review of related literature of quantitative research

Archer Library

Quantitative research: literature review .

• Archer Library This link opens in a new window
• Research Resources handout This link opens in a new window
• Locating Books
• Library eBook Collections This link opens in a new window
• A to Z Database List This link opens in a new window
• Research & Statistics
• Literature Review Resources
• Citations & Reference

Exploring the literature review 

Literature review model: 6 steps.

Adapted from The Literature Review , Machi & McEvoy (2009, p. 13).

Your Literature Review

Step 2: search, boolean search strategies, search limiters, ★ ebsco & google drive.

1. Select a Topic

"All research begins with curiosity" (Machi & McEvoy, 2009, p. 14)

Selection of a topic, and fully defined research interest and question, is supervised (and approved) by your professor. Tips for crafting your topic include:

• Be specific. Take time to define your interest.
• Topic Focus. Fully describe and sufficiently narrow the focus for research.
• Academic Discipline. Learn more about your area of research & refine the scope.
• Avoid Bias. Be aware of bias that you (as a researcher) may have.
• Document your research. Use Google Docs to track your research process.
• Research apps. Consider using Evernote or Zotero to track your research.

Consider Purpose

What will your topic and research address?

In The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students , Ridley presents that literature reviews serve several purposes (2008, p. 16-17).  Included are the following points:

• Historical background for the research;
• Overview of current field provided by "contemporary debates, issues, and questions;"
• Theories and concepts related to your research;
• Introduce "relevant terminology" - or academic language - being used it the field;
• Connect to existing research - does your work "extend or challenge [this] or address a gap;" 
• Provide "supporting evidence for a practical problem or issue" that your research addresses.

★ Schedule a research appointment

At this point in your literature review, take time to meet with a librarian. Why? Understanding the subject terminology used in databases can be challenging. Archer Librarians can help you structure a search, preparing you for step two. How? Contact a librarian directly or use the online form to schedule an appointment. Details are provided in the adjacent Schedule an Appointment box.

2. Search the Literature

Collect & Select Data: Preview, select, and organize

Archer Library is your go-to resource for this step in your literature review process. The literature search will include books and ebooks, scholarly and practitioner journals, theses and dissertations, and indexes. You may also choose to include web sites, blogs, open access resources, and newspapers. This library guide provides access to resources needed to complete a literature review.

Books & eBooks: Archer Library & OhioLINK

Databases: Scholarly & Practitioner Journals

Review the Library Databases tab on this library guide, it provides links to recommended databases for Education & Psychology, Business, and General & Social Sciences.

Expand your journal search; a complete listing of available AU Library and OhioLINK databases is available on the Databases  A to Z list . Search the database by subject, type, name, or do use the search box for a general title search. The A to Z list also includes open access resources and select internet sites.

Databases: Theses & Dissertations

Review the Library Databases tab on this guide, it includes Theses & Dissertation resources. AU library also has AU student authored theses and dissertations available in print, search the library catalog for these titles.

Did you know? If you are looking for particular chapters within a dissertation that is not fully available online, it is possible to submit an ILL article request . Do this instead of requesting the entire dissertation.

Newspapers:  Databases & Internet

Consider current literature in your academic field. AU Library's database collection includes The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Wall Street Journal .  The Internet Resources tab in this guide provides links to newspapers and online journals such as Inside Higher Ed , COABE Journal , and Education Week .

The Chronicle of Higher Education has the nation’s largest newsroom dedicated to covering colleges and universities.  Source of news, information, and jobs for college and university faculty members and administrators

The Chronicle features complete contents of the latest print issue; daily news and advice columns; current job listings; archive of previously published content; discussion forums; and career-building tools such as online CV management and salary databases. Dates covered: 1970-present.

Offers in-depth coverage of national and international business and finance as well as first-rate coverage of hard news--all from America's premier financial newspaper. Covers complete bibliographic information and also subjects, companies, people, products, and geographic areas. 

Comprehensive coverage back to 1984 is available from the world's leading financial newspaper through the ProQuest database. 

Newspaper Source provides cover-to-cover full text for hundreds of national (U.S.), international and regional newspapers. In addition, it offers television and radio news transcripts from major networks.

Provides complete television and radio news transcripts from CBS News, CNN, CNN International, FOX News, and more.

Search Strategies & Boolean Operators

There are three basic boolean operators:  AND, OR, and NOT.

Used with your search terms, boolean operators will either expand or limit results. What purpose do they serve? They help to define the relationship between your search terms. For example, using the operator AND will combine the terms expanding the search. When searching some databases, and Google, the operator AND may be implied.

Overview of boolean terms

About the example: Boolean searches were conducted on November 4, 2019; result numbers may vary at a later date. No additional database limiters were set to further narrow search returns.

Database Search Limiters

Database strategies for targeted search results.

Most databases include limiters, or additional parameters, you may use to strategically focus search results.  EBSCO databases, such as Education Research Complete & Academic Search Complete provide options to:

• Limit results to full text;
• Limit results to scholarly journals, and reference available;
• Select results source type to journals, magazines, conference papers, reviews, and newspapers
• Publication date

Keep in mind that these tools are defined as limiters for a reason; adding them to a search will limit the number of results returned.  This can be a double-edged sword.  How? 

• If limiting results to full-text only, you may miss an important piece of research that could change the direction of your research. Interlibrary loan is available to students, free of charge. Request articles that are not available in full-text; they will be sent to you via email.
• If narrowing publication date, you may eliminate significant historical - or recent - research conducted on your topic.
• Limiting resource type to a specific type of material may cause bias in the research results.

Use limiters with care. When starting a search, consider opting out of limiters until the initial literature screening is complete. The second or third time through your research may be the ideal time to focus on specific time periods or material (scholarly vs newspaper).

★ Truncating Search Terms

Expanding your search term at the root.

Truncating is often referred to as 'wildcard' searching. Databases may have their own specific wildcard elements however, the most commonly used are the asterisk (*) or question mark (?).  When used within your search. they will expand returned results.

Asterisk (*) Wildcard

Using the asterisk wildcard will return varied spellings of the truncated word. In the following example, the search term education was truncated after the letter "t."

Explore these database help pages for additional information on crafting search terms.

• EBSCO Connect: Basic Searching with EBSCO
• EBSCO Connect: Searching with Boolean Operators
• EBSCO Connect: Searching with Wildcards and Truncation Symbols
• ProQuest Help: Search Tips
• ERIC: How does ERIC search work?

★ EBSCO Databases & Google Drive

Tips for saving research directly to Google drive.

Researching in an EBSCO database?

It is possible to save articles (PDF and HTML) and abstracts in EBSCOhost databases directly to Google drive. Select the Google Drive icon, authenticate using a Google account, and an EBSCO folder will be created in your account. This is a great option for managing your research. If documenting your research in a Google Doc, consider linking the information to actual articles saved in drive.

EBSCO Databases & Google Drive

EBSCOHost Databases & Google Drive: Managing your Research

This video features an overview of how to use Google Drive with EBSCO databases to help manage your research. It presents information for connecting an active Google account to EBSCO and steps needed to provide permission for EBSCO to manage a folder in Drive.

About the Video:  Closed captioning is available, select CC from the video menu.  If you need to review a specific area on the video, view on YouTube and expand the video description for access to topic time stamps.  A video transcript is provided below.

• EBSCOhost Databases & Google Scholar

Defining Literature Review

What is a literature review.

A definition from the Online Dictionary for Library and Information Sciences .

A literature review is "a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works" (Reitz, 2014). 

A systemic review is "a literature review focused on a specific research question, which uses explicit methods to minimize bias in the identification, appraisal, selection, and synthesis of all the high-quality evidence pertinent to the question" (Reitz, 2014).

Recommended Reading

About this page

EBSCO Connect [Discovery and Search]. (2022). Searching with boolean operators. Retrieved May, 3, 2022 from https://connect.ebsco.com/s/?language=en_US

EBSCO Connect [Discover and Search]. (2022). Searching with wildcards and truncation symbols. Retrieved May 3, 2022; https://connect.ebsco.com/s/?language=en_US

Machi, L.A. & McEvoy, B.T. (2009). The literature review . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press: 

Reitz, J.M. (2014). Online dictionary for library and information science. ABC-CLIO, Libraries Unlimited . Retrieved from https://www.abc-clio.com/ODLIS/odlis_A.aspx

Ridley, D. (2008). The literature review: A step-by-step guide for students . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

Archer Librarians

Schedule an appointment.

Contact a librarian directly (email), or submit a request form. If you have worked with someone before, you can request them on the form.

• ★ Archer Library Help • Online Reqest Form
• Carrie Halquist • Reference & Instruction
• Jessica Byers • Reference & Curation
• Don Reams • Corrections Education & Reference
• Diane Schrecker • Education & Head of the IRC
• Tanaya Silcox • Technical Services & Business
• Sarah Thomas • Acquisitions & ATS Librarian
• << Previous: Research & Statistics
• Next: Literature Review Resources >>
• Last Updated: Aug 29, 2024 11:19 AM
• URL: https://libguides.ashland.edu/quantitative

Archer Library • Ashland University © Copyright 2023. An Equal Opportunity/Equal Access Institution.

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

Don't submit your assignments before you do this

The academic proofreading tool has been trained on 1000s of academic texts. Making it the most accurate and reliable proofreading tool for students. Free citation check included.

Try for free

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

Open Google Slides Download PowerPoint

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is a research methodology | steps & tips, how to write a research proposal | examples & templates, "i thought ai proofreading was useless but..".

I've been using Scribbr for years now and I know it's a service that won't disappoint. It does a good job spotting mistakes”

Review of Related Literature: Format, Example, & How to Make RRL

A review of related literature is a separate paper or a part of an article that collects and synthesizes discussion on a topic. Its purpose is to show the current state of research on the issue and highlight gaps in existing knowledge. A literature review can be included in a research paper or scholarly article, typically following the introduction and before the research methods section.

This article will clarify the definition, significance, and structure of a review of related literature. You’ll also learn how to organize your literature review and discover ideas for an RRL in different subjects.

🔤 What Is RRL?

• ❗ Significance of Literature Review
• 🔎 How to Search for Literature
• 🧩 Literature Review Structure
• 📋 Format of RRL — APA, MLA, & Others
• ✍️ How to Write an RRL
• 📚 Examples of RRL

🔗 References

A review of related literature (RRL) is a part of the research report that examines significant studies, theories, and concepts published in scholarly sources on a particular topic. An RRL includes 3 main components:

• A short overview and critique of the previous research.
• Similarities and differences between past studies and the current one.
• An explanation of the theoretical frameworks underpinning the research.

❗ Significance of Review of Related Literature

Although the goal of a review of related literature differs depending on the discipline and its intended use, its significance cannot be overstated. Here are some examples of how a review might be beneficial:

• It helps determine knowledge gaps .
• It saves from duplicating research that has already been conducted.
• It provides an overview of various research areas within the discipline.
• It demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the topic.

🔎 How to Perform a Literature Search

Including a description of your search strategy in the literature review section can significantly increase your grade. You can search sources with the following steps:

🧩 Literature Review Structure Example

The majority of literature reviews follow a standard introduction-body-conclusion structure. Let’s look at the RRL structure in detail.

Introduction of Review of Related Literature: Sample

An introduction should clarify the study topic and the depth of the information to be delivered. It should also explain the types of sources used. If your lit. review is part of a larger research proposal or project, you can combine its introductory paragraph with the introduction of your paper.

Here is a sample introduction to an RRL about cyberbullying:

Bullying has troubled people since the beginning of time. However, with modern technological advancements, especially social media, bullying has evolved into cyberbullying. As a result, nowadays, teenagers and adults cannot flee their bullies, which makes them feel lonely and helpless. This literature review will examine recent studies on cyberbullying.

Sample Review of Related Literature Thesis

A thesis statement should include the central idea of your literature review and the primary supporting elements you discovered in the literature. Thesis statements are typically put at the end of the introductory paragraph.

Look at a sample thesis of a review of related literature:

This literature review shows that scholars have recently covered the issues of bullies’ motivation, the impact of bullying on victims and aggressors, common cyberbullying techniques, and victims’ coping strategies. However, there is still no agreement on the best practices to address cyberbullying.

Literature Review Body Paragraph Example

The main body of a literature review should provide an overview of the existing research on the issue. Body paragraphs should not just summarize each source but analyze them. You can organize your paragraphs with these 3 elements:

• Claim . Start with a topic sentence linked to your literature review purpose.
• Evidence . Cite relevant information from your chosen sources.
• Discussion . Explain how the cited data supports your claim.

Here’s a literature review body paragraph example:

Scholars have examined the link between the aggressor and the victim. Beran et al. (2007) state that students bullied online often become cyberbullies themselves. Faucher et al. (2014) confirm this with their findings: they discovered that male and female students began engaging in cyberbullying after being subject to bullying. Hence, one can conclude that being a victim of bullying increases one’s likelihood of becoming a cyberbully.

Review of Related Literature: Conclusion

A conclusion presents a general consensus on the topic. Depending on your literature review purpose, it might include the following:

• Introduction to further research . If you write a literature review as part of a larger research project, you can present your research question in your conclusion .
• Overview of theories . You can summarize critical theories and concepts to help your reader understand the topic better.
• Discussion of the gap . If you identified a research gap in the reviewed literature, your conclusion could explain why that gap is significant.

Check out a conclusion example that discusses a research gap:

There is extensive research into bullies’ motivation, the consequences of bullying for victims and aggressors, strategies for bullying, and coping with it. Yet, scholars still have not reached a consensus on what to consider the best practices to combat cyberbullying. This question is of great importance because of the significant adverse effects of cyberbullying on victims and bullies.

📋 Format of RRL — APA, MLA, & Others

In this section, we will discuss how to format an RRL according to the most common citation styles: APA, Chicago, MLA, and Harvard.

Writing a literature review using the APA7 style requires the following text formatting:

• When using APA in-text citations , include the author’s last name and the year of publication in parentheses.
• For direct quotations , you must also add the page number. If you use sources without page numbers, such as websites or e-books, include a paragraph number instead.
• When referring to the author’s name in a sentence , you do not need to repeat it at the end of the sentence. Instead, include the year of publication inside the parentheses after their name.
• The reference list should be included at the end of your literature review. It is always alphabetized by the last name of the author (from A to Z), and the lines are indented one-half inch from the left margin of your paper. Do not forget to invert authors’ names (the last name should come first) and include the full titles of journals instead of their abbreviations. If you use an online source, add its URL.

The RRL format in the Chicago style is as follows:

• Author-date . You place your citations in brackets within the text, indicating the name of the author and the year of publication.
• Notes and bibliography . You place your citations in numbered footnotes or endnotes to connect the citation back to the source in the bibliography.
• The reference list, or bibliography , in Chicago style, is at the end of a literature review. The sources are arranged alphabetically and single-spaced. Each bibliography entry begins with the author’s name and the source’s title, followed by publication information, such as the city of publication, the publisher, and the year of publication.

Writing a literature review using the MLA style requires the following text formatting:

• In the MLA format, you can cite a source in the text by indicating the author’s last name and the page number in parentheses at the end of the citation. If the cited information takes several pages, you need to include all the page numbers.
• The reference list in MLA style is titled “ Works Cited .” In this section, all sources used in the paper should be listed in alphabetical order. Each entry should contain the author, title of the source, title of the journal or a larger volume, other contributors, version, number, publisher, and publication date.

The Harvard style requires you to use the following text formatting for your RRL:

• In-text citations in the Harvard style include the author’s last name and the year of publication. If you are using a direct quote in your literature review, you need to add the page number as well.
• Arrange your list of references alphabetically. Each entry should contain the author’s last name, their initials, the year of publication, the title of the source, and other publication information, like the journal title and issue number or the publisher.

✍️ How to Write Review of Related Literature – Sample

Literature reviews can be organized in many ways depending on what you want to achieve with them. In this section, we will look at 3 examples of how you can write your RRL.

Thematic Literature Review

A thematic literature review is arranged around central themes or issues discussed in the sources. If you have identified some recurring themes in the literature, you can divide your RRL into sections that address various aspects of the topic. For example, if you examine studies on e-learning, you can distinguish such themes as the cost-effectiveness of online learning, the technologies used, and its effectiveness compared to traditional education.

Chronological Literature Review

A chronological literature review is a way to track the development of the topic over time. If you use this method, avoid merely listing and summarizing sources in chronological order. Instead, try to analyze the trends, turning moments, and critical debates that have shaped the field’s path. Also, you can give your interpretation of how and why specific advances occurred.

Methodological Literature Review

A methodological literature review differs from the preceding ones in that it usually doesn’t focus on the sources’ content. Instead, it is concerned with the research methods . So, if your references come from several disciplines or fields employing various research techniques, you can compare the findings and conclusions of different methodologies, for instance:

• empirical vs. theoretical studies;
• qualitative vs. quantitative research.

📚 Examples of Review of Related Literature and Studies

We have prepared a short example of RRL on climate change for you to see how everything works in practice!

Climate change is one of the most important issues nowadays. Based on a variety of facts, it is now clearer than ever that humans are altering the Earth's climate. The atmosphere and oceans have warmed, causing sea level rise, a significant loss of Arctic ice, and other climate-related changes. This literature review provides a thorough summary of research on climate change, focusing on climate change fingerprints and evidence of human influence on the Earth's climate system.

Physical Mechanisms and Evidence of Human Influence

Scientists are convinced that climate change is directly influenced by the emission of greenhouse gases. They have carefully analyzed various climate data and evidence, concluding that the majority of the observed global warming over the past 50 years cannot be explained by natural factors alone. Instead, there is compelling evidence pointing to a significant contribution of human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases (Walker, 2014). For example, based on simple physics calculations, doubled carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere can lead to a global temperature increase of approximately 1 degree Celsius. (Elderfield, 2022). In order to determine the human influence on climate, scientists still have to analyze a lot of natural changes that affect temperature, precipitation, and other components of climate on timeframes ranging from days to decades and beyond.

Fingerprinting Climate Change

Fingerprinting climate change is a useful tool to identify the causes of global warming because different factors leave unique marks on climate records. This is evident when scientists look beyond overall temperature changes and examine how warming is distributed geographically and over time (Watson, 2022). By investigating these climate patterns, scientists can obtain a more complex understanding of the connections between natural climate variability and climate variability caused by human activity.

Modeling Climate Change and Feedback

To accurately predict the consequences of feedback mechanisms, the rate of warming, and regional climate change, scientists can employ sophisticated mathematical models of the atmosphere, ocean, land, and ice (the cryosphere). These models are grounded in well-established physical laws and incorporate the latest scientific understanding of climate-related processes (Shuckburgh, 2013). Although different climate models produce slightly varying projections for future warming, they all will agree that feedback mechanisms play a significant role in amplifying the initial warming caused by greenhouse gas emissions. (Meehl, 2019).

In conclusion, the literature on global warming indicates that there are well-understood physical processes that link variations in greenhouse gas concentrations to climate change. In addition, it covers the scientific proof that the rates of these gases in the atmosphere have increased and continue to rise fast. According to the sources, the majority of this recent change is almost definitely caused by greenhouse gas emissions produced by human activities. Citizens and governments can alter their energy production methods and consumption patterns to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and, thus, the magnitude of climate change. By acting now, society can prevent the worst consequences of climate change and build a more resilient and sustainable future for generations to come.

Have you ever struggled with finding the topic for an RRL in different subjects? Read the following paragraphs to get some ideas!

Nursing Literature Review Example

Many topics in the nursing field require research. For example, you can write a review of literature related to dengue fever . Give a general overview of dengue virus infections, including its clinical symptoms, diagnosis, prevention, and therapy.

Another good idea is to review related literature and studies about teenage pregnancy . This review can describe the effectiveness of specific programs for adolescent mothers and their children and summarize recommendations for preventing early pregnancy.

📝 Check out some more valuable examples below:

• Hospital Readmissions: Literature Review .
• Literature Review: Lower Sepsis Mortality Rates .
• Breast Cancer: Literature Review .
• Sexually Transmitted Diseases: Literature Review .
• PICO for Pressure Ulcers: Literature Review .
• COVID-19 Spread Prevention: Literature Review .
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: Literature Review .
• Hypertension Treatment Adherence: Literature Review .
• Neonatal Sepsis Prevention: Literature Review .
• Healthcare-Associated Infections: Literature Review .
• Understaffing in Nursing: Literature Review .

Psychology Literature Review Example

If you look for an RRL topic in psychology , you can write a review of related literature about stress . Summarize scientific evidence about stress stages, side effects, types, or reduction strategies. Or you can write a review of related literature about computer game addiction . In this case, you may concentrate on the neural mechanisms underlying the internet gaming disorder, compare it to other addictions, or evaluate treatment strategies.

A review of related literature about cyberbullying is another interesting option. You can highlight the impact of cyberbullying on undergraduate students’ academic, social, and emotional development.

📝 Look at the examples that we have prepared for you to come up with some more ideas:

• Mindfulness in Counseling: A Literature Review .
• Team-Building Across Cultures: Literature Review .
• Anxiety and Decision Making: Literature Review .
• Literature Review on Depression .
• Literature Review on Narcissism .
• Effects of Depression Among Adolescents .
• Causes and Effects of Anxiety in Children .

Literature Review — Sociology Example

Sociological research poses critical questions about social structures and phenomena. For example, you can write a review of related literature about child labor , exploring cultural beliefs and social norms that normalize the exploitation of children. Or you can create a review of related literature about social media . It can investigate the impact of social media on relationships between adolescents or the role of social networks on immigrants’ acculturation .

📝 You can find some more ideas below!

• Single Mothers’ Experiences of Relationships with Their Adolescent Sons .
• Teachers and Students’ Gender-Based Interactions .
• Gender Identity: Biological Perspective and Social Cognitive Theory .
• Gender: Culturally-Prescribed Role or Biological Sex .
• The Influence of Opioid Misuse on Academic Achievement of Veteran Students .
• The Importance of Ethics in Research .
• The Role of Family and Social Network Support in Mental Health .

Education Literature Review Example

For your education studies , you can write a review of related literature about academic performance to determine factors that affect student achievement and highlight research gaps. One more idea is to create a review of related literature on study habits , considering their role in the student’s life and academic outcomes.

You can also evaluate a computerized grading system in a review of related literature to single out its advantages and barriers to implementation. Or you can complete a review of related literature on instructional materials to identify their most common types and effects on student achievement.

📝 Find some inspiration in the examples below:

• Literature Review on Online Learning Challenges From COVID-19 .
• Education, Leadership, and Management: Literature Review .
• Literature Review: Standardized Testing Bias .
• Bullying of Disabled Children in School .
• Interventions and Letter & Sound Recognition: A Literature Review .
• Social-Emotional Skills Program for Preschoolers .
• Effectiveness of Educational Leadership Management Skills .

Business Research Literature Review

If you’re a business student, you can focus on customer satisfaction in your review of related literature. Discuss specific customer satisfaction features and how it is affected by service quality and prices. You can also create a theoretical literature review about consumer buying behavior to evaluate theories that have significantly contributed to understanding how consumers make purchasing decisions.

📝 Look at the examples to get more exciting ideas:

• Leadership and Communication: Literature Review .
• Human Resource Development: Literature Review .
• Project Management. Literature Review .
• Strategic HRM: A Literature Review .
• Customer Relationship Management: Literature Review .
• Literature Review on International Financial Reporting Standards .
• Cultures of Management: Literature Review .

To conclude, a review of related literature is a significant genre of scholarly works that can be applied in various disciplines and for multiple goals. The sources examined in an RRL provide theoretical frameworks for future studies and help create original research questions and hypotheses.

When you finish your outstanding literature review, don’t forget to check whether it sounds logical and coherent. Our text-to-speech tool can help you with that!

• Literature Reviews | University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
• Writing a Literature Review | Purdue Online Writing Lab
• Learn How to Write a Review of Literature | University of Wisconsin-Madison
• The Literature Review: A Few Tips on Conducting It | University of Toronto
• Writing a Literature Review | UC San Diego
• Conduct a Literature Review | The University of Arizona
• Methods for Literature Reviews | National Library of Medicine
• Literature Reviews: 5. Write the Review | Georgia State University

How to Write an Animal Testing Essay: Tips for Argumentative & Persuasive Papers

Descriptive essay topics: examples, outline, & more.

Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

How to Write Review of Related Literature (RRL) in Research

A review of related literature (a.k.a RRL in research) is a comprehensive review of the existing literature pertaining to a specific topic or research question. An effective review provides the reader with an organized analysis and synthesis of the existing knowledge about a subject. With the increasing amount of new information being disseminated every day, conducting a review of related literature is becoming more difficult and the purpose of review of related literature is clearer than ever.  

All new knowledge is necessarily based on previously known information, and every new scientific study must be conducted and reported in the context of previous studies. This makes a review of related literature essential for research, and although it may be tedious work at times , most researchers will complete many such reviews of varying depths during their career. So, why exactly is a review of related literature important?    

Table of Contents

Why a review of related literature in research is important  

Before thinking how to do reviews of related literature , it is necessary to understand its importance. Although the purpose of a review of related literature varies depending on the discipline and how it will be used, its importance is never in question. Here are some ways in which a review can be crucial.  

• Identify gaps in the knowledge – This is the primary purpose of a review of related literature (often called RRL in research ). To create new knowledge, you must first determine what knowledge may be missing. This also helps to identify the scope of your study.  
• Avoid duplication of research efforts – Not only will a review of related literature indicate gaps in the existing research, but it will also lead you away from duplicating research that has already been done and thus save precious resources.  
• Provide an overview of disparate and interdisciplinary research areas – Researchers cannot possibly know everything related to their disciplines. Therefore, it is very helpful to have access to a review of related literature already written and published.  
• Highlight researcher’s familiarity with their topic 1  – A strong review of related literature in a study strengthens readers’ confidence in that study and that researcher.

Tips on how to write a review of related literature in research

Given that you will probably need to produce a number of these at some point, here are a few general tips on how to write an effective review of related literature 2 .

• Define your topic, audience, and purpose: You will be spending a lot of time with this review, so choose a topic that is interesting to you. While deciding what to write in a review of related literature , think about who you expect to read the review – researchers in your discipline, other scientists, the general public – and tailor the language to the audience. Also, think about the purpose of your review of related literature .  
• Conduct a comprehensive literature search: While writing your review of related literature , emphasize more recent works but don’t forget to include some older publications as well. Cast a wide net, as you may find some interesting and relevant literature in unexpected databases or library corners. Don’t forget to search for recent conference papers.
• Review the identified articles and take notes: It is a good idea to take notes in a way such that individual items in your notes can be moved around when you organize them. For example, index cards are great tools for this. Write each individual idea on a separate card along with the source. The cards can then be easily grouped and organized.  
• Determine how to organize your review: A review of related literature should not be merely a listing of descriptions. It should be organized by some criterion, such as chronologically or thematically.  
• Be critical and objective: Don’t just report the findings of other studies in your review of related literature . Challenge the methodology, find errors in the analysis, question the conclusions. Use what you find to improve your research. However, do not insert your opinions into the review of related literature. Remain objective and open-minded.  
• Structure your review logically: Guide the reader through the information. The structure will depend on the function of the review of related literature. Creating an outline prior to writing the RRL in research is a good way to ensure the presented information flows well.  

As you read more extensively in your discipline, you will notice that the review of related literature appears in various forms in different places. For example, when you read an article about an experimental study, you will typically see a literature review or a RRL in research , in the introduction that includes brief descriptions of similar studies. In longer research studies and dissertations, especially in the social sciences, the review of related literature will typically be a separate chapter and include more information on methodologies and theory building. In addition, stand-alone review articles will be published that are extremely useful to researchers.  

The review of relevant literature or often abbreviated as, RRL in research , is an important communication tool that can be used in many forms for many purposes. It is a tool that all researchers should befriend.  

• University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center. Literature Reviews.  https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/literature-reviews/  [Accessed September 8, 2022]
• Pautasso M. Ten simple rules for writing a literature review. PLoS Comput Biol. 2013, 9. doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003149.

Q:  Is research complete without a review of related literature?

A research project is usually considered incomplete without a proper review of related literature. The review of related literature is a crucial component of any research project as it provides context for the research question, identifies gaps in existing literature, and ensures novelty by avoiding duplication. It also helps inform research design and supports arguments, highlights the significance of a study, and demonstrates your knowledge an expertise.

Q: What is difference between RRL and RRS?

The key difference between an RRL and an RRS lies in their focus and scope. An RRL or review of related literature examines a broad range of literature, including theoretical frameworks, concepts, and empirical studies, to establish the context and significance of the research topic. On the other hand, an RRS or review of research studies specifically focuses on analyzing and summarizing previous research studies within a specific research domain to gain insights into methodologies, findings, and gaps in the existing body of knowledge. While there may be some overlap between the two, they serve distinct purposes and cover different aspects of the research process.

Q: Does review of related literature improve accuracy and validity of research?

Yes, a comprehensive review of related literature (RRL) plays a vital role in improving the accuracy and validity of research. It helps authors gain a deeper understanding and offers different perspectives on the research topic. RRL can help you identify research gaps, dictate the selection of appropriate research methodologies, enhance theoretical frameworks, avoid biases and errors, and even provide support for research design and interpretation. By building upon and critically engaging with existing related literature, researchers can ensure their work is rigorous, reliable, and contributes meaningfully to their field of study.

R Discovery is a literature search and research reading platform that accelerates your research discovery journey by keeping you updated on the latest, most relevant scholarly content. With 250M+ research articles sourced from trusted aggregators like CrossRef, Unpaywall, PubMed, PubMed Central, Open Alex and top publishing houses like Springer Nature, JAMA, IOP, Taylor & Francis, NEJM, BMJ, Karger, SAGE, Emerald Publishing and more, R Discovery puts a world of research at your fingertips.  

Try R Discovery Prime FREE for 1 week or upgrade at just US$72 a year to access premium features that let you listen to research on the go, read in your language, collaborate with peers, auto sync with reference managers, and much more. Choose a simpler, smarter way to find and read research – Download the app and start your free 7-day trial today !  

Related Posts

What is Research Impact: Types and Tips for Academics

Research in Shorts: R Discovery’s New Feature Helps Academics Assess Relevant Papers in 2mins 

Research Process :: Step by Step

• Introduction
• Select Topic
• Identify Keywords
• Background Information
• Develop Research Questions
• Refine Topic
• Search Strategy
• Popular Databases
• Evaluate Sources
• Types of Periodicals
• Reading Scholarly Articles
• Primary & Secondary Sources
• Organize / Take Notes
• Writing & Grammar Resources
• Annotated Bibliography
• Literature Review
• Citation Styles
• Paraphrasing
• Privacy / Confidentiality

Organize the literature review into sections that present themes or identify trends, including relevant theory. You are not trying to list all the material published, but to synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your thesis or research question.  

What is a literature review?

A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. Occasionally you will be asked to write one as a separate assignment, but more often it is part of the introduction to an essay, research report, or thesis. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries

A literature review must do these things:

• be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing
• synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known
• identify areas of controversy in the literature
• formulate questions that need further research

Ask yourself questions like these:

• What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review helps to define?
• What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy? quantitative research (e.g. on the effectiveness of a new procedure)? qualitative research (e.g., studies of loneliness among migrant workers)?
• What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using (e.g., journals, books, government documents, popular media)? What discipline am I working in (e.g., nursing psychology, sociology, medicine)?
• How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to ensure I've found all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for the length of my paper?
• Have I critically analyzed the literature I use? Do I follow through a set of concepts and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways they deal with them? Instead of just listing and summarizing items, do I assess them, discussing strengths and weaknesses?
• Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective?
• Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?

Ask yourself questions like these about each book or article you include:

• Has the author formulated a problem/issue?
• Is it clearly defined? Is its significance (scope, severity, relevance) clearly established?
• Could the problem have been approached more effectively from another perspective?
• What is the author's research orientation (e.g., interpretive, critical science, combination)?
• What is the author's theoretical framework (e.g., psychological, developmental, feminist)?
• What is the relationship between the theoretical and research perspectives?
• Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/issue? Does the author include literature taking positions she or he does not agree with?
• In a research study, how good are the basic components of the study design (e.g., population, intervention, outcome)? How accurate and valid are the measurements? Is the analysis of the data accurate and relevant to the research question? Are the conclusions validly based upon the data and analysis?
• In material written for a popular readership, does the author use appeals to emotion, one-sided examples, or rhetorically-charged language and tone? Is there an objective basis to the reasoning, or is the author merely "proving" what he or she already believes?
• How does the author structure the argument? Can you "deconstruct" the flow of the argument to see whether or where it breaks down logically (e.g., in establishing cause-effect relationships)?
• In what ways does this book or article contribute to our understanding of the problem under study, and in what ways is it useful for practice? What are the strengths and limitations?
• How does this book or article relate to the specific thesis or question I am developing?

Text written by Dena Taylor, Health Sciences Writing Centre, University of Toronto

http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-writing/literature-review

• << Previous: Annotated Bibliography
• Next: Step 5: Cite Sources >>
• Last Updated: Sep 5, 2024 1:38 PM
• URL: https://libguides.uta.edu/researchprocess

University of Texas Arlington Libraries 702 Planetarium Place · Arlington, TX 76019 · 817-272-3000

• Internet Privacy
• Accessibility
• Problems with a guide? Contact Us.

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Browse content in Arts and Humanities
• Browse content in Archaeology
• Anglo-Saxon and Medieval Archaeology
• Archaeological Methodology and Techniques
• Archaeology by Region
• Archaeology of Religion
• Archaeology of Trade and Exchange
• Biblical Archaeology
• Contemporary and Public Archaeology
• Environmental Archaeology
• Historical Archaeology
• History and Theory of Archaeology
• Industrial Archaeology
• Landscape Archaeology
• Mortuary Archaeology
• Prehistoric Archaeology
• Underwater Archaeology
• Zooarchaeology
• Browse content in Architecture
• Architectural Structure and Design
• History of Architecture
• Residential and Domestic Buildings
• Theory of Architecture
• Browse content in Art
• Art Subjects and Themes
• History of Art
• Industrial and Commercial Art
• Theory of Art
• Biographical Studies
• Byzantine Studies
• Browse content in Classical Studies
• Classical History
• Classical Philosophy
• Classical Mythology
• Classical Numismatics
• Classical Literature
• Classical Reception
• Classical Art and Architecture
• Classical Oratory and Rhetoric
• Greek and Roman Epigraphy
• Greek and Roman Law
• Greek and Roman Papyrology
• Greek and Roman Archaeology
• Late Antiquity
• Religion in the Ancient World
• Social History
• Digital Humanities
• Browse content in History
• Colonialism and Imperialism
• Diplomatic History
• Environmental History
• Genealogy, Heraldry, Names, and Honours
• Genocide and Ethnic Cleansing
• Historical Geography
• History by Period
• History of Emotions
• History of Agriculture
• History of Education
• History of Gender and Sexuality
• Industrial History
• Intellectual History
• International History
• Labour History
• Legal and Constitutional History
• Local and Family History
• Maritime History
• Military History
• National Liberation and Post-Colonialism
• Oral History
• Political History
• Public History
• Regional and National History
• Revolutions and Rebellions
• Slavery and Abolition of Slavery
• Social and Cultural History
• Theory, Methods, and Historiography
• Urban History
• World History
• Browse content in Language Teaching and Learning
• Language Learning (Specific Skills)
• Language Teaching Theory and Methods
• Browse content in Linguistics
• Applied Linguistics
• Cognitive Linguistics
• Computational Linguistics
• Forensic Linguistics
• Grammar, Syntax and Morphology
• Historical and Diachronic Linguistics
• History of English
• Language Acquisition
• Language Evolution
• Language Reference
• Language Variation
• Language Families
• Lexicography
• Linguistic Anthropology
• Linguistic Theories
• Linguistic Typology
• Phonetics and Phonology
• Psycholinguistics
• Sociolinguistics
• Translation and Interpretation
• Writing Systems
• Browse content in Literature
• Bibliography
• Children's Literature Studies
• Literary Studies (Asian)
• Literary Studies (European)
• Literary Studies (Eco-criticism)
• Literary Studies (Romanticism)
• Literary Studies (American)
• Literary Studies (Modernism)
• Literary Studies - World
• Literary Studies (1500 to 1800)
• Literary Studies (19th Century)
• Literary Studies (20th Century onwards)
• Literary Studies (African American Literature)
• Literary Studies (British and Irish)
• Literary Studies (Early and Medieval)
• Literary Studies (Fiction, Novelists, and Prose Writers)
• Literary Studies (Gender Studies)
• Literary Studies (Graphic Novels)
• Literary Studies (History of the Book)
• Literary Studies (Plays and Playwrights)
• Literary Studies (Poetry and Poets)
• Literary Studies (Postcolonial Literature)
• Literary Studies (Queer Studies)
• Literary Studies (Science Fiction)
• Literary Studies (Travel Literature)
• Literary Studies (War Literature)
• Literary Studies (Women's Writing)
• Literary Theory and Cultural Studies
• Mythology and Folklore
• Shakespeare Studies and Criticism
• Browse content in Media Studies
• Browse content in Music
• Applied Music
• Dance and Music
• Ethics in Music
• Ethnomusicology
• Gender and Sexuality in Music
• Medicine and Music
• Music Cultures
• Music and Religion
• Music and Media
• Music and Culture
• Music Education and Pedagogy
• Music Theory and Analysis
• Musical Scores, Lyrics, and Libretti
• Musical Structures, Styles, and Techniques
• Musicology and Music History
• Performance Practice and Studies
• Race and Ethnicity in Music
• Sound Studies
• Browse content in Performing Arts
• Browse content in Philosophy
• Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art
• Epistemology
• Feminist Philosophy
• History of Western Philosophy
• Metaphysics
• Moral Philosophy
• Non-Western Philosophy
• Philosophy of Science
• Philosophy of Language
• Philosophy of Mind
• Philosophy of Perception
• Philosophy of Action
• Philosophy of Law
• Philosophy of Religion
• Philosophy of Mathematics and Logic
• Practical Ethics
• Social and Political Philosophy
• Browse content in Religion
• Biblical Studies
• Christianity
• East Asian Religions
• History of Religion
• Judaism and Jewish Studies
• Qumran Studies
• Religion and Education
• Religion and Health
• Religion and Politics
• Religion and Science
• Religion and Law
• Religion and Art, Literature, and Music
• Religious Studies
• Browse content in Society and Culture
• Cookery, Food, and Drink
• Cultural Studies
• Customs and Traditions
• Ethical Issues and Debates
• Hobbies, Games, Arts and Crafts
• Natural world, Country Life, and Pets
• Popular Beliefs and Controversial Knowledge
• Sports and Outdoor Recreation
• Technology and Society
• Travel and Holiday
• Visual Culture
• Browse content in Law
• Arbitration
• Browse content in Company and Commercial Law
• Commercial Law
• Company Law
• Browse content in Comparative Law
• Systems of Law
• Competition Law
• Browse content in Constitutional and Administrative Law
• Government Powers
• Judicial Review
• Local Government Law
• Military and Defence Law
• Parliamentary and Legislative Practice
• Construction Law
• Contract Law
• Browse content in Criminal Law
• Criminal Procedure
• Criminal Evidence Law
• Sentencing and Punishment
• Employment and Labour Law
• Environment and Energy Law
• Browse content in Financial Law
• Banking Law
• Insolvency Law
• History of Law
• Human Rights and Immigration
• Intellectual Property Law
• Browse content in International Law
• Private International Law and Conflict of Laws
• Public International Law
• IT and Communications Law
• Jurisprudence and Philosophy of Law
• Law and Politics
• Law and Society
• Browse content in Legal System and Practice
• Courts and Procedure
• Legal Skills and Practice
• Legal System - Costs and Funding
• Primary Sources of Law
• Regulation of Legal Profession
• Medical and Healthcare Law
• Browse content in Policing
• Criminal Investigation and Detection
• Police and Security Services
• Police Procedure and Law
• Police Regional Planning
• Browse content in Property Law
• Personal Property Law
• Restitution
• Study and Revision
• Terrorism and National Security Law
• Browse content in Trusts Law
• Wills and Probate or Succession
• Browse content in Medicine and Health
• Browse content in Allied Health Professions
• Arts Therapies
• Clinical Science
• Dietetics and Nutrition
• Occupational Therapy
• Operating Department Practice
• Physiotherapy
• Radiography
• Speech and Language Therapy
• Browse content in Anaesthetics
• General Anaesthesia
• Browse content in Clinical Medicine
• Acute Medicine
• Cardiovascular Medicine
• Clinical Genetics
• Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics
• Dermatology
• Endocrinology and Diabetes
• Gastroenterology
• Genito-urinary Medicine
• Geriatric Medicine
• Infectious Diseases
• Medical Toxicology
• Medical Oncology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Medicine
• Rehabilitation Medicine
• Respiratory Medicine and Pulmonology
• Rheumatology
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports and Exercise Medicine
• Clinical Neuroscience
• Community Medical Services
• Critical Care
• Emergency Medicine
• Forensic Medicine
• Haematology
• History of Medicine
• Browse content in Medical Dentistry
• Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery
• Paediatric Dentistry
• Restorative Dentistry and Orthodontics
• Surgical Dentistry
• Browse content in Medical Skills
• Clinical Skills
• Communication Skills
• Nursing Skills
• Surgical Skills
• Medical Ethics
• Medical Statistics and Methodology
• Browse content in Neurology
• Clinical Neurophysiology
• Neuropathology
• Nursing Studies
• Browse content in Obstetrics and Gynaecology
• Gynaecology
• Occupational Medicine
• Ophthalmology
• Otolaryngology (ENT)
• Browse content in Paediatrics
• Neonatology
• Browse content in Pathology
• Chemical Pathology
• Clinical Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics
• Histopathology
• Medical Microbiology and Virology
• Patient Education and Information
• Browse content in Pharmacology
• Psychopharmacology
• Browse content in Popular Health
• Caring for Others
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Self-help and Personal Development
• Browse content in Preclinical Medicine
• Cell Biology
• Molecular Biology and Genetics
• Reproduction, Growth and Development
• Primary Care
• Professional Development in Medicine
• Browse content in Psychiatry
• Addiction Medicine
• Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
• Forensic Psychiatry
• Learning Disabilities
• Old Age Psychiatry
• Psychotherapy
• Browse content in Public Health and Epidemiology
• Epidemiology
• Public Health
• Browse content in Radiology
• Clinical Radiology
• Interventional Radiology
• Nuclear Medicine
• Radiation Oncology
• Reproductive Medicine
• Browse content in Surgery
• Cardiothoracic Surgery
• Gastro-intestinal and Colorectal Surgery
• General Surgery
• Neurosurgery
• Paediatric Surgery
• Peri-operative Care
• Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery
• Surgical Oncology
• Transplant Surgery
• Trauma and Orthopaedic Surgery
• Vascular Surgery
• Browse content in Science and Mathematics
• Browse content in Biological Sciences
• Aquatic Biology
• Biochemistry
• Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
• Developmental Biology
• Ecology and Conservation
• Evolutionary Biology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Microbiology
• Molecular and Cell Biology
• Natural History
• Plant Sciences and Forestry
• Research Methods in Life Sciences
• Structural Biology
• Systems Biology
• Zoology and Animal Sciences
• Browse content in Chemistry
• Analytical Chemistry
• Computational Chemistry
• Crystallography
• Environmental Chemistry
• Industrial Chemistry
• Inorganic Chemistry
• Materials Chemistry
• Medicinal Chemistry
• Mineralogy and Gems
• Organic Chemistry
• Physical Chemistry
• Polymer Chemistry
• Study and Communication Skills in Chemistry
• Theoretical Chemistry
• Browse content in Computer Science
• Artificial Intelligence
• Computer Architecture and Logic Design
• Game Studies
• Human-Computer Interaction
• Mathematical Theory of Computation
• Programming Languages
• Software Engineering
• Systems Analysis and Design
• Virtual Reality
• Browse content in Computing
• Business Applications
• Computer Security
• Computer Games
• Computer Networking and Communications
• Digital Lifestyle
• Graphical and Digital Media Applications
• Operating Systems
• Browse content in Earth Sciences and Geography
• Atmospheric Sciences
• Environmental Geography
• Geology and the Lithosphere
• Maps and Map-making
• Meteorology and Climatology
• Oceanography and Hydrology
• Palaeontology
• Physical Geography and Topography
• Regional Geography
• Soil Science
• Urban Geography
• Browse content in Engineering and Technology
• Agriculture and Farming
• Biological Engineering
• Civil Engineering, Surveying, and Building
• Electronics and Communications Engineering
• Energy Technology
• Engineering (General)
• Environmental Science, Engineering, and Technology
• History of Engineering and Technology
• Mechanical Engineering and Materials
• Technology of Industrial Chemistry
• Transport Technology and Trades
• Browse content in Environmental Science
• Applied Ecology (Environmental Science)
• Conservation of the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Environmental Sustainability
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Environmental Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Environmental Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environmental Science)
• Nuclear Issues (Environmental Science)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Environmental Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Environmental Science)
• History of Science and Technology
• Browse content in Materials Science
• Ceramics and Glasses
• Composite Materials
• Metals, Alloying, and Corrosion
• Nanotechnology
• Browse content in Mathematics
• Applied Mathematics
• Biomathematics and Statistics
• History of Mathematics
• Mathematical Education
• Mathematical Finance
• Mathematical Analysis
• Numerical and Computational Mathematics
• Probability and Statistics
• Pure Mathematics
• Browse content in Neuroscience
• Cognition and Behavioural Neuroscience
• Development of the Nervous System
• Disorders of the Nervous System
• History of Neuroscience
• Invertebrate Neurobiology
• Molecular and Cellular Systems
• Neuroendocrinology and Autonomic Nervous System
• Neuroscientific Techniques
• Sensory and Motor Systems
• Browse content in Physics
• Astronomy and Astrophysics
• Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics
• Biological and Medical Physics
• Classical Mechanics
• Computational Physics
• Condensed Matter Physics
• Electromagnetism, Optics, and Acoustics
• History of Physics
• Mathematical and Statistical Physics
• Measurement Science
• Nuclear Physics
• Particles and Fields
• Plasma Physics
• Quantum Physics
• Relativity and Gravitation
• Semiconductor and Mesoscopic Physics
• Browse content in Psychology
• Affective Sciences
• Clinical Psychology
• Cognitive Psychology
• Cognitive Neuroscience
• Criminal and Forensic Psychology
• Developmental Psychology
• Educational Psychology
• Evolutionary Psychology
• Health Psychology
• History and Systems in Psychology
• Music Psychology
• Neuropsychology
• Organizational Psychology
• Psychological Assessment and Testing
• Psychology of Human-Technology Interaction
• Psychology Professional Development and Training
• Research Methods in Psychology
• Social Psychology
• Browse content in Social Sciences
• Browse content in Anthropology
• Anthropology of Religion
• Human Evolution
• Medical Anthropology
• Physical Anthropology
• Regional Anthropology
• Social and Cultural Anthropology
• Theory and Practice of Anthropology
• Browse content in Business and Management
• Business Strategy
• Business Ethics
• Business History
• Business and Government
• Business and Technology
• Business and the Environment
• Comparative Management
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Entrepreneurship
• Health Management
• Human Resource Management
• Industrial and Employment Relations
• Industry Studies
• Information and Communication Technologies
• International Business
• Knowledge Management
• Management and Management Techniques
• Operations Management
• Organizational Theory and Behaviour
• Pensions and Pension Management
• Public and Nonprofit Management
• Social Issues in Business and Management
• Strategic Management
• Supply Chain Management
• Browse content in Criminology and Criminal Justice
• Criminal Justice
• Criminology
• Forms of Crime
• International and Comparative Criminology
• Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice
• Development Studies
• Browse content in Economics
• Agricultural, Environmental, and Natural Resource Economics
• Asian Economics
• Behavioural Finance
• Behavioural Economics and Neuroeconomics
• Econometrics and Mathematical Economics
• Economic Systems
• Economic History
• Economic Methodology
• Economic Development and Growth
• Financial Markets
• Financial Institutions and Services
• General Economics and Teaching
• Health, Education, and Welfare
• History of Economic Thought
• International Economics
• Labour and Demographic Economics
• Law and Economics
• Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics
• Microeconomics
• Public Economics
• Urban, Rural, and Regional Economics
• Welfare Economics
• Browse content in Education
• Adult Education and Continuous Learning
• Care and Counselling of Students
• Early Childhood and Elementary Education
• Educational Equipment and Technology
• Educational Strategies and Policy
• Higher and Further Education
• Organization and Management of Education
• Philosophy and Theory of Education
• Schools Studies
• Secondary Education
• Teaching of a Specific Subject
• Teaching of Specific Groups and Special Educational Needs
• Teaching Skills and Techniques
• Browse content in Environment
• Applied Ecology (Social Science)
• Climate Change
• Conservation of the Environment (Social Science)
• Environmentalist Thought and Ideology (Social Science)
• Management of Land and Natural Resources (Social Science)
• Natural Disasters (Environment)
• Pollution and Threats to the Environment (Social Science)
• Social Impact of Environmental Issues (Social Science)
• Sustainability
• Browse content in Human Geography
• Cultural Geography
• Economic Geography
• Political Geography
• Browse content in Interdisciplinary Studies
• Communication Studies
• Museums, Libraries, and Information Sciences
• Browse content in Politics
• African Politics
• Asian Politics
• Chinese Politics
• Comparative Politics
• Conflict Politics
• Elections and Electoral Studies
• Environmental Politics
• Ethnic Politics
• European Union
• Foreign Policy
• Gender and Politics
• Human Rights and Politics
• Indian Politics
• International Relations
• International Organization (Politics)
• Irish Politics
• Latin American Politics
• Middle Eastern Politics
• Political Methodology
• Political Communication
• Political Philosophy
• Political Sociology
• Political Behaviour
• Political Economy
• Political Institutions
• Political Theory
• Politics and Law
• Politics of Development
• Public Administration
• Public Policy
• Qualitative Political Methodology
• Quantitative Political Methodology
• Regional Political Studies
• Russian Politics
• Security Studies
• State and Local Government
• UK Politics
• US Politics
• Browse content in Regional and Area Studies
• African Studies
• Asian Studies
• East Asian Studies
• Japanese Studies
• Latin American Studies
• Middle Eastern Studies
• Native American Studies
• Scottish Studies
• Browse content in Research and Information
• Research Methods
• Browse content in Social Work
• Addictions and Substance Misuse
• Adoption and Fostering
• Care of the Elderly
• Child and Adolescent Social Work
• Couple and Family Social Work
• Direct Practice and Clinical Social Work
• Emergency Services
• Human Behaviour and the Social Environment
• International and Global Issues in Social Work
• Mental and Behavioural Health
• Social Justice and Human Rights
• Social Policy and Advocacy
• Social Work and Crime and Justice
• Social Work Macro Practice
• Social Work Practice Settings
• Social Work Research and Evidence-based Practice
• Welfare and Benefit Systems
• Browse content in Sociology
• Childhood Studies
• Community Development
• Comparative and Historical Sociology
• Disability Studies
• Economic Sociology
• Gender and Sexuality
• Gerontology and Ageing
• Health, Illness, and Medicine
• Marriage and the Family
• Migration Studies
• Occupations, Professions, and Work
• Organizations
• Population and Demography
• Race and Ethnicity
• Social Theory
• Social Movements and Social Change
• Social Research and Statistics
• Social Stratification, Inequality, and Mobility
• Sociology of Religion
• Sociology of Education
• Sport and Leisure
• Urban and Rural Studies
• Browse content in Warfare and Defence
• Defence Strategy, Planning, and Research
• Land Forces and Warfare
• Military Administration
• Military Life and Institutions
• Naval Forces and Warfare
• Other Warfare and Defence Issues
• Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution
• Weapons and Equipment

