerged, intersected, and altered over time.

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Supplement to Critical Thinking

This supplement elaborates on the history of the articulation, promotion and adoption of critical thinking as an educational goal.

John Dewey (1910: 74, 82) introduced the term ‘critical thinking’ as the name of an educational goal, which he identified with a scientific attitude of mind. More commonly, he called the goal ‘reflective thought’, ‘reflective thinking’, ‘reflection’, or just ‘thought’ or ‘thinking’. He describes his book as written for two purposes. The first was to help people to appreciate the kinship of children’s native curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquiry to the scientific attitude. The second was to help people to consider how recognizing this kinship in educational practice “would make for individual happiness and the reduction of social waste” (iii). He notes that the ideas in the book obtained concreteness in the Laboratory School in Chicago.

Dewey’s ideas were put into practice by some of the schools that participated in the Eight-Year Study in the 1930s sponsored by the Progressive Education Association in the United States. For this study, 300 colleges agreed to consider for admission graduates of 30 selected secondary schools or school systems from around the country who experimented with the content and methods of teaching, even if the graduates had not completed the then-prescribed secondary school curriculum. One purpose of the study was to discover through exploration and experimentation how secondary schools in the United States could serve youth more effectively (Aikin 1942). Each experimental school was free to change the curriculum as it saw fit, but the schools agreed that teaching methods and the life of the school should conform to the idea (previously advocated by Dewey) that people develop through doing things that are meaningful to them, and that the main purpose of the secondary school was to lead young people to understand, appreciate and live the democratic way of life characteristic of the United States (Aikin 1942: 17–18). In particular, school officials believed that young people in a democracy should develop the habit of reflective thinking and skill in solving problems (Aikin 1942: 81). Students’ work in the classroom thus consisted more often of a problem to be solved than a lesson to be learned. Especially in mathematics and science, the schools made a point of giving students experience in clear, logical thinking as they solved problems. The report of one experimental school, the University School of Ohio State University, articulated this goal of improving students’ thinking:

Critical or reflective thinking originates with the sensing of a problem. It is a quality of thought operating in an effort to solve the problem and to reach a tentative conclusion which is supported by all available data. It is really a process of problem solving requiring the use of creative insight, intellectual honesty, and sound judgment. It is the basis of the method of scientific inquiry. The success of democracy depends to a large extent on the disposition and ability of citizens to think critically and reflectively about the problems which must of necessity confront them, and to improve the quality of their thinking is one of the major goals of education. (Commission on the Relation of School and College of the Progressive Education Association 1943: 745–746)

The Eight-Year Study had an evaluation staff, which developed, in consultation with the schools, tests to measure aspects of student progress that fell outside the focus of the traditional curriculum. The evaluation staff classified many of the schools’ stated objectives under the generic heading “clear thinking” or “critical thinking” (Smith, Tyler, & Evaluation Staff 1942: 35–36). To develop tests of achievement of this broad goal, they distinguished five overlapping aspects of it: ability to interpret data, abilities associated with an understanding of the nature of proof, and the abilities to apply principles of science, of social studies and of logical reasoning. The Eight-Year Study also had a college staff, directed by a committee of college administrators, whose task was to determine how well the experimental schools had prepared their graduates for college. The college staff compared the performance of 1,475 college students from the experimental schools with an equal number of graduates from conventional schools, matched in pairs by sex, age, race, scholastic aptitude scores, home and community background, interests, and probable future. They concluded that, on 18 measures of student success, the graduates of the experimental schools did a somewhat better job than the comparison group. The graduates from the six most traditional of the experimental schools showed no large or consistent differences. The graduates from the six most experimental schools, on the other hand, had much greater differences in their favour. The graduates of the two most experimental schools, the college staff reported:

… surpassed their comparison groups by wide margins in academic achievement, intellectual curiosity, scientific approach to problems, and interest in contemporary affairs. The differences in their favor were even greater in general resourcefulness, in enjoyment of reading, [in] participation in the arts, in winning non-academic honors, and in all aspects of college life except possibly participation in sports and social activities. (Aikin 1942: 114)

One of these schools was a private school with students from privileged families and the other the experimental section of a public school with students from non-privileged families. The college staff reported that the graduates of the two schools were indistinguishable from each other in terms of college success.

In 1933 Dewey issued an extensively rewritten edition of his How We Think (Dewey 1910), with the sub-title “A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process”. Although the restatement retains the basic structure and content of the original book, Dewey made a number of changes. He rewrote and simplified his logical analysis of the process of reflection, made his ideas clearer and more definite, replaced the terms ‘induction’ and ‘deduction’ by the phrases ‘control of data and evidence’ and ‘control of reasoning and concepts’, added more illustrations, rearranged chapters, and revised the parts on teaching to reflect changes in schools since 1910. In particular, he objected to one-sided practices of some “experimental” and “progressive” schools that allowed children freedom but gave them no guidance, citing as objectionable practices novelty and variety for their own sake, experiences and activities with real materials but of no educational significance, treating random and disconnected activity as if it were an experiment, failure to summarize net accomplishment at the end of an inquiry, non-educative projects, and treatment of the teacher as a negligible factor rather than as “the intellectual leader of a social group” (Dewey 1933: 273). Without explaining his reasons, Dewey eliminated the previous edition’s uses of the words ‘critical’ and ‘uncritical’, thus settling firmly on ‘reflection’ or ‘reflective thinking’ as the preferred term for his subject-matter. In the revised edition, the word ‘critical’ occurs only once, where Dewey writes that “a person may not be sufficiently critical about the ideas that occur to him” (1933: 16, italics in original); being critical is thus a component of reflection, not the whole of it. In contrast, the Eight-Year Study by the Progressive Education Association treated ‘critical thinking’ and ‘reflective thinking’ as synonyms.

In the same period, Dewey collaborated on a history of the Laboratory School in Chicago with two former teachers from the school (Mayhew & Edwards 1936). The history describes the school’s curriculum and organization, activities aimed at developing skills, parents’ involvement, and the habits of mind that the children acquired. A concluding chapter evaluates the school’s achievements, counting as a success its staging of the curriculum to correspond to the natural development of the growing child. In two appendices, the authors describe the evolution of Dewey’s principles of education and Dewey himself describes the theory of the Chicago experiment (Dewey 1936).

Glaser (1941) reports in his doctoral dissertation the method and results of an experiment in the development of critical thinking conducted in the fall of 1938. He defines critical thinking as Dewey defined reflective thinking:

Critical thinking calls for a persistent effort to examine any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the evidence that supports it and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Glaser 1941: 6; cf. Dewey 1910: 6; Dewey 1933: 9)

In the experiment, eight lesson units directed at improving critical thinking abilities were taught to four grade 12 high school classes, with pre-test and post-test of the students using the Otis Quick-Scoring Mental Ability Test and the Watson-Glaser Tests of Critical Thinking (developed in collaboration with Glaser’s dissertation sponsor, Goodwin Watson). The average gain in scores on these tests was greater to a statistically significant degree among the students who received the lessons in critical thinking than among the students in a control group of four grade 12 high school classes taking the usual curriculum in English. Glaser concludes:

The aspect of critical thinking which appears most susceptible to general improvement is the attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one’s experience. An attitude of wanting evidence for beliefs is more subject to general transfer. Development of skill in applying the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, however, appears to be specifically related to, and in fact limited by, the acquisition of pertinent knowledge and facts concerning the problem or subject matter toward which the thinking is to be directed. (Glaser 1941: 175)

Retest scores and observable behaviour indicated that students in the intervention group retained their growth in ability to think critically for at least six months after the special instruction.

