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The High Performance Management Model: From Olympic and Professional to University Sport in the United States

Authors: Jed Smith* (1), Peter Smolianov (2)

(1) Head Strength and Conditioning Coach and an Instructor in the area of Movement and Exercise Science at the University of Northern Iowa and is currently a doctoral student at the United States Sports Academy (2) Sport Management Professor at Salem State University

*Corresponding Author Jed Smith, MS, CSCS, USA Weightlifting National Coach, USA Weightlifting National Instructor, USA Track and Field Level 1 Track Coach High Performance Director at University of Northern Iowa University of Northern Iowa Cedar Falls, IA, 50614-0241 [email protected] 319-273-7867

ABSTRACT This exploratory study of the High Performance Model of Sport Management examines the model’s origins and where these ideas were first applied in the sports industry. This review discusses the evolution of its use in high level sport, and the successes incurred in systems utilizing the model. The investigation discusses the recent spreading of the model throughout Olympic and professional sports organizations throughout the world, where High Performance concepts are being studied and implemented into professional sports franchises in the United States as well as American universities. This study focuses on a particular ingredient important to the success of the High Performance Model at the “meso” and “micro” levels of implementation. This central step is the establishment of an integral operational position titled “High Performance Director” or “High Performance Manager”. The duties, responsibilities, areas of expertise, and traits necessary for success are reviewed and discussed. The inquiry explores the natural evolution of the High Performance Model into the industry of NCAA Division I athletics, where implementation is occurring at the University of Northern Iowa (UNI). Here, the Smith and Smolianov High Performance Model is being applied within UNI Athletics, using strength and conditioning as the median for operation. The infrastructure is being created and organized for proper application of the model. The study looks at how technology is being used to help monitor, track, and adjust training protocols as well as assist in the proper development of athletes. The review will indicate tactics used for selling the concepts internally, within an NCAA athletic, as well as an educational setting, exposing key players and supports, explaining the connection between these pillars of support and the importance of creating synergy, transparency, and an environment of effective communication. This work is the first in a series of exploratory reviews and future research to be conducted by the authors, who are reporting the current, ongoing case study, within UNI’s NCAA athletics/education program.

Keywords: high performance model, management, history

INTRODUCTION Currently in the United States, in sporting professions, there is increasing interest regarding an effective sports management system known as the High Performance Model. At the 2014 National Basketball Association (NBA) conference, the Director of Performance of the English Premier League’s West Bromwich Albion football team, Dr. Mark Gillett (2014), presented a paper: Developing a High Performance Model in the English Premier League. Could this work in the NBA? The most prosperous franchises and top athlete salaries in the world come from the English Premier League, resulting in small margin of precision for victory which demands the High Performance (HP) Model of Sports Management (Gillett, 2014).

US National Governing Bodies (NGBs) under the USOC have been using the HP concept and adding HP positions to their organizational structures. Perhaps the most successful HP system has been developed by the US Ski and Snowboard Association (USSA). The USSA studied the best international practices to develop and deliver a national athlete and coach development program and since 2001 used its “Elite Performance Model (EPM)” to define and evaluate all aspects of its HP programs (Walshe, McCann, Lundstrum, Weatherford, Parker-Simmons, Keller & Gundersen, 2006). The USSA invested heavily in cutting-edge scientific research to assist coaches and athletes, particularly with sport science, medicine, management, pedagogy, and sport-specific skills and training. Conditioning is a critical part of the USSA’s HP program. A “Physical Assessment CD” has been developed for coaches. All athletes are tracked with athlete monitoring systems (Walshe et al., 2006). The success of these USSA systems is evident in USSA team members winning nine of 25 United States medals at the 2006 Turin WOGs, 20 of 37 medals at the 2010 Vancouver WOGs and 17 of 28 at the Sochi 2014 WOGs (IOC, 2015).

US NGBs governed by the USOC are starting to establish nurturing athlete development models similar to those used for Olympic preparations in the USSR and Eastern Europe after World War II and adopted by the end of the twentieth century by most of successful Olympic and national teams from China and Cuba to Australia, Canada and USA (Smolianov, Zakus and Gallo, 2014). USA Hockey (2015) adopted such a Long Term Athlete Development (LTAD) model used by most Canadian NGBs to create the American Development Model (ADM). Launched in 2009, the ADM provides a national blueprint for optimal athlete development to HP.

Within many sport organizations, a new, specialized HP manager position has evolved. This post has different names, such as HP manager, performance director, and HP director. These specialized roles have been noted in amateur and in professional sport organizations (Smith & Stewart, 1999; Zakus & Bird, 2002) and studied at NGBs of such countries as Australia, New Zealand, United Kingdom and USA by Zakus and Smolianov (2005) and in Australia, Canada, Malaysia and USA by Sotiriadou (2013).

REVIEW The success and well-being of athletes have been guided by the increasingly sophisticated and uniformed High Performance Management (HPM) Model, which has been extensively studied in Europe but not in the US. This study investigates the progression of HPM in the United States.

First, literature was reviewed to examine the history of HPM and how the HPM Model has become common in preparation of Olympic and professional athletes in many successful sporting nations. Second, to examine requirements of HPM positions emerged across the world and in the United States, content analysis of six HPM job descriptions from Australia, New Zealand, the UK, and the US was performed in reference to a systematic HPM Model described in the literature.

Finally, a case study of a new HPM position at the University of Northern Iowa (UNI) was used to investigate an emerging HPM practice in American university sport and to suggest further systematic HPM advancements, including innovative HPM technologies currently developed at UNI.

High performance management (HPM) history (definitions) In defining the HP Model, numerous sources can be applied. The Premier League’s Elite Player Performance Plan (EPPP) (Premier League, 2011), states “the EPPP is a long term plan which promotes the development of a world leading Academy System. It aims to deliver an environment that promotes excellence, nurtures talent and systematically coverts this talent into professional players capable of playing first team football at the club that develops them. The EPPP must promote technical excellence and ensure financial viability now and in the future. To achieve this, the modernized Academy System will be regularly and independently audited, updated and improved” (p. 12). Within this definition, a few key points emerge. First, player development is of the utmost importance; working to use best practice with a systematic approach allows the athlete to perform at the highest level possible. Second, the correlation between technical excellence and financial capabilities is made. Third, there will be continual assessments to determine best practice.