• < Previous chapter
• Next chapter >

3 Conducting a Review of Related Literature

• Published: February 2023
• Cite Icon Cite
• Permissions Icon Permissions

This chapter explores approaches for reviewing and synthesizing research literature. Authors conduct reviews of literature in order to provide a context within which to place their study. A literature review can provide background information necessary for a reader to understand a study. Furthermore, syntheses of findings from related literature will reveal what is known about a topic and allow researchers to identify the gaps or weaknesses in the knowledge base, which can help to establish a rationale for a study. Quantitative, qualitative, and action research studies always include a review of related literature; historical and philosophical studies may not. Modern search engines make finding related literature easy but correspondingly difficult in that they return so many possibilities that it can take considerable time and effort to sort through and identify the most relevant sources. Using a reference management system can save many hours of labor in organizing and formatting references. Organizing information under various headings based on important elements of a study will help the reader understand how previous studies are related to the current study. A literature review should also entail critique; researchers are expected to point out weaknesses in data collection or analysis or discrepancies among various findings. Most important, a researcher must demonstrate how previous research is connected to their own. Perhaps they are attempting to fill in gaps in the literature, extend previous findings, or contradict prevailing notions.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Our books are available by subscription or purchase to libraries and institutions.

• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Lesson 6 - review of related literature

Competency: Selects relevant literature from reputable journals and cites related literature using standard style (APA, MLA, or Chicago Manual of Style), and follows ethical standards in writing related literature and to illustrates and explain conceptual framework.

Review of Related Literature (RRL)

Old definition of RRL

The RRL is the selection aannotation of available documents (both published and unpublished), which contain information, ideas, data and evidence related to the topic that a person proposes to research on.

New definition of RRL

The RRL is the use of ideas in the literature to justify the particular approach to the topic, the selection of methods, and demonstration that this research contributes something new.

The Review of Related Literature (RRL) is an important component of the research process and the research itself.

Two ways of looking at the RRL

Point of view of the:

From the point of view of the researcher:

It helps shape the research as:

Earlier studies help you identify a research problem;

Broaden your knowledge in the research area;

Provides important clues/leads to help you determine the topic of inquiry;

Shows “what is already known” vs. “what needs to be known”;

Provides the foundation and justification for your research problem;

Helps you framing the valid research methodologies, approaches, goals, and research questions for your study; and

Provides clues/leads with regard the theoretical framework and methodological approach .

From the point of view of reader:

It provides the bigger picture:

Shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the proposed study;

Relates the proposed study to the on-going conversation on the topic;

Provides the reader a benchmark for comparing your study with other studies;

Helps the reader identify and appreciate the value-added information of your study (originality).

Tips in Writing RRL

Write your references in 3x5 index cards in APA style; take note of page numbers, keywords, ideas in each reference so that it is easy to go back to. Group together references from:

journals and periodicals

unpublished researches (dissertation/theses)

What to include in the review?

Consider what materials is to be extracted from a previous study or journal article.

Potential points to be “extracted” for RRL:

* Problem being addressed

* Central topic/purpose or theme of the study

* Briefly state information about the sample, subjects of the study

* Review key results/ conclusions of the study

* Methodology- strengths and/ or flaws

To avoid plagiarism:

* Review the literature, do not reproduce it.

* Refrain from copying verbatim what authors and researchers say.

* Paraphrasing the literature in your own words also helps your analysis of the text.

* Make sure that the source of text or idea is also indicated with your notes.

What is Citation?

Broadly, a citation is a reference to a published or unpublished source (not always the original source).

More precisely, a citation is an abbreviated alphanumeric expression embedded in the body of an intellectual work that denotes an entry in the bibliographic references section of the work for the purpose of acknowledging the relevance of the works of others to the topic of discussion at the spot where the citation appears.

Generally, the combination of both the in-body citation and the bibliographic entry constitutes what is commonly thought of as a citation (whereas bibliographic entries by themselves are not).

References to single, machine-readable assertions in electronic scientific articles are known as nano-publications, a form of micro-attribution. Citation has several important purposes:

to uphold intellectual honesty (or avoiding plagiarism)

to attribute prior or unoriginal work and ideas to the correct sources,

to allow the reader to determine independently whether the referenced material supports the author's argument in the claimed way, and

to help the reader gauge the strength and validity of the material the author has used.

Which referencing style is the right one?

There are literally hundreds of different referencing styles from which to choose when you are citing the sources of your research material.

Different academic disciplines have differing priorities of what is important to the subsequent reader of an academic paper, and different publishing houses have differing rules about the citation sources.

A Few of the Common Referencing Styles and their Origins

1. APA stands for American Psychological Association and comes from the association of the same name.

Although originally drawn up for use in psychological journal, the APA style is now widely used in the social sciences, in education, in business, and numerous other disciplines.

2. MLA comes from the Modern Language Association of America and is used mainly in English and the Humanities.

3. Chicago is sometimes referred to as Turabian or Chicago/Turabian.

It comes from the Chicago Manual of Style and the simplified version of it, A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations that Kate Turabian wrote.

Chicago is used mainly in the social sciences, including history, political studies, and theology.

4. Vancouver originally came from the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors which produced the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals following a meeting that was held in Vancouver in 1978.

The Vancouver style is used mainly in the medical sciences.

5. Harvard came originally from The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation published by the Harvard Law Review Association.

The Harvard style and its many variations are used in law, natural sciences, social and behavioral sciences, and medicine.

Why Should be Cited?

1. Citing identifies sources used in a research project

2. It gives credit to those researchers, authors, and writers whose words or ideas you borrow, acknowledging their role in shaping your research

3. It allows others to follow-up on or retrieve this material

4. To avoid charges of plagiarism

What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is:

· The unacknowledged use or appropriation of another person’s words or ideas

· A form of cheating or stealing

· A serious academic offense

When we borrow words or ideas from sources to support our argument or research, we must give proper credit. By crediting our sources, we avoid plagiarism.

If we do not cite a source –intentionally or unintentionally we are guilty of plagiarism.

When should be Cited? When in doubt, give credit to source!

· Many students plagiarize unintentionally.

· Remember, whenever we summarize, paraphrase or quote another author’s material, we must properly credit our source.

· If we are using another person’s idea, we must also cite our source.

· In any of these cases, must credit to source.

Citations, Paraphrasing, and References Using APA 7 th Edition

· APA Style uses the author-date citation system, in which a brief in-text citation direct readers to a full reference list entry.

· The in-text citation appears within the body of the paper (or in a table, figure, footnote, or appendix) and briefly identifies the cited work by its author and date of publication.

· This enables readers to locate the corresponding entry in the alphabetical reference lists at the end of the paper.

· Each work cited must appear n the reference list, and each work in the reference list must be cited in the text (or in a table, figure, footnote, or appendix).

· Both paraphrases and quotations (discourage to use) require citations.

Paraphrasing

· Restates another’s idea (or your own previously published idea) in your own words.

· Allows you to summarize and synthesize information from one or more sources, focus on significant information, and compare and contrast relevant details.

· Requires you to cite the original work using either the narrative or parenthetical citation format.

· Are not the same as Works Cited or Bibliography

· Have four elements: the author, date, title, and source.

* Author: who is responsible for this work?

* Date: when was this work published?

* Title: what is this work called?

* Source: where can I retrieve this work?

What is an In-Text Citation?

In-text citations are citations that appear in the body of an essay or paper. In-text citations have two formats - narrative and parenthetical:

Narrative citations : Author last name/s are included in the text as part of the sentence. The publication year and page number (if applicable) follows in parentheses. The author’s last name can be included any place in the sentence where it makes sense.

Parenthetical citations : Author last name/s and publication year and page number (if applicable) appear in parentheses. A parenthetical citation can appear within or at the end of a sentence.

Narrative citations

* In a narrative citation, the author's name appears in the sentence and not in parentheses.

Example: Walters (2003) wrote that most people tend to follow the path of least resistance.

* When the name of the author appears in a sentence, the year of publication, if available, follows it. If the year of publication is not available, n.d. (no date) is used instead.

Example: Johnson and Travers (2016) discussed the causes of this disaster, while Marston (n.d.) focused on the consequences.

* Page numbers must be used inside the parentheses after a direct quote (a direct quote is a word-for-word quote that is placed within quotation marks). If page numbers are not available, other locators are used, such as paragraph numbers

Example: (para. 10). Page or paragraph numbers are not required when paraphrasing.

* Book titles and the titles of other standalone works are formatted in title case and in italics. Example: Little House in the Big Woods.

* Journal article titles and the titles of other parts of works are formatted in title case and in quotation marks. Example: "The Iridescent History of Light."

Parenthetical citations

* A parenthetical citation is one where all the required information is placed in parentheses.

* In APA style, the information in parentheses consists of the last name(s) of the author(s), the year of publication, and page or paragraph number(s) in the case of an exact quote. Examples: (Smith, 2017); (James, Vargas, & Rhodes, n.d.).

If there is no author, then the title of the article is placed in parentheses, followed by the year (or by n.d. if there is no date).

Example: ("The History of the Circus," 1997).

For long titles, a shortened form of the title is used in parentheses. For example , the title "Milk Chocolate Is Better Than Dark, the End," would be shortened in the parentheses to "Milk Chocolate."

In-text citations and the References list

In-text citations (narrative or parenthetical) must parallel the entries on the References list. She the examples below -- parallel elements are in maroon.

APA 7 th Edition Reference Examples

The American Psychological Association (APA) have provided new manual as their 7 th edition. Here are some of the new guidelines to help researcher to properly format the reference list in APA Style:

Begin with the reference list on a new page after the text.

Place the section label “References” in bold at the top of the page, centered.

Order the reference list entries alphabetically by author.

Double-space the entire reference list (both within and between entries).

Apply a hanging indent of 0.5 in. to each reference list entry, meaning that the first line of the reference is flush left and subsequent lines are indented 0.5 in. from the left margin. Use the paragraph-formatting function of your word-processing program to apply the hanging indent.

Link for In-text Citation

Writing an Annotated Bibliography

APA Formatting Cover Page

Introduction to Citation Styles: APA 7th Edition

APA 7th Edition (In-text and Reference Citations)

For more information about the change of the APA format from 6th to 7th edition, click this link: library.carleton.ca/sites/default/files/help/APA%20Notable%20Changes%206th%20to%207th.pdf

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• CBE Life Sci Educ
• v.21(3); Fall 2022

Literature Reviews, Theoretical Frameworks, and Conceptual Frameworks: An Introduction for New Biology Education Researchers

Julie a. luft.

† Department of Mathematics, Social Studies, and Science Education, Mary Frances Early College of Education, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602-7124

Sophia Jeong

‡ Department of Teaching & Learning, College of Education & Human Ecology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210

Robert Idsardi

§ Department of Biology, Eastern Washington University, Cheney, WA 99004

Grant Gardner

∥ Department of Biology, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, TN 37132

Associated Data

To frame their work, biology education researchers need to consider the role of literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks as critical elements of the research and writing process. However, these elements can be confusing for scholars new to education research. This Research Methods article is designed to provide an overview of each of these elements and delineate the purpose of each in the educational research process. We describe what biology education researchers should consider as they conduct literature reviews, identify theoretical frameworks, and construct conceptual frameworks. Clarifying these different components of educational research studies can be helpful to new biology education researchers and the biology education research community at large in situating their work in the broader scholarly literature.

INTRODUCTION

Discipline-based education research (DBER) involves the purposeful and situated study of teaching and learning in specific disciplinary areas ( Singer et al. , 2012 ). Studies in DBER are guided by research questions that reflect disciplines’ priorities and worldviews. Researchers can use quantitative data, qualitative data, or both to answer these research questions through a variety of methodological traditions. Across all methodologies, there are different methods associated with planning and conducting educational research studies that include the use of surveys, interviews, observations, artifacts, or instruments. Ensuring the coherence of these elements to the discipline’s perspective also involves situating the work in the broader scholarly literature. The tools for doing this include literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks. However, the purpose and function of each of these elements is often confusing to new education researchers. The goal of this article is to introduce new biology education researchers to these three important elements important in DBER scholarship and the broader educational literature.

The first element we discuss is a review of research (literature reviews), which highlights the need for a specific research question, study problem, or topic of investigation. Literature reviews situate the relevance of the study within a topic and a field. The process may seem familiar to science researchers entering DBER fields, but new researchers may still struggle in conducting the review. Booth et al. (2016b) highlight some of the challenges novice education researchers face when conducting a review of literature. They point out that novice researchers struggle in deciding how to focus the review, determining the scope of articles needed in the review, and knowing how to be critical of the articles in the review. Overcoming these challenges (and others) can help novice researchers construct a sound literature review that can inform the design of the study and help ensure the work makes a contribution to the field.

The second and third highlighted elements are theoretical and conceptual frameworks. These guide biology education research (BER) studies, and may be less familiar to science researchers. These elements are important in shaping the construction of new knowledge. Theoretical frameworks offer a way to explain and interpret the studied phenomenon, while conceptual frameworks clarify assumptions about the studied phenomenon. Despite the importance of these constructs in educational research, biology educational researchers have noted the limited use of theoretical or conceptual frameworks in published work ( DeHaan, 2011 ; Dirks, 2011 ; Lo et al. , 2019 ). In reviewing articles published in CBE—Life Sciences Education ( LSE ) between 2015 and 2019, we found that fewer than 25% of the research articles had a theoretical or conceptual framework (see the Supplemental Information), and at times there was an inconsistent use of theoretical and conceptual frameworks. Clearly, these frameworks are challenging for published biology education researchers, which suggests the importance of providing some initial guidance to new biology education researchers.

Fortunately, educational researchers have increased their explicit use of these frameworks over time, and this is influencing educational research in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. For instance, a quick search for theoretical or conceptual frameworks in the abstracts of articles in Educational Research Complete (a common database for educational research) in STEM fields demonstrates a dramatic change over the last 20 years: from only 778 articles published between 2000 and 2010 to 5703 articles published between 2010 and 2020, a more than sevenfold increase. Greater recognition of the importance of these frameworks is contributing to DBER authors being more explicit about such frameworks in their studies.

Collectively, literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks work to guide methodological decisions and the elucidation of important findings. Each offers a different perspective on the problem of study and is an essential element in all forms of educational research. As new researchers seek to learn about these elements, they will find different resources, a variety of perspectives, and many suggestions about the construction and use of these elements. The wide range of available information can overwhelm the new researcher who just wants to learn the distinction between these elements or how to craft them adequately.

Our goal in writing this paper is not to offer specific advice about how to write these sections in scholarly work. Instead, we wanted to introduce these elements to those who are new to BER and who are interested in better distinguishing one from the other. In this paper, we share the purpose of each element in BER scholarship, along with important points on its construction. We also provide references for additional resources that may be beneficial to better understanding each element. Table 1 summarizes the key distinctions among these elements.

Comparison of literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual reviews

This article is written for the new biology education researcher who is just learning about these different elements or for scientists looking to become more involved in BER. It is a result of our own work as science education and biology education researchers, whether as graduate students and postdoctoral scholars or newly hired and established faculty members. This is the article we wish had been available as we started to learn about these elements or discussed them with new educational researchers in biology.

LITERATURE REVIEWS

Purpose of a literature review.

A literature review is foundational to any research study in education or science. In education, a well-conceptualized and well-executed review provides a summary of the research that has already been done on a specific topic and identifies questions that remain to be answered, thus illustrating the current research project’s potential contribution to the field and the reasoning behind the methodological approach selected for the study ( Maxwell, 2012 ). BER is an evolving disciplinary area that is redefining areas of conceptual emphasis as well as orientations toward teaching and learning (e.g., Labov et al. , 2010 ; American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2011 ; Nehm, 2019 ). As a result, building comprehensive, critical, purposeful, and concise literature reviews can be a challenge for new biology education researchers.

Building Literature Reviews

There are different ways to approach and construct a literature review. Booth et al. (2016a) provide an overview that includes, for example, scoping reviews, which are focused only on notable studies and use a basic method of analysis, and integrative reviews, which are the result of exhaustive literature searches across different genres. Underlying each of these different review processes are attention to the s earch process, a ppraisa l of articles, s ynthesis of the literature, and a nalysis: SALSA ( Booth et al. , 2016a ). This useful acronym can help the researcher focus on the process while building a specific type of review.

However, new educational researchers often have questions about literature reviews that are foundational to SALSA or other approaches. Common questions concern determining which literature pertains to the topic of study or the role of the literature review in the design of the study. This section addresses such questions broadly while providing general guidance for writing a narrative literature review that evaluates the most pertinent studies.

The literature review process should begin before the research is conducted. As Boote and Beile (2005 , p. 3) suggested, researchers should be “scholars before researchers.” They point out that having a good working knowledge of the proposed topic helps illuminate avenues of study. Some subject areas have a deep body of work to read and reflect upon, providing a strong foundation for developing the research question(s). For instance, the teaching and learning of evolution is an area of long-standing interest in the BER community, generating many studies (e.g., Perry et al. , 2008 ; Barnes and Brownell, 2016 ) and reviews of research (e.g., Sickel and Friedrichsen, 2013 ; Ziadie and Andrews, 2018 ). Emerging areas of BER include the affective domain, issues of transfer, and metacognition ( Singer et al. , 2012 ). Many studies in these areas are transdisciplinary and not always specific to biology education (e.g., Rodrigo-Peiris et al. , 2018 ; Kolpikova et al. , 2019 ). These newer areas may require reading outside BER; fortunately, summaries of some of these topics can be found in the Current Insights section of the LSE website.

In focusing on a specific problem within a broader research strand, a new researcher will likely need to examine research outside BER. Depending upon the area of study, the expanded reading list might involve a mix of BER, DBER, and educational research studies. Determining the scope of the reading is not always straightforward. A simple way to focus one’s reading is to create a “summary phrase” or “research nugget,” which is a very brief descriptive statement about the study. It should focus on the essence of the study, for example, “first-year nonmajor students’ understanding of evolution,” “metacognitive prompts to enhance learning during biochemistry,” or “instructors’ inquiry-based instructional practices after professional development programming.” This type of phrase should help a new researcher identify two or more areas to review that pertain to the study. Focusing on recent research in the last 5 years is a good first step. Additional studies can be identified by reading relevant works referenced in those articles. It is also important to read seminal studies that are more than 5 years old. Reading a range of studies should give the researcher the necessary command of the subject in order to suggest a research question.

Given that the research question(s) arise from the literature review, the review should also substantiate the selected methodological approach. The review and research question(s) guide the researcher in determining how to collect and analyze data. Often the methodological approach used in a study is selected to contribute knowledge that expands upon what has been published previously about the topic (see Institute of Education Sciences and National Science Foundation, 2013 ). An emerging topic of study may need an exploratory approach that allows for a description of the phenomenon and development of a potential theory. This could, but not necessarily, require a methodological approach that uses interviews, observations, surveys, or other instruments. An extensively studied topic may call for the additional understanding of specific factors or variables; this type of study would be well suited to a verification or a causal research design. These could entail a methodological approach that uses valid and reliable instruments, observations, or interviews to determine an effect in the studied event. In either of these examples, the researcher(s) may use a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods methodological approach.

Even with a good research question, there is still more reading to be done. The complexity and focus of the research question dictates the depth and breadth of the literature to be examined. Questions that connect multiple topics can require broad literature reviews. For instance, a study that explores the impact of a biology faculty learning community on the inquiry instruction of faculty could have the following review areas: learning communities among biology faculty, inquiry instruction among biology faculty, and inquiry instruction among biology faculty as a result of professional learning. Biology education researchers need to consider whether their literature review requires studies from different disciplines within or outside DBER. For the example given, it would be fruitful to look at research focused on learning communities with faculty in STEM fields or in general education fields that result in instructional change. It is important not to be too narrow or too broad when reading. When the conclusions of articles start to sound similar or no new insights are gained, the researcher likely has a good foundation for a literature review. This level of reading should allow the researcher to demonstrate a mastery in understanding the researched topic, explain the suitability of the proposed research approach, and point to the need for the refined research question(s).

The literature review should include the researcher’s evaluation and critique of the selected studies. A researcher may have a large collection of studies, but not all of the studies will follow standards important in the reporting of empirical work in the social sciences. The American Educational Research Association ( Duran et al. , 2006 ), for example, offers a general discussion about standards for such work: an adequate review of research informing the study, the existence of sound and appropriate data collection and analysis methods, and appropriate conclusions that do not overstep or underexplore the analyzed data. The Institute of Education Sciences and National Science Foundation (2013) also offer Common Guidelines for Education Research and Development that can be used to evaluate collected studies.

Because not all journals adhere to such standards, it is important that a researcher review each study to determine the quality of published research, per the guidelines suggested earlier. In some instances, the research may be fatally flawed. Examples of such flaws include data that do not pertain to the question, a lack of discussion about the data collection, poorly constructed instruments, or an inadequate analysis. These types of errors result in studies that are incomplete, error-laden, or inaccurate and should be excluded from the review. Most studies have limitations, and the author(s) often make them explicit. For instance, there may be an instructor effect, recognized bias in the analysis, or issues with the sample population. Limitations are usually addressed by the research team in some way to ensure a sound and acceptable research process. Occasionally, the limitations associated with the study can be significant and not addressed adequately, which leaves a consequential decision in the hands of the researcher. Providing critiques of studies in the literature review process gives the reader confidence that the researcher has carefully examined relevant work in preparation for the study and, ultimately, the manuscript.

