what is the manuscript of a research paper

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How To Write a Manuscript? Step-by-Step Guide to Research Manuscript Writing

Getting published for the first time is a crucial milestone for researchers, especially early career academics. However, the journey starting from how to write a manuscript for a journal to successfully submitting your scientific study and then getting it published can be a long and arduous one. Many find it impossible to break through the editorial and peer review barriers to get their first article published. In fact, the pressure to publish, the high rejection rates of prestigious journals, and the waiting period for a publication decision may often cause researchers to doubt themselves, which negatively impacts research productivity.

While there is no quick and easy way to getting published, there are some proven tips for writing a manuscript that can help get your work the attention it deserves. By ensuring that you’ve accounted for and ticked the checklist for manuscript writing in research you can significantly increase the chances of your manuscript being accepted.

In this step‐by‐step guide, we answer the question – ­­ how to write a manuscript for publication – by presenting some practical tips for the same.

As a first step, it is important that you spend time to identify and evaluate the journal you plan to submit your manuscript to. Data shows that 21% of manuscripts are desk rejected by journals, with another approximately 40% being rejected after peer review 1 , often because editors feel that the submission does not add to the “conversation” in their journal.  Therefore, even before you actually begin the process of manuscript writing, it is a good idea to find out how other similar studies have been presented. This will not only give you an understanding of where your research stands within the wider academic landscape, it will also provide valuable insights on how to present your study when writing a manuscript so that it addresses the gaps in knowledge and stands apart from current published literature.

The next step is to begin the manuscript writing process. This is the part that people find really daunting. Most early career academics feel overwhelmed at this point, and they often look for tips on how to write a manuscript to help them sort through all the research data and present it correctly. Experts suggest following the IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure that organizes research findings into logical sections and presents ideas and thoughts more coherently for readers.

• The introduction  should state the research problem addressed in your study and highlight its significance in your research domain. A well-crafted introduction is a key element that will compel readers to delve further into the body of your manuscript.
• The materials and methods  section should include what you did and how you conducted your research – the tools, techniques, and instruments used, the data collection methods, and details about the lab environment. Ensuring clarity in this section when writing a manuscript is critical for success.
• The results  section must include complete details of the most significant findings in your study and indicate whether you were able to solve the problem outlined in the introduction. In your manuscript writing process, remember that using tables and figures will help to simplify complex data and results for readers.
• The discussion  section is where you evaluate your results in the context of existing published literature, analyze the implications and meaning of your findings, draw conclusions, and discuss the impact of your research.

You can learn more about the IMRaD structure and master the art of crafting a well-structured manuscript that impresses journal editors and readers in this  in-depth course for researchers , which is available free with a Researcher.Life subscription.

When writing a manuscript and putting the structure together, more often than not, researchers end up spending a lot of time writing the “meat” of the article (i.e., the Methods, Results, and Discussion sections). Consequently, little thought goes into the title and abstract, while keywords get even lesser attention.

The key purpose of the abstract and title is to provide readers with information about whether or not the results of your study are relevant to them. One of my top tips on how to write a manuscript would be to spend some time ensuring that the title is clear and unambiguous, since it is typically the first element a reader encounters. This makes it one of the most important steps to writing a manuscript. Moreover, in addition to attracting potential readers, your research paper’s title is your first chance to make a good impression on reviewers and journal editors.  A descriptive title and abstract will also make your paper stand out for the reader, who will be drawn in if they know exactly what you are presenting. In manuscript writing, remember that the more specific and accurate the title, the more chances of the manuscript being found and cited. Learn the dos and don’ts of drafting an effective title with the help of  this comprehensive handbook for authors , which is also available on the Researcher.Life platform.

The title and the abstract together provide readers with a quick summary of the manuscript and offer a brief glimpse into your research and its scientific implications. The abstract must contain the main premise of your research and the questions you seek to answer. Often, the abstract might be the only part of the manuscript that is read by busy editors, therefore, it should represent a concise version of your complete manuscript. The practice of placing published research papers behind a paywall means many of the database searching software programs will only scan the abstract and titles of the article to determine if the document is relevant to the search keywords the reader is using. Therefore, when writing a manuscript, it is important to write the abstract in a way that ensures both the readers and search engines will be able to find and decide if your research is relevant to their study 2 .

It would not be wrong to say that the title, abstract and keywords operate in a manner comparable to a chain reaction. Once the keywords have helped people find the research paper and an effective title has successfully captured and drawn the readers’ attention, it is up to the abstract of the research paper to further trigger the readers’ interest and maintain their curiosity. This functional advantage alone serves to make an abstract an indispensable component within the research paper format 3 that deserves your complete attention when writing a manuscript.

As you proceed with the steps to writing a manuscript, keep in mind the recommended paper length and mould the structure of your manuscript taking into account the specific guidelines of the journal you are submitting to. Most scientific journals have evolved a distinctive style, structure, and organization. One of the top tips for writing a manuscript would be to use concise sentences and simple straightforward language in a consistent manner throughout the manuscript to convey the details of your research.

Once all the material necessary for submission has been put together, go through the manuscript with a fresh mind so that you can identify errors and gaps. According to Peter Thrower, Editor-in-Chief of  Carbon , one of the top reasons for manuscript rejection is poor language comprehension. Incorrect usage of words, grammar and spelling errors, and flaws in sentence construction are certain to lead to rejection. Authors also often overlook checks to ensure a coherent transition between sections when writing a manuscript. Proofreading is, therefore, a must before submitting your manuscript for publication. Double-check the data and figures and read the manuscript out loud – this helps to weed out possible grammatical errors.

You could request colleagues or fellow researchers to go through your manuscript before submission but, if they are not experts in the same field, they may miss out on errors. In such cases, you may want to consider using professional academic editing services to help you improve sentence structure, grammar, word choice, style, logic and flow to create a polished manuscript that has a 24% greater chance of journal acceptance 4.

Once you are done writing a manuscript as per your target journal, we recommend doing a  comprehensive set of submission readiness checks  to ensure your paper is structurally sound, complete with all the relevant sections, and is devoid of language errors. Most importantly, you need to check for any accidental or unintentional plagiarism – i.e., not correctly citing, paraphrasing or quoting another’s work – which is considered a copyright infringement by the journal, can not only lead to rejection, but also stir up trouble for you and cause irreversible damage to your reputation and career. Also make sure you have all the ethical declarations in place when writing a manuscript, such as conflicts of interest and compliance approvals for studies involving human or animal participants.

To conclude, whenever you find yourself wondering – how to write a manuscript for publication – make sure you check the following points:

• Is your research paper complete, optimized and submission ready?
• Have all authors agreed the content of the submitted manuscript?
• Is your paper aligned with your target journals publication policies?
• Have you created a winning submission package, with all the necessary details?
• Does it include a persuasive cover letter that showcases your research?