Badau, Camarda, Serbanoiu, Virgil, Bondoc-Ionescu and Badau (2010) described performance management as “a term used to improve team performance, based on the principles of measurement, appraisal, action and monitoring” (p. 90). Here again athlete performance is the center of focus, with determining best practice through measuring, monitoring, and adjusting. This creates an optimal situation for the athlete’s performance to progress. The Sport England (2001) Report explains “as the use of performance indicators becomes more widespread… for all aspects of sports provision, the indicators that are of most value will doubtless emerge”.

The above discussion reveals the following important aspects of HP management. One, there is an economic impact with elite competitions and performance. Two, there are many services surrounding an athlete and a team impacting performance. Three, to improve athletic performance, best practice must be determined within each service resourced to the athlete and team. Four, to determine best value, constant auditing and measurement of service effectiveness is necessary. In their textbook Managing High Performance Sport, Sotiriadou and De Bosscher (2013), explain the recent spreading of the HP model throughout the world as HP sport has become a multi-billion dollar a year industry. The authors discuss the importance of the role of the HP director which is not fully understood, particularly in the United States where HPM is in its infancy. However, the book discusses the HP director as an essential position to legitimize the HP model across the world. The HP director creates an environment and links the system where the developmental capacities and future successes of the athlete are fully-fledged. When discussing the roles of the HP director, Sotiriadou and De Bosscher (2013) stress that “they need to facilitate a collaborative and effective relationship with programme partners to ensure the optimum daily training environment is available for athletes” (p. 9).

HPM history (economics) Just as Fredrick Winslow Taylor’s Scientific Management (1914) evolved out of the economic boom during the industrial revolution, similar pressures are creating a move in the same direction within the sports industry. Kim and Trail (2010) studied consumer behavior in the sports industry, illuminating sports as one of America’s leading industries which generates nearly 500 billion dollars a year. It is estimated that spectators spend almost 18 billion dollars a year in the United States on tickets to events, with another 10 billion dollars in incidental expenses and purchases associated with the event.

Kim and Trail (2010) studied constraints associated to attendance and factors that would negatively affect ticket sales. These authors found that team performance was either a motivator or a constraint as far as attendance to games was concerned. If a team had a winning record, it was a motivator for attendance. If a team had a losing record, it was a constraint on attendance. Ultimately, a team’s performance affected the revenue generated by a sporting organization. Winning a championship or advancing far in a playoff scenario generated greater revenue for an athletic organization. Humphreys and Mondello (2007) showed winning an NCAA Championship benefits a university athletic department by increases in donations towards athletics in the sports of football and men’s basketball.

Hodge and Tanlu (2009) discussed the economic impact of the sport industry on colleges in the United States, highlighting the NCAA generated $591 million dollars in advertising proceeds while stressing numerous colleges signing $100 million dollar plus multi-media contracts. Kim and Trail (2010), considered performance as a motivator or a constraint, and the potential revenue involved in the collegiate sports industry including the idea that how a team finishes a season will greatly impact the profit generating likelihood for a University.

HPM history (origins) Key HP elements can be tracked to the rational preparation of ancient Greeks for their Olympics which included: macro (e.g., several years) and micro (e.g., several days) training cycles; a specialized techno-tactical preparation; the use of (then) advanced training equipment; psychological preparation; performance enhancing substances; recovery from training, competition, and injury; and athlete support teams comprised of coaches, doctors, physiotherapists, and massage therapists – all based on knowledge in anatomy, physiology, and psychology (Palaelogos, 1976; Platonov, 2005; Platonov & Guskov, 1994; Poole, 1965; Smolianov et al., 2014; Winniczuk, 1983).

Liebler and McConnell (2011) discussed the roots of performance based management practices entering into health care fields through the development and practice of Scientific Management. Looking into the history of the HP Model of sports management, an argument can be made for the origin stemming from Fredrick Winslow Taylor’s Scientific Management (1914) theory applied to production lines during the Industrial Revolution. Taylor explained the main objective is to improve economic efficiency with a systematic approach incorporating best practices. The current system is constantly analyzed in order for the corporation to maximize profits, continuing to reap financial gains. To apply the concepts of Scientific Management, Taylor prescribed a larger ratio of managers to workers as compared to previous models of management. The key to operating at a higher output, using Scientific Management, is guaranteeing a high level of control over the daily practices of employees. This is put in place through management. Scientific Management was also referred to as “Process Management” in its infancy, implying monitoring the daily procedures to a greater degree will direct the outcome. To control the process, Scientific Management uses empirical measures to determine what is important. Driven by data, informed decisions are made on efficiency and waste instead of accepting tradition, opinion, and pre-existing notions.

Using the preceding rudimentary overview of Fredrick Winslow Taylor’s Scientific Management (1914), it is not difficult to realize the parallels to the English Premier League’s High Performance Model of sport management. Badau et al. (2010) explained “performance management in sports activity cannot be accomplished without the use of scientific methods and techniques, which can ensure the knowing and the efficient application of objective economical laws, efficient and rational resource administration, stimulation and creativity use of sport instructor-managers, proper evaluation of results, decision making optimization and of all management functions, technical, economical, social-political and human dimensions integration for sportive structures” (p. 90), further connecting the industrial revolution’s management system to modern day European sport.

The concepts of Scientific Management (1914) were utilized in the former Soviet Union for systematic approach to the development of athletes and sports teams. Smolianov and Zakus (2008) explained the initial use of HP models in Eastern European countries for sport development. Smolianov et al. (2014) detailed how American, Western European, and Australian systems have analyzed and partly adapted former USSR HP models: LTAD guidelines have been implemented by most Canadian NGBs and many NGBs in other English-speaking countries such as Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and South Africa and now the United States (Smolianov et al., 2014). These guidelines, authored by Balyi (2001) and Balyi and Hamilton (2010), stem from the USSR and Eastern European sport development approaches outlined by Riordan (1978, 1980) and Shneidman (1978). Theories of training and periodization pioneered by Matveev (1964, 1977, 1983, 1991, 1997, 2001, 2008) and further developed and applied by Bompa (1983), Bompa and Harff (2009), Platonov (1988, 2005) and other sport scientists and coaches. These LTAD mechanisms have helped current Russia (and now China) achieve sporting success efficiently. However, the LTAD guidelines developed by Matveev (2008) have not been fully applied in any country, including Russia, where sport system has not fully recovered after the disintegration of the USSR in 1991. US athletes, coaches, and sport administrators are still to take full advantage of these methods.