A solid literature review clearly anchors the proposed study in the field and connects the research question(s), the methodological approach, and the discussion. Reviewing extant research leads to research questions that will contribute to what is known in the field. By summarizing what is known, the literature review points to what needs to be known, which in turn guides decisions about methodology. Finally, notable findings of the new study are discussed in reference to those described in the literature review.

Within published BER studies, literature reviews can be placed in different locations in an article. When included in the introductory section of the study, the first few paragraphs of the manuscript set the stage, with the literature review following the opening paragraphs. Cooper et al. (2019) illustrate this approach in their study of course-based undergraduate research experiences (CUREs). An introduction discussing the potential of CURES is followed by an analysis of the existing literature relevant to the design of CUREs that allows for novel student discoveries. Within this review, the authors point out contradictory findings among research on novel student discoveries. This clarifies the need for their study, which is described and highlighted through specific research aims.

A literature reviews can also make up a separate section in a paper. For example, the introduction to Todd et al. (2019) illustrates the need for their research topic by highlighting the potential of learning progressions (LPs) and suggesting that LPs may help mitigate learning loss in genetics. At the end of the introduction, the authors state their specific research questions. The review of literature following this opening section comprises two subsections. One focuses on learning loss in general and examines a variety of studies and meta-analyses from the disciplines of medical education, mathematics, and reading. The second section focuses specifically on LPs in genetics and highlights student learning in the midst of LPs. These separate reviews provide insights into the stated research question.

Suggestions and Advice

A well-conceptualized, comprehensive, and critical literature review reveals the understanding of the topic that the researcher brings to the study. Literature reviews should not be so big that there is no clear area of focus; nor should they be so narrow that no real research question arises. The task for a researcher is to craft an efficient literature review that offers a critical analysis of published work, articulates the need for the study, guides the methodological approach to the topic of study, and provides an adequate foundation for the discussion of the findings.

In our own writing of literature reviews, there are often many drafts. An early draft may seem well suited to the study because the need for and approach to the study are well described. However, as the results of the study are analyzed and findings begin to emerge, the existing literature review may be inadequate and need revision. The need for an expanded discussion about the research area can result in the inclusion of new studies that support the explanation of a potential finding. The literature review may also prove to be too broad. Refocusing on a specific area allows for more contemplation of a finding.

It should be noted that there are different types of literature reviews, and many books and articles have been written about the different ways to embark on these types of reviews. Among these different resources, the following may be helpful in considering how to refine the review process for scholarly journals:

• Booth, A., Sutton, A., & Papaioannou, D. (2016a). Systemic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book addresses different types of literature reviews and offers important suggestions pertaining to defining the scope of the literature review and assessing extant studies.
• Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., Williams, J. M., Bizup, J., & Fitzgerald, W. T. (2016b). The craft of research (4th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. This book can help the novice consider how to make the case for an area of study. While this book is not specifically about literature reviews, it offers suggestions about making the case for your study.
• Galvan, J. L., & Galvan, M. C. (2017). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (7th ed.). Routledge. This book offers guidance on writing different types of literature reviews. For the novice researcher, there are useful suggestions for creating coherent literature reviews.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORKS

Purpose of theoretical frameworks.

As new education researchers may be less familiar with theoretical frameworks than with literature reviews, this discussion begins with an analogy. Envision a biologist, chemist, and physicist examining together the dramatic effect of a fog tsunami over the ocean. A biologist gazing at this phenomenon may be concerned with the effect of fog on various species. A chemist may be interested in the chemical composition of the fog as water vapor condenses around bits of salt. A physicist may be focused on the refraction of light to make fog appear to be “sitting” above the ocean. While observing the same “objective event,” the scientists are operating under different theoretical frameworks that provide a particular perspective or “lens” for the interpretation of the phenomenon. Each of these scientists brings specialized knowledge, experiences, and values to this phenomenon, and these influence the interpretation of the phenomenon. The scientists’ theoretical frameworks influence how they design and carry out their studies and interpret their data.

Within an educational study, a theoretical framework helps to explain a phenomenon through a particular lens and challenges and extends existing knowledge within the limitations of that lens. Theoretical frameworks are explicitly stated by an educational researcher in the paper’s framework, theory, or relevant literature section. The framework shapes the types of questions asked, guides the method by which data are collected and analyzed, and informs the discussion of the results of the study. It also reveals the researcher’s subjectivities, for example, values, social experience, and viewpoint ( Allen, 2017 ). It is essential that a novice researcher learn to explicitly state a theoretical framework, because all research questions are being asked from the researcher’s implicit or explicit assumptions of a phenomenon of interest ( Schwandt, 2000 ).

Selecting Theoretical Frameworks

Theoretical frameworks are one of the most contemplated elements in our work in educational research. In this section, we share three important considerations for new scholars selecting a theoretical framework.

The first step in identifying a theoretical framework involves reflecting on the phenomenon within the study and the assumptions aligned with the phenomenon. The phenomenon involves the studied event. There are many possibilities, for example, student learning, instructional approach, or group organization. A researcher holds assumptions about how the phenomenon will be effected, influenced, changed, or portrayed. It is ultimately the researcher’s assumption(s) about the phenomenon that aligns with a theoretical framework. An example can help illustrate how a researcher’s reflection on the phenomenon and acknowledgment of assumptions can result in the identification of a theoretical framework.

In our example, a biology education researcher may be interested in exploring how students’ learning of difficult biological concepts can be supported by the interactions of group members. The phenomenon of interest is the interactions among the peers, and the researcher assumes that more knowledgeable students are important in supporting the learning of the group. As a result, the researcher may draw on Vygotsky’s (1978) sociocultural theory of learning and development that is focused on the phenomenon of student learning in a social setting. This theory posits the critical nature of interactions among students and between students and teachers in the process of building knowledge. A researcher drawing upon this framework holds the assumption that learning is a dynamic social process involving questions and explanations among students in the classroom and that more knowledgeable peers play an important part in the process of building conceptual knowledge.

It is important to state at this point that there are many different theoretical frameworks. Some frameworks focus on learning and knowing, while other theoretical frameworks focus on equity, empowerment, or discourse. Some frameworks are well articulated, and others are still being refined. For a new researcher, it can be challenging to find a theoretical framework. Two of the best ways to look for theoretical frameworks is through published works that highlight different frameworks.

When a theoretical framework is selected, it should clearly connect to all parts of the study. The framework should augment the study by adding a perspective that provides greater insights into the phenomenon. It should clearly align with the studies described in the literature review. For instance, a framework focused on learning would correspond to research that reported different learning outcomes for similar studies. The methods for data collection and analysis should also correspond to the framework. For instance, a study about instructional interventions could use a theoretical framework concerned with learning and could collect data about the effect of the intervention on what is learned. When the data are analyzed, the theoretical framework should provide added meaning to the findings, and the findings should align with the theoretical framework.

A study by Jensen and Lawson (2011) provides an example of how a theoretical framework connects different parts of the study. They compared undergraduate biology students in heterogeneous and homogeneous groups over the course of a semester. Jensen and Lawson (2011) assumed that learning involved collaboration and more knowledgeable peers, which made Vygotsky’s (1978) theory a good fit for their study. They predicted that students in heterogeneous groups would experience greater improvement in their reasoning abilities and science achievements with much of the learning guided by the more knowledgeable peers.

In the enactment of the study, they collected data about the instruction in traditional and inquiry-oriented classes, while the students worked in homogeneous or heterogeneous groups. To determine the effect of working in groups, the authors also measured students’ reasoning abilities and achievement. Each data-collection and analysis decision connected to understanding the influence of collaborative work.

Their findings highlighted aspects of Vygotsky’s (1978) theory of learning. One finding, for instance, posited that inquiry instruction, as a whole, resulted in reasoning and achievement gains. This links to Vygotsky (1978) , because inquiry instruction involves interactions among group members. A more nuanced finding was that group composition had a conditional effect. Heterogeneous groups performed better with more traditional and didactic instruction, regardless of the reasoning ability of the group members. Homogeneous groups worked better during interaction-rich activities for students with low reasoning ability. The authors attributed the variation to the different types of helping behaviors of students. High-performing students provided the answers, while students with low reasoning ability had to work collectively through the material. In terms of Vygotsky (1978) , this finding provided new insights into the learning context in which productive interactions can occur for students.

Another consideration in the selection and use of a theoretical framework pertains to its orientation to the study. This can result in the theoretical framework prioritizing individuals, institutions, and/or policies ( Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). Frameworks that connect to individuals, for instance, could contribute to understanding their actions, learning, or knowledge. Institutional frameworks, on the other hand, offer insights into how institutions, organizations, or groups can influence individuals or materials. Policy theories provide ways to understand how national or local policies can dictate an emphasis on outcomes or instructional design. These different types of frameworks highlight different aspects in an educational setting, which influences the design of the study and the collection of data. In addition, these different frameworks offer a way to make sense of the data. Aligning the data collection and analysis with the framework ensures that a study is coherent and can contribute to the field.

New understandings emerge when different theoretical frameworks are used. For instance, Ebert-May et al. (2015) prioritized the individual level within conceptual change theory (see Posner et al. , 1982 ). In this theory, an individual’s knowledge changes when it no longer fits the phenomenon. Ebert-May et al. (2015) designed a professional development program challenging biology postdoctoral scholars’ existing conceptions of teaching. The authors reported that the biology postdoctoral scholars’ teaching practices became more student-centered as they were challenged to explain their instructional decision making. According to the theory, the biology postdoctoral scholars’ dissatisfaction in their descriptions of teaching and learning initiated change in their knowledge and instruction. These results reveal how conceptual change theory can explain the learning of participants and guide the design of professional development programming.

The communities of practice (CoP) theoretical framework ( Lave, 1988 ; Wenger, 1998 ) prioritizes the institutional level , suggesting that learning occurs when individuals learn from and contribute to the communities in which they reside. Grounded in the assumption of community learning, the literature on CoP suggests that, as individuals interact regularly with the other members of their group, they learn about the rules, roles, and goals of the community ( Allee, 2000 ). A study conducted by Gehrke and Kezar (2017) used the CoP framework to understand organizational change by examining the involvement of individual faculty engaged in a cross-institutional CoP focused on changing the instructional practice of faculty at each institution. In the CoP, faculty members were involved in enhancing instructional materials within their department, which aligned with an overarching goal of instituting instruction that embraced active learning. Not surprisingly, Gehrke and Kezar (2017) revealed that faculty who perceived the community culture as important in their work cultivated institutional change. Furthermore, they found that institutional change was sustained when key leaders served as mentors and provided support for faculty, and as faculty themselves developed into leaders. This study reveals the complexity of individual roles in a COP in order to support institutional instructional change.

It is important to explicitly state the theoretical framework used in a study, but elucidating a theoretical framework can be challenging for a new educational researcher. The literature review can help to identify an applicable theoretical framework. Focal areas of the review or central terms often connect to assumptions and assertions associated with the framework that pertain to the phenomenon of interest. Another way to identify a theoretical framework is self-reflection by the researcher on personal beliefs and understandings about the nature of knowledge the researcher brings to the study ( Lysaght, 2011 ). In stating one’s beliefs and understandings related to the study (e.g., students construct their knowledge, instructional materials support learning), an orientation becomes evident that will suggest a particular theoretical framework. Theoretical frameworks are not arbitrary , but purposefully selected.

With experience, a researcher may find expanded roles for theoretical frameworks. Researchers may revise an existing framework that has limited explanatory power, or they may decide there is a need to develop a new theoretical framework. These frameworks can emerge from a current study or the need to explain a phenomenon in a new way. Researchers may also find that multiple theoretical frameworks are necessary to frame and explore a problem, as different frameworks can provide different insights into a problem.

Finally, it is important to recognize that choosing “x” theoretical framework does not necessarily mean a researcher chooses “y” methodology and so on, nor is there a clear-cut, linear process in selecting a theoretical framework for one’s study. In part, the nonlinear process of identifying a theoretical framework is what makes understanding and using theoretical frameworks challenging. For the novice scholar, contemplating and understanding theoretical frameworks is essential. Fortunately, there are articles and books that can help:

• Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book provides an overview of theoretical frameworks in general educational research.
• Ding, L. (2019). Theoretical perspectives of quantitative physics education research. Physical Review Physics Education Research , 15 (2), 020101-1–020101-13. This paper illustrates how a DBER field can use theoretical frameworks.
• Nehm, R. (2019). Biology education research: Building integrative frameworks for teaching and learning about living systems. Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research , 1 , ar15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0017-6 . This paper articulates the need for studies in BER to explicitly state theoretical frameworks and provides examples of potential studies.
• Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice . Sage. This book also provides an overview of theoretical frameworks, but for both research and evaluation.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Purpose of a conceptual framework.

A conceptual framework is a description of the way a researcher understands the factors and/or variables that are involved in the study and their relationships to one another. The purpose of a conceptual framework is to articulate the concepts under study using relevant literature ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ) and to clarify the presumed relationships among those concepts ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ; Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). Conceptual frameworks are different from theoretical frameworks in both their breadth and grounding in established findings. Whereas a theoretical framework articulates the lens through which a researcher views the work, the conceptual framework is often more mechanistic and malleable.

Conceptual frameworks are broader, encompassing both established theories (i.e., theoretical frameworks) and the researchers’ own emergent ideas. Emergent ideas, for example, may be rooted in informal and/or unpublished observations from experience. These emergent ideas would not be considered a “theory” if they are not yet tested, supported by systematically collected evidence, and peer reviewed. However, they do still play an important role in the way researchers approach their studies. The conceptual framework allows authors to clearly describe their emergent ideas so that connections among ideas in the study and the significance of the study are apparent to readers.

Constructing Conceptual Frameworks

Including a conceptual framework in a research study is important, but researchers often opt to include either a conceptual or a theoretical framework. Either may be adequate, but both provide greater insight into the research approach. For instance, a research team plans to test a novel component of an existing theory. In their study, they describe the existing theoretical framework that informs their work and then present their own conceptual framework. Within this conceptual framework, specific topics portray emergent ideas that are related to the theory. Describing both frameworks allows readers to better understand the researchers’ assumptions, orientations, and understanding of concepts being investigated. For example, Connolly et al. (2018) included a conceptual framework that described how they applied a theoretical framework of social cognitive career theory (SCCT) to their study on teaching programs for doctoral students. In their conceptual framework, the authors described SCCT, explained how it applied to the investigation, and drew upon results from previous studies to justify the proposed connections between the theory and their emergent ideas.

In some cases, authors may be able to sufficiently describe their conceptualization of the phenomenon under study in an introduction alone, without a separate conceptual framework section. However, incomplete descriptions of how the researchers conceptualize the components of the study may limit the significance of the study by making the research less intelligible to readers. This is especially problematic when studying topics in which researchers use the same terms for different constructs or different terms for similar and overlapping constructs (e.g., inquiry, teacher beliefs, pedagogical content knowledge, or active learning). Authors must describe their conceptualization of a construct if the research is to be understandable and useful.

There are some key areas to consider regarding the inclusion of a conceptual framework in a study. To begin with, it is important to recognize that conceptual frameworks are constructed by the researchers conducting the study ( Rocco and Plakhotnik, 2009 ; Maxwell, 2012 ). This is different from theoretical frameworks that are often taken from established literature. Researchers should bring together ideas from the literature, but they may be influenced by their own experiences as a student and/or instructor, the shared experiences of others, or thought experiments as they construct a description, model, or representation of their understanding of the phenomenon under study. This is an exercise in intellectual organization and clarity that often considers what is learned, known, and experienced. The conceptual framework makes these constructs explicitly visible to readers, who may have different understandings of the phenomenon based on their prior knowledge and experience. There is no single method to go about this intellectual work.

Reeves et al. (2016) is an example of an article that proposed a conceptual framework about graduate teaching assistant professional development evaluation and research. The authors used existing literature to create a novel framework that filled a gap in current research and practice related to the training of graduate teaching assistants. This conceptual framework can guide the systematic collection of data by other researchers because the framework describes the relationships among various factors that influence teaching and learning. The Reeves et al. (2016) conceptual framework may be modified as additional data are collected and analyzed by other researchers. This is not uncommon, as conceptual frameworks can serve as catalysts for concerted research efforts that systematically explore a phenomenon (e.g., Reynolds et al. , 2012 ; Brownell and Kloser, 2015 ).

Sabel et al. (2017) used a conceptual framework in their exploration of how scaffolds, an external factor, interact with internal factors to support student learning. Their conceptual framework integrated principles from two theoretical frameworks, self-regulated learning and metacognition, to illustrate how the research team conceptualized students’ use of scaffolds in their learning ( Figure 1 ). Sabel et al. (2017) created this model using their interpretations of these two frameworks in the context of their teaching.

Conceptual framework from Sabel et al. (2017) .

A conceptual framework should describe the relationship among components of the investigation ( Anfara and Mertz, 2014 ). These relationships should guide the researcher’s methods of approaching the study ( Miles et al. , 2014 ) and inform both the data to be collected and how those data should be analyzed. Explicitly describing the connections among the ideas allows the researcher to justify the importance of the study and the rigor of the research design. Just as importantly, these frameworks help readers understand why certain components of a system were not explored in the study. This is a challenge in education research, which is rooted in complex environments with many variables that are difficult to control.

For example, Sabel et al. (2017) stated: “Scaffolds, such as enhanced answer keys and reflection questions, can help students and instructors bridge the external and internal factors and support learning” (p. 3). They connected the scaffolds in the study to the three dimensions of metacognition and the eventual transformation of existing ideas into new or revised ideas. Their framework provides a rationale for focusing on how students use two different scaffolds, and not on other factors that may influence a student’s success (self-efficacy, use of active learning, exam format, etc.).

In constructing conceptual frameworks, researchers should address needed areas of study and/or contradictions discovered in literature reviews. By attending to these areas, researchers can strengthen their arguments for the importance of a study. For instance, conceptual frameworks can address how the current study will fill gaps in the research, resolve contradictions in existing literature, or suggest a new area of study. While a literature review describes what is known and not known about the phenomenon, the conceptual framework leverages these gaps in describing the current study ( Maxwell, 2012 ). In the example of Sabel et al. (2017) , the authors indicated there was a gap in the literature regarding how scaffolds engage students in metacognition to promote learning in large classes. Their study helps fill that gap by describing how scaffolds can support students in the three dimensions of metacognition: intelligibility, plausibility, and wide applicability. In another example, Lane (2016) integrated research from science identity, the ethic of care, the sense of belonging, and an expertise model of student success to form a conceptual framework that addressed the critiques of other frameworks. In a more recent example, Sbeglia et al. (2021) illustrated how a conceptual framework influences the methodological choices and inferences in studies by educational researchers.

Sometimes researchers draw upon the conceptual frameworks of other researchers. When a researcher’s conceptual framework closely aligns with an existing framework, the discussion may be brief. For example, Ghee et al. (2016) referred to portions of SCCT as their conceptual framework to explain the significance of their work on students’ self-efficacy and career interests. Because the authors’ conceptualization of this phenomenon aligned with a previously described framework, they briefly mentioned the conceptual framework and provided additional citations that provided more detail for the readers.

Within both the BER and the broader DBER communities, conceptual frameworks have been used to describe different constructs. For example, some researchers have used the term “conceptual framework” to describe students’ conceptual understandings of a biological phenomenon. This is distinct from a researcher’s conceptual framework of the educational phenomenon under investigation, which may also need to be explicitly described in the article. Other studies have presented a research logic model or flowchart of the research design as a conceptual framework. These constructions can be quite valuable in helping readers understand the data-collection and analysis process. However, a model depicting the study design does not serve the same role as a conceptual framework. Researchers need to avoid conflating these constructs by differentiating the researchers’ conceptual framework that guides the study from the research design, when applicable.

Explicitly describing conceptual frameworks is essential in depicting the focus of the study. We have found that being explicit in a conceptual framework means using accepted terminology, referencing prior work, and clearly noting connections between terms. This description can also highlight gaps in the literature or suggest potential contributions to the field of study. A well-elucidated conceptual framework can suggest additional studies that may be warranted. This can also spur other researchers to consider how they would approach the examination of a phenomenon and could result in a revised conceptual framework.

It can be challenging to create conceptual frameworks, but they are important. Below are two resources that could be helpful in constructing and presenting conceptual frameworks in educational research:

• Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Chapter 3 in this book describes how to construct conceptual frameworks.
• Ravitch, S. M., & Riggan, M. (2016). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide research . Los Angeles, CA: Sage. This book explains how conceptual frameworks guide the research questions, data collection, data analyses, and interpretation of results.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks are all important in DBER and BER. Robust literature reviews reinforce the importance of a study. Theoretical frameworks connect the study to the base of knowledge in educational theory and specify the researcher’s assumptions. Conceptual frameworks allow researchers to explicitly describe their conceptualization of the relationships among the components of the phenomenon under study. Table 1 provides a general overview of these components in order to assist biology education researchers in thinking about these elements.

It is important to emphasize that these different elements are intertwined. When these elements are aligned and complement one another, the study is coherent, and the study findings contribute to knowledge in the field. When literature reviews, theoretical frameworks, and conceptual frameworks are disconnected from one another, the study suffers. The point of the study is lost, suggested findings are unsupported, or important conclusions are invisible to the researcher. In addition, this misalignment may be costly in terms of time and money.

Conducting a literature review, selecting a theoretical framework, and building a conceptual framework are some of the most difficult elements of a research study. It takes time to understand the relevant research, identify a theoretical framework that provides important insights into the study, and formulate a conceptual framework that organizes the finding. In the research process, there is often a constant back and forth among these elements as the study evolves. With an ongoing refinement of the review of literature, clarification of the theoretical framework, and articulation of a conceptual framework, a sound study can emerge that makes a contribution to the field. This is the goal of BER and education research.