Writing a manuscript and getting your work published is an important step in your career as it introduces your research to a wide audience. If you follow our simple manuscript writing guide, you will have the base to create a winning manuscript, with a great chance at acceptance. If you face any hurdles or need support along the way, be sure to explore these  bite-sized learning modules on research writing , designed by researchers, for researchers. And once you have mastered the tips for writing a research paper, and crafting a great submission package, use the comprehensive AI-assisted manuscript evaluation  to avoid errors that lead to desk rejection and optimize your paper for submission to your target journal.

• Helen Eassom, 5 Options to Consider After Article Rejection. The Wiley Network. Retrieved from  https://www.wiley.com/network/researchers/submission-and-navigating-peer-review/5-options-to-consider-after-article-rejection
• Jeremy Dean Chapnick, The abstract and title page. AME Medical Journal, Vol 4, 2019. Retrieved from  http://amj.amegroups.com/article/view/4965/html
• Velany Rodrigues, How to write an effective title and abstract and choose appropriate keywords. Editage Insights, 2013. Retrieved from  https://www.editage.com/insights/how-to-write-an-effective-title-and-abstract-and-choose-appropriate-keywords
• New Editage Report Shows That Pre-Submission Language Editing Can Improve Acceptance Rates of Manuscripts Written by Non-Native English-Speaking Researchers. PR Newswire, 2019. Retrieved from  https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/new-editage-report-shows-that-pre-submission-language-editing-can-improve-acceptance-rates-of-manuscripts-written-by-non-native-english-speaking-researchers-300833765.html#https%3A%2F%2Fwww.prnewswire.com%3A443

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Based on 22+ years of experience in academia, Editage All Access empowers researchers to put their best research forward and move closer to success. Explore our top AI Tools pack, AI Tools + Publication Services pack, or Build Your Own Plan. Find everything a researcher needs to succeed, all in one place –  Get All Access now starting at just $14 a month !    

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A Guide on How to Write a Manuscript for a Research Paper

This article teaches how to write a manuscript for a research paper and recommended practices to produce a well-written manuscript.

For scientists, publishing a research paper is a huge accomplishment; they typically spend a large amount of time researching the appropriate subject, the right material, and, most importantly, the right place to publish their hard work. To be successful in publishing a research paper, it must be well-written and meet all of the high standards.

Although there is no quick and easy method to get published, there are certain manuscript writing strategies that can help earn the awareness and visibility you need to get it published.

In this Mind The Graph step-by-step tutorial, we give practical directions on how to write a manuscript for a research paper, to increase your research as well as your chances of publishing.

What is the manuscript of a research paper?

A manuscript is a written, typed, or word-processed document submitted to a publisher by the researcher. Researchers meticulously create manuscripts to communicate their unique ideas and fresh findings to both the scientific community and the general public. 

Overall, the manuscript must be outstanding and deeply represent your professional attitude towards work; it must be complete, rationally structured, and accurate. To convey the results to the scientific community while complying with ethical rules, scientific articles must use a specified language and structure.

Furthermore, the standards for title page information, abstract structure, reference style, font size, line spacing, margins, layout, and paragraph style must also be observed for effective publishing. This is a time-consuming and challenging technique, but it is worthwhile in the end.

How to structure a manuscript?

The first step in knowing how to write a manuscript for a research paper is understanding how the structure works. 

Title or heading

A poorly chosen title may deter a potential reader from reading deeper into your manuscript. When an audience comes across your manuscript, the first thing they notice is the title, keep in mind that the title you choose might impact the success of your work.

Abstracts are brief summaries of your paper. The fundamental concept of your research and the issues you intend to answer should be contained within the framework of the abstract. The abstract is a concise summary of the research that should be considered a condensed version of the entire article.

Introduction

The purpose of the research is disclosed in the body of the introduction. Background information is provided to explain why the study was conducted and the research’s development.

Methods and materials

The technical parts of the research have to be thoroughly detailed in this section. Transparency is required in this part of the research. Colleagues will learn about the methodology and materials you used to analyze your research, recreate it, and expand concepts further. 

This is the most important portion of the paper. You should provide your findings and data once the results have been thoroughly discussed. Use an unbiased point of view here; but leave the evaluation for your final piece, the conclusion.

Finally, explain why your findings are meaningful. This section allows you to evaluate your results and reflect on your process. Remember that conclusions are expressed in a succinct way using words rather than figures. The content presented in this section should solely be based on the research conducted.

The reference list contains information that readers may use to find the sources you mentioned in your research. Your reference page is at the end of your piece. Keep in mind that each publication has different submission criteria. For effective reference authentication, journal requirements should be followed.

Steps on how to write a manuscript for a research paper

It is not only about the format while writing a successful manuscript, but also about the correct strategy to stand out above other researchers trying to be published. Consider the following steps to a well-written manuscript:

1. Read the author’s guide

Many journals offer a Guide for Authors kind of document, which is normally printed yearly and is available online. In this Guide for Authors, you will discover thorough information on the journal’s interests and scope, as well as information regarding manuscript types and more in-depth instructions on how to do the right formatting to submit your research.

2. Pay special attention to the methods and materials section

The section on methods and materials is the most important part of the research. It should explain precisely what you observed in the research. This section should normally be less than 1,000 words long. The methods and materials used should be detailed enough that a colleague could reproduce the study.

3. Identify and describe your findings

The second most crucial aspect of your manuscript is the findings. After you’ve stated what you observed (methods and materials), you should go through what you discovered. Make a note to organize your findings such that they make sense without further explanation.

4. The research’s face and body

In this part you need to produce the face and body of your manuscript, so do it carefully and thoroughly. 

Ensure that the title page has all of the information required by the journal. The title page is the public face of your research and must be correctly structured to meet publication requirements. 

Write an introduction that explains why you carried out the research and why anybody should be interested in the results (ask yourself “so what?”). 

Concentrate on creating a clear and accurate reference page. As stated in step 1, you should read the author’s guide for the journal you intend to submit to thoroughly to ensure that your research reference page is correctly structured.

The abstract should be written just after the manuscript is finished. Follow the author’s guide and be sure to keep it under the word limit.

5. Rapid Rejection Criteria double-check

Now that you’ve completed the key aspects of your research, it’s time to double-check everything according to the Rapid Rejection Criteria. The “Rapid Rejection Criteria” are errors that lead to an instantaneous rejection. The criteria are:

• The answered question was not interesting enough
• The question has been satisfactorily answered before
• Wrong hypothesis
• The method cannot address the hypothesis
• Research is underpowered
• Contradictory manuscript
• The conclusion doesn’t support the data

Rewrite your manuscript now that you’ve finished it. Make yourself your fiercest critic. Consider reading the document loudly to yourself, keeping an ear out for any abrupt breaks in the logical flow or incorrect claims.

Your Creations, Ready within Minutes!

Aside from a step-by-step guide to writing a decent manuscript for your research, Mind The Graph includes a specialized tool for creating and providing templates for infographics that may maximize the potential and worth of your research. Check the website for more information. 

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About Jessica Abbadia

Jessica Abbadia is a lawyer that has been working in Digital Marketing since 2020, improving organic performance for apps and websites in various regions through ASO and SEO. Currently developing scientific and intellectual knowledge for the community's benefit. Jessica is an animal rights activist who enjoys reading and drinking strong coffee.