National sport authorities such as federal sport related departments and national Olympic committees as well as governing bodies (NGBs) tend to be more concerned with macro and meso levels, while leagues, regional associations and clubs are focused on meso and micro levels of sport development. Nevertheless, most sport organizations aim to develop participants at the micro level utilizing the resources created at macro and meso levels. This seems to be consistent with the HP positions discussed further.

HPM job positions To ascertain possible HPM competencies, an analysis of HP position descriptions from New Zealand Hockey (2004), Great Britain Modern Pentathlon (2005), Diving Australia (2005), and USA Canoe/Kayak (2005), Australia’s New South Wales Institute of Sport (2014) and US Taekwondo (2013) was completed. As can be seen from Table 1, each HPM position related to all seven elements of the HP Model by Smolianov and Zakus (2008).

Table 1: Six job descriptions for HPM Positions and their relation to the elements of the Smolianov and Zakus Model (Related elements are given in parentheses in descending order of relevance)

USA Canoe/Kayak The USACK High performance director will administer USACK policies and procedures and be responsible for budgeting and control in the Olympic programs (1, general managerial) Other duties will include responsibility for the anti-doping programs of USACK, USOC, ICF, USADA and WADA as well as a wide array of other areas of our cooperation with the USOC and ICF (7, 3, 2) The HPD will work directly with USACK coaches and will support the work of the Sprint and Slalom Committees of USACK (3, 2) Superior communication skills (general managerial, 1-7) Strong report writing and presentation skills (general managerial, 1-7) Computer literacy (general managerial, 1-7) Possess an in depth knowledge of Canoe/ Kayak racing at an international level and/or experience directing High performance plans in other sports (7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, general managerial) Must be able to manage and lead athletes, coaches and volunteers and other team staff (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, general managerial) Have the ability to manage complex budgets (1, general managerial)

New Zealand Hockey To develop world-class High performance programs and to manage its operational activities. HP Administration: Assist in implementing the vision, mission and objectives of the HP plan, and build the commitment of the individual members to them (1, 3) Ensure that a holistic philosophy, recognizing the need for players to have balanced lifestyles, is reflected in the culture of the HP programs (1, 3, 6, 7) Coordinate the writing of the national teams international programs and monitor its implementation (2, 3, 4) Coordinate the revision and updating of the HP plan (1-7) Coordinate the development of High performance coaching plan (3) Monitor and review the talent identification program (6) Coordinate the communication of information to members of the HP programs and the HP Committee (2) Financial Manage the high performance budget (1-7) Competition and preparation Ensure the arrangements for national team tours or tournaments are successful (4, 5, 6, 7) Attend training camps as required (5, 6, 7) Selection Assist the national coach to coordinate the selection process and its release to the board and media (7, 6, 3, 2) Sports Science and Medicine Manage and coordinate the carding system in conjunction with the NZ academy of sport (3, 7, 6, 5) Coordinate the use of sports science and sport medicine services in conjunction with national coaches (3) Personnel Identify and prescribe the role and responsibilities of all personnel except the national coaches (3, 7, 6, 4) Coordinate induction programs upon entry for HP personnel (3, 7, 6, 4) Monitoring and evaluation Coordinate the reviews of all events and personnel in the HP programs (general managerial, 3) Manage the implementation of recommendations from reviews (general managerial) Report as required to the CEO (general managerial)

GB Modern Pentathlon The further development of a Performance Plan for Modern Pentathlon, which will achieve the specific goal to win individual and team, medals at the Olympic Games and to submit an application to the Lottery Sports Fund World Class. (7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1) Administration To submit an application to the Lottery Sports Fund World Class Performance Program (2) Liaise with key international agencies (2) Prepare the detail of British academy of sport/regional network brief (2, 6, 7, 5, 1, 3, 4) Monitor and evaluate the development of the performance program (6, 7, 3, 4, 5) Manage all budgets and financial aspects of the program. (1-7), general managerial) Performance Develop the performance plan, structures and systems to win individual and team medals at the Olympic Games (7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1) To develop a system to develop individually tailored training programs and to monitor and support individual athletes (7, 6, 5, 4, 2, 3, 1, ) Develop and implement a strategy for the recruitment and appointment of national coaches, coordinate the development of the technical content of the coaching program (3) Establish the management and coaching structure in support of international representative teams (7, 6, 3) To coordinate the identification and selection of athletes for the national teams (6, 7) Development To identify and develop a squad of elite athletes to various stages of development (6, 7) Review facilities strategies (5) Review the system for identifying and selecting talented athletes (6, 7) Provide a structure for the support and professional development of all persons in the program (3) Competitions Liaise with the International Modern Pentathlon Federation to design an international competition structure for appropriate age groups (4, 2, 6) Review the domestic and international competition program (4) Sports Medicine To coordinate a review of sports science and sports medicine support (3) Direct and coordinate the sports science and sports medicine support (3)