In 1948 a group of U.S. college examiners decided to develop taxonomies of educational objectives with a common vocabulary that they could use for communicating with each other about test items. The first of these taxonomies, for the cognitive domain, appeared in 1956 (Bloom et al. 1956), and included critical thinking objectives. It has become known as Bloom’s taxonomy. A second taxonomy, for the affective domain (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia 1964), and a third taxonomy, for the psychomotor domain (Simpson 1966–67), appeared later. Each of the taxonomies is hierarchical, with achievement of a higher educational objective alleged to require achievement of corresponding lower educational objectives.

Bloom’s taxonomy has six major categories. From lowest to highest, they are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Within each category, there are sub-categories, also arranged hierarchically from the educationally prior to the educationally posterior. The lowest category, though called ‘knowledge’, is confined to objectives of remembering information and being able to recall or recognize it, without much transformation beyond organizing it (Bloom et al. 1956: 28–29). The five higher categories are collectively termed “intellectual abilities and skills” (Bloom et al. 1956: 204). The term is simply another name for critical thinking abilities and skills:

Although information or knowledge is recognized as an important outcome of education, very few teachers would be satisfied to regard this as the primary or the sole outcome of instruction. What is needed is some evidence that the students can do something with their knowledge, that is, that they can apply the information to new situations and problems. It is also expected that students will acquire generalized techniques for dealing with new problems and new materials. Thus, it is expected that when the student encounters a new problem or situation, he will select an appropriate technique for attacking it and will bring to bear the necessary information, both facts and principles. This has been labeled “critical thinking” by some, “reflective thinking” by Dewey and others, and “problem solving” by still others. In the taxonomy, we have used the term “intellectual abilities and skills”. (Bloom et al. 1956: 38)

Comprehension and application objectives, as their names imply, involve understanding and applying information. Critical thinking abilities and skills show up in the three highest categories of analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The condensed version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Bloom et al. 1956: 201–207) gives the following examples of objectives at these levels:

• analysis objectives : ability to recognize unstated assumptions, ability to check the consistency of hypotheses with given information and assumptions, ability to recognize the general techniques used in advertising, propaganda and other persuasive materials
• synthesis objectives : organizing ideas and statements in writing, ability to propose ways of testing a hypothesis, ability to formulate and modify hypotheses
• evaluation objectives : ability to indicate logical fallacies, comparison of major theories about particular cultures

The analysis, synthesis and evaluation objectives in Bloom’s taxonomy collectively came to be called the “higher-order thinking skills” (Tankersley 2005: chap. 5). Although the analysis-synthesis-evaluation sequence mimics phases in Dewey’s (1933) logical analysis of the reflective thinking process, it has not generally been adopted as a model of a critical thinking process. While commending the inspirational value of its ratio of five categories of thinking objectives to one category of recall objectives, Ennis (1981b) points out that the categories lack criteria applicable across topics and domains. For example, analysis in chemistry is so different from analysis in literature that there is not much point in teaching analysis as a general type of thinking. Further, the postulated hierarchy seems questionable at the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. For example, ability to indicate logical fallacies hardly seems more complex than the ability to organize statements and ideas in writing.

A revised version of Bloom’s taxonomy (Anderson et al. 2001) distinguishes the intended cognitive process in an educational objective (such as being able to recall, to compare or to check) from the objective’s informational content (“knowledge”), which may be factual, conceptual, procedural, or metacognitive. The result is a so-called “Taxonomy Table” with four rows for the kinds of informational content and six columns for the six main types of cognitive process. The authors name the types of cognitive process by verbs, to indicate their status as mental activities. They change the name of the ‘comprehension’ category to ‘understand’ and of the ‘synthesis’ category to ’create’, and switch the order of synthesis and evaluation. The result is a list of six main types of cognitive process aimed at by teachers: remember, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create. The authors retain the idea of a hierarchy of increasing complexity, but acknowledge some overlap, for example between understanding and applying. And they retain the idea that critical thinking and problem solving cut across the more complex cognitive processes. The terms ‘critical thinking’ and ‘problem solving’, they write:

are widely used and tend to become touchstones of curriculum emphasis. Both generally include a variety of activities that might be classified in disparate cells of the Taxonomy Table. That is, in any given instance, objectives that involve problem solving and critical thinking most likely call for cognitive processes in several categories on the process dimension. For example, to think critically about an issue probably involves some Conceptual knowledge to Analyze the issue. Then, one can Evaluate different perspectives in terms of the criteria and, perhaps, Create a novel, yet defensible perspective on this issue. (Anderson et al. 2001: 269–270; italics in original)

In the revised taxonomy, only a few sub-categories, such as inferring, have enough commonality to be treated as a distinct critical thinking ability that could be taught and assessed as a general ability.

A landmark contribution to philosophical scholarship on the concept of critical thinking was a 1962 article in the Harvard Educational Review by Robert H. Ennis, with the title “A concept of critical thinking: A proposed basis for research in the teaching and evaluation of critical thinking ability” (Ennis 1962). Ennis took as his starting-point a conception of critical thinking put forward by B. Othanel Smith:

We shall consider thinking in terms of the operations involved in the examination of statements which we, or others, may believe. A speaker declares, for example, that “Freedom means that the decisions in America’s productive effort are made not in the minds of a bureaucracy but in the free market”. Now if we set about to find out what this statement means and to determine whether to accept or reject it, we would be engaged in thinking which, for lack of a better term, we shall call critical thinking. If one wishes to say that this is only a form of problem-solving in which the purpose is to decide whether or not what is said is dependable, we shall not object. But for our purposes we choose to call it critical thinking. (Smith 1953: 130)

Adding a normative component to this conception, Ennis defined critical thinking as “the correct assessing of statements” (Ennis 1962: 83). On the basis of this definition, he distinguished 12 “aspects” of critical thinking corresponding to types or aspects of statements, such as judging whether an observation statement is reliable and grasping the meaning of a statement. He noted that he did not include judging value statements. Cutting across the 12 aspects, he distinguished three dimensions of critical thinking: logical (judging relationships between meanings of words and statements), criterial (knowledge of the criteria for judging statements), and pragmatic (the impression of the background purpose). For each aspect, Ennis described the applicable dimensions, including criteria. He proposed the resulting construct as a basis for developing specifications for critical thinking tests and for research on instructional methods and levels.

In the 1970s and 1980s there was an upsurge of attention to the development of thinking skills. The annual International Conference on Critical Thinking and Educational Reform has attracted since its start in 1980 tens of thousands of educators from all levels. In 1983 the College Entrance Examination Board proclaimed reasoning as one of six basic academic competencies needed by college students (College Board 1983). Departments of education in the United States and around the world began to include thinking objectives in their curriculum guidelines for school subjects. For example, Ontario’s social sciences and humanities curriculum guideline for secondary schools requires “the use of critical and creative thinking skills and/or processes” as a goal of instruction and assessment in each subject and course (Ontario Ministry of Education 2013: 30). The document describes critical thinking as follows:

Critical thinking is the process of thinking about ideas or situations in order to understand them fully, identify their implications, make a judgement, and/or guide decision making. Critical thinking includes skills such as questioning, predicting, analysing, synthesizing, examining opinions, identifying values and issues, detecting bias, and distinguishing between alternatives. Students who are taught these skills become critical thinkers who can move beyond superficial conclusions to a deeper understanding of the issues they are examining. They are able to engage in an inquiry process in which they explore complex and multifaceted issues, and questions for which there may be no clear-cut answers (Ontario Ministry of Education 2013: 46).