Supplementary Material

• Allee, V. (2000). Knowledge networks and communities of learning . OD Practitioner , 32 ( 4 ), 4–13. [ Google Scholar ]
• Allen, M. (2017). The Sage encyclopedia of communication research methods (Vols. 1–4 ). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. 10.4135/9781483381411 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• American Association for the Advancement of Science. (2011). Vision and change in undergraduate biology education: A call to action . Washington, DC. [ Google Scholar ]
• Anfara, V. A., Mertz, N. T. (2014). Setting the stage . In Anfara, V. A., Mertz, N. T. (eds.), Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research (pp. 1–22). Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Barnes, M. E., Brownell, S. E. (2016). Practices and perspectives of college instructors on addressing religious beliefs when teaching evolution . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 15 ( 2 ), ar18. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.15-11-0243 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Boote, D. N., Beile, P. (2005). Scholars before researchers: On the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation . Educational Researcher , 34 ( 6 ), 3–15. 10.3102/0013189x034006003 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Booth, A., Sutton, A., Papaioannou, D. (2016a). Systemic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Booth, W. C., Colomb, G. G., Williams, J. M., Bizup, J., Fitzgerald, W. T. (2016b). The craft of research (4th ed.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Brownell, S. E., Kloser, M. J. (2015). Toward a conceptual framework for measuring the effectiveness of course-based undergraduate research experiences in undergraduate biology . Studies in Higher Education , 40 ( 3 ), 525–544. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.1004234 [ Google Scholar ]
• Connolly, M. R., Lee, Y. G., Savoy, J. N. (2018). The effects of doctoral teaching development on early-career STEM scholars’ college teaching self-efficacy . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 17 ( 1 ), ar14. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-02-0039 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Cooper, K. M., Blattman, J. N., Hendrix, T., Brownell, S. E. (2019). The impact of broadly relevant novel discoveries on student project ownership in a traditional lab course turned CURE . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 18 ( 4 ), ar57. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.19-06-0113 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• DeHaan, R. L. (2011). Education research in the biological sciences: A nine decade review (Paper commissioned by the NAS/NRC Committee on the Status, Contributions, and Future Directions of Discipline Based Education Research) . Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Retrieved May 20, 2022, from www7.nationalacademies.org/bose/DBER_Mee ting2_commissioned_papers_page.html [ Google Scholar ]
• Ding, L. (2019). Theoretical perspectives of quantitative physics education research . Physical Review Physics Education Research , 15 ( 2 ), 020101. [ Google Scholar ]
• Dirks, C. (2011). The current status and future direction of biology education research . Paper presented at: Second Committee Meeting on the Status, Contributions, and Future Directions of Discipline-Based Education Research, 18–19 October (Washington, DC). Retrieved May 20, 2022, from http://sites.nationalacademies.org/DBASSE/BOSE/DBASSE_071087 [ Google Scholar ]
• Duran, R. P., Eisenhart, M. A., Erickson, F. D., Grant, C. A., Green, J. L., Hedges, L. V., Schneider, B. L. (2006). Standards for reporting on empirical social science research in AERA publications: American Educational Research Association . Educational Researcher , 35 ( 6 ), 33–40. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ebert-May, D., Derting, T. L., Henkel, T. P., Middlemis Maher, J., Momsen, J. L., Arnold, B., Passmore, H. A. (2015). Breaking the cycle: Future faculty begin teaching with learner-centered strategies after professional development . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 14 ( 2 ), ar22. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.14-12-0222 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Galvan, J. L., Galvan, M. C. (2017). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (7th ed.). New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315229386 [ Google Scholar ]
• Gehrke, S., Kezar, A. (2017). The roles of STEM faculty communities of practice in institutional and departmental reform in higher education . American Educational Research Journal , 54 ( 5 ), 803–833. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217706736 [ Google Scholar ]
• Ghee, M., Keels, M., Collins, D., Neal-Spence, C., Baker, E. (2016). Fine-tuning summer research programs to promote underrepresented students’ persistence in the STEM pathway . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 15 ( 3 ), ar28. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-01-0046 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Institute of Education Sciences & National Science Foundation. (2013). Common guidelines for education research and development . Retrieved May 20, 2022, from www.nsf.gov/pubs/2013/nsf13126/nsf13126.pdf
• Jensen, J. L., Lawson, A. (2011). Effects of collaborative group composition and inquiry instruction on reasoning gains and achievement in undergraduate biology . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 10 ( 1 ), 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.19-05-0098 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Kolpikova, E. P., Chen, D. C., Doherty, J. H. (2019). Does the format of preclass reading quizzes matter? An evaluation of traditional and gamified, adaptive preclass reading quizzes . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 18 ( 4 ), ar52. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.19-05-0098 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Labov, J. B., Reid, A. H., Yamamoto, K. R. (2010). Integrated biology and undergraduate science education: A new biology education for the twenty-first century? CBE—Life Sciences Education , 9 ( 1 ), 10–16. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.09-12-0092 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lane, T. B. (2016). Beyond academic and social integration: Understanding the impact of a STEM enrichment program on the retention and degree attainment of underrepresented students . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 15 ( 3 ), ar39. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-01-0070 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture in everyday life . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Lo, S. M., Gardner, G. E., Reid, J., Napoleon-Fanis, V., Carroll, P., Smith, E., Sato, B. K. (2019). Prevailing questions and methodologies in biology education research: A longitudinal analysis of research in CBE — Life Sciences Education and at the Society for the Advancement of Biology Education Research . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 18 ( 1 ), ar9. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.18-08-0164 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Lysaght, Z. (2011). Epistemological and paradigmatic ecumenism in “Pasteur’s quadrant:” Tales from doctoral research . In Official Conference Proceedings of the Third Asian Conference on Education in Osaka, Japan . Retrieved May 20, 2022, from http://iafor.org/ace2011_offprint/ACE2011_offprint_0254.pdf
• Maxwell, J. A. (2012). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis (3rd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Nehm, R. (2019). Biology education research: Building integrative frameworks for teaching and learning about living systems . Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research , 1 , ar15. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0017-6 [ Google Scholar ]
• Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research & evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice . Los Angeles, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Perry, J., Meir, E., Herron, J. C., Maruca, S., Stal, D. (2008). Evaluating two approaches to helping college students understand evolutionary trees through diagramming tasks . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 7 ( 2 ), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.07-01-0007 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change . Science Education , 66 ( 2 ), 211–227. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ravitch, S. M., Riggan, M. (2016). Reason & rigor: How conceptual frameworks guide research . Los Angeles, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Reeves, T. D., Marbach-Ad, G., Miller, K. R., Ridgway, J., Gardner, G. E., Schussler, E. E., Wischusen, E. W. (2016). A conceptual framework for graduate teaching assistant professional development evaluation and research . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 15 ( 2 ), es2. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.15-10-0225 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Reynolds, J. A., Thaiss, C., Katkin, W., Thompson, R. J. Jr. (2012). Writing-to-learn in undergraduate science education: A community-based, conceptually driven approach . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 11 ( 1 ), 17–25. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.11-08-0064 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Rocco, T. S., Plakhotnik, M. S. (2009). Literature reviews, conceptual frameworks, and theoretical frameworks: Terms, functions, and distinctions . Human Resource Development Review , 8 ( 1 ), 120–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/1534484309332617 [ Google Scholar ]
• Rodrigo-Peiris, T., Xiang, L., Cassone, V. M. (2018). A low-intensity, hybrid design between a “traditional” and a “course-based” research experience yields positive outcomes for science undergraduate freshmen and shows potential for large-scale application . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 17 ( 4 ), ar53. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-11-0248 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sabel, J. L., Dauer, J. T., Forbes, C. T. (2017). Introductory biology students’ use of enhanced answer keys and reflection questions to engage in metacognition and enhance understanding . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 16 ( 3 ), ar40. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-10-0298 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Sbeglia, G. C., Goodridge, J. A., Gordon, L. H., Nehm, R. H. (2021). Are faculty changing? How reform frameworks, sampling intensities, and instrument measures impact inferences about student-centered teaching practices . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 20 ( 3 ), ar39. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.20-11-0259 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]
• Schwandt, T. A. (2000). Three epistemological stances for qualitative inquiry: Interpretivism, hermeneutics, and social constructionism . In Denzin, N. K., Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 189–213). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sickel, A. J., Friedrichsen, P. (2013). Examining the evolution education literature with a focus on teachers: Major findings, goals for teacher preparation, and directions for future research . Evolution: Education and Outreach , 6 ( 1 ), 23. https://doi.org/10.1186/1936-6434-6-23 [ Google Scholar ]
• Singer, S. R., Nielsen, N. R., Schweingruber, H. A. (2012). Discipline-based education research: Understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering . Washington, DC: National Academies Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Todd, A., Romine, W. L., Correa-Menendez, J. (2019). Modeling the transition from a phenotypic to genotypic conceptualization of genetics in a university-level introductory biology context . Research in Science Education , 49 ( 2 ), 569–589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-017-9626-2 [ Google Scholar ]
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. [ Google Scholar ]
• Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning as a social system . Systems Thinker , 9 ( 5 ), 2–3. [ Google Scholar ]
• Ziadie, M. A., Andrews, T. C. (2018). Moving evolution education forward: A systematic analysis of literature to identify gaps in collective knowledge for teaching . CBE—Life Sciences Education , 17 ( 1 ), ar11. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-08-0190 [ PMC free article ] [ PubMed ] [ Google Scholar ]

University Libraries

• Research Guides
• Blackboard Learn
• Interlibrary Loan
• Study Rooms
• University of Arkansas

Literature Reviews

• Qualitative or Quantitative?
• Getting Started
• Finding articles
• Primary sources? Peer-reviewed?
• Review Articles/ Annual Reviews...?
• Books, ebooks, dissertations

Qualitative researchers TEND to:

Researchers using qualitative methods tend to:

• t hink that social sciences cannot be well-studied with the same methods as natural or physical sciences
• feel that human behavior is context-specific; therefore, behavior must be studied holistically, in situ, rather than being manipulated
• employ an 'insider's' perspective; research tends to be personal and thereby more subjective.
• do interviews, focus groups, field research, case studies, and conversational or content analysis.

Image from https://www.editage.com/insights/qualitative-quantitative-or-mixed-methods-a-quick-guide-to-choose-the-right-design-for-your-research?refer-type=infographics

Qualitative Research (an operational definition)

Qualitative Research: an operational description

Purpose : explain; gain insight and understanding of phenomena through intensive collection and study of narrative data

Approach: inductive; value-laden/subjective; holistic, process-oriented

Hypotheses: tentative, evolving; based on the particular study

Lit. Review: limited; may not be exhaustive

Setting: naturalistic, when and as much as possible

Sampling : for the purpose; not necessarily representative; for in-depth understanding

Measurement: narrative; ongoing

Design and Method: flexible, specified only generally; based on non-intervention, minimal disturbance, such as historical, ethnographic, or case studies

Data Collection: document collection, participant observation, informal interviews, field notes

Data Analysis: raw data is words/ ongoing; involves synthesis

Data Interpretation: tentative, reviewed on ongoing basis, speculative

Quantitative researchers TEND to:

Researchers using quantitative methods tend to:

• think that both natural and social sciences strive to explain phenomena with confirmable theories derived from testable assumptions
• attempt to reduce social reality to variables, in the same way as with physical reality
• try to tightly control the variable(s) in question to see how the others are influenced.
• Do experiments, have control groups, use blind or double-blind studies; use measures or instruments.

Quantitative Research (an operational definition)

Quantitative research: an operational description

Purpose: explain, predict or control phenomena through focused collection and analysis of numberical data

Approach: deductive; tries to be value-free/has objectives/ is outcome-oriented

Hypotheses : Specific, testable, and stated prior to study

Lit. Review: extensive; may significantly influence a particular study

Setting: controlled to the degree possible

Sampling: uses largest manageable random/randomized sample, to allow generalization of results to larger populations

Measurement: standardized, numberical; "at the end"

Design and Method: Strongly structured, specified in detail in advance; involves intervention, manipulation and control groups; descriptive, correlational, experimental

Data Collection: via instruments, surveys, experiments, semi-structured formal interviews, tests or questionnaires

Data Analysis: raw data is numbers; at end of study, usually statistical

Data Interpretation: formulated at end of study; stated as a degree of certainty

This page on qualitative and quantitative research has been adapted and expanded from a handout by Suzy Westenkirchner. Used with permission.

Images from https://www.editage.com/insights/qualitative-quantitative-or-mixed-methods-a-quick-guide-to-choose-the-right-design-for-your-research?refer-type=infographics.

• << Previous: Books, ebooks, dissertations
• Last Updated: Sep 5, 2024 4:04 PM
• URL: https://uark.libguides.com/litreview
• See us on Instagram
• Follow us on Twitter
• Phone: 479-575-4104

• A-Z Publications

Annual Review of Psychology

Volume 35, 1984, review article, quantitative methods for literature reviews.

• Bert F. Green , and Judith A. Hall
• Vol. 35:37-54 (Volume publication date February 1984) https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ps.35.020184.000345
• © Annual Reviews

Quantitative Methods for Literature Reviews, Page 1 of 1

There is no abstract available.

Article metrics loading...

Full text loading...

• Article Type: Review Article

Most Read This Month

Most cited most cited rss feed, job burnout, executive functions, social cognitive theory: an agentic perspective, on happiness and human potentials: a review of research on hedonic and eudaimonic well-being, sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it, mediation analysis, missing data analysis: making it work in the real world, grounded cognition, personality structure: emergence of the five-factor model, motivational beliefs, values, and goals.

Publication Date: 01 Feb 1984

Online Option

Sign in to access your institutional or personal subscription or get immediate access to your online copy - available in PDF and ePub formats

• Open access
• Published: 06 September 2024

A scoping review of health literacy in rare disorders: key issues and research directions

• Una Stenberg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6007-8630 1 , 2 ,
• Lydia Westfal 1 ,
• Andreas Dybesland Rosenberger 3 ,
• Kristin Ørstavik 4 ,
• Maria Flink 5 ,
• Heidi Holmen 6 ,
• Silje Systad 7 ,
• Karl Fredrik Westermann 2 &
• Gry Velvin 8  

Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases volume  19 , Article number:  328 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

The ability to find, understand, appraise and utilise health information is crucial among individuals living with rare disorders. The aim of this study was to give a comprehensive overview of the literature on health literacy in adult persons with rare disorders.

We applied a scoping review methodology and performed a systematic search in 2021 in bibliographic databases. Searches were conducted in Medline (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), PsycInfo (Ovid), CINAHL (ebsco), and ERIC (Ovid). References were sorted and evaluated for inclusion using EndNote and Covidence. This review was guided by the question “What are the characteristics of research on health literacy in rare disorders?”

The database searches yielded 75 eligible reports. A total of 6223 individuals with rare disorders were represented alongside 1707 caregivers. The reports in this review have included study participants representing a total of 80 different rare disorders with unique ORPHA and ICD-10 codes. The results revealed that persons with rare disorders often exhibit gaps in health literacy through a lack of knowledge and access to information related to self-management, their own diagnosis and health, as well as daily coping and social rights. In addition, the importance of aid and information from healthcare personnel and the significance of getting social support from others in the same situation were accentuated.

This review emphasizes the importance of reinforcing health literacy among persons with rare disorders through peer support and education. This is the first review to give a comprehensive and state-of-the-art overview of literature investigating health literacy among persons with rare disorders and offers a basis for further research.

Introduction

In Europe, a disorder is considered rare when it affects less than 1:2000 individuals [ 1 ]. According to current calculations, more than 7000 different rare disorders have been identified. However, it is plausible that the actual number may be as high as 10,000 [ 2 ]. Although each rare disorder affects a limited quantity of individuals, it is estimated that the combined prevalence of all rare diseases is 3,5–5,9% [ 3 ]. Accordingly, up to 36 million people residing in the European Union are living with a rare disease [ 4 ]. Out of the total rare disorders, 72% have a genetic aetiology, and 70% have childhood onset [ 3 ]. Whilst there is a large clinical diversity between the rare disorders, they tend to have some aspects in common; they are known for being chronic, complicated, mostly degenerating, and often disabling [ 5 ].

Persons with rare disorders face some unique challenges in accessing information on their diagnosis, which may lead to issues in making beneficial health choices regarding treatment and care [ 6 ]. A key issue with rare disorders is the lack of research in the field [ 7 , 8 ]. Insufficient evidence and knowledge on rare diseases in general pose challenges both for professionals and people with these diseases [ 8 ]. Due to healthcare professionals’ limited understanding of their rare disorder in general, as well as a lack of information provided, persons with rare disorders often need to search for health-related information themselves [ 6 ]. A systematic review published in 2017 aimed to provide an overview of adults` shared experience of living with a rare disorder, found that in 12 out of 21 reports, persons with rare disorders reported progressively becoming “experts” on their own diagnosis [ 9 ]. In some cases, those living with rare disorders possess more information about the condition than the healthcare professionals they encounter [ 10 ].

Healthcare systems are increasingly challenging to navigate [ 11 ]. Simultaneously, the healthcare services share prospective aims of prioritising digitization, enabling more home-based care, promoting shared decision-making, and ensuring equitable access to services [ 5 , 12 , 13 ]. Managing one’s health while dealing with a rare disorder and the responsibility of seeking information can be especially demanding due to the challenging standards set by the healthcare system [ 6 ].

Increased participation and responsibility for one’s own health impose a demand on the individual to have adequate health literacy. Health literacy pertains to individuals’ ability to manage the complex health requirements of today’s society and make informed decisions regarding health [ 14 ]. This includes understanding the factors that affect one’s health, addressing health challenges, and making appropriate health choices. There is a lack of consensus on the definition of health literacy, and multiple interpretations have been made [ 14 ]. A review by Sørensen et al. [ 15 ] identified as many as 17 different definitions of health literacy and created a working definition of health literacy by considering the contents of each interpretation. The inclusive definition according to Sørensen et al. is stated as follows:

“Health literacy is linked to literacy and entails people’s knowledge , motivation and competencies to access , understand , appraise , and apply health information in order to make judgments and take decisions in everyday life concerning healthcare , disease prevention and health promotion to maintain or improve quality of life during the life course.” (ref p. 3).

Along with the comprehensive definition, Sørensen et al. developed an integrated model of health literacy [ 15 ]. The model has been widely used to understand the complex interaction between individual skills and abilities related to health literacy, social and environmental factors, and health outcomes. The core elements of the model are four cognitive competencies; to access, understand, appraise, and apply health-related information. These four competencies allow a person to manoeuvre three identified domains on the health spectrum: healthcare, disease prevention, and health promotion. The model suggests that an individual’s ability to access and use health information is determined by their own skills, motivation, and knowledge as well as the social and environmental context they reside within. These conditions, accordingly, affect individuals’ ability to address their health and ultimately impact their health outcomes.

Sorensen’s model emphasises that components such as empowerment, health outcomes, and health behaviour are interlaced and connected to an individual’s health literacy. Enhancing the level of health literacy allows individuals to become more empowered and take charge of their health, participate in health-promoting behaviours, and gradually attain improved health outcomes [ 15 ]. Thus, participation and empowerment can give persons with rare disorders enhanced control over their own health and treatment, and increased involvement in decision-making processes that concern their health. This may lead to better health outcomes and elevated health-related quality of life, which remain crucial as persons with rare disorders report lower quality of life compared to those with more common chronic conditions [ 16 ]. They can feel stigmatised and marginalised in the healthcare system, and it can be challenging to find psychosocial support. Examining how to increase health literacy and empowerment for persons with rare disorders can therefore be an important and relevant direction for further research. Health literacy of individuals with rare disorders is an emerging field of research, and the literature is based on a wide range of study methodologies [ 7 , 8 ]. Hence, this scoping review aims to give a comprehensive overview of empirical reports (from primary research studies) investigating health literacy among persons with rare disorders as reported in the international literature, by identifying characteristics of definitions, study populations, methods and interventions.

Study design and research questions

The scoping review process described by Arksey and O`Malley [ 17 ] aims to: “(…) map rapidly the key concepts underpinning a research area and the main sources and types of evidence available and can be undertaken as a stand-alone project in their own right , especially where an area is complex or has not been reviewed comprehensively before. ” A scoping review methodology is also suitable for examining the extent, range, variety, and characteristics of evidence on a topic, but also to identify research gaps. This scoping review was conducted according to the five-stage framework by Arksey and O`Malley [ 17 ], enhanced by Levac [ 18 ] and Daudt [ 19 ] and reported according to the PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews [ 20 ] (shown in Additional file 1 ). A protocol for this review is available on request.

The aim of this review was to identify the characteristics of research on health literacy in rare disorders. The specific research questions were:

What are the characteristics of study populations?

When and where have reports on health literacy been carried out?

What are the characteristics of research questions used to investigate health literacy?

What are the characteristics of methods used to investigate health literacy?

What are the characteristics of assessment tools used to measure health literacy?

What are the characteristics of interventions that have been described in the reports?

How is health literacy defined or described in the reports?

How is access to health information and support for individuals with rare disorders described the reports?

Overarching participatory approach

The study group in this scoping review included one co-researcher, one with experiential knowledge trained in research methods, several experienced healthcare professionals in the field of rare disorders, working in clinical practice (specialized health care), and experienced researchers in health literacy and scoping review methodology. All members have been involved in all stages of the review process.

Eligibility criteria

This scoping review included primary research reports that investigated health literacy in adults with rare disorders. Reports were included if they had investigated the individual`s capacities, skills and motivation to make judgements and decisions in everyday life concerning healthcare, disease prevention and health promotion in persons with a rare disorder. While being 18 years of age or older was set as a search criterion, reports that included both adults and persons below 18 were not excluded. Empirical reports in English and Scandinavian languages published in peer-reviewed journals were included. All study designs were included. Dissertations, reports published in abstract form only, editorials, commentaries and duplicates were excluded.

Systematic searches

In the first stage, research questions were developed by the study group in a highly iterative process. We agreed to apply a broad variety of synonyms, conducting many and extensive pilot searches and simultaneously enhancing the search strategy, and clarify the criteria for inclusion and exclusion of reports. A senior academic librarian, in close collaboration with the first author, developed a systematic literature search using MeSH-terms and free search terms combining a comprehensive set of synonyms and terms for health literacy and rare disorders. Both the librarian and the researchers in the study group had experience with previous literature searches in the field of rare disorders. The literature searches complied with the PICO principles and applied a combination of “OR” within groups and “AND” between groups. Searches were conducted in Medline (Ovid), Embase (Ovid), PsycInfo (Ovid), CINAHL (ebsco), and ERIC (Ovid) for publications between 2010 and 2021. No other sources for literature were searched for this review. The complete search strategy is displayed in Additional file 2 .

Selection of publications

All titles and abstracts were reviewed by the first author (US) and one of the co-authors independently using the systematic review software Covidence (Veritas Health Innovation). Disagreements and conflicts were resolved through discussion with a third review author.

Data extraction

All data from the included reports were extracted according to study characteristics, participant characteristics included ORPHA and ICD-codes, description of interventions, methods, assessment tools, definitions and understanding of health literacy was collected using data extraction forms and reported separately for each study in evidence summaries (Supplementary Material 4 – 9 : Tables 2–6). A full reference list of included reports is presented in Additional file 3 . Extracted data is presented in a descriptive manner using text, tables and figures. All members of the study group participated in the data extraction. We did not attempt to contact the authors in this review process.

The search of the online databases resulted in 5999 reports when duplicates were removed. From these, 5794 were excluded because they did not fulfil the inclusion criteria. A total of 177 reports were downloaded in full text and read by two authors. Of these, 102 reports were excluded, leaving 75 to undergo analysis in this review (Fig. 1). All the included reports were in English language.

Prisma flow diagram

Characteristics of study populations

A total of 6223 persons with a rare disorder and 1707 caregivers were represented in the 75 included reports. About 70% of the reports were based on data from samples with less than 100 participants. About 15% of the reports were based on samples with more than 200 participants. Of the included participants in the reports, about 60% were female. Of the reports that reported the mean age of the participants, approximately 75% of the participants were between 30 and 50 years of age. About 15% of the reports had participants with a mean age over 55 years, and eleven reports had participants with a mean age under 25 years.

The reports in this review have included study participants representing a total of 80 different rare disorders with unique ORPHA and ICD-10 codes. A detailed description of diagnoses is given in Table 1 (Additional file 4 ). Five of the reports included participants across rare disorders but did not specify what type of disorders. Most of the rare disorders had been investigated in one or two reports, but a few disorders were investigated in several reports: different types of Hemophilia were investigated in 24/75 reports, Cystic Fibrosis in 14/75 reports, Huntington’s disease in 7/75 reports, Scleroderma in 4/75 reports and Myotonic dystrophy type 1, Neurofibromatosis type 1 and Spina bifida in 3/75 reports.

Where and when have reports on health literacy been carried out?

Of the 75 included reports, 21 were conducted in the USA, 11 in Canada and eight in the UK (see Table 2 for details in Additional file 9 ). The included reports were published between 2010 and 2021, 54/75 after 2016.

Characteristics of research questions

The research questions most frequently investigated among the included reports were related to assessments of experienced knowledge and different health- and/or psychosocial outcomes (31/75). The second most investigated research questions (27/75) were about persons with rare disorders’ views, experiences and understanding of their own condition, care, health information, management, transition process or peer support (see Table 6 for details in Additional file 8 ). In addition, 16 reports were conducted to evaluate an intervention aimed to improve or strengthen participants` knowledge, health literacy or coping, and therefore included in this review.

Characteristics of methodological design

Of the included reports, 28/75 applied a quantitative cross-sectional design to explore characteristics of patient groups in terms of knowledge and disease-related variables. Among the cross-sectional reports, both digital and paper-based surveys were used, and some gathered data through medical charts or personal interviews. In addition, fourteen reports applied an experimental design investigating either the feasibility or effects of specific interventions, mainly to increase knowledge or health literacy. Among the qualitative designs (28/75), individual interviews were frequently applied, less so focus groups. Most of the qualitative reports aimed to explore experiences and gain insight into the views of persons who are living with a rare disorder, for example, needs of information and support, barriers to care and communication with health care providers. To present the qualitative results, a thematic analysis approach was most frequently applied. A minority of reports (5/75) reported a mixed or multi-method approach, combining interviews and surveys (see Table 3 for more details, Additional file 5 ).

Characteristics of assessment tools

Five of the assessment tools measured health literacy specifically. However, 23 standardized assessment tools aimed to assess important aspects relevant to health literacy, such as self-management skills, coping and medication adherence. Table 4 provides an overview of the standardised assessment tools used to measure health outcomes (Additional file 6 ). Quality of life was the outcome assessed most frequently (10/75) and was most commonly assessed with SF36 (4/75). Seven reports examined anxiety levels, while six estimated depression. Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HAD) was the most commonly utilized tool to assess anxiety and depression (3/75). Correspondingly, 27 study-specific assessment tools sought to achieve outcomes closely related to health literacy, including health information-seeking patterns, medication information sources and knowledge, attitude and behaviour towards their condition. For a more detailed review of study-specific assessment tools, see Table 5 (Additional file 7 ).