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What Is A Manuscript And How Do You Craft One?

Crafting a manuscript is a journey of creativity, dedication, and storytelling prowess. In literature , a manuscript is more than just a collection of words on paper; it is a carefully sculpted piece of art that brings ideas, emotions, and narratives to life. It is a widely studied literature course in universities in Canada . This blog will guide you to what is a manuscript, its importance, and how to write one. Let’s explore further. 

Table of Contents

What Is A Manuscript

A manuscript is an author’s original text before it undergoes the process of publication. It is the raw, unfiltered expression of an author’s thoughts, ideas, and creativity, often taking the form of a novel, short story, essay, or any other written work. Unlike the final printed or published version, a manuscript provides a glimpse into the author’s initial vision and the evolution of their work.

However, a manuscript is more than just words on paper. It is a testament to the author’s commitment to their story, characters, and the art of writing itself. From the carefully chosen words to the deep plot structures, a manuscript is a canvas upon which literary dreams are painted.

Importance Of Crafting A Manuscript

Crafting a manuscript is a crucial step in the journey of a writer. It involves meticulous planning, thoughtful execution, and a deep understanding of the craft of storytelling. Creating a manuscript allows writers to explore their creativity, develop unique voices, and share their perspectives.

Moreover, the importance of crafting a manuscript extends to the impact it can have on readers. A well-crafted manuscript can transport readers to different worlds, evoke emotions, and provoke thoughts. It serves as a medium through which authors can connect with their audience on a profound level, leaving a lasting impression and fostering a love for literature.

Components Of A Manuscript

A manuscript is the original draft of a writer’s work before it undergoes the editing and publishing process. It is the author’s unfiltered expression, captured in words and laid out on pages, embodying the essence of their literary vision.

The components of a manuscript go beyond mere words. They include the structure, organization, and thematic elements that give life to the story. From the opening lines that captivate readers to the meticulously crafted characters and the development of a compelling plot, each component contributes to the overall tapestry of the manuscript.

Sections such as dialogue, narration, and description play pivotal roles in shaping the reader’s experience. Furthermore, formatting considerations, such as font, spacing, and page layout, are essential elements that contribute to the overall aesthetic and readability of the manuscript. Understanding these components is crucial for writers seeking to convey their ideas effectively and engage their audience from start to finish.

Different Types Of Manuscripts

Manuscripts come in various forms, each tailored to different genres, purposes, and styles of writing. Understanding these types is instrumental in crafting a manuscript that aligns with the author’s creative vision and the expectations of the intended audience.

Fiction Manuscripts

These are narratives born from the author’s imagination, ranging from novels and novellas to short stories. Fiction manuscripts allow writers to explore diverse worlds, create intriguing characters, and weave compelling plots that captivate readers.

Non-Fiction Manuscripts

Rooted in reality, non-fiction manuscripts encompass a broad spectrum of genres, including memoirs, biographies, essays, and informational books. These manuscripts often require reading extensive research papers , a keen eye for detail, and the ability to present factual information engagingly.

Poetry Manuscripts

Poetry, with its unique rhythm and artistic expression, is often compiled into manuscript form. Poetry manuscripts showcase the poet’s ability to evoke emotions through carefully chosen words, imagery, and poetic devices.

Screenplays And Play Manuscripts

In visual storytelling, manuscripts take the form of screenplays for films and television or scripts for plays. These manuscripts involve a specialized format to convey dialogue, stage directions, and visual elements essential for performance.

How To Write A Manuscript

Writing a manuscript is a multi-faceted process involving careful planning, thoughtful execution, and a deep connection to one’s creative instincts. 

Pre-Writing Phase

Before the ink hits the paper or the keys are tapped, the pre-writing phase sets the stage for a successful manuscript. During this stage, writers engage in crucial activities that shape the direction, tone, and substance of their work.

Research And Planning

Research is the cornerstone of a well-crafted manuscript. Whether writing fiction or non-fiction, thorough research adds depth, authenticity, and credibility to the narrative. In this phase, writers dive into topics related to their manuscript, gathering information and gaining insights that will inform and enrich their storytelling.

This might involve researching historical periods, cultural aspects, or specific locations for fiction writers to ensure accuracy and vivid world-building. Non-fiction authors delve into data, conduct interviews, or explore various perspectives to present a well-rounded and informed narrative.

Planning, hand in hand with research, is equally vital. Outlining the structure of the manuscript, creating character profiles, and sketching the plot are essential steps. This process helps writers establish a roadmap, preventing aimless wandering during the writing phase and ensuring a cohesive and engaging final product.

Choosing A Genre Or Style

Choosing a genre or style is a defining moment in the manuscript crafting process. It shapes not only the content but also the tone, narrative techniques, and audience expectations. Writers must consider their own passions, strengths, and the type of story they wish to tell when making this decision.

Genres range from romance and mystery to science fiction and fantasy, each with its conventions and expectations. Non-fiction writers may choose a genre, such as memoir, biography, or self-help, based on the nature of their message and the audience they aim to reach.

Style encompasses the author’s unique voice, narrative approach, and the mood they wish to convey. It may involve deciding on the perspective (first-person, third-person), the tone (formal, informal), and the overall atmosphere of the manuscript.

Choosing a genre or style sets the tone for the entire writing process, guiding decisions on character development, plot structure, and even the language used. Writers who understand their chosen genre can better tailor their manuscript to resonate with their target audience.

Writing Phase

With the groundwork laid in the pre-writing phase, writers transition into the heart of the manuscript crafting process: the writing phase. This is where creativity takes center stage, and words start to flow onto the page. 

Developing A Strong Outline

An effective outline, just like a thesis statement , is the compass that guides a writer through the labyrinth of their manuscript. It serves as a roadmap, providing direction and structure to the narrative. Creating a strong outline before diving into the actual writing can prevent common pitfalls such as plot holes, inconsistent pacing, and meandering storylines.

• Introduction and Setup: Clearly define the setting, characters, and the central conflict of your story. Introduce key elements that will set the stage for the unfolding narrative.
• Plot Points and Developments: Outline the major events, twists, and character arcs. Consider the rising action, climax, and resolution to maintain a well-paced and engaging storyline.
• Character Profiles: Develop detailed character profiles for the main and supporting characters. Understand their motivations, strengths, flaws, and how they contribute to the overall narrative.
• Themes and Messages: Identify the themes or messages you want to convey through your manuscript. Integrating these elements cohesively adds depth and resonance to your storytelling.
• Chapter Breakdowns: If applicable, plan the structure of individual chapters. Consider the rhythm of your narrative, balancing moments of tension with quieter, reflective scenes.
• Transitions and Flow: Ensure smooth transitions between scenes and chapters. A well-organized outline helps maintain a logical flow, keeping readers engaged from start to finish.