Sweden makes schools responsible for ensuring that each pupil who completes compulsory school “can make use of critical thinking and independently formulate standpoints based on knowledge and ethical considerations” (Skolverket 2018: 12). Subject syllabi incorporate this requirement, and items testing critical thinking skills appear on national tests that are a required step toward university admission. For example, the core content of biology, physics and chemistry in years 7-9 includes critical examination of sources of information and arguments encountered by pupils in different sources and social discussions related to these sciences, in both digital and other media. (Skolverket 2018: 170, 181, 192). Correspondingly, in year 9 the national tests require using knowledge of biology, physics or chemistry “to investigate information, communicate and come to a decision on issues concerning health, energy, technology, the environment, use of natural resources and ecological sustainability” (see the message from the School Board ). Other jurisdictions similarly embed critical thinking objectives in curriculum guidelines.

At the college level, a new wave of introductory logic textbooks, pioneered by Kahane (1971), applied the tools of logic to contemporary social and political issues. Popular contemporary textbooks of this sort include those by Bailin and Battersby (2016b), Boardman, Cavender and Kahane (2018), Browne and Keeley (2018), Groarke and Tindale (2012), and Moore and Parker (2020). In their wake, colleges and universities in North America transformed their introductory logic course into a general education service course with a title like ‘critical thinking’ or ‘reasoning’. In 1980, the trustees of California’s state university and colleges approved as a general education requirement a course in critical thinking, described as follows:

Instruction in critical thinking is to be designed to achieve an understanding of the relationship of language to logic, which should lead to the ability to analyze, criticize, and advocate ideas, to reason inductively and deductively, and to reach factual or judgmental conclusions based on sound inferences drawn from unambiguous statements of knowledge or belief. The minimal competence to be expected at the successful conclusion of instruction in critical thinking should be the ability to distinguish fact from judgment, belief from knowledge, and skills in elementary inductive and deductive processes, including an understanding of the formal and informal fallacies of language and thought. (Dumke 1980)

Since December 1983, the Association for Informal Logic and Critical Thinking has sponsored sessions at the three annual divisional meetings of the American Philosophical Association. In December 1987, the Committee on Pre-College Philosophy of the American Philosophical Association invited Peter Facione to make a systematic inquiry into the current state of critical thinking and critical thinking assessment. Facione assembled a group of 46 other academic philosophers and psychologists to participate in a multi-round Delphi process, whose product was entitled Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of Educational Assessment and Instruction (Facione 1990a). The statement listed abilities and dispositions that should be the goals of a lower-level undergraduate course in critical thinking. Researchers in nine European countries determined which of these skills and dispositions employers expect of university graduates (Dominguez 2018 a), compared those expectations to critical thinking educational practices in post-secondary educational institutions (Dominguez 2018b), developed a course on critical thinking education for university teachers (Dominguez 2018c) and proposed in response to identified gaps between expectations and practices an “educational protocol” that post-secondary educational institutions in Europe could use to develop critical thinking (Elen et al. 2019).

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What Are Critical Thinking Skills and Why Are They Important?

Learn what critical thinking skills are, why they’re important, and how to develop and apply them in your workplace and everyday life.

We often use critical thinking skills without even realizing it. When you make a decision, such as which cereal to eat for breakfast, you're using critical thinking to determine the best option for you that day.

Critical thinking is like a muscle that can be exercised and built over time. It is a skill that can help propel your career to new heights. You'll be able to solve workplace issues, use trial and error to troubleshoot ideas, and more.

We'll take you through what it is and some examples so you can begin your journey in mastering this skill.

What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking is the ability to interpret, evaluate, and analyze facts and information that are available, to form a judgment or decide if something is right or wrong.

More than just being curious about the world around you, critical thinkers make connections between logical ideas to see the bigger picture. Building your critical thinking skills means being able to advocate your ideas and opinions, present them in a logical fashion, and make decisions for improvement.

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Why is critical thinking important?

Critical thinking is useful in many areas of your life, including your career. It makes you a well-rounded individual, one who has looked at all of their options and possible solutions before making a choice.

According to the University of the People in California, having critical thinking skills is important because they are [ 1 ]:

Crucial for the economy

Essential for improving language and presentation skills

Very helpful in promoting creativity

Important for self-reflection

The basis of science and democracy 

Critical thinking skills are used every day in a myriad of ways and can be applied to situations such as a CEO approaching a group project or a nurse deciding in which order to treat their patients.

Examples of common critical thinking skills

Critical thinking skills differ from individual to individual and are utilized in various ways. Examples of common critical thinking skills include:

Identification of biases: Identifying biases means knowing there are certain people or things that may have an unfair prejudice or influence on the situation at hand. Pointing out these biases helps to remove them from contention when it comes to solving the problem and allows you to see things from a different perspective.

Research: Researching details and facts allows you to be prepared when presenting your information to people. You’ll know exactly what you’re talking about due to the time you’ve spent with the subject material, and you’ll be well-spoken and know what questions to ask to gain more knowledge. When researching, always use credible sources and factual information.

Open-mindedness: Being open-minded when having a conversation or participating in a group activity is crucial to success. Dismissing someone else’s ideas before you’ve heard them will inhibit you from progressing to a solution, and will often create animosity. If you truly want to solve a problem, you need to be willing to hear everyone’s opinions and ideas if you want them to hear yours.

Analysis: Analyzing your research will lead to you having a better understanding of the things you’ve heard and read. As a true critical thinker, you’ll want to seek out the truth and get to the source of issues. It’s important to avoid taking things at face value and always dig deeper.

Problem-solving: Problem-solving is perhaps the most important skill that critical thinkers can possess. The ability to solve issues and bounce back from conflict is what helps you succeed, be a leader, and effect change. One way to properly solve problems is to first recognize there’s a problem that needs solving. By determining the issue at hand, you can then analyze it and come up with several potential solutions.

How to develop critical thinking skills

You can develop critical thinking skills every day if you approach problems in a logical manner. Here are a few ways you can start your path to improvement:

1. Ask questions.

Be inquisitive about everything. Maintain a neutral perspective and develop a natural curiosity, so you can ask questions that develop your understanding of the situation or task at hand. The more details, facts, and information you have, the better informed you are to make decisions.

2. Practice active listening.

Utilize active listening techniques, which are founded in empathy, to really listen to what the other person is saying. Critical thinking, in part, is the cognitive process of reading the situation: the words coming out of their mouth, their body language, their reactions to your own words. Then, you might paraphrase to clarify what they're saying, so both of you agree you're on the same page.

3. Develop your logic and reasoning.

This is perhaps a more abstract task that requires practice and long-term development. However, think of a schoolteacher assessing the classroom to determine how to energize the lesson. There's options such as playing a game, watching a video, or challenging the students with a reward system. Using logic, you might decide that the reward system will take up too much time and is not an immediate fix. A video is not exactly relevant at this time. So, the teacher decides to play a simple word association game.

Scenarios like this happen every day, so next time, you can be more aware of what will work and what won't. Over time, developing your logic and reasoning will strengthen your critical thinking skills.