New South Wales Institute of Sport (Australia) Minimum 10 to 15 years of experience in high performance sport and services leadership (7, general managerial) Business experience (general managerial) Success with building high performance culture (3, general managerial) Management of multi-disciplinary high performance teams (3, 7, general managerial) Experience in planning and organizing high performance service delivery, including prioritizing, determining tasks, scheduling, leveraging resources and staying focused to achieve agreed service outcomes (3, 7 general managerial) Experience in reviewing high performance service effectiveness relative to athlete progress and performance in key areas of sporting progression, health management, balance and attitude and ethical behavior (3, 6, 7) Strategic planning to achieve high performance sport outcomes (1-7, general managerial) Experience with integrated management of and accountability for high performance sport outcomes (1-7, general managerial) Success with building strategic relationships (2) Experience with managing workplace compliance in a high performance service environment (3, 7) The knowledge expected: extensive knowledge of the requirements for successful holistic athlete development and performance including physical, technical, medical, career and education, psychological and social responsibility components (3, 6, 7); understanding of the theory of sport coaching and its application to the training of elite athletes (3, 6, 7); knowledge and understanding of the Australian High Performance Sport System (1-7); knowledge and understanding of the key components/levers for successful High Performance Sport Management and delivery (1-7); a well-grounded understanding and practical knowledge and experience in the use of current information and technology systems as they apply to High Performance Sport are required; in addition, a demonstrated ability to embrace, assess and apply new technology as it becomes available is also required (3, 7, general managerial) The competencies desired: driving for results, coaching, decision making, tenacity, delegating responsibility, planning and organizing, aligning performance for success, leading through vision and values, building trust, building a successful team, gaining commitment, facilitating change, athlete focus, continuous improvement, continuous learning, adaptability (general managerial) Personal style wanted: ethical/honest, commitment to excellence, socially responsible, team oriented, strong ambition for the organization, initiative/adaptability, disciplined, passion/enthusiasm, clarity of thinking, self-belief (general managerial)

The review of these job descriptions identified the need for a more systematic approach to knowledge, skills, and abilities of HP managers to meet their responsibilities. Table 1 reveals that these position descriptions lack systematic organization. While these positions in U.K. Modern Pentathlon and New Zealand Hockey have some rational order (e.g., breaking KSAs in such groups as Finance, Competitions, Sport Medicine), those for example in USA Canoe/Kayak have little order and mix general managerial (core) KSAs (e.g., communication and complex budget management) with HPM-specific (contingency or situational) KSAs (e.g., responsibility for the anti-doping programs, knowledge of Canoe/ Kayak racing at the international level). Though the HPM-specific contingency KSAs directly reflect specific HPM areas (e.g., standardization of program and services across all National Training Centers by Diving Australia), other KSAs encompass many HPM areas and are not specific (e.g., manage and lead athletes, coaches and volunteers, and other team staff, ensuring the team meets the requirements imposed on them by Diving Australia and National Coach and any other matters that may arise from time to time).

Though these position descriptions have mentioned or implied sport development as part of their responsibilities, the U.K. Pentathlon position stressed this aspect in a separate development section and explicitly specified important tasks such as growing sport through the development of athletes to various stages; support and professional development of all persons in the program; and design of competition structures for appropriate age groups and participation levels. The U.K. Pentathlon position description more systematically detailed processes to achieve the successful integration of mass and elite sport; therefore, it can be exemplified as a best-practice position description. The complexity of the HPM roles makes it hard for employing organizations to systematically specify all-important KSAs in the job descriptions, which may lead to ambiguity. (See the example from Diving Australia just mentioned above and the example from the USA Canoe/Kayak: Duties include responsibility for the anti-doping programs of the USACK, the USOC, the ICF, the USADA, and WADA and a wide array of other areas of cooperation with the USOC and ICF). As Zakus and Smolianov (2005) indicated, a key feature of an emerged HPM role is the need for both sport management and coaching management knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) to include competencies necessary for coaching and supporting athletes at the highest levels of their performance. As depicted in Figure 2, the HP role involves both leadership and coordination with a wide number of sport specialists, teams, events and organizations.

Figure 2 shows that an important skill is the need for an HP manager to be a coaching coordinator. The new notion of ‘coaching’ is developing–from primarily training program advice to full support covering all aspects of athlete life, which is strongly modeled on the concept of coaching as developed in former Eastern Bloc sport systems. Ideally HP managers must provide expertise and coordinate specialists in all performance areas from training, medicine, diet and psychology to career management and marketing (Zakus & Smolianov, 2005). Table 1 might suggest that while it is probably important to be a former competitor and coach for HPM success, the varied experiences and knowledge of the many resources surrounding elite athletics provides a veteran strength and conditioning coach the tools to create a logical fit into this role. This micro- level approach is perhaps a good first step for HPM positions within athletic departments of NCAA programs. In the future, HPM positions could be further developed to include meso and macro level responsibilities. When a sport organization adds the HPM position, the role can integrate the macro, meso and micro levels of management, properly creating synergy and the ability to synchronize the athletic business. The following current example models such a position on micro level of sport development.

HPM in the English Premier League The league has been putting the HP Model into practice throughout the United Kingdom trying to increase the number of quality players, provide more time for coaches to coach players, improve coaching supplies, insert a quality control system of measurement, positively encourage stockholders showing a return on investment, and to make gains in every area of the athlete development. Gillett (2014) explained that the role of the leagues’ performance director is to make sure that all “key pillars of performance” are operating at a high level, and always moving towards best practice. Figure 2 summarized the pillars described by Dr. Gillett:

Gillett (2014) alleged the Performance Directors in the English Premier League are typically veterans of the strength and conditioning profession. He explained the logical fit, due to a strength and conditioning coach typically carrying many roles and responsibilities in regards to performance. Experienced strength and conditioning coaches have a background in demanding excellence in performance and understand many components dealing with elite performance, such as nutrition, sports psychology, athletic training, organizational management, sports medicine, as well as coaching and motivating. Chadwick (2009) explained the idea of ad hoc type administrative practices in American sport. Gillett (2014) explained this is due to a typical CEO of a sports franchise not having a background in human performance. Typical CEOs have expertise in finance, upper administration management, fundraising, and marketing. This simple notion lends credibility to the Performance Director position used by the English Premier League. Gillett (2014) also stressed that a Head Coach does not necessarily have a background in exercise science, but instead is an expert in tactical and strategic methods needed in sport to perform during competition. A good Head Coach also is versed in the art of recruiting proper athletic talent and has the ability to put together competent assistant coaching staff. The idea here is that if a coach is concerned with all the resources involved outside of the coach’s spectrum of proficiency, the coach will not perform at an elite level within their expert environment. The same holds true for the CEO. Therefore, the position of a Performance Director and the use of methodologies in the HP Model of sports management allows for more efficient use of skill in each vocational field.