Drafting Techniques And Tips

Once the outline is in place, writers embark on the exhilarating journey of drafting. This is the stage where the manuscript starts to take shape, and creativity is given free rein. Here are some drafting techniques and tips to enhance the writing process:

• Free Writing: Allow yourself to write freely without overthinking. Let ideas flow, even if they seem imperfect at first. You can always refine and edit in later drafts.
• Set Writing Goals: Establish daily or weekly writing goals to maintain momentum. Consistent progress, even in small increments, contributes to the completion of your manuscript.
• Embrace Imperfection: The first draft is not meant to be flawless. Embrace imperfections and resist the urge to edit excessively during the drafting phase. Focus on getting your ideas on paper.
• Experiment with Style: Explore different narrative styles, tones, and perspectives. Don’t be afraid to experiment with your writing voice to find what resonates best with your story.
• Revision Notes: If you encounter areas that need improvement while drafting, make revision notes rather than interrupting the flow. Address these in subsequent drafts.
• Seek Feedback Sparingly: While drafting, limit external feedback to avoid distractions. Once you have a complete draft, seek constructive feedback to refine and enhance your manuscript.

Revision Phase

The revision phase is a crucial stage in the manuscript crafting process, where the raw material of the first draft transforms into a polished work of art. In this section, we’ll delve into two essential components of the revision phase— the importance of editing and proofreading, and the valuable practice of seeking feedback from others.

• Editing: This involves a comprehensive manuscript review for structural, stylistic, and thematic improvements. Editors scrutinize the overall flow of the narrative, character development, dialogue, and adherence to the established outline. They may suggest changes to enhance clarity, tighten pacing, and elevate the overall quality of the writing.
• Proofreading: Once the editing phase is complete, proofreading eliminates grammatical errors, typos, and inconsistencies. It is the final meticulous examination that ensures the manuscript is error-free. Attention to detail is paramount during proofreading, as even minor oversights can diminish the professional polish of the work.

Seeking Feedback From Others

Writing is often a solitary endeavour, but the input of others is invaluable during the revision phase. External feedback provides fresh perspectives, identifies blind spots, and highlights areas that may require further attention. Here are key considerations when seeking feedback:

• Diverse Perspectives: Gather feedback from a variety of sources, including fellow writers, beta readers, or writing groups. Diverse perspectives can offer insights that a single viewpoint may overlook.
• Constructive Criticism: Embrace constructive criticism as a tool for improvement. While positive feedback is uplifting, constructive criticism helps identify areas for refinement, contributing to the overall growth of the manuscript.
• Specific Questions: When seeking feedback, provide specific questions or prompts to guide readers’ responses. This ensures that you receive targeted insights on areas you may be uncertain about.
• Open-Mindedness: Approach feedback with an open mind. It’s natural to feel attached to your work, but being receptive to suggestions fosters a collaborative and iterative process that leads to a stronger manuscript.
• Implementing Feedback Thoughtfully: Not all feedback requires immediate incorporation. Evaluate the suggestions received and implement changes thoughtfully, considering how they align with your artistic vision for the manuscript.

The research paper we write have:

• Precision and Clarity
• Zero Plagiarism
• High-level Encryption
• Authentic Sources

Genre-Specific Considerations

The manuscript crafting process varies significantly based on the genre of the work.

Creating Compelling Characters

The heart of any fiction manuscript lies in its characters. Compelling and well-developed characters breathe life into the narrative, capturing the readers’ imagination and fostering emotional connections. Consider the following when crafting characters:

• Depth and Complexity: Develop characters with depth, complexity, and relatability. Explore their backgrounds, motivations, and internal conflicts to create multidimensional personalities.
• Arcs and Growth: Characters should undergo meaningful arcs and growth throughout the story. Whether it’s overcoming challenges, changing perspectives, or evolving relationships, character development is essential for reader engagement.
• Distinctive Voices: Ensure that each character has a distinctive voice and perspective. This not only adds authenticity but also helps readers differentiate between characters, contributing to a richer reading experience.

Building A Riveting Plot

A captivating plot is the backbone of a fiction manuscript, keeping readers eagerly turning pages. Crafting a compelling narrative involves careful consideration of the story’s structure, pacing, and unexpected twists:

• Story Structure: Outline the key elements of your plot, including the introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. A well-structured plot provides a framework for a seamless and engaging reading experience.
• Pacing: Balance the pacing of your narrative to maintain tension and interest. Alternate between moments of action and reflection, allowing readers to absorb the unfolding events while staying connected to the characters.
• Conflict and Resolution: Introduce conflicts that resonate with your characters and propel the story forward. The resolution should be satisfying and provide closure while leaving room for lingering questions or anticipation.
• Twists and Turns: Incorporate unexpected twists and turns to keep readers on the edge of their seats. Surprise elements add excitement and prevent the narrative from becoming predictable.

Research And Fact-Checking

Non-fiction manuscripts rely heavily on accurate information and a thorough understanding of the subject matter. Research and fact-checking are paramount to establishing credibility and delivering a compelling narrative:

• Extensive Research: Dive deep into your chosen topic, using a variety of reputable sources. Verify information through multiple channels to ensure accuracy and completeness.
• Citation and Attribution: Properly cite sources and provide attribution for data, quotes, and references. This not only upholds ethical standards but also allows readers to explore the material further.
• Interviews and Expert Insights: If applicable, conduct interviews with experts or individuals relevant to your subject. First-hand accounts and expert insights enhance the authenticity and depth of your non-fiction manuscript.

Organizing Information Effectively

Non-fiction manuscripts often deal with a wealth of information, requiring thoughtful organization to make the content accessible and engaging for readers:

• Clear Structure: Develop a clear and logical structure for your manuscript. This could include chronological order, thematic organization, or a problem-solution framework, depending on the nature of your content.
• Subheadings and Signposts: Use subheadings and signposts to guide readers through the content. This aids in navigation and allows readers to locate specific information easily.
• Visual Elements: Incorporate visual elements such as graphs, charts, or images to enhance understanding. Visual aids can break up dense text and clarify complex concepts.
• Transitions: Ensure smooth transitions between different sections or topics. Thoughtful transitions help maintain a coherent flow and prevent readers from feeling disoriented.

Tips For Manuscript Success

As the manuscript crafting process unfolds, certain tips can significantly contribute to the success of your work. From setting realistic goals to overcoming obstacles like writer’s block, these insights will guide you through the thorough journey of bringing your manuscript to fruition.

Tip 1: Setting Realistic Goals

• Clear Milestones: Break down the writing process into clear milestones. Setting achievable goals for research, drafting, and revisions ensures steady and measurable progress.
• Realistic Timelines: Be mindful of your schedule and commitments. Establish realistic timelines that align with your availability, allowing for a sustainable writing routine without overwhelming yourself.
• Flexibility: While goals provide structure, be flexible in adapting to unexpected challenges or inspirations. Allow your manuscript to evolve organically, even if it means adjusting initial plans.