Learn tips and tricks on how to become a better critical thinker and problem solver through online courses from notable educational institutions on Coursera. Start with Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking from Duke University or Mindware: Critical Thinking for the Information Age from the University of Michigan.

Article sources

University of the People, “ Why is Critical Thinking Important?: A Survival Guide , https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/why-is-critical-thinking-important/.” Accessed May 18, 2023.

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

Enhancing Your Critical Thinking and Analytical Skills

Oct 11, 2023 | Research FAQs

A Comprehensive Guide to Critical Thinking And Analytical Skills

Critical thinking is a foundational skill that plays a pivotal role in the academic journey of tertiary institution students and is highly sought after in the professional world. It is the ability to assess, analyse, and synthesise information in a systematic and rational manner to make well-informed decisions. In today’s complex and data-driven world, honing your critical thinking and analytical skills is not just an option but a necessity for success.

What is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is the process of actively and objectively evaluating information, concepts, situations, or problems in order to make reasoned judgments. It involves careful analysis, logical reasoning, and a willingness to question assumptions. A critical thinker is someone who can approach problems with an open mind, assess various perspectives, and arrive at well-informed conclusions. Here are some key steps one can take to help with critical thinking.

Key Steps To Improve Your Critical and Analytical Thinking

Develop information literacy.

Information literacy is the foundation of critical thinking. To improve your critical thinking skills, become proficient in finding, evaluating, and using information effectively. Utilise academic databases, libraries, and credible online sources. For example, when researching a topic for a term paper, explore multiple sources, critically assess their reliability, and cross-reference information to validate facts.

Information literacy forms the bedrock of effective critical thinking. To truly excel in this area, it’s essential to become proficient at not just finding information, but also evaluating its quality and relevance, and then applying it effectively to your academic pursuits and beyond. One way to do this is by harnessing the vast resources available through academic databases, libraries, and credible online sources.

For instance, when tasked with researching a topic for a term paper, don’t simply settle for the first source you find. Instead, cast a wide net, exploring multiple sources, each from a different angle. But don’t stop at that; critically assess the reliability of each source. Cross-reference information across various references to validate facts and ensure the accuracy of your findings. This process of information literacy is akin to building a sturdy foundation for a house – it’s what all your critical thinking skills will rest upon.

Enhance Problem-Solving Abilities

Critical thinking is closely linked to problem-solving. Practice dissecting complex problems into smaller, manageable components. Utilise tools like root cause analysis to identify underlying issues. For instance, in a case study about a company’s declining sales, analyse the possible causes, such as market trends, competition, or internal factors, to arrive at a holistic solution.

The link between critical thinking and problem-solving is undeniable. It’s crucial to practice breaking down complex problems into smaller, more manageable components. Much like a detective dissecting a complex case, you need to utilise tools like root cause analysis to identify the underlying issues. For example, imagine you’re presented with a case study about a company experiencing a significant decline in sales.

Here, your critical thinking skills come into play. Analyse the possible causes, which could range from shifting market trends and fierce competition to internal factors within the company. To arrive at a holistic solution, you must weigh each factor’s significance and potential interplay. Developing your problem-solving skills in this way helps you approach intricate issues methodically, ensuring no stone is left unturned.

Effective Communication Skills

Strong analytical skills are only valuable if you can communicate your findings clearly and persuasively. To do this, refine your written and verbal communication skills. Craft compelling arguments, support them with evidence, and structure your thoughts logically. When presenting your research, consider your audience and tailor your message accordingly.

Strong analytical skills are worth their weight in gold, but their true value is unlocked only when you can convey your findings clearly and persuasively. This requires honing your written and verbal communication skills. Craft compelling arguments that are not just based on your analysis but also supported by a wealth of evidence. Your thoughts should be structured logically, allowing your audience to follow your reasoning effortlessly.

When it comes to presenting your research, remember that communication is about more than just conveying information; it’s also about ensuring your message resonates with your audience. Tailor your message accordingly, considering the knowledge and interests of those you are addressing. Effective communication acts as the bridge that connects your analytical prowess with real-world impact.

Critical Reading and Note-Taking

Critical thinking begins with critical reading. When reviewing academic texts or research papers, actively engage with the material. Take notes, highlight key points, and question the author’s assumptions and arguments. For example, while reading a scientific paper, analyse the methodology, data, and conclusions to assess the study’s validity.

Critical thinking is a process that begins with critical reading. When you’re sifting through academic texts or research papers, it’s not enough to passively consume information. Actively engage with the material. Take notes, highlighting key points and jotting down questions that arise. Challenge the author’s assumptions and arguments – this is where your critical thinking shines.

For example, imagine you’re reading a scientific paper. Don’t simply accept the presented data and conclusions at face value. Instead, delve into the methodology employed. Analyse the data with a discerning eye, considering factors that may impact its validity. By critically assessing the information you encounter, you refine your ability to discern between robust research and less reliable sources.

Cultivate a Growth Mindset

A growth mindset is the belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and hard work. Embrace challenges and view failures as opportunities to learn and improve. This mindset fosters resilience and a willingness to adapt, both of which are essential for analytical thinking.

A growth mindset is a powerful ally in your journey towards becoming a proficient critical thinker. It centres around the belief that abilities and intelligence aren’t fixed traits but can be cultivated through dedication and hard work. Embrace challenges with enthusiasm and view failures as opportunities for learning and growth. This mindset fosters resilience, ensuring you bounce back from setbacks with renewed determination. The willingness to adapt and learn from mistakes is an essential facet of analytical thinking. Cultivating a growth mindset helps you approach problems with the confidence that, with effort, you can surmount any obstacle, and with each challenge you conquer, your critical thinking abilities grow stronger.

Data Analysis and Statistics

In today’s data-driven world, proficiency in data analysis and statistics is a valuable asset. Learn to interpret data, identify trends, and draw meaningful conclusions. For instance, when conducting research on consumer behaviour, use statistical tools to analyse survey results and draw insights that inform decision-making.

In today’s data-driven landscape, proficiency in data analysis and statistics is a prized asset. The ability to interpret data, identify trends, and draw meaningful conclusions is integral to informed decision-making.

Consider, for example, a scenario where you’re conducting research on consumer behaviour. To extract valuable insights that can inform decision-making, you need to use statistical tools to analyse survey results. This analysis allows you to pinpoint trends, correlations, and patterns within the data. By translating raw data into actionable insights, you contribute not only to your academic endeavours but also to the broader world of decision-makers relying on data-driven strategies.

Ethical Considerations

Critical thinking involves ethical reasoning. Examine the ethical implications of your decisions and actions. Consider the consequences of various choices and strive to make morally responsible decisions. In a business ethics course, for example, analyse case studies involving ethical dilemmas and propose ethical solutions.

Critical thinking isn’t solely about rational analysis; it also encompasses ethical reasoning. As you navigate your academic journey and beyond, it’s crucial to examine the ethical implications of your decisions and actions. Consider the consequences of various choices, striving to make morally responsible decisions. In a business ethics course, for instance, you might be tasked with analysing case studies involving ethical dilemmas. Here, your critical thinking skills are indispensable. You must assess each situation from various angles, weighing the potential ethical ramifications of each course of action. In such contexts, critical thinking empowers you to propose ethical solutions that align with your ethical principles.