Characteristics of interventions

A total of 16/75 of the reports included interventions. Each intervention originated from a distinct study and had diverse characteristics in terms of study design, objectives, intended recipients, implementation settings, and delivery personnel, including healthcare professionals and peers. Additional information regarding this is provided in Table 6 (Additional file 8 ). The interventions encompassed both face-to-face approaches, such as individual sessions [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ] and group-based patient education [ 22 , 26 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 ], and written information/online training [ 29 , 31 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. The interventions took place in a variety of settings, including hospitals, clinics, and online platforms. The common thread between the interventions is that they all share the objective of enhancing patient outcomes and experiences through education, support, and empowerment. For example, they aim to improve knowledge, health literacy, and self-treatment skills, as well as to promote treatment adherence and reduce interruptions in care. In 9/16 interventions, the primary aim was to improve knowledge or understanding of the patient’s particular health condition or treatment. These nine interventions applied various components such as audiovisual materials, individualised training courses, or booklets. Out of those nine interventions, six demonstrated a significant ( p  < 0.05) improvement in knowledge of the targeted health condition or treatment [ 21 , 25 , 28 , 32 , 36 , 37 ].

Out of all interventions, 5/16 aimed predominantly at reducing psychiatric symptoms, such as depression, anxiety, and somatic symptom severity. Several interventions displayed positive effects on mental health, including improvements in emotional health, coping strategies, and quality of life [ 22 , 26 , 28 , 29 , 32 , 33 , 35 ]. Examples of such interventions included group counselling and group mindfulness training. The interventions were evaluated using methods such as self-report questionnaires, physiological measures, and clinical assessments. The outcomes measured included improvements in physical health, mental health, quality of life, and social support.

Description of health literacy

Only 6/75 reports described in the introduction how they defined health literacy [ 21 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Five of these reports were based on the understanding and definition of health literacy as the cognitive and social skills that determine the motivation and ability of individuals to gain access to, understand and use information in ways that promote and maintain good health (WHO). One of the reports defined health literacy as “the patients’ skills on reading, listening, analysing decisions making and applying these skills to the situation related to health monitoring and coordination for strategy plan in term of health promotion” [ 42 ].

Access to health information and support

Most of the reports included in this review investigated knowledge or understanding of one’s own health and diagnosis, and access to health information. Persons with rare disorders commonly lack information about:

Own diagnosis and health [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ].

Self-management and daily coping [ 6 , 10 , 54 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 ].

Medication, treatment options and research-based recommendations [ 6 , 10 , 28 , 51 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ].

Peer and professional support [ 53 , 54 , 55 ].

Clinical trials and research [ 53 , 54 , 55 ].

Sexual knowledge [ 68 , 69 , 70 , 71 ].

Behaviour and attitude [ 28 , 72 , 73 ].

Social rights [ 28 , 60 ].

Pregnancy and childbirth [ 51 , 60 ].

Ageing [ 71 ].

Navigation and coordination [ 23 ].

The most important sources of health information summarized among the included reports were physicians, the internet, patient organizations and spouse/partner [ 74 , 75 , 76 ]. Transitions in life can be challenging and generate new needs for information and care. Three of the reports investigated the transition process from paediatric to adult services [ 23 , 77 , 78 ]. Persons with rare disorders and their family caregivers call for health information on various aspects of the disease burden including medical research and treatment, coping strategies, management, symptoms and general knowledge about the disease [ 57 , 63 ].

Only a few reports investigated how persons with rare disorders are navigating in healthcare and their experiences of healthcare services. These reports found that many persons with rare disorders feel let down by the system- and lack trust in the standards of health care [ 54 , 79 , 80 , 81 ]. Several reports described the frustration among persons with rare disorders because of a lack of knowledge about diagnosis and medication by healthcare professionals [ 54 , 56 , 59 , 62 , 73 , 81 , 82 ] and concerns about poor communication and information provision [ 83 ].

Some of the reports described the experiences of persons with rare disorders concerning limited access to peer- and professional support, like specialized care, treatment plans and access to peer groups [ 34 , 53 , 61 , 62 , 84 , 85 , 86 ]. Persons with rare disorders missed the engagement in health care to assist in their management of the disease [ 85 ], and one report claimed that hospital visits could be reduced with more information [ 52 ].

Several reports have investigated peer support [ 6 , 22 , 28 , 44 , 50 , 81 , 82 , 87 , 88 , 89 ]. Persons with rare disorders who connected and interacted with fellow individuals with rare disorders reported great improvements in overall health, disease severity, motivation to take care of health, emotional well-being and satisfaction with their primary treating physician [ 66 , 69 ].

This scoping review identified 75 reports presenting data on rare disorders and aspects of health literacy, thereby providing valuable insight into the characteristics of research in the field of health literacy in individuals with rare disorders. A total of 6223 individuals with rare disorders and 1707 caregivers were included, and 80 different rare disorders were represented. Most of the studies were published after 2016, and were conducted in the USA, Canada and UK. The most frequently investigated research questions were related to different health- and psychosocial outcomes, understanding of own condition, health information and support, or concerning evaluation of an intervention. The reports used a variety of research methodologies, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Cross-sectional designs were frequently employed to depict patient characteristics, knowledge and health-related variables, and qualitative designs were commonly used to capture the perspectives of persons living with rare disorders. In total 23 standardized assessment tools and 27 study-specific assessment used in the reports. Only five assessment tools measured health literacy specifically. Some of the reports also assessed interventions to improve elements such as knowledge, health literacy and coping strategies. These interventions encompassed both face-to-face approaches, such as individual sessions and group-based patient education.

Only six reports had described how they defined health literacy. Five of these reports were based on the understanding and WHO-definition of health literacy as the cognitive and social skills that determine the motivation and ability of individuals to gain access to, understand and use information in ways that promote and maintain good health (WHO). Concerning access to health information and support, the results revealed that individuals with rare disorders often exhibit gaps in knowledge and access to information related to self-management, their own diagnosis and health, as well as daily coping and social rights. In addition, the importance of aid and information from healthcare personnel and the significance of getting social support from others in the same situation were accentuated.

A recurring issue identified among the reports was that individuals with rare disorders consistently encounter challenges in accessing information on their own health and diagnosis, self-managing and coping [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 , 57 , 58 ]. This observation has been established in previous research and can sometimes be ascribed to a lack of knowledge among healthcare personnel [ 6 , 9 , 10 ]. The understanding and appraisal of health information could pose difficulties since the information available on rare conditions often is complex and contains medical terminology that is challenging to comprehend. This particularly applies to those with cognitive impairments, which pertains to 44% of the rare disease population [ 90 ]. More than 7000 rare disorders are identified, and only 80 of these disorders are represented in this review. More than 50% of the included reports have included study participants with Haemophilia, Cystic Fibrosis and Huntington’s disease, which means that a range of different rare disorders have not been included in health literacy research. A majority of the interventions in this study focused on increasing knowledge and understanding of one’s own health and treatment. Acquiring the skills to apply health knowledge to everyday life efficiently can profoundly impact health outcomes and is especially important when it comes to self-management, such as adherence to medication and treatment [ 15 , 91 , 92 , 93 , 94 , 95 ].

Another possible challenge related to access to information and support is the often-large geographical distances between persons with rare disorders. This may result in difficulties when it comes to meeting or participating in peer-support groups in person [ 96 ]. Peer interactions appear particularly important in this population [ 6 , 53 , 54 , 55 ], and several of the perceived benefits of the interventions in this review were associated with the recognition, acceptance and companionship encountered within peer-support groups [ 16 , 28 , 32 , 35 ]. Interestingly, none of the included reports explored the potential benefits of online peer support, which has been found to be an effective supplement to in-person meetings in people with other disorders.

While there is reason to believe that health literacy has a significant impact on health outcomes, only one of the included reports investigated this possible correlation, finding that individuals who possessed adequate health literacy displayed more favourable health-related outcomes [ 38 ]. In that report, the authors observed that individuals who possessed adequate health literacy displayed more favourable health-related outcomes. None of the included reports explored health literacy across various types of rare disorders. One prominent finding across the reviewed reports is the shortage of accessible health information specifically targeted towards individuals with rare conditions. There is a need to investigate if there are structural or social barriers that limit access to information and support for the population. Furthermore, it would be valuable to examine the underlying factors that impact health literacy in persons with rare disorders, including the association between health literacy and socio-demographic variables, health status, self-efficacy and health-related quality of life. Another potential research topic could be to evaluate the success of interventions aiming at improving health literacy in persons with rare disorders and their caregivers.

To the best of our knowledge, only four previous reports have explicitly aimed to examine the levels of health literacy in persons with rare disorders [ 38 , 39 , 40 , 42 ]. Furthermore, the data does not provide enough information to say anything about relatives’ health literacy. Enhancing health literacy is known to be an enabler for improved empowerment and participation, which is associated with positive health outcomes [ 13 , 94 ]. Empowerment is especially important in the field of rare disorders, due to the unique challenges of low prevalence, limited knowledge and expertise, and compromised quality of life [ 94 ].

To achieve a better understanding of health literacy in rare disorders, we could benefit from the incorporation of different perspectives, including those of persons with rare disorders, their family members and healthcare providers. We need future research on how different dimensions of health literacy, and interventions aiming to strengthen health literacy, influence health outcomes according to health care, disease prevention and health promotion. We need to achieve a deeper understanding of how the personal determinants of health literacy, such as individual skills and motivation, interact with situational determinants, such as social and environmental factors, to shape health outcomes. To properly address the executive challenges faced by persons with rare disorders we need a greater understanding of health literacy in rare disorders [ 28 ]. The integrated model of health literacy [ 15 ] can serve as a tool to point us in the right direction when designing future research projects.

The strength of our work lies in providing a comprehensive overview of the reported findings from research on health literacy in rare disorders. We conducted an up-to-date systematic search in five databases without restrictions. Despite using an array of synonyms in database searches to maximise the identification of relevant reports, the search terms used are not exhaustive. Hence, some reports may not have been detected. To reduce the risk of selection bias, two authors independently assessed the abstracts and reports in full text according to the a priori eligibility criteria. Further, in line with the scoping review framework, we have not evaluated the methodological quality or risk of bias among the included reports. This may be seen as a limitation; however, the purpose of scoping reviews is to give an overview of the available research literature, characterise a research area and pinpoint gaps in knowledge that should be addressed in future systematic reviews.

This review has important implications for practice. Healthcare does not offer curative treatment options for most rare disorders, and several reports suggest the development of consensus recommendations for care. To optimise health and secure continuity of care several reports included in this review recommend formalisation of the transition process through the courses of illness and life. Moreover, the results reveal that some of the key challenges for persons with rare disorders are related to important aspects of health literacy, such as accessing, understanding, and applying health information. Our findings indicate a need for strengthened health literacy in the rare disease population, that could be accomplished by developing health communication strategies tailored to the needs and preferences of persons with rare conditions. Healthcare personnel can play a significant role in enhancing health literacy, which is an additional implication for practice. Health care personnel can achieve this by offering clear and understandable health-related information and encouraging an active dialogue between patients and professionals. Another way for healthcare personnel to assist persons with rare disorders is by offering them the support needed to accept, cope, and effectively manage their condition [ 97 ].

This scoping review consists of 75 reports presenting data on rare disorders and aspects of health literacy, thereby providing valuable insight into the characteristics of research in the field of health literacy in individuals with rare disorders. In total, 6223 individuals with rare disorders and 1707 caregivers were included, and 80 different rare disorders were represented. Most of the studies were published after 2016, and were conducted in the USA, Canada and UK.

The findings of this scoping review demonstrate that persons with rare disorders experience considerable gaps in knowledge and information, particularly in relation to their own diagnosis and health, treatment options, self-management and coping strategies. Moreover, the lack of diagnosis-specific knowledge and limited information provided by healthcare professionals are identified as a common concern among persons with rare disorders. Access to, and understanding, health information is key aspects of health literacy. Therefore, our results imply a need for increased awareness regarding the state of health literacy among individuals with rare disorders. The points of view expressed in this review offer valuable perspectives that can help health personnel in outlining the communicative strategy when caring for individuals with rare disorders.

This review provides a solid understanding block for future research into the emerging field of health literacy in rare disorders, by examining the challenges that persons with rare conditions encounter. Moreover, the findings enable us to develop a better understanding of the care and support persons with a rare disorder and their family members require.

These results pave the way for future research that looks to improve the healthcare experience of those with rare disorders and their caretakers and shed light on the importance of empowering the rare disease population through peer support, participation, education and increased health literacy. Future reports in this field are necessary to develop strategies and interventions that improve health literacy and enhance health outcomes and the quality of life for individuals with rare disorders.

Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this review are included in this published article (and its additional files).

EURORDIS. What is a rare disease? [Internet]. EURORDIS. 2022 [cited 2023 Jun 2]. https://www.eurordis.org/information-support/what-is-a-rare-disease/

Haendel M, Vasilevsky N, Unni D, Bologa C, Harris N, Rehm H, et al. How many rare diseases are there? Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2020;19:77–8.

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Nguengang Wakap S, Lambert DM, Olry A, Rodwell C, Gueydan C, Lanneau V, et al. Estimating cumulative point prevalence of rare diseases: analysis of the Orphanet database. Eur J Hum Genet. 2020;28:165–73.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Rare diseases [Internet]. European Commission. [cited 2023 Jun 6]. https://health.ec.europa.eu/non-communicable-diseases/expert-group-public-health/rare-diseases_en

The Ministry of Health and Care Services. Nasjonal strategi for sjeldne diagnoser [Internet]. 2021 Aug. https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/nasjonal-strategi-for-sjeldne-diagnoser/id2867121/

Stanarević Katavić S. Health information behaviour of rare disease patients: seeking, finding and sharing health information. Health Info Libr J. 2019;36:341–56.

Zhu Q, Nguyễn Ð-T, Sheils T, Alyea G, Sid E, Xu Y, et al. Scientific evidence based rare disease research discovery with research funding data in knowledge graph. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2021;16:483.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Stoller JK. The challenge of Rare diseases. Chest. 2018;153:1309–14.

von der Lippe C, Diesen PS, Feragen KB. Living with a rare disorder: a systematic review of the qualitative literature. Mol Genet Genomic Med. 2017;5:758–73.

Kesselheim AS, McGraw S, Thompson L, O’Keefe K, Gagne JJ. Development and use of new therapeutics for rare diseases: views from patients, caregivers, and advocates. Patient. 2015;8:75–84.

Kickbusch I, Pelikan J, Apfel F, Tsouros AD. Health literacy. The solid facts [Internet]. WHO Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen; 2013. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/326432

Sør-Øst H. Regional utviklingsplan 2040 [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2023 May 25]. https://helse-sorost.no/regional-utviklingsplan-2040

Omsorgsdepartementet H-. og. Strategi for å øke helsekompetansen i befolkningen 2019–2023. 2019 [cited 2023 May 25]; https://www.regjeringen.no/no/dokumenter/strategi-for-a-oke-helsekompetansen-i-befolkningen-2019-2023/id2644707/

Kickbusch I, Maag D. Health Literacy [Internet]. International encyclopedia of public health. Elsevier; 2008. pp. 204–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-012373960-5.00584-0

Sørensen K, Van den Broucke S, Fullam J, Doyle G, Pelikan J, Slonska Z et al. Health literacy and public health: a systematic review and integration of definitions and models. BMC Public Health [Internet]. 2012;12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-80

Bogart KR, Irvin VL. Health-related quality of life among adults with diverse rare disorders. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2017;12:177.

Arksey H, O’Malley L. Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. Int J Soc Res Methodol. 2005;8:19–32.

Article   Google Scholar  

Levac D, Colquhoun H, O’Brien KK. Scoping studies: advancing the methodology. Implement Sci. 2010;5:69.

Daudt HML, van Mossel C, Scott SJ. Enhancing the scoping study methodology: a large, inter-professional team’s experience with Arksey and O’Malley’s framework. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2013;13:48.

Tricco AC, Lillie E, Zarin W, O’Brien KK, Colquhoun H, Levac D, et al. PRISMA Extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169:467–73.

Bhatt N, Boggio L, Simpson ML. Using an educational intervention to assess and improve disease-specific knowledge and health literacy and numeracy in adolescents and young adults with haemophilia A and B. Haemophilia. 2021;27:229–36.

Article   CAS   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Bogart KR, Frandrup E, Locke T, Thompson H, Weber N, Yates J et al. Rare place where I feel normal: Perceptions of a social support conference among parents of and people with Moebius syndrome. Res Dev Disabil. 2017;64:143–51.

Chaudhry SR, Keaton M, Nasr SZ. Evaluation of a cystic fibrosis transition program from pediatric to adult care. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2013;48:658–65.

Dicianno BE, Lovelace J, Peele P, Fassinger C, Houck P, Bursic A, et al. Effectiveness of a Wellness Program for individuals with Spina Bifida and spinal cord Injury within an Integrated Delivery System. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2016;97:1969–78.

le Doré S, Grinda N, Ferré E, Roussel-Robert V, Frotscher B, Chamouni P, et al. The hemarthrosis-simulating knee model: a useful tool for individualized education in patients with hemophilia (GEFACET study). J Blood Med. 2021;12:133–8.

Ringqvist K, Borg K, Möller MC. Tolerability and psychological effects of a multimodal day-care rehabilitation program for persons with Huntington’s disease. J Rehabil Med. 2021;53:jrm00143.

van Balen EC, Krawczyk M, Gue D, Jackson S, Gouw SC, van der Bom JG, et al. Patient-centred care in haemophilia: patient perspectives on visualization and participation in decision-making. Haemophilia. 2019;25:938–45.

Chaleat-Valayer E, Amélie Z, Marie-Hélène B, Perretant I, Sandrine T. Therapeutic education program for patients with hypermobile Ehlers-Danlos syndrome: feasibility and satisfaction of the participants. Education thérapeutique Du patient -. Therapeutic Patient Educ. 2019;11:10202.

Hoefnagels JW, Fischer K, Bos RAT, Driessens MHE, Meijer SLA, Schutgens REG, et al. A feasibility study on two tailored interventions to improve adherence in adults with haemophilia. Pilot Feasibility Stud. 2020;6:189.

O’Mahar K, Holmbeck GN, Jandasek B, Zukerman J. A camp-based intervention targeting independence among individuals with spina bifida. J Pediatr Psychol. 2010;35:848–56.

Raphaelis S, Mayer H, Ott S, Hornung R, Senn B. Effects of Written Information and Counseling on illness-related uncertainty in Women with Vulvar Neoplasia. Oncol Nurs Forum. 2018;45:748–60.

PubMed   Google Scholar  

Rovira-Moreno E, Abuli A, Codina-Sola M, Valenzuela I, Serra-Juhe C, Cuscó I, et al. Beyond the disease itself: a cross-cutting educational initiative for patients and families with rare diseases. J Genet Couns. 2021;30:693–700.

Stubberud J, Langenbahn D, Levine B, Stanghelle J, Schanke A-K. Emotional health and coping in spina bifida after goal management training: a randomized controlled trial. Rehabil Psychol. 2015;60:1–16.

Delisle VC, Gumuchian ST, Pelaez S, Malcarne VL, El-Baalbaki G, Körner A, et al. Reasons for non-participation in scleroderma support groups. Clin Exp Rheumatol. 2016;34(Suppl 100):56–62.

Depping MK, Uhlenbusch N, Härter M, Schramm C, Löwe B. Efficacy of a brief, peer-delivered self-management intervention for patients with Rare Chronic diseases: a Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Psychiatry. 2021;78:607–15.

Mulders G, de Wee EM, Vahedi Nikbakht-Van, de Sande MCVM, Kruip MJHA, Elfrink EJ, Leebeek FWG. E-learning improves knowledge and practical skills in haemophilia patients on home treatment: a randomized controlled trial. Haemophilia. 2012;18:693–8.

Smolich L, Charen K, Sherman SL. Health knowledge of women with a fragile X premutation: improving understanding with targeted educational material. J Genet Couns. 2020;29:983–91.

Jackson AD, Kirwan L, Gibney S, Jeleniewska P, Fletcher G, Doyle G. Associations between health literacy and patient outcomes in adolescents and young adults with cystic fibrosis. Eur J Public Health. 2020;30:112–8.

Merker VL, McDannold S, Riklin E, Talaei-Khoei M, Sheridan MR, Jordan JT, et al. Health literacy assessment in adults with neurofibromatosis: electronic and short-form measurement using FCCHL and Health LiTT. J Neurooncol. 2018;136:335–42.

Riklin E, Talaei-Khoei M, Merker VL, Sheridan MR, Jordan JT, Plotkin SR, et al. First report of factors associated with satisfaction in patients with neurofibromatosis. Am J Med Genet A. 2017;173:671–7.

LaDonna KA, Ghavanini AA, Venance SL. Truths and misinformation: a qualitative exploration of myotonic dystrophy. Can J Neurol Sci. 2015;42:187–94.

Parvizi MM, Lankarani KB, Handjani F, Ghahramani S, Parvizi Z, Rousta S. Health literacy in patients with epidermolysis bullosa in Iran. J Educ Health Promot. 2017;6:105.

Laberge L, Prévost C, Perron M, Mathieu J, Auclair J, Gaudreault M, et al. Clinical and genetic knowledge and attitudes of patients with myotonic dystrophy type 1. Public Health Genomics. 2010;13:424–30.

Rosnau K, Hashmi SS, Northrup H, Slopis J, Noblin S, Ashfaq M. Knowledge and self-esteem of individuals with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). J Genet Couns. 2017;26:620–7.

Ioannou L, Massie J, Collins V, McClaren B, Delatycki MB. Population-based genetic screening for cystic fibrosis: attitudes and outcomes. Public Health Genomics. 2010;13:449–56.

Lewis KL, John B, Condren M, Carter SM. Evaluation of medication-related self-care skills in patients with cystic fibrosis. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther. 2016;21:502–11.

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Lindvall K, Colstrup L, Loogna K, Wollter I, Grönhaug S. Knowledge of disease and adherence in adult patients with haemophilia. Haemophilia. 2010;16:592–6.

Lonabaugh KP, O’Neal KS, McIntosh H, Condren M. Cystic fibrosis-related education: are we meeting patient and caregiver expectations? Patient Educ Couns. 2018;101:1865–70.

Mälstam E, Bensing S, Asaba E. Everyday managing and living with autoimmune Addison’s disease: exploring experiences using photovoice methods. Scand J Occup Ther. 2018;25:358–70.

Naik H, Shenbagam S, Go AM, Balwani M. Psychosocial issues in erythropoietic protoporphyria - the perspective of parents, children, and young adults: a qualitative study. Mol Genet Metab. 2019;128:314–9.

Takeuchi T, Muraoka K, Yamada M, Nishio Y, Hozumi I. Living with idiopathic basal ganglia calcification 3: a qualitative study describing the lives and illness of people diagnosed with a rare neurological disease. Springerplus. 2016;5:1713.

De la Corte-Rodriguez H, Rodriguez-Merchan EC, Alvarez-Roman T, Martin-Salces M, Garcia-Barcenilla S, Jimenez-Yuste V. Health education and empowerment in adult patients with haemophilia. Expert Rev Hematol. 2019;12:989–95.

Braisch U, Martinez-Horta S, MacDonald M, Orth M. Important but not enough - information about HD related topics and peer and professional support for young adults from HD families. J Huntingtons Dis. 2016;5:379–87.

Bryson B, Bogart K, Atwood M, Fraser K, Locke T, Pugh K, et al. Navigating the unknown: a content analysis of the unique challenges faced by adults with rare diseases. J Health Psychol. 2021;26:623–35.

Coathup V, Teare HJA, Minari J, Yoshizawa G, Kaye J, Takahashi MP, et al. Using digital technologies to engage with medical research: views of myotonic dystrophy patients in Japan. BMC Med Ethics. 2016;17:51.

Etchegary H. Healthcare experiences of families affected by Huntington disease: need for improved care. Chronic Illn. 2011;7:225–38.

Mohan R, Radhakrishnan N, Varadarajan M, Anand S. Assessing the current knowledge, attitude and behaviour of adolescents and young adults living with haemophilia. Haemophilia. 2021;27:e180–6.

Garrino L, Picco E, Finiguerra I, Rossi D, Simone P, Roccatello D. Living with and treating rare diseases: experiences of patients and professional health care providers. Qual Health Res. 2015;25:636–51.