Tip 2: Overcoming Writer’s Block

• Change of Environment: Move to a different writing space or take a break outdoors. A change of scenery can stimulate creativity and break the monotony that often leads to writer’s block.
• Freewriting: Set aside dedicated time for freewriting. Put pen to paper or fingers to the keyboard without any specific goal, allowing thoughts to flow freely. This can help overcome mental blocks and spark inspiration.
• Focus on a Different Section: If a particular section is causing frustration, temporarily shift your focus to another part of the manuscript. This can reignite enthusiasm and create a sense of accomplishment.

Tip 3: Staying Motivated Throughout The Process

• Celebrate Small Wins: Acknowledge and celebrate small achievements, whether it’s completing a challenging chapter or reaching a word count milestone. Recognizing progress boosts motivation.
• Connect with Fellow Writers: Join writing groups or forums to connect with other writers. Sharing experiences, tips, and encouragement fosters a sense of community and accountability.
• Visualize the End Goal: Envision the satisfaction of completing your manuscript and the potential impact it can have on readers. Keeping the end goal in mind serves as a powerful motivator during challenging moments.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a manuscript.

A manuscript is a handwritten or typed document, typically the original draft of a book, article, or document before it is published. It serves as the author’s work in progress, containing the text before final edits or printing.

What is a manuscript in research?

In research, a manuscript is a written document presenting original findings, methodologies, and conclusions of a study. It undergoes peer review before potential publication in academic journals, contributing to the dissemination of scientific knowledge.

What is a book manuscript?

A book manuscript is the complete, written text of an author’s work submitted for publication. It encompasses the entire content of a book, including chapters, sections, and any supplementary materials, serving as the basis for editorial and publishing processes.

What is a manga manuscript?

A manga manuscript is the original hand-drawn or digitally created work submitted by a mangaka (manga artist) to a publisher. It includes the detailed illustrations and dialogue that form the basis for the production of a manga series or volume.

What is a manuscript for a journal?

A manuscript for a journal is a written document containing original research findings, methodology, analysis, and conclusions. It follows the journal’s guidelines and undergoes peer review, aiming for publication to contribute to scholarly discourse within a specific academic or scientific field.

What is a manuscript page?

A manuscript page is a single sheet or leaf of a handwritten or typed document, often containing text, illustrations, or other content. In publishing, it refers to the formatted page of a manuscript submitted for review, editing, or publication.

What is a novel manuscript?

A novel manuscript is the complete written text of a novel submitted by an author for publication. It includes the entire narrative, chapters, and other elements, serving as the basis for editorial processes before the novel is prepared for printing and distribution.

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What are the boundaries between draft, manuscript, preprint, paper, and article?

In the terminology for a peer-reviewed publication to be submitted to a reputable scientific journal, what are the differences and characteristic properties of the following?

My own take on it would be that my text is a draft until I submit it to a journal, at which point it becomes a manuscript. When the manuscript is accepted it becomes a preprint, and when it gets published it becomes a paper, which is synonymous to article.

Would that be an accurate summary? Would anyone have corrections or additions?

• publications
• terminology

• See also this related question on the difference between preprints and accepted manuscripts, and on its copyright implications. –  henning no longer feeds AI Commented Feb 3, 2016 at 23:20

5 Answers 5

paper = article : In the academic meaning of the words, papers and articles refer to the same thing: a published piece of writing. The term is used for journal papers or journal articles , which means they have been published by a journal, but also for less traditional publications, including self-publication ( “Dr. Who just published a great paper on the intricacies of time travel on his webpage” ) and e-print repositories such as arXiv ( “check out the latest paper by Galileo on arXiv, that guy has mad ideas!” ).

Some journals have different categories of “articles”, and differentiate between letters, communications, reports, reviews, and full papers (sometimes abbreviated as just “papers”). In usage I have seen, paper (or article ) used as a generic term covers all of those: you would say, for example, that “letters and full papers are two types of articles” .

A preprint (more commonly used without the hyphen) refers to the distribution, in advance of formal publication, of something that will be published in print . The preprint may differ from the final publication.

Preprint status does not always indicate that the work has been formally accepted for publication. It just means the authors intend to publish it in a more formal venue (journal, book, etc.) but wanted to distribute by other means beforehand (preprints used to be distributed to colleagues as photocopies, but are now mostly circulated by email or repositories).

A manuscript is, in the New Oxford American Dictionary 's words, “an author's text that has not yet been published ”. Any piece of writing that you have not published in any way (but intend to) is a manuscript.

A draft is the same as a manuscript, except that it insists on the unfinished state of the manuscript.

Summarizing, I could say:

Here's the draft I've been working on, please amend it with your corrections. Once we have done this final round of revision, I will upload the manuscript to the editor's website, and we can start circulating it as a preprint to colleagues whom you think may be interested. Once it is accepted and published, we'll just send them the published version of the paper for their records.

• 9 These rules sound really weird to me. I describe any written result as a paper regardless of its publication or submission status. ("Are you planning to submit your TSP paper to FOCS?" "No, it still needs some more work.") Similarly, a preprint is a paper that is available but not in final published form, again regardless of submission or publication status. For example, all papers on arXiv are preprints, but not all arXiv preprints have been submitted for publication. In my opinion, the only word in this category with a restricted definition is publication . –  JeffE Commented Sep 30, 2013 at 16:54
• @JeffE I believe there is some confusion on what a “preprint” is, so I listed the term as it is used by notable sources ( Nature policy, SHERPA RoMEO , etc.). Of particular note: while arXiv is sometimes called a “preprint server”, it calls itself an “e-print server” –  F'x Commented Sep 30, 2013 at 17:01
• While I am not a mother-tongue English speaker, I've occasionally had the impression that paper and article , while being synonyms, have slightly different connotations. One tends to say "paper" for an own result, or one that they feels closer/related to, and "article" for "something you read in a journal, but you have no personal interest in". Is it the case? Or is it only a wrong impression created by talking too much with other non-native speakers? –  Federico Poloni Commented Oct 1, 2013 at 12:39
• 2 -1 This might vary between fields, but the word "paper" is certainly used for unpublished writeups, including the editors of the top journals in my field (economics). Working papers are papers too. –  Michael Greinecker Commented Feb 13, 2018 at 9:31
• I guess this is field-dependent, since other commenters report different usages, but my understanding of paper (from pure maths/logic) definitely agrees with this answer: to me, paper implies published status just as strongly as article does. –  PLL Commented Mar 22, 2019 at 16:51

In French, paper is definitely informal, while article is the term to be used in a written document.

However, in English I feel that we tend to use

• "journal article" more often that "journal paper",
• "conference article" less than "conference paper",
• "workshop article" far less often than "workshop paper".

So paper might tend to designate a piece of work of lesser importance than article, or as jakebeal said have a more general use. It still sounds slightly more informal to me, probably because I am a French native speaker, but I'm pretty sure many French colleagues of mine have the same feeling even if they work in some English-speaking country.

My field computer science > machine learning, in case the terminology changes from field to field, and my location is the US.