Multidisciplinary Approach

Critical thinking benefits from a multidisciplinary approach. Draw from various fields of study to gain diverse perspectives and insights. For instance, when researching climate change, incorporate knowledge from environmental science, economics, and sociology to form a comprehensive understanding.

Critical thinking thrives when it embraces a multidisciplinary approach. Drawing from various fields of study allows you to gain diverse perspectives and insights that enrich your analytical thinking. Imagine you’re researching a complex issue like climate change. Instead of confining yourself to a single discipline, you’d incorporate knowledge from environmental science, economics, and sociology to form a comprehensive understanding. This multidisciplinary perspective equips you with a broader knowledge base and a more holistic view of complex issues, enabling you to dissect and analyse them from various angles.

Logical Fallacies and Cognitive Biases

Recognising and avoiding logical fallacies and cognitive biases is crucial for sound critical thinking. Study common fallacies such as ad hominem attacks and slippery slope arguments. In debates or discussions, be vigilant in identifying and countering these errors in reasoning.

An essential facet of critical thinking is recognising and avoiding logical fallacies and cognitive biases. These mental traps can lead to flawed reasoning and erroneous conclusions. To guard against them, dedicate time to study common fallacies, such as ad hominem attacks and slippery slope arguments.

Then, in debates or discussions, be vigilant in identifying and countering these errors in reasoning. For instance, when someone presents a hasty generalisation, use your knowledge of logical fallacies to point out the flawed reasoning and encourage a more rational discussion. By mastering this skill, you bolster the integrity of your critical thinking process.

Practice, Practice, Practice

Like any skill, critical thinking improves with practice. Engage in critical thinking exercises, join debate clubs, participate in group discussions, and tackle challenging puzzles or brainteasers. Consistent practice sharpens your analytical abilities over time.

Lastly, it’s important to recognise that like any skill, critical thinking improves with practice. Engaging in regular critical thinking exercises, such as puzzles or brainteasers, can be immensely beneficial. Joining debate clubs or participating in group discussions provides opportunities to challenge your thinking and refine your analytical abilities. Consistent practice sharpens your capacity to analyse situations, dissect complex problems, and arrive at well-founded conclusions. Over time, these practices transform your analytical abilities from a skill you consciously apply to an intrinsic part of your thought process, enriching your academic and professional endeavours.

Key Critical Thinking Actions

• Information Quality Assessment: Always scrutinise the quality and reliability of your information sources. Utilise academic databases, peer-reviewed journals, and reputable websites.
• Collaborative Learning: Collaborate with peers to foster critical discussions and gain diverse viewpoints. Group projects and brainstorming sessions can stimulate critical thinking.
• Mind Mapping: Use mind maps or concept maps to visually organise complex information and relationships. This technique aids in understanding and analysing intricate concepts.
• Seek Feedback: Encourage constructive feedback on your arguments and thought processes. Others’ insights can help you refine your critical thinking skills.
• Deductive and Inductive Reasoning: Understand the difference between deductive (from general to specific) and inductive (from specific to general) reasoning and apply them appropriately in your analyses.

In today’s fast-paced and data-driven academic environment, cultivating critical thinking and analytical skills is not just advantageous but imperative. These skills empower you to assess information objectively, solve complex problems, communicate effectively, and make informed decisions. By following the key tips outlined in this guide, you can embark on a journey of continuous improvement in your critical thinking abilities.

Remember that critical thinking is a skill that evolves over time with practice and dedication. Embrace challenges, seek diverse perspectives, and remain open to learning. As you advance in your academic and professional journey, your honed critical thinking and analytical skills will set you apart as a well-rounded and adaptable thinker.

Useful Resources

Way With Words – Offers professional transcription services that can be immensely helpful for academic research. Accurate transcriptions of interviews, lectures, and discussions can serve as valuable resources for critical analysis and research projects.

The Critical Thinking Community – Provides a wealth of resources, including articles, books, and teaching strategies, to help you develop your critical thinking skills .

Coursera – Coursera offers a wide range of online courses and specialisations on critical thinking and analytical skills, delivered by top universities and institutions. These courses can supplement your academic journey and provide practical exercises to enhance your abilities.

Engagement Questions

As you embark on your journey to enhance your critical thinking and analytical skills, consider the following questions:

• How can you incorporate critical thinking exercises into your daily routine?
• What role does ethical reasoning play in your decision-making process?
• In what ways can you apply your analytical skills to real-world problems in your field of study?

More From Forbes

13 Easy Steps To Improve Your Critical Thinking Skills

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With the sheer volume of information that we’re bombarded with on a daily basis – and with the pervasiveness of fake news and social media bubbles – the ability to look at evidence, evaluate the trustworthiness of a source, and think critically is becoming more important than ever. This is why, for me, critical thinking is one of the most vital skills to cultivate for future success.

Critical thinking isn’t about being constantly negative or critical of everything. It’s about objectivity and having an open, inquisitive mind. To think critically is to analyze issues based on hard evidence (as opposed to personal opinions, biases, etc.) in order to build a thorough understanding of what’s really going on. And from this place of thorough understanding, you can make better decisions and solve problems more effectively.

To put it another way, critical thinking means arriving at your own carefully considered conclusions instead of taking information at face value. Here are 13 ways you can cultivate this precious skill:

1. Always vet new information with a cautious eye. Whether it’s an article someone has shared online or data that’s related to your job, always vet the information you're presented with. Good questions to ask here include, "Is this information complete and up to date?” “What evidence is being presented to support the argument?” and “Whose voice is missing here?”

2. Look at where the information has come from. Is the source trustworthy? What is their motivation for presenting this information? For example, are they trying to sell you something or get you to take a certain action (like vote for them)?

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3. Consider more than one point of view. Everyone has their own opinions and motivations – even highly intelligent people making reasonable-sounding arguments have personal opinions and biases that shape their thinking. So, when someone presents you with information, consider whether there are other sides to the story.

4. Practice active listening. Listen carefully to what others are telling you, and try to build a clear picture of their perspective. Empathy is a really useful skill here since putting yourself in another person's shoes can help you understand where they're coming from and what they might want. Try to listen without judgment – remember, critical thinking is about keeping an open mind.

5. Gather additional information where needed. Whenever you identify gaps in the information or data, do your own research to fill those gaps. The next few steps will help you do this objectively…

6. Ask lots of open-ended questions. Curiosity is a key trait of critical thinkers, so channel your inner child and ask lots of "who," "what," and "why" questions.

7. Find your own reputable sources of information, such as established news sites, nonprofit organizations, and education institutes. Try to avoid anonymous sources or sources with an ax to grind or a product to sell. Also, be sure to check when the information was published. An older source may be unintentionally offering up wrong information just because events have moved on since it was published; corroborate the info with a more recent source.

8. Try not to get your news from social media. And if you do see something on social media that grabs your interest, check the accuracy of the story (via reputable sources of information, as above) before you share it.

9. Learn to spot fake news. It's not always easy to spot false or misleading content, but a good rule of thumb is to look at the language, emotion, and tone of the piece. Is it using emotionally charged language, for instance, and trying to get you to feel a certain way? Also, look at the sources of facts, figures, images, and quotes. A legit news story will clearly state its sources.

10. Learn to spot biased information. Like fake news, biased information may seek to appeal more to your emotions than logic and/or present a limited view of the topic. So ask yourself, “Is there more to this topic than what’s being presented here?” Do your own reading around the topic to establish the full picture.