HPM at the University of Northern Iowa Following international examples, the Athletic Department at the University of Northern Iowa (UNI) started an HPM role in 2015 for the sport of football. It was advantageous that the Strength and Conditioning Coach was employed in the College of Education’s School of Health, Physical Education and Leisure Services (HPELS), working in conjunction with the Athletic Department. The forward thinking mindset of the Athletic Director and Head Football Coach was instrumental in order to implement the high performance model into the sport of football, as well as the progressive leadership style of Dean of the University’s College of Education and HPELS Director in order to pool school resources. Having the Strength and Conditioning Coach working close to instructors who teach and research sport science, medicine, nutrition and other aspects of athlete performance and wellness allowed for the connection of the resources surrounding the athletes. Strong academic focus allowed the UNI HPM position to provide an advanced scientific and technological service to athletes. A partnership was formed working with an athlete monitoring management corporation to create a management system compatible to high performance model standards and philosophies. The company built a cloud based dashboard for coaches and athletes, allowing for synergistic communication between pillar directors as well as a way to measure and monitor an athlete in all key athlete services (see figure 5).

The UNI HP manager coordinates areas consistent with the micro-level HPM responsibilities shown in Table 1 and the HPM pillars indicated by Gillette (2014) in Figure 3: • Medical service • Athletic training • Sports psychology • Strength and conditioning • Sports nutrition • Coaching development • External specialists

Specific to the NCAA demands, additional areas needed to ensure UNI HPM success include: • Academic tutoring • Socialization into the collegiate academic culture and team culture • Leadership development • Community outreach.

A University Model has been created to integrate these specific needs for the collegiate athlete. This model takes into consideration the additional areas and resources desirable for the NCAA athlete to succeed.

Based on the synergistic mechanisms created by integrating the structure as detailed in the Smith and Smolianov Model (Figure 4), a unique cloud based management system was built to make this model a daily working reality for the athletes and coaches. The Smith and Smolianov Model was applied from the participant’s perspective in order for the athlete to become more mindful of the resources surrounding her/him, making connections for his success.

In this rendering dashboard, each football player will have access and control of the pillars surrounding their success. Each pillar is entered into and represented by a button. Behind each button, the athlete has access to and will store information regarding his development, pillar measuring, comparisons, daily logging, athletic histories, etc. Coaches and pillar directors will communicate through this system with each other as well as with the athlete and UNI administrators, particularly using key performance indicators (KPIs) which help to evaluate and improve the system through shared objectives.

First football and then all other teams serviced by the UNI HPM system will be evaluated annually through the following criteria and data: 1. General Fitness– percent of athletes passing tests of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility and agility using common US instruments such as T-Test and some of the most scientifically validated international batteries such as GTO (2015) mastered for several decades in China and Russia (Smolianov et al., 2014) for both elite athletes and everyone in the community using three difficulty levels in 11 age specific categories of males and females 2. Sports Nutrition–percent of athletes passing Body Composition test measuring body fat and blood and urine test measuring deficiencies and excesses 3. Sports Medicine–number of visits to Sports Medicine (Orthopedic Surgeon/Team Doctor) per athlete and number of failed annual physicals (including cardiogram) per athlete 4. Athletic Training– percent of practices athletes missed 5. Academics–Team GPA 6. Sports Psychology– percent of athletes passing Mental Toughening Test called “MeBTough” Scale (a research based mental toughness gauge used to measure an athlete’s psychological competitive success over a macrocycle).

The UNI HP manager is pooling resources of each athlete service area together, analyzes practices, measures performances and sets goals for each area discussed. The UNI HPM is engaged in formal and informal dialogue inter and intra departmentally, creating synergy and efficiency within each area, while connecting all HPM elements, ultimately improving the situation for the athlete and bringing a higher level of performance.

The academic origins and focus of the UNI HPM program is driving its features for lifelong health of athletes and wider community. The developed software included innovative fitness tests and drills which go beyond sport-specific objectives: they help to prevent injuries of any sport participant and develop healthy daily habits of both athletes and recreational participants of all ages. This fitness program is being used to improve community fitness together with performance of UNI’s athletic teams. UNI attempts to create a best practice HPM program which integrates mass and elite sport where HP knowledge and resources trickle down to everyone and benefit community health.

In short, the process of collecting and centralizing data through the aforementioned evaluations of the dashboard listed above can be thought of as a treatment variable. By tracking measurable variables related to the six pillars, the HPM will be able to systematically improve these variables over time. Whether or not the improvements of these variables will actually result in a more effective and efficient system is yet to be determined. All stakeholders should work to identify broad outcome variables that can demonstrate the effectiveness of the HPM. These variables may be related to performance (winning percentage), finances (cost of services), academics (graduation rates) or other such variables. Such variables will be identified in relation to the implementation of the UNI HPM program in order to evaluate overall effectiveness specific to the university’s sport success and community fitness. These variables will be measured over the following three, five and ten years, in order to improve and advance the program.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS After an examination of the HPM Model, it is clear that this methodology of sports management is evolving internationally. Following Olympic NGBs, HPM systems are being adopted by professional teams and franchises as well as universities. In Gillett’s (2014) estimation, once the NFL and NBA start to incorporate this system, a rapid spreading of the HP Model would occur in the US, catapulting HPM methodology into the NCAA (M. Gillett, personal communication, July 8, 2014). Confirming Gillett’s predictions, Bell (2015) indicated that the HPM Model has started to infiltrate into NFL franchises: in 2015, the Miami Dolphins hired Wayne Diesel as the team’s Director of Sports Performance. Diesel came from the English Premier League where he worked in a similar role for the Tottenham Hotspur Football Club directing the diverse team of specialists and the resources necessary for the success and health of the club’s athletes. Diesel credits his Premier League experience with the emphasis on not just preventing injury but also improving the player overall, actually enhancing the franchise assets. As Diesel said, “by making them better athletes, they become less injured”. Bell’s (2015) investigation shows that the scientific data-driven and often experimental HP approach to performance and health enhancement is a challenging educational process for many at the Miami Dolphins, as it is for most US sport organizations adopting the HP Model which puts as much emphasis on holistic athlete development as on entertainment of audiences.