Some statistics (obviously biased by the corpus):

Journal paper vs. journal article :

Conference paper vs. conference article :

Workshop paper vs. workshop article :

• @FranckDernoncourt In the last plot, what's the difference between three lines? They are all workshop papers. –  enthu Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 16:40
• 1 @EnthusiasticStudent Different cases: in the Ngram Viewer when you only plot 1 ngram with case-insensitive mode on, it will plot different cases separately. Since not enough occurrences of "workshop article" were found, the query "workshop paper, workshop article" was regarded as plotting only 1 ngram, not 2. –  Franck Dernoncourt Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 17:03
• What about "newspaper article", or "student newspaper article" are these of less value then a conference paper? –  Ian Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 18:16
• 3 Since you mention French, a quick note about Italian: the formal word is articolo ; there is no Italian word with the same root as "paper", but people in academia often use informally the humorous Italianization papero , which literally means "duck". So it has a more informal connotation, too. And one often gets weird looks from non-academics when using it in their presence. –  Federico Poloni Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 20:20
• Is it OK with you if I merge this answer into the duplicate (i.e., it will appear as an answer to this post with a note indicating that it was merged to explain why it only partially addresses that question.) Since the other post is the 'canonical' one that we point people to when they ask similar questions, I think it would be a shame not to have this answer there. –  ff524 Commented Dec 12, 2014 at 7:43

I think that a piece of writing during the pre-submission stage is a draft and during the post-acceptance, but pre-publication, stage is a preprint. I think that this agrees with your terminology.

Many journals publish original research findings under a number of categories including articles, letters, and reports and in some fields books are the predominant mode of publishing research. Therefore, I would say that a preprint does not necessarily become a paper/article when published and instead becomes whatever it is.

Defining a manuscript is the hardest for me. I have often seen acknowledgements which thank someone for reading a previous version of the manuscript. This happens frequently enough in my field that I believe that a piece of writing becomes a manuscript prior to submission to a publisher. I am not sure when a piece of writing becomes a manuscript. I think a piece of writing becomes a manuscript when the first complete draft is completed.

An "article" typically specifically means a paper in a journal, while "paper" is a more general term that also includes conferences, technical memos, etc.

• I would add that other accompanying words often clarify the meaning. For instance a "published paper" nearly always means a journal article, while a "conference paper" may mean something that was just a presentation with no actual written article. In some cases, an "article" can also mean a publication in a non-academic venue (e.g., Scientific American, The New Yorker), in which case it may also be qualified (as "article in the popular press" or the like). –  BrenBarn Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 20:18
• 2 @BrenBarn This is very field dependent. In computer science, for example, conference papers are often stiffly peer reviewed and quite clearly count as a "published paper." –  jakebeal Commented Oct 18, 2014 at 20:24

I would consider a preprint is the read-proof document that some Journals allow the author to distribute under some rules. So it is in post-acceptance but pre-publication stage. I don´t think the draft-manuscript-paper distinctions are relevant.

• 4 No, this is definite not what the term preprint usually refers to. –  Tobias Kildetoft Commented Feb 12, 2018 at 17:52

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Structuring your manuscript

Once you have completed your experiments it is time write it up into a coherent and concise paper which tells the story of your research. Researchers are busy people and so it is imperative that research articles are quick and easy to read. For this reason papers generally follow a standard structure which allows readers to easily find the information they are looking for. In the next part of the course we will discuss the standard structure and what to include in each section.

Overview of IMRaD structure

IMRaD refers to the standard structure of the body of research manuscripts (after the Title and Abstract):

• I ntroduction
• M aterials and Methods
• D iscussion and Conclusions

Not all journals use these section titles in this order, but most published articles have a structure similar to IMRaD. This standard structure:

• Gives a logical flow to the content
• Makes journal manuscripts consistent and easy to read
• Provides a “map” so that readers can quickly find content of interest in any manuscript
• Reminds authors what content should be included in an article

Provides all content needed for the work to be replicated and reproduced Although the sections of the journal manuscript are published in the order: Title, Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion, this is not the best order for writing the sections of a manuscript. One recommended strategy is to write your manuscript in the following order:

1. Materials and Methods

These can be written first, as you are doing your experiments and collecting the results.

3. Introduction

4. Discussion

5. Conclusion

Write these sections next, once you have had a chance to analyse your results, have a sense of their impact and have decided on the journal you think best suits the work

7. Abstract

Write your Title and Abstract last as these are based on all the other sections.

Following this order will help you write a logical and consistent manuscript.

Use the different sections of a manuscript to ‘tell a story’ about your research and its implications.

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How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

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• Published: 30 April 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 909–913, ( 2021 )

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• Clara Busse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0178-1000 1 &
• Ella August   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5151-1036 1 , 2  

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Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

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How to Choose the Right Journal

The Point Is…to Publish?

Writing Skills

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig.  1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig.  2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

Checklist for manuscript quality

Data Availability

Michalek AM (2014) Down the rabbit hole…advice to reviewers. J Cancer Educ 29:4–5

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International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Defining the role of authors and contributors: who is an author? http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authosrs-and-contributors.html . Accessed 15 January, 2020

Vetto JT (2014) Short and sweet: a short course on concise medical writing. J Cancer Educ 29(1):194–195

Brett M, Kording K (2017) Ten simple rules for structuring papers. PLoS ComputBiol. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005619

Lang TA (2017) Writing a better research article. J Public Health Emerg. https://doi.org/10.21037/jphe.2017.11.06

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Acknowledgments

Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

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Busse, C., August, E. How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal. J Canc Educ 36 , 909–913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

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Research Manuscript Structure: Understanding Different Parts of a Manuscript

Writing a research manuscript and publishing it in reputed academic journals is an integral part of the research process. Yet, with rejection rates of top-tier journals ranging as high as 80%-95%, this is easier said than done. 1 Research manuscripts need to meet several key submission requirements to even be considered, this includes getting the structure of scientific papers right. However, most researchers find themselves feeling overwhelmed when it comes to writing a manuscript. The lack of formal training on writing a research manuscript, especially how to structure a manuscript effectively makes this a daunting task, especially for early-career researchers.

While there are no quick and easy shortcuts to writing a manuscript for publication, this article explains how researchers can sort their research under different sections and present their findings effectively in a well-structured research manuscript.

Structuring a research paper logically

Presenting research findings in a clear and structured way helps readers quickly understand your work’s significance and potential impact. Writing a manuscript that is worded well in simple English is imperative as you write for a global audience, many of which may not have English as the first language. Experts suggest following the standard and globally accepted IMRaD (Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure for research manuscripts. The ideal length for a research manuscript can range from 25-40 pages depending on your journal, with specific lengths for each section. 2

Understanding the key parts of a manuscript 2,3

Breaking down your work into these clear parts of a manuscript allows you to organize your findings more coherently and ensure a logical flow, which makes your research manuscript more engaging for readers.

Introduction – Covers what are you studying and why (1.5-2 pages)

This is an important part of the research manuscript as itstates the purpose of your research and what you want to achieve, existing knowledge on the topic and its limitations, and the significance and usefulness of the work. The introduction should mention the research question, the rationale for the research study, and describe the theoretical framework used. It should also offer a background of the problem and what is known so far and explain how your research contributes to the subject by adding citations to support this view. Avoid adding too many or irrelevant citations here or you may risk losing the plot, which is a red flag for editors and reviewers.