11. Question your own biases, too. Everyone has biases, and there’s no point pretending otherwise. The trick is to think objectively about your likes and dislikes, preferences, and beliefs, and consider how these might affect your thinking.

12. Form your own opinions. Remember, critical thinking is about thinking independently. So once you’ve assessed all the information, form your own conclusions about it.

13. Continue to work on your critical thinking skills. I recommend looking at online learning platforms such as Udemy and Coursera for courses on general critical thinking skills, as well as courses on specific subjects like cognitive biases.

Read more about critical thinking and other essential skills in my new book, Future Skills: The 20 Skills & Competencies Everyone Needs To Succeed In A Digital World . Written for anyone who wants to surf the wave of digital transformation – rather than be drowned by it – the book explores why these vital future skills matter and how to develop them.

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Top 12 Historian Skills to Put on Your Resume

In today's competitive job market, historians must showcase a unique set of skills on their resumes to stand out among their peers. Highlighting these top historian skills not only demonstrates your expertise in analyzing and interpreting the past but also your ability to apply critical thinking and research abilities to a variety of professional settings.

Historian Skills

• Archival Research
• Chronological Analysis
• Source Criticism
• Historiography
• Quantitative Analysis
• Qualitative Analysis
• GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
• SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
• Nvivo (Qualitative Data Analysis Software)
• Digital Humanities
• Oral History
• Paleography

1. Archival Research

Archival research, for a historian, involves studying and analyzing primary source documents and records stored in archives to gain insights into past events, societies, and individuals.

Why It's Important

Archival research is crucial for historians as it allows direct access to original, primary sources, providing invaluable insights into past events, cultures, and perspectives that form the foundation for accurate historical analysis and interpretation.

How to Improve Archival Research Skills

Improving archival research involves a systematic approach to sourcing, analyzing, and interpreting historical documents. Here are concise strategies for historians:

Preparation : Understand your research topic thoroughly. Familiarize yourself with relevant historical contexts and historiography. Consult secondary sources to identify potential primary source archives.

Locate Archives : Use online databases and catalogs to find archives that hold relevant materials. Websites such as WorldCat , ArchiveGrid , and The National Archives can be invaluable for locating documents.

Digital Archives : Explore digital archives for remote access to documents. Examples include Europeana , Digital Public Library of America , and Internet Archive .

Networking : Engage with other historians and archivists. Professional networks and academic forums, like H-Net , can offer advice and share lesser-known archives.

Archival Visit Preparation : Before visiting an archive, contact the staff with your research interests. They can provide insights into their collections and suggest materials.

Effective Use of Time : Prioritize documents and organize your visit to make efficient use of your time in the archive. Take detailed notes and, if permitted, digital photographs of documents.

Analytical Tools : Utilize software tools for document analysis and organization. Tools like Zotero for bibliographic management and Tropy for organizing and annotating photos can be highly beneficial.

Ethical Considerations : Always adhere to the archive's rules and handle documents with care. Respect copyright laws and cite all sources accurately.

Reflection and Revision : Revisit your research questions as you uncover new materials. Be open to adjusting your thesis based on the primary sources you discover.

By following these strategies, historians can enhance the efficiency and depth of their archival research, uncovering new insights and contributing meaningful scholarship to their field.

How to Display Archival Research Skills on Your Resume

2. Chronological Analysis

Chronological Analysis, in the context of history, is the method of examining events in the order they occurred over time, allowing historians to understand sequences, causal relationships, and the development of social, political, or cultural changes within a specific period.

Chronological analysis is important for historians because it allows them to understand the sequence of events, identify cause-and-effect relationships, and place historical developments in their proper context, thereby facilitating a comprehensive and accurate interpretation of the past.

How to Improve Chronological Analysis Skills

Improving chronological analysis, especially for a historian, involves enhancing the ability to understand and interpret events in their historical sequence. Here are concise steps with relevant resources:

Master Historical Context : Gain a deep understanding of the broader historical periods related to your study. This BBC History provides a wealth of resources.

Utilize Primary Sources : Dive into primary documents, artifacts, and first-hand accounts to get a sense of the original chronological flow. The Library of Congress offers an extensive collection.

Incorporate Timelines : Construct detailed timelines to visualize and better understand the sequence of events. Tiki-Toki is a tool for creating interactive timelines.

Cross-Reference Events : Compare events across different regions and cultures to understand their interconnectivity. World History Atlas is a great tool for this.

Apply Analytical Tools : Use software like Nvivo or Atlas.ti to organize and analyze data chronologically.

Engage with Historiographical Debates : Understanding different interpretations of events can provide insights into their significance and timing. JSTOR ( https://www.jstor.org ) is an excellent resource for accessing historical journals.

Continuous Learning : Stay updated with latest methodologies and theories in historical research. Websites like H-Net offer resources and connections to the historical scholarly community.

By following these steps and utilizing the linked resources, historians can significantly improve their chronological analysis skills.

How to Display Chronological Analysis Skills on Your Resume

3. Source Criticism

Source criticism is a method used by historians to evaluate and interpret the reliability, origin, purpose, and context of historical documents and sources, in order to better understand and reconstruct the past accurately.

Source criticism is crucial for historians as it enables them to assess the reliability, authenticity, and bias of historical documents and accounts, thereby ensuring the accuracy and objectivity of their interpretations and reconstructions of past events.

How to Improve Source Criticism Skills

To improve source criticism as a historian, follow these concise steps:

Understand the Types of Sources : Familiarize yourself with primary, secondary, and tertiary sources. Each has a different value and reliability. The National Archives provides a clear explanation.

Evaluate Authorship and Purpose : Assess who created the source and why. Understanding the author's background and intention helps in determining bias or perspective. The Library of Congress offers guides for analyzing various sources.

Check for Authenticity and Accuracy : Verify the authenticity of a source and cross-check facts with other credible sources. The Internet Archive can be a valuable tool for finding historical documents.

Consider the Historical Context : Place the source within its historical context to understand its significance and potential biases. Fordham University’s Internet History Sourcebooks provide a wide range of historical texts within context.

Analyze the Form and Content : Look at the structure, language, and what is (and isn't) included in the source to uncover more about its reliability and perspective. Purdue OWL offers guidance on evaluating sources of information.

By following these steps and utilizing these resources, historians can significantly improve their source criticism skills.

How to Display Source Criticism Skills on Your Resume

4. Historiography

Historiography refers to the study of how history is written, including the methods, interpretations, and debates that shape our understanding of the past. It involves analyzing different historical perspectives and the development of historical narratives over time. For historians, it is the practice of critically examining and writing about history, focusing on how historical knowledge is constructed and communicated.

Historiography is important for historians because it provides a critical examination and interpretation of how history has been written, allowing them to understand the biases, methodologies, and perspectives that have shaped historical narratives. This awareness helps historians to construct more accurate and nuanced accounts of the past.

How to Improve Historiography Skills

Improving historiography involves enhancing the methods and perspectives used in historical research and writing. Here are concise tips for a historian seeking to improve their historiographical skills:

Diversify Sources : Utilize a wide range of primary and secondary sources to gain multiple perspectives. The Library of Congress offers a vast collection of primary sources.

Critical Analysis : Develop critical thinking skills to analyze sources for bias, perspective, and context. The Critical Thinking Community provides resources for improving these skills.

Engage with Historiography : Study the historiography of your topic to understand how interpretations have evolved over time. JSTOR is a great resource for accessing academic papers on historiography.