Mooney J, Poland F, Spalding N, Scott DGI. In One Ear and Out the Other–Its a Lot to Take in’: A Qualitative Study Exploring the Informational Needs of Patients with ANCA-Associated Vasculitis. Musculoskeletal [Internet]. 2013; https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/ https://doi.org/10.1002/msc.1030

David V, Feldman D, Danner-Boucher I, Rhun AL, Guyomarch B, Ravilly S, et al. Identifying the educational needs of lung transplant recipients with cystic fibrosis. Prog Transpl. 2015;25:18–25.

Gumuchian ST, Peláez S, Delisle VC, Carrier M-E, Jewett LR, El-Baalbaki G, et al. Understanding coping strategies among people living with scleroderma: a focus group study. Disabil Rehabil. 2018;40:3012–21.

Arya S, Wilton P, Page D, Boma-Fischer L, Floros G, Winikoff R, et al. They don’t really take my bleeds seriously: barriers to care for women with inherited bleeding disorders. J Thromb Haemost. 2021;19:1506–14.

Kurtz NS, Cote C, Heatwole C, Gagnon C, Youssof S. Patient-reported disease burden in oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy. Muscle Nerve. 2019;60:724–31.

Pakhale S, Baron J, Armstrong M, Tasca G, Gaudet E, Aaron SD, et al. Lost in translation? How adults living with cystic fibrosis understand treatment recommendations from their healthcare providers, and the impact on adherence to therapy. Patient Educ Couns. 2016;99:1319–24.

Shepherd LM, Tahrani AA, Inman C, Arlt W, Carrick-Sen DM. Exploration of knowledge and understanding in patients with primary adrenal insufficiency: a mixed methods study. BMC Endocr Disord. 2017;17:47.

Arran N, Craufurd D, Simpson J. Illness perceptions, coping styles and psychological distress in adults with Huntington’s disease. Psychol Health Med. 2014;19:169–79.

Dellon EP, Helms SW, Hailey CE, Shay R, Carney SD, Schmidt HJ, et al. Exploring knowledge and perceptions of palliative care to inform integration of palliative care education into cystic fibrosis care. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2018;53:1218–24.

Shoshan L, Ben-Zvi D, Meyer S, Katz-Leurer M. Sexuality in relation to independence in daily functions among young people with spina bifida living in Israel. Rehabil Nurs. 2012;37:11–7. quiz 17–8.

Walsh MB, Charen K, Shubeck L, McConkie-Rosell A, Ali N, Bellcross C, et al. Men with an FMR1 premutation and their health education needs. J Genet Couns. 2021;30:1156–67.

Sylvain C, Lamothe L, Berthiaume Y, Rabasa-Lhoret R. How patients’ representations of cystic fibrosis-related diabetes inform their health behaviours. Psychol Health. 2016;31:1129–44.

Arnold E, Lane S, Webert KE, Chan A, Walker I, Tufts J, et al. What should men living with haemophilia need to know? The perspectives of Canadian men with haemophilia. Haemophilia. 2014;20:219–25.

Torres-Ortuño A, Cuesta-Barriuso R, Nieto-Munuera J, Galindo-Piñana P, López-Pina J-A. The behaviour and perception of illness: modulating variables of adherence in patients with haemophilia. Vox Sang [Internet]. 2018; https://doi.org/10.1111/vox.12669

Keyte R, Egan H, Nash EF, Regan A, Jackson C, Mantzios M. An exploration into experiences and attitudes regarding risky health behaviours in an adult cystic fibrosis population. Psychol Health Med. 2020;25:1013–9.

Carpenter DM, DeVellis RF, Hogan SL, Fisher EB, DeVellis BM, Jordan JM. Use and perceived credibility of medication information sources for patients with a rare illness: differences by gender. J Health Commun. 2011;16:629–42.

Dwyer AA, Quinton R, Morin D, Pitteloud N. Identifying the unmet health needs of patients with congenital hypogonadotropic hypogonadism using a web-based needs assessment: implications for online interventions and peer-to-peer support. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2014;9:83.

Litzkendorf S, Frank M, Babac A, Rosenfeldt D, Schauer F, Hartz T, et al. Use and importance of different information sources among patients with rare diseases and their relatives over time: a qualitative study. BMC Public Health. 2020;20:860.

Molster C, Urwin D, Di Pietro L, Fookes M, Petrie D, van der Laan S, et al. Survey of healthcare experiences of Australian adults living with rare diseases. Orphanet J Rare Dis. 2016;11:30.

Lindsay S, Fellin M, Cruickshank H, McPherson A, Maxwell J. Youth and parents’ experiences of a new inter-agency transition model for spina bifida compared to youth who did not take part in the model. Disabil Health J. 2016;9:705–12.

Skirton H, Williams JK, Jackson Barnette J, Paulsen JS. Huntington disease: families’ experiences of healthcare services. J Adv Nurs. 2010;66:500–10.

Domaradzki J. Family caregivers’ experiences with healthcare services–a case of Huntington’s disease. Psychiatr Pol. 2016;50:375–91.

Katavic SS, Tanackovic SF, Badurina B. Illness perception and information behaviour of patients with rare chronic diseases. Inflamm Res [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2023 Jun 14];21. https://doi.org/10.1111/hir.12261

Socha Hernandez AV, Deeks LS, Shield AJ. Understanding medication safety and Charcot-Marie-tooth disease: a patient perspective. Int J Clin Pharm. 2020;42:1507–14.

Akanuwe JNA, Laparidou D, Curtis F, Jackson J, Hodgson TL, Siriwardena AN. Exploring the experiences of having Guillain-Barré syndrome: a qualitative interview study. Health Expect. 2020;23:1338–49.

Foley G, Timonen V, Hardiman O. Understanding psycho-social processes underpinning engagement with services in motor neurone disease: a qualitative study. Palliat Med. 2014;28:318–25.

Borghi L, Moreschi C, Toscano A, Comber P, Vegni E, The PKU. ME study: a qualitative exploration, through co-creative sessions, of attitudes and experience of the disease among adults with phenylketonuria in Italy. Mol Genet Metabolism Rep. 2020;23:100585.

CAS   Google Scholar  

Kazmerski TM, Gmelin T, Slocum B, Borrero S, Miller E. Attitudes and decision making related to pregnancy among Young women with cystic fibrosis. Matern Child Health J. 2017;21:818–24.

Flewelling KD, Sellers DE, Sawicki GS, Robinson WM, Dill EJ. Social support is associated with fewer reported symptoms and decreased treatment burden in adults with cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros. 2019;18:572–6.

Kirk S, Milnes L. An exploration of how young people and parents use online support in the context of living with cystic fibrosis. Health Expect. 2016;19:309–21.

Salvatore V, Gilstrap A, Williams KR, Thorat S, Stevenson M, Gwosdow AR, et al. Evaluating the impact of peer support and connection on the quality of life of patients with familial chylomicronemia syndrome. Expert Opin Orphan Drugs. 2018;6:497–505.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

López-Bastida J, Oliva-Moreno J, Linertová R, Serrano-Aguilar P. Social/economic costs and health-related quality of life in patients with rare diseases in Europe. Eur J Health Economics: HEPAC: Health Econ Prev care. 2016;17(Suppl 1):1–5.

Sørensen K, Van den Broucke S, Pelikan JM, Fullam J, Doyle G, Slonska Z et al. Measuring health literacy in populations: illuminating the design and development process of the European Health Literacy Survey Questionnaire (HLS-EU-Q). BMC Public Health [Internet]. 2013;13. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-948

Berkman ND, Sheridan SL, Donahue KE, Halpern DJ, Crotty K. Low health literacy and health outcomes: an updated systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2011;155:97–107.

Geboers B, Reijneveld SA, Jansen CJM, de Winter AF. Health Literacy Is Associated With Health Behaviors and Social factors among older adults: results from the LifeLines Cohort Study. J Health Commun. 2016;21:45–53.

Mackey LM, Doody C, Werner EL, Fullen B. Self-management skills in Chronic Disease Management: what role does health literacy have? Med Decis Mak. 2016;36:741–59.

Paasche-Orlow MK, Wolf MS. The causal pathways linking health literacy to health outcomes. Am J Health Behav. 2007;31:19–26.

de Vrueh R, de Baekelandt Erf JMH. Background paper 6.19. Rare diseases. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.

Google Scholar  

Uhlenbusch N, Löwe B, Härter M, Schramm C, Weiler-Normann C, Depping MK. Depression and anxiety in patients with different rare chronic diseases: a cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE. 2019;14:e0211343.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors want to thank leaders and colleagues. A special thank goes to librarian Hilde Iren Flaatten who has conducted systematic searches after literature and Anne Siri Albrigtsen for important contributions to this review. Several of the authors are members of Euro-NMD.

This work received funding from Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Rare Disorders. In addition the work was performed as part of regular activities at Frambu Resource Centre for Rare Disorders and Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Learning and Mastery in Health, Oslo University Hospital.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Frambu Resource Center for Rare Disorders, Sandbakkveien 18, Siggerud, 1404, Norway

Una Stenberg & Lydia Westfal

Norwegian National Advisory Unit on Learning and Mastery in Health, Oslo University Hospital, Postboks 4959 Nydalen, Oslo, 0424, Norway

Una Stenberg & Karl Fredrik Westermann

National Neuromuscular Centre Norway, University Hospital of North-Norway, Hansine Hansens vei 37, Tromsø, 9019, Norway

Andreas Dybesland Rosenberger

Section for Rare Neuromuscular Disorders and Unit for Congenital and Hereditary Neuromuscular Disorders (EMAN), Department of Neurology, Oslo University Hospital, Postboks 4950 Nydalen, Oslo, 0424, Norway

Kristin Ørstavik

Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Solnavägen 1, Solna, 171 77, Sweden

Maria Flink

Oslo Metropolitan University, Postbox 4, St. Olavs place, Oslo, N-0130, Norway

Heidi Holmen

National Centre for Rare Epilepsy-Related Disorders, Department of Rare Disorders, Division of Paediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Postboks, 4950 Nydalen, 0424, Oslo, Norway

Silje Systad

TRS Resource Centre for Rare Diseases, Sunnaas Rehabilitation Hospital, Bjørnemyrveien 11, 1453, Bjørnemyr, Norway

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

All the authors (US, GV, SS, KØ, KFW, HH, ADR, MF) except LW have contributed in the conception, design and analysis of data and interpretation of data. US has led all the phases of the review, and LW has contributed in the analysis and interpretation of data, and in writing the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Una Stenberg .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Competing interests.

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Supplementary material 2, supplementary material 3, supplementary material 4, supplementary material 5, supplementary material 6, supplementary material 7, supplementary material 8, supplementary material 9, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ . The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/ ) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Stenberg, U., Westfal, L., Dybesland Rosenberger, A. et al. A scoping review of health literacy in rare disorders: key issues and research directions. Orphanet J Rare Dis 19 , 328 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-024-03332-5

Download citation

Received : 25 October 2023

Accepted : 21 August 2024

Published : 06 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s13023-024-03332-5

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Health literacy
• Rare disorders
• Rare disease
• Rare genetic disorder
• Rare developmental defect
• Integrative model of health literacy
• Scoping review

Orphanet Journal of Rare Diseases

ISSN: 1750-1172

• Submission enquiries: Access here and click Contact Us
• General enquiries: [email protected]

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Blockchain forensics: a systematic literature review of techniques, applications, challenges, and future directions.

Share and Cite

Atlam, H.F.; Ekuri, N.; Azad, M.A.; Lallie, H.S. Blockchain Forensics: A Systematic Literature Review of Techniques, Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions. Electronics 2024 , 13 , 3568. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173568

Atlam HF, Ekuri N, Azad MA, Lallie HS. Blockchain Forensics: A Systematic Literature Review of Techniques, Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions. Electronics . 2024; 13(17):3568. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173568

Atlam, Hany F., Ndifon Ekuri, Muhammad Ajmal Azad, and Harjinder Singh Lallie. 2024. "Blockchain Forensics: A Systematic Literature Review of Techniques, Applications, Challenges, and Future Directions" Electronics 13, no. 17: 3568. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13173568

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• Current students
• Staff intranet

A modern Systematic Review of the use of prelaboratory tasks in Science Education

• Yuqing Fang
• Stephen George-Williams The University of Sydney http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2578-1187
• Shane Wilkinson

In the field of science education, the laboratory is considered a crucial element that plays a unique role in improving learning outcomes (Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004). Even though laboratory learning has an obvious strength in its ability to train students’ practical abilities, research indicates that students commonly encounter cognitive overload during modern laboratory classes, leading to a decreased possibility of successfully reaching the desired learning results (Jones & Edwards, 2010). Prioritising preparation for laboratory lessons is crucial in order to facilitate meaningful learning and decrease students’ anxiety (Gungor et al., 2022; O’Brien & Cameron, 2008). Interestingly, several studies confirm that when a range of multimedia is included to prelab instruction, students understand the content more thoroughly than they would if it were taught only through textbooks and lectures (Aronne et al., 2019; Patterson, 2011).

This literature review focuses on the use of multimedia technology by scholars throughout the last ten years (2015–2024), considering updated trends and applying a thematic analysis protocol to the available literature. This goal was achieved by classifying and dividing the literature into several categories based on their research objectives, theories, content, assessment, and related analytical approaches. Following that, a comparison of the findings and some recommendations for more research on prelaboratory activities will be established.

Aronne, L., Nagle, C., Styers, J. L., Combs, A., & George, J. A. (2019). The effects of video-based pre-lab instruction on college students’ attitudes and achievement in the digital era. The Electronic Journal for Research in Science & Mathematics Education, 23(5).

Gungor, A., Avraamidou, L., Kool, D., Lee, M., Eisink, N., Albada, B., van der Kolk, K., Tromp, M., & Bitter, J. H. (2022). The Use of Virtual Reality in A Chemistry Lab and Its Impact on Students’ Self-Efficacy, Interest, Self-Concept and Laboratory Anxiety. EURASIA Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(3), em2090.

Hofstein, A., & Lunetta, V. N. (2004). The laboratory in science education: Foundations for the twenty-first century. Science Education, 88(1), 28-54.

Jones, S. M., & Edwards, A. (2010). Online pre-laboratory exercises enhance student preparedness for first year biology practical classes. International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, 18(2).

O’Brien, G., & Cameron, M. (2008). Prelaboratory activities to enhance the laboratory learning experience. Proceedings of the Australian Conference on Science and Mathematics Education,

Patterson, D. A. (2011). Impact of a multimedia laboratory manual: Investigating the influence of student learning styles on laboratory preparation and performance over one semester. Education for Chemical Engineers, 6(1), e10-e30.

Author Biography

• Stephen George-Williams, The University of Sydney Senior Lecturer (Chemistry, Education Focused)
• Abstract PDF

Developed By

Information.

• For Readers
• For Authors
• For Librarians

A geographical analysis of social enterprises: the case of Ireland

Social Enterprise Journal

ISSN : 1750-8614

Article publication date: 29 April 2024

Issue publication date: 4 July 2024

This study aims to conduct a geographical analysis of the distribution and type of activities developed by social enterprises in rural and urban areas of Ireland.

Design/methodology/approach

The study analyses data of more than 4,000 social enterprises against a six-tier rural/urban typology, using descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests to test six hypotheses.

The study shows a geographical rural–urban pattern in the distribution of social enterprises in Ireland, with a positive association between the remoteness of an area and the ratio of social enterprises, and a lack of capital-city effect related to the density of social enterprises. The analysis also shows a statistically significant geographical rural–urban pattern for the types of activities developed by social enterprises. The authors observe a positive association between the remoteness of the areas and the presence of social enterprises operating in the community and local development sector whereas the association is not significant for social enterprises developing welfare services.

Research limitations/implications

The paper shows the potential of using recently developed rural–urban typologies and tools such as geographical information systems for conducting geographical research on social enterprises. The findings also have implications for informing spatially sensitive policymaking on social enterprises.

Originality/value

The merging of a large national data set of social enterprises with geographical tools and data at subregional level contributes to the methodological advancement of the field of social enterprises, providing tools and frameworks for a nuanced and spatially sensitive analysis of these organisations.

• Rural social enterprises
• Urban social enterprises
• Quantitative research
• Social economy organisations

Olmedo, L. , O. Shaughnessy, M. and Holloway, P. (2024), "A geographical analysis of social enterprises: the case of Ireland", Social Enterprise Journal , Vol. 20 No. 4, pp. 499-521. https://doi.org/10.1108/SEJ-09-2023-0105

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2024, Lucas Olmedo, Mary O. Shaughnessy and Paul Holloway.

Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial & non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

1. Introduction

Social and solidarity economy organisations, and especially social enterprises, have recently been brought to the fore by international institutions including the European Commission, the organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD) and the United Nations ( European Commission, 2021 ; OECD, 2022 ; United Nations, 2023 ). These institutions acknowledge the contribution and potential of social enterprises to address complex challenges such as climate change, ageing population and lack of access to employment for vulnerable groups; namely, due to the combination of social and/or environmental aims with an economic activity and democratic decision-making which characterise social enterprises ( Galera and Borzaga, 2009 ; Defourny and Nyssens, 2017 ).

Social enterprises in Ireland have been traditionally considered relevant actors providing goods and services to disadvantaged communities and enabling work integration of vulnerable groups ( O’Hara and O’Shaughnessy, 2021 ). In 2019, the Irish Government launched the first National Social Enterprise Policy for Ireland, representing a milestone for the recognition and institutionalisation of social enterprises in the country ( Olmedo et al. , 2021 ). This policy establishes an official definition of social enterprises as follows:

An enterprise whose objective is to achieve a social, societal or environmental impact, rather than maximising profit for its owners or shareholders. It pursues its objectives by trading on an ongoing basis through the provision of goods and/or services, and by reinvesting surpluses into achieving social objectives. It is governed in a fully accountable and transparent manner and is independent of the public sector. If dissolved, it should transfer its assets to another organisation with a similar mission ( Government of Ireland, 2019 , p. 8).

This policy recognises, in line with previous research reports on Irish social enterprises ( Hynes, 2016 ; European Commission, 2020 ), the contribution of Irish social enterprises to deliver a wide range of goods and services, as well as supporting the attainment of government policy goals in areas such as labour market activation but also in health care, climate action, social cohesion and rural development.

Despite common features shared across social enterprises, previous research has highlighted differences between social enterprises operating in rural and urban areas in terms of their community focus, leadership style and funding sources ( Smith and McColl, 2016 ; Barraket et al. , 2019 ). The geographical context where social enterprises operate has been acknowledged as a relevant factor for explaining the work of these organisations ( Steiner and Teasdale, 2019 ; Olmedo et al. , 2023 ) and their contribution to urban and rural development ( Angelidou and Mora, 2019 ; Olmedo and O’Shaughnessy, 2022 ). Geographically sensitive research on social enterprises has been developed mainly at the local level ( Mazzei, 2017 ; Jammulamadaka and Chakraborty, 2018 ; Pinch and Sunley, 2016 ), with some research also conducted at the regional level ( Buckingham et al. , 2011 ; Woo and Jung, 2023 ); however, less is known about the differences in the distribution and the type of activities that social enterprises develop in different rural–urban areas of a country. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore the distribution and type of activities developed by social enterprises in different rural and urban areas in Ireland.

To achieve this, we use a six-tier rural–urban typology developed by the Irish Central Statistics Office ( CSO, 2019 ) combined with data on 4,335 social enterprises collected in Ireland. Using geographical information systems (GIS) we georeferenced social enterprises and tested six hypotheses. The spatially sensitive and quantitative empirical data analysis provided by this study adds knowledge to previous calls for geographical research on social enterprises ( Munoz, 2010 ) and provides relevant evidence for the development of spatially sensitive policies for social enterprises ( Mazzei and Roy, 2017 ).

The rest of the paper is structured as follows, Section 2 presents a literature review on previous geographical research on social enterprises. Section 3 outlines the research framework and the hypotheses of this study. Section 4 explains the methodology used in the research. Section 5 presents the findings of this study, with a subsection presenting descriptive statistics and another presenting the analysis of the hypotheses’ tested. Section 6 discusses the findings and Section 7 outlines the conclusions and limitations of this study, ending with some proposals for further research.

2. Literature review – geographical research on social enterprises

The publication in 2010 of a seminal call “Towards a geographical research agenda for social enterprise” ( Munoz, 2010 ) meant a significant milestone for the development of a geographically sensitive perspective towards the study of social enterprises. Within this body of research [ 1 ], some authors have adopted a micro-geographical perspective to study social enterprises as spaces of well-being ( Munoz et al. , 2015 ). For example, Farmer et al. (2020) used GIS to link specific sites within a social enterprise to the well-being experienced by the employees of three Australian Work Integration Social Enterprises. Their findings show how the social enterprises studied acted as “socially-supportive workplaces which focus on deploying, developing and supporting talents and not simply allocating people to one job in one location for all time” ( Farmer et al. , 2020 , p. 9).

Another stream of studies has focused on the local geography of social enterprises ( Jammulamadaka and Chakraborty, 2018 ). Some of these studies have a specific urban focus. For example, Pinch and Sunley (2016) investigated whether social enterprises in four major UK cities benefited from urban agglomeration effects, concluding that agglomeration enables greater demand for social enterprises goods and services and better access to institutional support, funding, knowledge and networks. Similarly, Mazzei (2017) stressed the influence of “place” on the incentives and opportunities for two social enterprises operating within English cities.

Previous research has also taken a geographical perspective to study social enterprises in rural areas. Drawing from social network theory, Richter (2019) showed how social enterprises operating in rural Austria and Poland act as embedded intermediaries between their localities and supra-regional networks. In studies conducted in rural Scotland, Steiner and Steinerowska-Streb (2012) and Steiner and Teasdale (2019) stated that rural areas are a fertile ground for social enterprises due to characteristics associated to rurality, such as reduced market competitors and high levels of social capital. Moreover, these studies further explain how rural social enterprises use advantages of the rural context, such as the skills and knowledge of retired people who moved to rural localities, to develop social entrepreneurial activities. In a study conducted in rural Scotland exploring social enterprises in addressing social isolation and loneliness, Kelly et al. (2019) concluded that despite these organisations offer more flexible solutions than statutory services, relying on social enterprises as solutions to these challenges is not realistic. This was posited to features associated with the rural context of the study, such as remoteness, small labour markets and depopulation.

This echoes research on social enterprises in rural Ireland conducted by O’Shaughnessy and O’Hara (2016) , who stated that geographic isolation and limited job creation associated to the rural context challenges the development of social enterprises. More recently, Olmedo et al. (2023) showed how social enterprises in three Irish rural localities, through a process of “placial substantive hybridity”, harness and (re)valorise untapped local resources and complement these with extra-local resources to foster social innovation and contribute to an integrated development of their localities.

Geographical research has also been conducted comparing social enterprises operating in rural and urban localities. Smith and McColl (2016) explored the influence of the context in four social enterprises based in Scottish urban and rural communities. The authors found that rural social enterprises show a great linkage between the geographical characteristics of where they are based, their community identity and ownership and type of business developed. Contrarily in the urban social enterprises they studied, it was a social need rather than a geographical aspect which drove the organisations’ aim. In a study conducted in Australia, Barraket et al. (2019) compared 11 locally oriented urban and rural social enterprises resourcefulness strategies. The authors showed the great relevance of community networks within rural based social enterprises to access financial and physical assets; however, those social enterprises based in urban areas were more inclined to leverage public funding related to welfare objectives and resources from corporates.

Despite the plethora of research investigating social enterprises at the urban and rural levels, few studies have researched social enterprises through a regional perspective. In this regard, Buckingham et al. (2011) attempted to unmask the “enigmatic regional geography of social enterprises in the UK” using statistical data from different surveys related to social enterprises conducted between 2005 and 2009. The authors concluded that interregional variations (north–south and east–west) were relatively small and without statistical significance; except for high levels of social enterprise activity in London due to its dynamic and innovative business environment and the effect that headquarters location of national social enterprises (mainly in London) might have in the data. More recently, Woo and Jung (2023) have explored the regional determinants of the emergence of social enterprises in South Korea. Combining longitudinal data sets (2012–2019) from the Korea Social Enterprise Promotion Agency and Korea Statistics and using an entrepreneurial ecosystems perspective, the authors concluded that the emergence of social enterprises is especially significant in regions experiencing government or market failure and in regions with greater incidences of start-ups, human capital and financial resources.