The HP Model of sport management appears to be fresh, novel, and innovative. Ironically, through deeper investigation of the history of its methodologies, this could not be further from the truth. Though, the success of the English Premier League has currently accentuated the practice of the HP Model, the origins of the practices can be traced much earlier. By exploring the time tested uses of ancient Olympic practices, Scientific Management in the Industrial Revolution, the spread to typical business management structures, the application of these management arrangements in the world of health care, and understanding usage during the period of Eastern Bloc sports dominance, one can see how this trend is involving in successful sport entities around the world. The HP Model works effectively in different socio-economic conditions throughout Eastern and Western countries (Smolianov et al., 2014).

The effectiveness of the HP Model in the United States is evident through practices of such organizations as USSA, USOC and now NFL and UNI. Considering the current trend and existing interest by our nation’s top sports franchises, it will not be long before the HP Model will be widely used in the United States and its effectiveness in American sport culture measured. Practices of USSA and NFL could lead US NGBs and professional leagues at the national level of sport development, while HPM experiences of UNI could provide a model for developing NCAA and other youth sport programs around schools, clubs and community centers. As the HPM is developed, stakeholders should identify variables that are able to measure the effectiveness of implementation in order for continued improvement to take place. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Robin Lund for his contribution to the organization and conceptual development of the manuscript.

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Sport Management Resources: Case Studies in Sport Management

Case Studies in Sport Management (CSSM) is a peer-reviewed journal focusing on the publication of teaching case studies related to the sport management discipline. It is the Official Case Study Journal of the Commission on Sport Management Accreditation (COSMA). The purpose of Case Studies in Sport Management is to enhance pedagogy in the discipline through the dissemination of teaching cases across varied topics consistent with the COSMA Common Professional Component topical areas, including sport management, marketing, finance, and law. The journal is continually updated with new cases as they are accepted and published through the refereed review process, thereby providing users with new content related to the ever-evolving sport industry. Log in to myRedDragon and then click on this LINK to access.

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Defining sport management case study research

This is an excerpt from research methods and design in sport management by damon andrew,paul m. pedersen & chad mcevoy..

Sport management scholars, students, and practitioners can turn to the case study as a research tool when they want to gain a deeper understanding of an actual (real-life) sport industry phenomenon or issue (e.g., decision-making processes used by athletic directors, the effects of team relocation, a sport merchandise company's approach to expanding globally). Investigators can use case study methodology to verify a theory in the real world (e.g., examining the validity of a theory in a particular sport organization or situation), to study the precise characteristics of a unique situation in order to make comparisons to other situations, or to research a phenomenon that has not been studied in order to discover new features (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005). Therefore, in addition to examining and solving practical issues in the sport industry, case study research in sport management can also involve testing existing theoretical concepts or even creating new theories (Maylor & Blackmon, 2005). In case study theory-testing work, the investigator can examine a case in order to evaluate, strengthen, or challenge a theoretical proposition (Edwards, 1998).

Case studies typically explore, describe, illustrate, or explain a selected phenomenon in sport management. Case study research comes in three types (i.e., serves three purposes) that often overlap in sport management: explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive (Maylor & Blackmon, 2005). As detailed by Yin (2003), exploratory and descriptive case studies often answer research questions that address who, what, when, and where. In explanatory case studies, however, the investigator seeks to answer questions about how and why. For example, you could use an explanatory study to gain understanding of how sport marketing professionals have used a particular promotion to sustain consistently high attendance regardless of their team's wins and losses. You could also use an explanatory case study if you wanted to understand why baseball ownership and management failed to adequately address the issue of steroids in the 1990s. Most case studies in sport management are focused on answering the how and why research questions.

Communication studies pioneer Wilbur Schramm (1971) illustrates the use of these questions in his definition of a case study: “The essence of a case study is that it tries to illuminate a decision or set of decisions: why they were taken, how they were implemented, and with what results” (p. 21). Denizen and Lincoln (1998b) explain that the term case study is used “because it draws attention to the question of what specifically can be learned from a single case” (p. 86). The most widely accepted definition is offered by Yin (2003): “A case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (p. 13). Yin continues by noting that a case study “relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion, and . . . benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis” (p. 14). Thus, a sport management case study is a research strategy built on theory and involving multiple sources of data collection (e.g., interviews, observations, documents).

Moving forward from these general definitions, a researcher can find numerous ways to frame sport management research in relation to popular definitions of case study. For instance, in applying Zikmund's (1991) definition to sport management, we would define a case study as an exploratory research technique used in sport management to intensively investigate a situation. Kirk's (1995) definition is also excellent when applied to sport management: A case study is examining (e.g., observing, exploring) certain factors of a sport management subject (e.g., people, company, organization, system) for some period of time.

A sport management investigator using case study methodology focuses on a specific, actual phenomenon in a practical, natural, or real context. For example, Amis et al. (2004) examined radical change in organizations by looking at the influence of various factors (e.g., organizational capacity, power, interest) in six uniquely designed Canadian national sport organizations. The typical case study—which involves little (and usually no) intervention, manipulation of behavior, or control over the events being studied by the investigator (Velde et al., 2004)—is facilitated through the use of several research strategies—for example, content analysis, use of a survey instrument, and archival procedures. In the study by Amis et al. (2004), their two primary research strategies involved conducting interviews and performing documentary analyses of governmental reports and newspaper articles. Because a case study uses several research methodologies, it should not be viewed as synonymous with an observation study or a historical treatise. For instance, although a contemporary case study researcher in sport management functions in a fashion similar to that of a sport historian in examining documents, artifacts, and archives, he or she also tends to use other sources of evidence (e.g., observations) not typically used by historians.

A case study generally entails in-depth examination of a single case (e.g., a certain sport industry phenomenon, group, situation, team, event, organization, or process). Even though a case study involves only one unit (N=1), the research process engages many variables and requires data collection and integrative interpretation (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005) of information from multiple sources, such as interviews with sport management personnel, observations of fans, archival data from organizational files, historical information, surveys of sport event participants, and analyses of documents (e.g., sport marketing plans, team budget and financial reports, newspaper articles, advertisements). As explained by Velde et al. (2004), case study research addresses the “degree to which the results and conclusions of the various data collection methods point in the same direction” (p. 79). In addition to the single-case approach (e.g., examining one sport organization), case study research can also involve studying multiple cases (e.g., performing a comparative case study of several sport organizations). Therefore, in the next section we examine both the single-case and the multiple-case study designs associated with this qualitative methodological approach.