Remember, the introduction must be a concise summary of the work being presented in the research manuscript; do not to go into extensive details at this point. Take care not to mix methods, results, discussion, or conclusion in the introduction section – it’s important to keep these parts of a manuscript separate to ensure a coherent and logical flow between sections.

Methodology – Covers how you conducted the study in about 2-3 pages

One of the most critical parts of the manuscript, the methods section is meant to highlight how the problem was studied and communicates the methods, procedures, and research tools used. Be sure to describe the methodology you followed to conduct the research simply, precisely, and completely. If you’re using a new method, include all the details required for others to reproduce it, but if you’re working with established methods, it is enough to summarize these with key references. Poor methodology, small sample size, incomplete statistical analysis are all reasons why reviewers recommend rejection of a research manuscript, so check and recheck this to ensure it is flawless.

Include accurate statistics and control experiments to ensure experiments are reproducible and use standard academic conventions for nomenclature, measurement units, and numbers. Avoid adding any comments, research results, or discussion points in this part of the manuscript. It’s a good idea to write the methods section in the same flow and order in which you did the research. Supplement the text with visuals like tables, figures, photographs, or infographics that convey complex data, but don’t duplicate the information in the text.

Results – Covers the main findings of your studying in about 6-8 pages

The results section is a key part of the manuscript and isdedicated to presenting the primary and secondary findings of your research study. While writing a manuscript, ensure you spend extra time and attention while drafting the results; after all, this is the most important part of your research manuscript and your entire research effort.

Share your main results as text and use tables and figures to present findings effectively (don’t explain the data again in text). Avoid generalizations and use actual data to explain the results in your research manuscript – for example, instead of saying temperature rose as we applied more pressure, say temperature rose by 10 degrees with a 20% increase in pressure. Be sure to highlight any unexpected findings but avoid using too many technical terms or jargon so it is easy for readers from other research disciplines and non-scientific backgrounds to understand. Most importantly, this part of the manuscript is reserved for your research findings so do not include references to previously published work here.

Discussion – Covers what your research findings mean in about 4-6 pages

This is a crucial part of a manuscript where you interpret the results of your research and showcase its significance. The discussion in your research manuscript is a chance to showcase (not reiterate or repeat) your research results and how they address the original question. Do not suddenly include new information, instead talk about the limitations, whether the data supports the hypothesis or is consistent with previous studies, or if the findings were unexpected.

You may choose to mention alternate ways to interpret the results but avoid interpretations that are not supported by your research findings. Finally, compare your work with previously published studies, highlight what is new and what further research will be required to answer questions raised by the results. A well-written discussion section is essential to help differentiate your work from existing studies, which is what makes it critical to get right.  

Conclusion – Covers learnings from the research study in one short para

Check your journal guidelines before writing the conclusion. For some journals, this is a separate section whereas in others it is the concluding part of the discussion part of the manuscript. This section of the research manuscript should explain the outcomes of the research in relation to the original objective, presenting it from global and specific perspectives. Avoid simply listing the results or repeating the abstract or introduction sections, provide a justification of your work and suggest further experiments and if any of these are in progress.  

Title & Abstract – Covers highlights of the research done

The title and abstract are what readers use to evaluate whether the information provided in the research manuscript is relevant enough for them to read and cite. This is true for editors and reviewers of your research manuscript as well. Spend some time thinking of an interesting title, one that is informative, concise, and unambiguous. Write a well-structured abstract that highlights the objective and purpose of the research, addresses the key results precisely, and briefly describes the conclusion of the study (usually in under 250 words). This is the first and possibly only chance to draw in your readers so keep it simple and specific, avoid using jargon or being repetitive as you’re writing for a wide, varied audience.

In addition to the sections mentioned above, there are other key parts of a manuscript that require deep thought and time to put together. Showcase your findings through tables and figures (one per page) and format the references correctly (2-4 pages) in your research manuscript. Finally, when writing your research manuscript, be sure to follow the guidelines provided by the journal or institute you will be submitting to. Keep to the recommended paper length and journal formats when writing a manuscript for it to be considered and taken forward for publication.

References:

• Khadilkar SS. Rejection Blues: Why Do Research Papers Get Rejected? The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology of India, August 2018. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6046667/
• Borja A. 11 steps to structuring a science paper editors will take seriously. Elsevier Connect, June 2014. Available at https://www.elsevier.com/connect/11-steps-to-structuring-a-science-paper-editors-will-take-seriously
• Vadrevu A. Manuscript structure: How to convey your most important ideas through your paper. Editage Insights, November 2013. Available at https://www.editage.com/insights/manuscript-structure-how-to-convey-your-most-important-ideas-through-your-paper

Related Reads:

• How to Write a Research Paper Outline: Simple Steps for Researchers
• Manuscript Withdrawal: Reasons, Consequences, and How to Withdraw Submitted Manuscripts
• Good Writing Habits: 7 Ways to Improve Your Academic Writing
• Supplementary Materials in Research: 5 Tips for Authors

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How to Write a Successful Scientific Manuscript

Writing a scientific manuscript is an endeavor that challenges the best minds, yet it is very rewarding once the body of work comes to fruition. Researchers carefully draft manuscripts allowing them to share their original ideas and new discoveries with the scientific community as well as to the general population. A significant amount of time and effort is spent during the investigative stages conducting the required research before it is released into the public domain. Therefore, the manuscript drafted to present this research must be thorough, logically presented, and factual. Scientific manuscripts must adhere to a specific language and format to communicate the results to the scientific community whilst adhering to ethical guidelines. When completed the final written product will allow colleagues to debate and reflect on the newly minted work embedded in the manuscript.

Organization

Scientific manuscripts are organized in a logical format, which fits specific criteria as determined by the scientific community. This methodology has been standardized in journals which communicate information to those in the field being discussed. Since the researcher has a storyline he or she is trying to transmit, it must be clear and upfront on the exact question and or problem that his research answers. Readers of the manuscript will be energized to review this work when its content is spelled out early in the paper. A well-written manuscript has the following components included: a clear title, abstract, introductory paragraph, methods and materials section, discussion of results, conclusion and a list of references. Each component of a journal article should follow a logical sequence, which members of the science community have become accustomed.

Related: Need some tips on manuscript drafting? Check out this section today!

Structural Contents

Title or heading.

Titles are extremely important. A crisp detailed title is the first element an audience notices when encountering your manuscript. The significance of a title cannot be overstated in that it introduces your reader to the subject matter you intend to discuss in the next thousand or more words. A poorly formatted title could dissuade a potential reader from delving into your manuscript further. In addition, your paper is indexed in a certain manner, which search engine algorithms will track. To rise to the top of the search index, keywords should be emphasized. Thinking of the right title could determine the size of your audience and the eventual success of your work.

Abstracts are abbreviated versions of your manuscript. Contained within the abstract’s structure should be the major premise of your research and the questions you seek to answer. Also included in the context of the abstract is a brief summary of the methods taken to achieve your goals along with a short version of the results. The abstract may be the only part of the paper read, therefore, it should be considered a concise version of your complete manuscript.