At the national (country) and international level, research on social enterprises has been mainly conducted from an institutional perspective, influenced by the seminal work of Kerlin (2013) and the international comparative social enterprise models project ( Defourny and Nyssens, 2017 ; Defourny et al. , 2020 ), with scarce studies adopting a geographical perspective. A notable exception can be found in a study conducted by Douglas et al. (2018) exploring social enterprises in Fiji, in which the geography of the country, a small remote island in the Pacific Ocean, is considered (together with its history, social, economic, political and cultural institutions) a determinant factor shaping social enterprises in the country.

In summary (see Table 1 ), the review of the literature shows how geographical research on social enterprises has been conducted at various levels, from micro-organisational to national level; however, to-date this research has predominantly focused on the influence of local geographical elements in shaping the work of social enterprises. Within the local level, urban and rural localities have been subject to research and some differences have been identified in the ways rural–urban social enterprises operate. Regarding the methodologies used by studies, most geographical research on social enterprises have used qualitative methods, with some exceptions in studies that take a regional perspective. In these instances, studies have predominantly used existing survey data and registers of social enterprises ( Woo and Jung, 2023 ). In terms of theoretical perspectives, some studies are based on economic geography theories such as agglomeration and cluster theory (e.g. Pinch and Sunley, 2016 ; Jammulamadaka and Chakraborty, 2018 ) and concepts such as “place” borrowed from human geography (e.g. Mazzei, 2017 ; Olmedo et al. , 2023 ). However, generally the studies reviewed rather use theories from disciplines such as sociology, e.g. social network theory, and business/entrepreneurship, e.g. entrepreneurial ecosystems, complementing these with spatially sensitive elements such as the use of methodological tools such as GIS in their analysis ( Farmer et al. , 2020 ), the multi-scalar analysis of networks ( Richter, 2019 ) or a spatial rural–urban comparison of the cases studied ( Barraket et al. , 2019 ).

Despite the significant progress of geographical research on social enterprises in recent years, studies have focused on how geographical elements of the context influence the features and work of social enterprises, rather than exploring the basic and critical question (for research and policy) of how social enterprises are geographically distributed, and why. According to Buckingham et al. (2011 , p. 90), it “seems likely that the most significant geographical differences in the distribution of social enterprises are to be found at the sub-regional level […] and there is clearly a need for further, more fine-grained investigation”, see also Steiner et al. (2019) . This study aims to fill this gap for the case of Ireland by exploring the distribution and type of activities developed by social enterprises in rural and urban areas. To do so, we draw from a combination of increasingly complex thinking about rural–urban spatial heterogeneity, the advancement of methodological tools for rural–urban spatial classification at sub-regional level and from statistical information gathered on Irish social enterprises.

3. Research framework and hypothesis

3.1 territorial, rural–urban and classifications.

This paper is based on a geographical perspective towards the study of social enterprises in Ireland, and more specifically on the analysis of social enterprises in rural and urban areas. The definition of what constitutes a rural and urban area has been subject to extensive debate (see, for example, Mantino et al. , 2023 ; Eurostat, 2021 ). Within Europe there is no definitive agreement between Member States of what is considered as a rural/urban area; for example, in Ireland, rural areas are defined in terms of settlements with a population of less than 1,500 persons ( CSO, 2019 ), whereas in Spain rural areas are considered as those municipalities with less than 5,000 inhabitants but also those with less than 30,000 inhabitants and a density lower than 100 inhabitants/km 2 ( Government of Spain, 2007 ). These definitions classify rural–urban areas mainly in terms of population densities.

population density;

the percentage of the population of a region living in rural communities; and

the presence of large urban centres in such regions.

According to these criteria, NUTS 3 [ 2 ] regions are classified into Predominantly Rural; Intermediate and Predominantly Urban ( OECD, 2006 ) [ 3 ]. This methodology has been revised by Eurostat (2021) incorporating finer-grain data at Local Administrative Units Level 2 (LAU2) and grid cells of 1 km 2 to categorised territories into cities, towns, semi-dense areas and rural areas. Eurostat (2021) has also included a further subclassification based on population density and size. Towns and semi-dense areas were sub-divided into dense towns, semi-dense towns and suburban or peri-urban areas. Rural areas were also sub-divided into villages, dispersed rural areas and mostly inhabited rural areas. This finer analysis allows for a more precise analysis of the rural–urban continuum overcoming an abrupt differentiation between urban and rural areas but approaching it rather as a continuum that acknowledges the heterogeneity of rural and urban areas.

Besides the classification of rural–urban areas based on population density and size, classifications based on the functions and relations between areas have also been developed ( Mantino et al. , 2023 ). These classifications tend to incorporate indicators related to economic factors, for example, the economic growth/decline, the degree of productive activities (agriculture, forestry, manufacturing and construction) and consumption activities (tourism, recreation, housing and services) ( Copus et al. , 2011 ). Environmental indicators, for example, related to ecosystems functions (climate regulation, water supply and regulation, soil retention and formation, biodiversity) are also incorporated to classify rural–urban areas based on their (multi)functionality ( Mantino et al. , 2023 ). A key aspect of the relationship between rural–urban areas includes the mobility of workers and the access to services. In this regard indicators of proximity related, for example, to the time needed to access to services and infrastructures have also been considered in the classification of rural–urban areas ( Eurostat, 2021 ).

These functional classifications are usually interlinked with the abovementioned rural–urban classifications based on population density creating increasingly nuanced typologies through the multiple criteria that reflects the complexity of relationships between urban and rural areas ( Perpiñá Castillo et al. , 2022 ). In this line, the Central Statistics Office of Ireland (CSO) developed in 2019 a six-tier rural–urban typology ( CSO, 2019 ). This typology was developed using the place of work as a measure of distance to services and amenities, combined with population density from Census 2016. The typology is applied to small area population (SAP), and includes the following six categories: cities, satellite urban towns, independent urban towns, rural areas with high urban influence, rural areas with moderate rural influence and highly rural/remote rural areas (see Table 2 ).

3.2 Hypothesis development

Our study uses the typology developed by the CSO to conduct a geographical analysis of social enterprises in Ireland. Based on this framework, and some of the characteristics of social enterprises presented in the literature review of this paper, six hypotheses have been developed.

Previous studies have suggested that social enterprises are influenced by their geographical context with differences in the spread of social enterprises in rural and urban areas ( Buckingham et al. , 2011 ; CEIS and Social Value Lab, 2023 ). Some studies stress that rural areas represent a fertile ground for social enterprises ( Steiner and Steinerowska-Streb, 2012 ) and that social enterprises tend to emerge and develop in regions experiencing government or market failure ( Woo and Jung, 2023 ). However, the studies of Buckingham et al. (2011) and Pinch and Sunley (2016) suggest a capital-city effect attraction for social enterprises due to its dynamic and innovative business environment, the presence of headquarters location of national social enterprises, greater demand for social enterprises goods and services and better access to institutional support, funding, knowledge and networks, therefore, more supportive social entrepreneurial ecosystems (see also Diaz Gonzalez and Dentchev, 2020 ).

States that the presence of social enterprises is significantly associated with the type of rural–urban areas.

States that the presence of social enterprises is positively associated with areas with lower population density and greater distance to services and amenities (remoteness).

States that the presence of social enterprises within the capital city (Dublin) is significantly higher compared to the national average and to other rural and urban areas of Ireland.

Previous research has also pointed towards the influence of the geographical context in the activities developed by social enterprises ( Mazzei, 2017 ; Smith and McColl, 2016 ). Looking at rural–urban differences and the sector of activities of social enterprises, research has highlighted the key role of social enterprises in community and local development in (remote) rural areas ( van Twuijver et al. , 2020 ; Olmedo et al. , 2023 ) and in providing services related to welfare objectives in urban centres ( Barraket et al. , 2019 ).

States that there is a significant relationship between the sectors of activities in which social enterprises operate and the type of rural–urban areas in which they are based.

States that there is a positive association between areas with lower population density and greater distance to services and amenities (remoteness) and the presence of social enterprises in the sector of community and local development.

States that there is a negative association between areas with lower population density and greater distance to services and amenities (remoteness) and the presence of social enterprises operating in sectors related to welfare objectives.

4. Methodology

Nationwide data on Irish social enterprises were obtained from a social enterprise baseline data collection exercise conducted in 2022. This baseline data collection exercise followed a bottom-up methodology in which a population of social enterprises for Ireland was built from social enterprises lists provided by 36 intermediary organisations and public institutions delivering social enterprise programmes [ 4 ]. The population of social enterprises included 4,335 organisations, geographical-location information was gathered for 4,234 social enterprises and data about their sector of activity was gathered for 4,329 organisations.

Location information of social enterprises was georeferenced using organisation’s Eircodes (postal code/zip code equivalent for Ireland), thus allowing for a precise geolocation. The Eircode was either provided by the social enterprises or when not available the address of the organisation was introduced on the website “Eircode finder” to obtain the Eircode. Geographical coordinates for each Eircode were obtained using ArcGIS Online. Once the geographical coordinates were obtained each social enterprise was mapped using the software QGIS [ 5 ].

Data related to the CSO rural–urban typology containing information about the type of area (six categories) and population [ 6 ] was obtained from the Ordnance Survey Ireland – Open Data Portal [ 7 ]. The rural–urban typology developed by the CSO (2019) used in this study was applied to small area levels. Small areas are the lowest level of geography for the compilation of statistics by the CSO in line with data protection guidelines and typically contain between 80 and 120 dwellings ( CSO, 2019 ). A shapefile with small areas ungeneralised – National Statistical Boundaries was used, this contains a subdivision of the territory of the Republic of Ireland into 18,641 small areas. Information of small areas was vectorised and mapped using QGIS. Information about the six rural–urban categories was joined to each small area within QGIS and a choropleth map was created to differentiate between the types of rural–urban areas. Colours from light green (rural areas with high urban influence) to dark green (highly rural/remote areas) were used for rural areas, whereas dark red was used for cities, light red for satellite urban towns and pink for independent urban towns (see Figure 1 ).

The statistical analysis of this study includes three variables: type of rural–urban area, presence of social enterprises and sector of activities of social enterprises. As the aforementioned six-tier typology combines population density with distance to services and amenities, the categories have been ordered according to their level of remoteness, creating a dummy ordinal variable in which cities are converted into 1 (less remote) and highly rural/remote areas into 6 (most remote). The presence of social enterprises was calculated by the ratio of social enterprises divided by 10,000 inhabitants, following international guidelines from previous social enterprises census/baseline studies (see, for example, CEIS and Social Value Lab, 2023 ). The activities of social enterprises were codified following sectoral categories from the Scottish social enterprise census. This decision was made given the similarities between the countries (Scotland and Ireland) and the long experience of Scotland in constructing this census.

Statistical analysis for this study was conducted using the software R, version 4.2.2, within RStudio. We conducted a descriptive analysis of the variables before undertaking bivariate analysis of the variables to test our hypotheses. Due to the (partially categorical) nature of our data, we used non-parametric statistical tests such as Kruskal–Wallis H test, including post hoc Dunn’s test, chi-square test and Jonckheere–Terpstra test to investigate our hypotheses. The specific tests used for testing each hypothesis are explained in the following section.

5.1 Descriptive statistics

Social enterprises are distributed across rural and urban areas of Ireland (see Figure 2 ). In terms of total number, social enterprises are often concentrated in counties with the most populated Irish cities, such as Dublin (17.9% of total social enterprises) and Cork (10.5%) (see Figure 3 ). However, when considering the ratio of social enterprises by population (social enterprises/10,000 inhabitants), higher ratios of social enterprises are found, namely, in the north and northwest of the country (see Figure 4 ) and in counties with a high density of rural areas, such as Leitrim (26.2 social enterprises per 10,000 inhabitants), Donegal (18.5), Monaghan (17.3) and Mayo (16.5).

The descriptive analysis of social enterprises in relation to the rural–urban typology (see Table 3 ), shows that rural areas present a higher ratio of social enterprises (10.8 social enterprises per 10,000 inhabitants) than urban areas (8.0). However, the ratios show important differences when analysing the rural and urban subcategories, with highly rural/remote areas having a ratio of 21.0 social enterprises per 10,000 inhabitants against the 5.9 social enterprises per 10,000 inhabitants of rural areas with high urban influence. Within urban areas, independent urban towns have a higher concentration of social enterprises (12.9), than cities (6.7) and satellite urban towns (4.9).

The descriptive statistical analysis of the sector of activities of Irish social enterprises also shows some differences between rural–urban areas (see Table 4 ). For example, over 20% of social enterprises within each type of rural areas focus on community infrastructure and local development, whereas only 7.9% of social enterprises in cities operate within this sector. On the other hand, approximately 20% of social enterprises in cities and satellite urban towns develop activities related to health, youth services and social care, whereas in rural areas less than 10% of social enterprises operate within this sector. Social enterprises in sectors such as training and work integration, and information and support services are more prominent in cities, approximately 10% of city-based social enterprises operate in these sectors, whereas these sectors represent less than 5% of the total social enterprises based in Irish rural areas.

5.2 Hypothesis testing

Based on previous literature we developed six hypotheses to be tested related to the distribution and sectors of activities of social enterprises in rural and urban areas in Ireland (see Appendix for the results of the statistical test conducted).

H1 stated that the presence of social enterprises (measured by the ratio of social enterprises per 10,000 inhabitants) is significantly associated with the type of rural–urban areas (operationalised following the six-tier typology developed by the Irish CSO). To analyse this hypothesis a Kruskal–Wallis H test, a non-parametric version of ANOVA suitable for assessing the differences among three or more groups of a categorical/ordinal variable (rural–urban typology) related to a non-normally distributed continuous variable (social enterprise ratio), was conducted ( Vargha and Delaney, 1998 ). The results from this test show a statistically significant relationship between the variables ( p < 0.01), supporting H1 . As the rural–urban areas typology is formed by six categories, a post hoc Dunn test (adjusted with Bonferroni) ( Dinno, 2022 ) was conducted to compare the relationship between each of the pair categories. The results from this test show a significant relationship between all categories except for “cities and satellite urban towns” and “cities and rural areas with high urban”.

H2 refers to the positive association between the presence (ratio) of social enterprises and areas with lower population density and greater distance to services and amenities (remoteness). The six rural–urban categories have been ordered into a dummy variable from 1 to 6 according to their degree of “remoteness”. To test the (positive) directional association between the ratio of social enterprises and the rural–urban areas according to their degree of “remoteness” a Jonckheere–Terpstra test, a non-parametric test similar to Kruskal–Wallis H test, but preferred when the groups are assumed to be arranged in order (ascendent or descendent), was conducted ( Ali et al. , 2015 ). The results show a significant positive association ( p < 0.01) between the remoteness of the rural–urban areas studied and the presence (ratio) of social enterprises, supporting H2 .

H3 refers to the significantly higher presence (ratio) of social enterprises within the capital city (Dublin) compared to the national average and to other rural–urban areas of Ireland. To test this hypothesis, first, we calculated the ratio of social enterprises for the specific SAPs belonging to the category “cities” within County Dublin which accounts for 6.2 social enterprises per 10,000 inhabitants. Although social enterprises based in the city of Dublin represent 16.4% of total Irish social enterprises, the ratio of social enterprises in the city of Dublin (6.2) is below the national average (9.0) and lower than in other urban areas, including other Irish cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants (8.3) and independent urban towns (12.9). The ratio of social enterprises in Dublin city is also lower than in rural areas with moderate urban influence (9.9) and highly rural/remote areas (21.0).

Alternatively, the ratio of social enterprises in Dublin city is higher than in satellite urban towns (4.9) and rural areas with high rural influence (5.9). To analyse the statistical significance between the ratios of Dublin city and the categories with lower ratios we used Welch’s two-sample t -test, suitable for comparing means of groups with unequal variances ( Lu and Yuan, 2010 ). The results show no statistically significant difference between these means ( p > 0.05), thus H3 was not supported.

H4 refers to the significant relationship between the sectors of activities in which social enterprises operate and the type of rural–urban areas in which they are based. Due to the categorical nature of both variables, a Pearson chi-square test (test of independence) was conducted ( Franke et al. , 2012 ). The results show a statistical significance relationship between the variables ( p < 0.01), supporting H4 .

H5 refers to a positive association between areas with lower population density and greater distance to services and amenities (remoteness) and the presence of social enterprises in the community and local development sector and; H6 refers to a negative association between areas with lower population density and greater distance to services and amenities (remoteness) and the presence of social enterprises operating in sectors associated with welfare objectives such as “childcare” and “health, youth services and social care”. We followed the procedure explained in H2 of using a dummy variable to order the rural–urban categories according to their remoteness. Social enterprises within the category “community infrastructure and local development” were used to test H5 . Data of social enterprises from two categories, i.e. “childcare”, and “health, youth services and social care”, were used to test H6 .

To test the directional association between the ratio of social enterprises in community and local development ( H5 ) and in welfare services ( H6 ) with the rural–urban areas according to their degree of “remoteness” a Jonckheere–Terpstra test ( Ali et al. , 2015 ) was conducted. The results show a statistically significant relationship ( p < 0.05) for the variables of H5 , supporting this hypothesis. However, results for H6 were not statistically significant ( p > 0.05), thus this hypothesis was not supported.

In summary, our statistical analysis shows support for four of our six hypotheses (see Table 5 ). The hypothesis supported by our statistical analysis show a geographical rural–urban pattern in the distribution of social enterprises in Ireland ( H1 ) with a positive statistically significant association between the remoteness of the area and the ratio of social enterprises ( H2 ). However, our analysis suggests that there is not a capital effect that attracts a higher ratio of social enterprises to Dublin city ( H3 ). The statistical analysis also shows a geographical rural–urban pattern between the types of activities developed by social enterprises and the type of areas where they are based ( H4 ), with a positive association between the degree of remoteness of the area where social enterprises are based and the ratio of social enterprises in the community and local development sector ( H5 ). However, our analysis does not support a negative association between the degree of remoteness of the areas and the ratio of social enterprises in activities related to welfare services such as childcare and health, youth services and social care ( H6 ).

6. Discussion

The aim of this paper is to explore the distribution and type of activities developed by social enterprises in different rural and urban areas in Ireland. The results from our analysis show distinctive rural–urban patterns in the distribution of these organisations. Our research advances previous regional analysis of social enterprises ( Buckingham et al. , 2011 ) through the provision of fine-grained statistical data at subregional level and with a focus on heterogeneous rural and urban areas instead of following regional/county administrative divisions. The use of the six-tier rural–urban typology and the geo-localisation of social enterprises provides detailed evidence which can be used as a base by regional development actors and public authorities to develop targeted measures for social enterprises in geographically diverse areas ( Mazzei and Roy, 2017 ; Steiner and Teasdale, 2019 ).

Our results show the positive association between the presence of social enterprises and the degree of remoteness (low density of population and low access to services and amenities). These results align with previous studies that suggested rural areas and regions characterised by state and market failure as fertile grounds for social enterprises. ( Steiner and Steinerowska-Streb, 2012 ; Woo and Jung, 2023 ). Our study does not support the hypothesis that the capital city, in this case Dublin, with its greater entrepreneurial and innovation ecosystem acts as a significant area of social enterprises development – at least relative to its population. This result contradicts the analysis of Buckingham et al. (2011) which stressed the greater presence of social enterprises in London compared to other UK regions due to its capital effect.

Our results show the relevance of social enterprises in “lagged behind areas” and their aim to respond to unsatisfied needs, especially of marginalised people and territories ( Olmedo et al. , 2023 ). The great presence of social enterprises in these remote territories has meant the development of a wide range of services and community infrastructure which otherwise would have not been provided to the local population ( Aiken et al. , 2016 ; van Twuijver et al. , 2020 ). However, the presence of social enterprises cannot be automatically related to a greater capacity of these areas to overcome their challenges. Previous studies on rural social enterprises have shown their great potential to contribute to a socially inclusive and territorial integrated development when cooperating with other development actors including for-profit businesses and public institutions; however, these previous studies also show the incapacity of rural social enterprises to change, by themselves, structural-exogenous forces affecting marginalised territories ( Bock, 2016 ; Olmedo and O’Shaughnessy, 2022 ).

Our analysis of social enterprises by sectors of activities in different geographical areas does not show a relationship between social enterprises operating in urban areas and their greater focus on welfare objectives, contrary to the findings of Barraket et al. (2019) . It is important to note than in Ireland (community) childcares represent an important number of social enterprises (over 25%) and these are spread across the whole territory without a clear distinctive geographical pattern. Descriptive statistics by sectors of activity show that social enterprises focusing on activities related to health, youth services and social care represent over 10% in urban areas and only approximately 5% in rural areas which would be more in line with the results of Barraket et al. (2019) in Australia and Smith and McColl (2016) in Scotland when comparing urban and rural social enterprises.

Our results also show a significant focus of social enterprises on remote and rural areas in community and local development activities. This aligns with previous research on rural social enterprises that stress the relevance of community social entrepreneurship in rural territories ( Peredo and Chrisman, 2006 ) and the important role of rural (community-based) social enterprises in local development ( O’Shaughnessy et al. , 2011 ; Steiner and Teasdale, 2019 ; van Twuijver et al. , 2020 ). The significant developmental role of social enterprises in rural areas aligns with a key feature of rural social enterprises, which is their tendency to merge social, economic and/or environmental aims, contributing to an integrated territorial development ( Olmedo et al. , 2023 ). However, this significant focus of social enterprises in rural areas on community and local development activities often implies the development of basic infrastructure and services that are usually provided by public administrations in urban areas ( Bock, 2016 ). Thus social enterprises can, in this instance, be interpreted as a substitute arising from the absence and/or retrenchment of the state and public services ( Roy and Grant, 2019 ); this, in turn, can create an overburden to the citizens of these areas and increase the disparities between those better equipped and vulnerable social groups and territories ( Bock, 2016 ).

7. Conclusions, limitations and further research

This paper explored the distribution and sectors of activity of social enterprises in Ireland against a six-tier rural–urban typology that combines population density and access to services and amenities, adding a timely contribution to the body of geographical research on social enterprises. We suggest that the combination of national data of social enterprises with geographical tools and data at subregional level contributes to the methodological advancement of the field of social enterprises, through the provision of tools and frameworks for a nuanced and spatially sensitive analysis of these organisations. Moreover, this study contributes to testing, through a quantitative analysis, hypotheses developed from the findings of previous geographical research on social enterprises.

Our findings show geographical patterns in the distributions of social enterprises, such as their greater presence in highly rural/remote areas and the lack of a capital city effect in terms of density of social enterprises. Our analysis also shows a geographical rural–urban differentiation in terms of sectors of activity, with social enterprises in the community and local development sector being especially relevant in rural areas. Against this evidence, we conclude that social enterprise policies should incorporate territorially sensitive and place-based measures that account for the diversity of rural and urban areas. To this end, the alignment of social enterprises and rural development policies is a key aspect for harnessing the potential of these organisations in rural areas. However, we also conclude that there is great scope for the development of social enterprises in specific sectors in rural and remote areas, such as the creative industry, sustainable agri-food and the circular economy. The development of social enterprises within these sectors is linked to fostering a more socially and territorially inclusive society, but also to wider aspects related to the twin (digital and green) transitions.

This study is not absent of limitations. Social enterprises are context-specific, and the rural–urban typology used in this study was created by the Irish CSO with specific criteria. This makes international comparability difficult and any generalization of the results from this study to other contexts/countries should be taken with caution. Interestingly the Scottish Social Enterprise Census (latest version is of 2021) also follows a six-tier rural–urban typology, showing an important presence of social enterprises in remote rural areas; however, the use of different indicators for developing the Scottish rural–urban typology does not allow for a rigorous comparison with the data shown in this study. Recently developed methodologies such as the Global Human Settlement Layer by the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission ( Dijkstra et al. , 2021 ), which harmonise indicators for urban and rural areas to support consistent international comparisons across countries represent an interesting avenue for further research that compares geographical patterns of social enterprises in different countries. In this regard, the increasing amount of geolocation information and geographically sensitive data collection on social enterprises, and more generally on social economy organisations, can also represent an important advancement for future research.

A final suggestion for further research relates to the combination of geographical and institutional frameworks for the (quantitative) study of spatial patterns in social enterprises that can inform place-based social enterprise policies. This study can be further developed by isolating specific clusters of social enterprises at regional level and exploring their impact on the development of their areas and the critical factors supporting and/or hindering this impact.

Map rural–urban typology for the Republic of Ireland

Map of social enterprises by rural–urban typology

Map total number of social enterprises by county

Map ratio of social enterprises by county

Summary of literature on geographical research on social enterprises