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How to Write a Case Study

Preparing the case, drafting the case.

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Before you begin writing, follow these guidelines to help you prepare and understand the case study:

• Take notes, highlight relevant facts, underline key problems.
• Identify two to five key problems
• Why do they exist?
• How do they impact the organization?
• Who is responsible for them?
• Review course readings, discussions, outside research, your experience.
• Consider strong supporting evidence, pros, and cons: is this solution realistic?

note: from Ashford University Writing Center

Once you have gathered the necessary information, a draft of your analysis should include these sections:

• Identify the key problems and issues in the case study.
• Formulate and include a thesis statement, summarizing the outcome of your analysis in 1–2 sentences.
• Set the scene: background information, relevant facts, and the most important issues.
• Demonstrate that you have researched the problems in this case study.
• Explain why alternatives were rejected
• Constraints/reasons
• Why are alternatives not possible at this time?
• Provide one specific and realistic solution
• Explain why this solution was chosen
• Support this solution with solid evidence
• Concepts from class (text readings, discussions, lectures)
• Outside research
• Personal experience (anecdotes)
• Determine and discuss specific strategies for accomplishing the proposed solution.
• If applicable, recommend further action to resolve some of the issues
• What should be done and who should do it?
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Sport Management

• Sport Management Core Resources

Recommended Resources for Case Studies

Harvard case studies, harvard business review (hbr) articles and case studies in business source elite, harvard business review (hbr) articles and case studies in print.

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Please see below recommended starting points for finding business case studies:

• ABI/INFORM Collection Index and abstracts to publications in business, management, and news, as well as reports and working papers; includes some full text.
• Business Source Elite Business and economics journals and magazine articles, many with full text, including content from the Harvard Business Review.
• IGI Global Teaching Cases Cases for teaching related to information technology implementation and management.
• MarketLine Company, country, industry and product -related reports, analysis, news and case studies .
• SAGE Business Cases Case studies related to business integrated with SAGE’s journal, book, video, and reference content. To access the teaching notes (available only to instructors), please request the instructor code from Brenna Helmstutler at [email protected].
• SAGE Research Methods Cases Teaching cases in which a variety of research methods are used in a number of social sciences subject areas. Cases are incorporated into SAGE Research Methods Online.
• Finding Business Case Studies in Select Resources PDF document with recommendations on finding case studies in the following three Libraries' business databases: Business Source: Elite, ABI/INFORM Complete, and Marketline Advantage. Also includes additional recommendations of websites that include freely available case studies.

Harvard Business Publishing case studies cover all areas of management, business planning, marketing, accounting, finance, organizational behavior, entrepreneurship and more. The case studies range from 10 to 30 pages in length and often include an author provided guide, called a “teaching note,” on how to teach the case in the classroom.

These case studies should not be confused with the short case studies published in the Harvard Business Review and available in full text via SU Libraries' database Business Source Elite.

Access to the Harvard Business Publishing case studies requires individual purchase of cases , including purchase of copyright permission in situations where multiple copies are desired. Harvard does not offer institutional subscriptions that permit an academic library to subscribe to these case studies.

• Students and faculty visiting the HBP site can freely search and browse topics to identify case studies of interest
• Access to the full-text case study PDFs requires individual purchase (often priced between $8 and $10 per case)
• Options for student access to cases selected by faculty are available under a coursepack style access model (in some instances, students enrolled in such courses can receive purchase discounts on cases their faculty identify)
• SU faculty interested in access (for themselves or their students) should explore detailed information about applying for   Harvard Business Publishing's Case Study "Educator Access"

Find the Harvard Business Review in Business Source Elite (which indexes HBR content back to 1922 and provides full-text article coverage from 1985 thru the present, including HBR articles and case studies) via the link below:

• Harvard Business Review

NOTE: The case studies in HBR are short (around four pages each) and should not be confused with the premium Harvard Business Publishing case studies noted on this page under "Harvard Case Studies."

Please note that Harvard Business Review articles provided by EBSCOhost are intended for individual academic use only. The following notice accompanies each Harvard Business Review article in Business Source Elite:

" Harvard Business Review Notice of Use Restrictions, May 2009 Harvard Business Review and Harvard Business Publishing Newsletter content on EBSCOhost is licensed for the private individual use of authorized EBSCOhost users. It is not intended for use as assigned course material in academic institutions nor as corporate learning or training materials in businesses. Academic licensees may not use this content in electronic reserves, electronic course packs, persistent linking from syllabi or by any other means of incorporating the content into course resources. Business licensees may not host this content on learning management systems or use persistent linking or other means to incorporate the content into learning management systems. Harvard Business Publishing will be pleased to grant permission to make this content available through such means. For rates and permission, contact [email protected] ."

Harvard Business Review 500 At the request of Harvard Business Publishing, EBSCO has made 500 of the most popular Harvard Business Review articles read only by disabling the printing, saving, and persistent linking functionality for these articles in Business Source Elite. All Business Source Elite subscribers (including SU Libraries) were offered the option to restore this basic functionality by paying an additional annual premium fee. When Syracuse University Libraries requested a quote from EBSCO to restore full access to the 500 HBR articles, we were presented with a significant five figure amount. SU Libraries is disinclined to pursue the option to restore full access to the HBR 500 by paying this premium. Not only is the price per article exorbitant, but more importantly, agreeing to such a fee in order to restore access to content for which we have already paid , could set a terrible precedent.

What matters and what we wish to emphasize is that, if HBP’s new model catches on, having to essentially pay twice (or multiple times) for the same online content will erode the Libraries’ ability to provide other resources to the SU research community. In short, it’s a zero-sum game when it comes to Libraries’ acquisitions that support research, and this development further adds to the costs of supporting scholarship. In declining to license with HBP under the proffered terms, the SU Libraries’ goal is to protect our ability to support research at SU to our utmost. While that may sound contradictory, at least in the short-term, in the long-term it most assuredly is not.

Print versions of the Harvard Business Review (HBR) from 1922 to the present are available in Syracuse University Libraries' print collection:

• Harvard Business Review in Print
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Earning A Sport Management Degree: What To Know Before You Enroll

Updated: Feb 2, 2024, 1:01pm

Interested in launching a sports career? Earning a sport management degree is a smart first move.