Interdisciplinary Approach : Incorporate methods and insights from other disciplines such as sociology, anthropology, and geography. Project MUSE offers interdisciplinary academic journals.

Effective Writing : Focus on clear, analytical writing that accurately conveys your findings and interpretations. Purdue OWL provides guides on academic writing styles and techniques.

Peer Review : Engage with peers for feedback on your work to gain new insights and identify potential biases. Academia.edu is a platform for sharing research and receiving feedback from the academic community.

Continual Learning : Stay updated with the latest research and historiographical debates in your field. Google Scholar is useful for tracking recent publications.

By integrating these approaches, historians can significantly enhance their historiographical skills and contribute more effectively to the understanding of history.

How to Display Historiography Skills on Your Resume

5. Quantitative Analysis

Quantitative analysis, in the context of a historian, involves the systematic statistical examination of historical data to identify patterns, trends, and relationships. It quantifies historical evidence using numerical values, allowing for a more objective interpretation of past events and phenomena.

Quantitative analysis is important for historians because it enables the systematic examination of measurable and verifiable data, facilitating the identification of patterns, trends, and correlations in historical events, thereby providing a more objective and precise understanding of the past.

How to Improve Quantitative Analysis Skills

Improving quantitative analysis, especially for a historian, involves enhancing skills in statistical methods, data interpretation, and critical thinking. Here’s a concise guide:

Strengthen Statistical Knowledge : Familiarize yourself with basic statistical concepts and tools. Khan Academy offers comprehensive statistics and probability courses .

Learn Software Tools : Acquire proficiency in data analysis software like Excel, R, or SPSS. Coursera provides a useful course on Data Analysis and Statistical Inference which can be beneficial.

Practice Data Interpretation : Regularly analyze and interpret historical data sets. Practice makes perfect. The Programming Historian offers tutorials relevant to historians looking to enhance their quantitative analysis skills through practical examples.

Enhance Critical Thinking : Engage in critical analysis of statistical studies in historical contexts. This skill is vital for questioning and understanding the data you work with.

Join Workshops and Seminars : Participate in quantitative methods workshops or seminars targeted at historians. These can provide hands-on experience and networking opportunities. Keep an eye on announcements from historical associations and academic institutions.

Consult Academic Journals : Read scholarly articles focusing on quantitative analysis in history. Journals like the Journal of Interdisciplinary History often publish studies that employ quantitative methods, providing insights and examples of how to integrate these techniques into your research.

By combining these strategies, you can significantly improve your quantitative analysis skills, making your historical research more robust and insightful.

How to Display Quantitative Analysis Skills on Your Resume

6. Qualitative Analysis

Qualitative analysis, for a historian, involves examining non-numerical data such as texts, documents, artifacts, and interviews to understand historical events, contexts, and perspectives, focusing on meanings, themes, and patterns.

Qualitative analysis is crucial for historians because it enables them to interpret and understand the complexities of human behavior, societal changes, and cultural contexts through detailed examination of primary sources, narratives, and symbols. This approach allows historians to construct meaningful explanations of past events and trends beyond mere quantitative data, enriching our comprehension of history.

How to Improve Qualitative Analysis Skills

Improving qualitative analysis, especially for historians, involves enhancing the rigor and depth of interpretive methods. Here are concise strategies with relevant resources:

Refine Research Questions : Develop focused, nuanced questions that guide your investigation. This sharpens the analysis by concentrating on specific aspects of historical phenomena. Developing Research Questions.

Diverse Sources : Utilize a wide range of primary and secondary sources to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the historical context. This diversification can introduce multiple perspectives. Using Primary Sources.

Critical Source Evaluation : Critically assess the reliability, bias, and perspective of each source. This critical approach to sources is essential for a nuanced analysis. Evaluating Historical Sources .

Thematic Coding : Organize data into themes or categories related to your research question. This helps in identifying patterns or trends in the historical narrative. Thematic Analysis .

Theoretical Framework : Apply relevant historical theories or models to interpret your findings. This framework can provide a deeper understanding of the forces at play. Choosing a Theoretical Framework .

Peer Review : Engage with peers for feedback and critique. This collaborative process can refine your analysis and expose overlooked aspects. The Importance of Peer Review.

Iterative Analysis : View your analysis as an ongoing process. Revisit and revise your interpretations as new evidence or perspectives emerge. The Iterative Process of Qualitative Research .

By applying these strategies, historians can enhance the depth, reliability, and complexity of their qualitative analyses.

How to Display Qualitative Analysis Skills on Your Resume

7. GIS (Geographic Information Systems)

GIS (Geographic Information Systems) is a digital tool that captures, stores, analyzes, and presents geographical and spatial data, enabling historians to visually analyze and interpret historical events, trends, and patterns in relation to geography.

GIS is important for historians because it provides powerful tools to visualize, analyze, and interpret spatial and temporal data, allowing them to uncover patterns, trends, and relationships in historical events, movements, and developments over time and space.

How to Improve GIS (Geographic Information Systems) Skills

Improving GIS skills, especially for historians, involves a blend of enhancing technical proficiency, integrating historical context, and leveraging the right resources. Here's a concise guide:

Enhance Technical Skills : Start with mastering GIS software like ArcGIS or QGIS . Online tutorials and courses are available on platforms like Coursera and Udemy.

Historical Data Analysis : Focus on incorporating historical datasets, understanding spatial relationships over time. The Old Maps Online portal can be a valuable resource for finding historical maps.

GIS Methodology for Historians : Apply GIS methodologies specific to historical research. The Programming Historian offers lessons on digital tools for historians, including GIS.

Spatial Thinking : Develop spatial thinking by studying how historical events are influenced by geography. Books and articles on historical geography can provide insights.

Networking and Collaboration : Join GIS and history forums or groups, such as H-Net , for discussions, advice, and collaborative opportunities.

Attend Workshops and Conferences : Look for workshops and conferences that focus on the intersection of GIS and history, such as those hosted by the Social Science History Association .

By following these steps, historians can significantly improve their GIS skills, enabling them to analyze and visualize historical events and patterns more effectively.

How to Display GIS (Geographic Information Systems) Skills on Your Resume

8. SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)

SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is a software tool used for statistical analysis, particularly useful for historians in analyzing quantitative data to uncover trends, patterns, and relationships within historical datasets.

SPSS is important for a Historian because it offers powerful statistical analysis tools that can uncover patterns, trends, and relationships within historical data, aiding in more accurate interpretations and understanding of past events and societal changes.

How to Improve SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) Skills

Improving your skills in SPSS as a historian involves focusing on data management, statistical analysis, and interpretation relevant to historical research. Here are concise steps to enhance your SPSS expertise:

Learn the Basics : Start with understanding the SPSS interface, data entry, and basic functions. IBM’s official SPSS tutorials are a great starting point.

Explore Historical Data Analysis : Concentrate on statistical techniques common in historical research such as time series analysis, crosstabulation, and chi-square tests. The Programming Historian offers guides that, while not SPSS-specific, can help conceptualize analyses relevant to historians.

Advance Your Statistical Knowledge : Enhance your statistical skills with resources tailored to historians. Books like "Quantitative Methods for Historians" (available on platforms like Amazon ) can be very helpful.

Use Online Tutorials and Courses : Platforms like Coursera and Udemy offer courses on SPSS tailored to various skill levels. These can help you understand both basic functions and more complex statistical analyses.