A sport management degree equips students with an arsenal of multidisciplinary skills. This degree involves coursework in finance, management, marketing, communications and economics, all through the lens of professional sports and recreation. Those skills can apply to a variety of careers in the sport management arena.

What’s more, some of the highest-earning jobs in this field go to people with sport management degrees. Here’s everything you need to know about earning a sport management degree.

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What Is a Sport Management Degree?

A sport management degree prepares students for careers across varying areas of sport management. Several colleges and universities offer sport management degree programs. Depending on the field of work you’re interested in, you may opt to complete a four-year bachelor’s degree or pursue a master’s or Ph.D.

Sport Management Admission Requirements

What does it take to apply for a sport management degree? That depends on which degree you’re pursuing. Undergraduate programs typically have fewer admissions requirements than graduate programs. Conversely, graduate programs generally have higher admissions standards and more rigorous requirements.

Undergraduate Degrees

If you’re a first-time student, you’ll apply for an undergraduate sport management program . You can enroll in a four-year college or university for your bachelor’s degree, or you can begin at a two-year community college before transferring to a four-year program.

Admissions requirements vary by school. Check with each school’s admissions department to learn about GPA minimums, prerequisite courses and standardized test scores, if required. Some programs may ask you to submit a personal essay with your application.

For what it’s worth: A genuine, demonstrated enthusiasm for sports or another recreational field is helpful. If you have substantive coaching or athletic experience, don’t forget to discuss that in your application.

Graduate Degrees

Students applying for a graduate degree in sport management should obtain at least a bachelor’s degree. An academic background in sport management or a related field is preferred but not required.

Prospective graduate students must submit official transcripts, a résumé and test scores with their application. Some schools also ask for GMAT or GRE test scores . Most programs ask for letters of recommendation, too.

While it’s not required, be sure to include any volunteer or independent research experience you may have completed in your undergraduate studies.

Courses in a Sport Management Program

Upon enrolling in a sport management program, you’ll choose your courses. Most programs require students to enroll in a mix of general education and degree-specific classes. If you’ve selected a concentration like sports law or sports media, you’ll also enroll in courses specific to that subject.

Most sport management programs offer core courses in business principles like marketing, communications and finance. Below are some popular courses you can expect to find in a sport management program.

Business Communications

Business communications courses help students sharpen their communication skills in a business context. Students learn to handle one-on-one meetings, how to speak well on the spot and how to write persuasive business documents. Business communications courses also prepare learners to create powerful visual presentations and properly manage correspondence.

Leadership positions demand strong communication skills, but these skills are generally good to have regardless of your career path.

Principles of Marketing

Many sport management positions require a solid understanding of core marketing principles. This course explores how to identify and serve a target audience. Students learn how to define and explain baseline marketing terms and how to calculate and analyze marketing metrics. Learners can also expect to cover topics including branding and product development, campaign development, market research and social media marketing.

Sports Analytics

Data plays an instrumental role in the world of sports and recreation, both on and off the field. As a result, you can expect to take a sports analytics course as part of your sport management degree. This class teaches the fundamentals of data analysis and how to apply that analysis in a business context. Students also learn to leverage data and modeling techniques to improve marketing performance.

Sports Tourism

Sports tourism involves traveling to watch or participate in a sporting event. A sports tourism class covers the fundamentals of managing and leading sporting events that draw sports tourists. Topics covered in sports tourism classes include event planning and development, site selection, marketing, legalities and the industry’s history. Students will also dive into sports’ impact on communities and economic development.

Sports Management Careers

Earning a sport management degree opens the door to a variety of career opportunities. Below are several career paths that a sport management degree prepares you for.

We sourced the below salary data from the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS).

Game Day or Event Coordinator

Median Annual Salary: $52,560 Projected Growth Rate (2022-2032): +8% Job Description: Game day or event coordinators facilitate day-of sporting event logistics. This means taking care of and managing every party involved in sporting events, from vendors to athletes to reporters. Game day coordinators must also be prepared to respond to changes in plans, inclement weather and other possible variables.

Contract Administrator

Median Annual Salary: $101,870 Projected Growth Rate (2022-2032): +5% Job Description: Contract administrators create, negotiate, sign and uphold athletic contracts. In professional sports, these contracts typically involve millions of dollars.

Purchasing Agent

Median Annual Salary: $67,620 Projected Growth Rate (2022-2032): -8% Job Description: Purchasing agents ensure that sports organizations have what they need to function properly on a day-to-day basis. This may include sporting equipment, weight training equipment and office supplies. These professionals are also responsible for choosing sellers, negotiating contracts and determining the quality of products. With experience, agents can progress to higher-paying management roles.

Athletic Coach

Median Annual Salary: $44,890 Projected Growth Rate (2022-2032): +9% Job Description: Coaches teach, mentor and train athletes in both professional and recreational contexts. A coach is responsible for preparing athletes for games, creating drills and team-building exercises, ideating game strategy and supporting athletes’ individual and collective improvement.

Sport Marketer

Median Annual Salary: $138,730 Projected Growth Rate (2022-2032): +6% Job Description: Sports marketers promote sports teams and related organizations like the Olympics or the National Football League. They might also promote individual high-profile athletes. Generally, sports marketers make sure they tell a story that shines a positive light on their respective organizations and promotes sports overall.

Frequently Asked Questions About Sport Management

How many years is a sport management degree.

An undergraduate sport management degree typically takes four years to complete. Most master’s programs are two years. Ph.D. candidates can expect to spend at least three to four years earning their degree.

What does a person with a sport management degree do?

Sport management degrees open the door to a variety of career possibilities. Degree holders may enter the corporate world of athletics as marketers, team managers, journalists or contract agents. Others find jobs as coaches, facility directors or athletic directors.

Does a sport management degree make good money?

It depends on the position. Some of the highest-paying jobs in sport management include sports marketing directors, sports promoters, facilities directors and athletic directors.

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Cecilia is a freelance writer, content marketing strategist and author covering education, technology and energy. She is a current contributor to the Forbes Advisor education vertical and holds a summa cum laude journalism degree from California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo.

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