Join SPSS Forums and Communities : Engage with other SPSS users by joining forums such as the IBM SPSS Community . Sharing experiences and solutions can provide insights specific to historical data.

Practice with Historical Datasets : Apply your skills to historical datasets. Websites like The National Archives often provide data suitable for analysis with SPSS. Practice will help you understand the nuances of applying statistical analysis to historical research.

By focusing on these areas, you can significantly improve your proficiency in SPSS for historical research, enhancing both your data analysis capabilities and the quality of your research outputs.

How to Display SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) Skills on Your Resume

9. Nvivo (Qualitative Data Analysis Software)

Nvivo is a software tool designed for qualitative data analysis, enabling historians to organize, analyze, and find insights in diverse data types such as interviews, open-ended survey responses, articles, social media, and archival documents. It facilitates the coding process, helps in identifying themes and patterns, and supports the development of evidence-based conclusions, aiding historians in their research and interpretation of historical narratives.

Nvivo is important for historians as it allows for the efficient organization, analysis, and synthesis of vast amounts of qualitative data, such as historical documents, interviews, and multimedia sources. This facilitates a deeper understanding of historical contexts, trends, and narratives.

How to Improve Nvivo (Qualitative Data Analysis Software) Skills

Improving your proficiency in NVivo, particularly from a historian's perspective, involves enhancing your skills in data organization, analysis, and interpretation of historical data. Here are concise steps with relevant resources:

Master the Basics : Begin with NVivo’s own Getting Started Guide to understand the interface and basic functionalities.

Advanced Coding Techniques : Delve into more sophisticated coding strategies to manage complex historical data. The NVivo Advanced Tutorial can be immensely helpful.

Integration with Historical Sources : Learn to integrate diverse historical sources (texts, images, videos) by consulting resources on managing sources in NVivo.

Use Queries for Deep Analysis : Utilize NVivo’s query functions to explore patterns and themes within your historical data. This Queries in NVivo guide provides insights into creating and refining queries.

Visualize Data : Enhance your interpretation of historical data through NVivo’s visualization tools. The guide on Visualizations can help you present your findings effectively.

Engage with the NVivo Community : Join the NVivo Community to share insights, ask questions, and learn from other historians and researchers.

Continuous Learning : Keep updated with new features and methodologies by subscribing to the NVivo Blog, which often features expert advice and case studies.

By focusing on these areas, you can significantly improve your usage of NVivo as a tool for historical research, making your data analysis more efficient and insightful.

How to Display Nvivo (Qualitative Data Analysis Software) Skills on Your Resume

10. Digital Humanities

Digital Humanities is an interdisciplinary field that leverages digital tools and methods to analyze, interpret, and present historical data, enabling historians to uncover new insights, visualize trends, and engage with broader audiences.

Digital Humanities is important for historians because it enhances research, analysis, and dissemination of historical information through the use of digital tools and methods, allowing for more comprehensive and innovative approaches to understanding the past.

How to Improve Digital Humanities Skills

Improving Digital Humanities, particularly for historians, involves leveraging technology to enhance research, interpretation, and dissemination of historical information. Here are key strategies:

Embrace Digital Archives : Utilize and contribute to digital archives for broader access to historical documents. Websites like Internet Archive and Project Gutenberg are valuable resources.

Data Visualization Tools : Use tools like Tableau or Gephi for visualizing historical data, making complex information accessible and engaging.

Digital Mapping : Employ GIS and mapping software like ArcGIS or StoryMapJS for spatial analysis of historical events, trends, and movements.

Text Analysis Tools : Apply text analysis tools such as Voyant Tools to examine patterns, themes, and frequencies in historical documents, providing new insights.

Collaborative Platforms : Participate in collaborative digital humanities projects or platforms like Zooniverse which offer opportunities for public engagement and crowdsourced research.

Continual Learning : Keep updated with digital humanities trends and tools through resources like Digital Humanities Now and Programming Historian .

By integrating these digital strategies, historians can enhance their research capabilities, engage with wider audiences, and contribute more effectively to the field of Digital Humanities.

How to Display Digital Humanities Skills on Your Resume

11. Oral History

Oral history is a method used by historians to gather firsthand accounts from individuals about their experiences, memories, and perceptions of historical events, through recorded interviews. This technique supplements written records, offering a more personal and diverse perspective on the past.

Oral history is crucial for historians as it provides personal, firsthand accounts of events, cultures, and experiences that may not be documented in written records, thus offering unique insights and perspectives that enrich our understanding of the past.

How to Improve Oral History Skills

Improving oral history involves enhancing both the collection and analysis of oral testimonies. Here's a concise guide:

Preparation : Deeply research your topic to formulate insightful questions. The Oral History Association offers resources on best practices.

Ethics : Obtain informed consent, ensuring interviewees understand the purpose and use of their testimony. The Oral History Society provides ethical guidelines.

Technical Quality : Use high-quality recording equipment to ensure clear audio. The British Library suggests equipment and techniques for high-quality recordings.

Interviewing Skills : Develop strong listening skills and the ability to ask follow-up questions. The Smithsonian Folklife and Oral History Interviewing Guide offers tips on conducting effective interviews.

Transcription and Preservation : Accurately transcribe interviews and store them in a format that ensures long-term preservation. The Library of Congress provides guidelines on digital formats for preservation.

Analysis and Interpretation : Contextualize the oral histories within broader historical narratives, critically analyzing them for biases and perspectives. Columbia University's Oral History Master of Arts teaches methods for analyzing oral histories.

Accessibility and Sharing : Make your findings accessible to both the academic community and the public. The Digital Public Library of America offers a platform for sharing digital oral history collections.

By focusing on these aspects, historians can significantly improve the quality and impact of their oral history projects.

How to Display Oral History Skills on Your Resume

12. Paleography

Paleography is the study of ancient and historical handwriting, enabling historians to read and interpret manuscripts and documents from the past.

Paleography is crucial for historians as it enables them to decipher, read, and interpret ancient manuscripts, thus providing direct access to original sources and insights into historical contexts, cultures, and languages, enhancing the accuracy and depth of historical research and understanding.

How to Improve Paleography Skills

To improve paleography skills, a historian should:

Study Transcriptions : Start by examining transcribed documents alongside their originals. This practice helps in understanding the common forms of letters and abbreviations used in different periods. Websites like Medieval Writing offer valuable resources.

Take Online Courses : Enroll in online courses or workshops that focus on paleography. The National Archives provides an excellent introduction to reading old handwriting.

Practice Regularly : Regular transcription practice is crucial. Try to transcribe a few lines of a document every day, gradually increasing complexity. Websites like The Latin Library contain numerous texts for practice.

Learn Historical Context : Understanding the historical context of the documents you're studying can provide insights into their content and language usage. This knowledge can be gained through academic books, journals, and online history resources.

Utilize Software : Certain software, such as Adobe Photoshop, can be used to enhance difficult-to-read documents, making transcription easier. Learning basic image editing skills can be beneficial.

Join Forums and Groups : Online forums and social media groups dedicated to paleography can offer support, advice, and resources. One such forum is the Paleography and Manuscript Studies group on Facebook.

Attend Workshops and Seminars : Look for workshops, seminars, and conferences on paleography and manuscript studies. These can provide hands-on experience and networking opportunities with experts in the field.

By integrating these strategies, historians can substantially improve their paleography skills, enhancing their research capabilities and understanding of historical documents.

How to Display Paleography Skills on Your Resume