Introduction

The Introduction amplifies certain aspects of the abstract. Within the body of the introduction, the rationale for the research is revealed. Background material is supplied indicating why the research performed is important along with the direction the research took. A brief summary (in a few sentences) discussing the technical aspects of the experimental approach utilized to reach the article’s stated conclusions is included here. Written well the introduction will influence readers to delve further into the body of the paper.

Methodology and Materials

In this section, the technical aspects of the research are described extensively. Clarity in this part of the manuscript is mandatory. Fellow researchers will glean from this section the methods and materials you utilized either to validate your work, reproduce it, and/or develop the concepts further. Detailed protocols are presented here, similar to a road map, explaining the experiments performed, agents or technologies used, and any biology involved. Statistical analysis and tests should be presented here. Do not approximate anything in this part of the manuscript. Suspicion may be cast in your direction questioning the validity of the research if too many approximations are detected.

Discussion of Results

This part of the manuscript may be considered its core. Elaboration on data generated, utilizing tables and graphs, communicating the essence of the research and the outcomes they generate. Once the results are given a lengthy discussion, it should follow by including the interpretation of data, implications of these findings, and potential future research to follow. Ambiguous findings and current controversies in this type of research should be analyzed and examined in this section.

Conclusions

This is the endpoint in the manuscript. Conclusions are written in a concise manner utilizing words not numbers. Information conveyed in this section should only be taken from the research performed. Do not place your references here. Full and complete interpretation of your findings in this part of the manuscript is imperative. Clarity of thought is also essential because misinterpretation of the results is always a possibility. Comparisons to similar work in your field may be discussed here. Absolutely avoid interpretation of your results that cannot be justified by the work performed.

Every journal has submission requirements. Journal guidelines should be followed for proper authentication of references. There exist several formats for reference creation. Familiarize yourself with them. In addition, the sequence of references listed should be in the order in which they appear in the research paper . A number, usually in parenthesis, follows the sentence where they are noted.

Production of a scientific manuscript is a necessity to introduce your research to a wide audience. The complexity of the research and the results generated must be written in a manner that is clear and concise, follows the current journal formats, and is verifiable. The guidelines embedded in this paper will help the researcher place his work in the best light possible. Never write anything that cannot be justified by the research performed. With these simple rules in mind, your scientific manuscript will be a success.

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Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

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Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

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This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

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Preparing and Publishing a Scientific Manuscript

Padma r. jirge.

Department of Reproductive Medicine, Sushrut Assisted Conception Clinic Shreyas Hospital, Kolhapur, Maharashtra, India

Publishing original research in a peer-reviewed and indexed journal is an important milestone for a scientist or a clinician. It is an important parameter to assess academic achievements. However, technical and language barriers may prevent many enthusiasts from ever publishing. This review highlights the important preparatory steps for creating a good manuscript and the most widely used IMRaD (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion) method for writing a good manuscript. It also provides a brief overview of the submission and review process of a manuscript for publishing in a biomedical journal.

B ACKGROUND

T he publication of original research in a peer-reviewed and indexed journal is the ultimate and most important step toward the recognition of any scientific work. However, the process starts long before the write-up of a manuscript. The journal in which the author wishes to publish his/her work should be chosen at the time of conceptualization of the scientific work based on the expected readership.

The journals do provide information on the “scope of the journal,” which specifies the scientific areas relevant for publication in the journal, and “instructions to authors,” which need to be adhered to while preparing a manuscript.

The publication of scientific work has become mandatory for scientists or specialists holding academic affiliations, and it is now desirable even at an undergraduate level. Despite a plethora of forums for presenting the original research work, very little of it ever gets published in a scientific journal, and even if it does, the manuscripts are usually from the same few institutions.[ 1 , 2 ] It serves the purpose of academic recognition; and certain publications may even contribute to shaping various national policies. An academic appointment, suitable infrastructure, and access to peer-reviewed journals are considered as the facilitators for publishing.[ 3 ]

The lack of technical and writing skills, institutional hurdles, and time constraints are considered as the major hurdles for any scientific publication.[ 3 ] In addition, the majority of clinicians in India are involved in providing healthcare in the private sector in individually owned hospitals or those governed by small groups of doctors. This necessitates performing a multitude of tasks apart from providing core clinical care and, hence, poses an additional limiting factor because of the long and irregular working hours.

It is extremely challenging to dedicate some time for research and writing in such a scenario. However, it is a loss to science if this group of skilled clinicians does not contribute to medical literature.

Maintaining the ethics and science of research and understanding the norms of preparing a manuscript are very important in improving the quality and relevance of clinical research in our country. This article brings together various aspects to be borne in mind while creating a manuscript suitable for publication. The inputs provided are relevant to all those interested, irrespective of whether they have an academic or institutional affiliation. While the prospect of becoming an author of a published scientific work is exciting, it is important to be prepared for minor or major revisions in the original article and even rejection. However, persevering in this endeavor may help preserving one’s work and contribute to the promotion of science.[ 4 , 5 ]

Important considerations for writing a manuscript include the following:

• (1) Conceptualization of a clinically relevant scientific work.
• (2) Choosing an appropriate journal and an alternative one.
• (3) Familiarizing with instructions to authors.
• (4) Coordination and well-defined task delegation within the team and involvement of a biostatistician from the conception of the study.
• (5) Preparing a skeletal framework for writing the manuscript.
• (6) Delegating time for thinking and writing at regular intervals.

S TEPS I NVOLVED IN M ANUSCRIPT P REPARATION

A manuscript should both be informative and readable. Even though the concept is clear in the authors’ mind, it is important to remember that they are introducing some new work for the readers, and, hence, appropriate organization of the manuscript is necessary to make the purpose and importance of the work clear to the readers.

• (1) Choosing the appropriate journal for publication : The preferred choice of journal should be one of the first steps to be considered, as mentioned earlier. The guidelines for authors may change with time and, hence, should be referred to at regular intervals and conformed to. The choice of journal principally depends on the target readers, and it may be necessary to have one or more journals in mind in case of nonacceptance from the journal of first choice. A journal’s impact factor is to be considered while choosing an appropriate journal.

Majority of the biomedical journals with good impact factor have specific authorship criteria.[ 8 ] This prevents problems related to ghost authorship and honorary authorship. Ghost authorship refers to a scenario wherein an author’s name is omitted to hide financial relationships with private companies; honorary authorship is naming someone who has not made substantial contribution to the work, either due to pressure from colleagues or to improve the chances of publication.[ 9 ]

Most of the journals conform to the authorship criteria defined by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors.[ 10 ] They are listed as the following:

Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; ANDDrafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; ANDFinal approval of the version to be published; ANDAgreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Some journals require authors to declare their contributions to the research work and manuscript preparation. This helps to prevent honorary and ghost authorship and encourages authors to be more honest and accountable.[ 11 ]

Keywords : are mentioned at the bottom of the Abstract section. These words denote the important aspects of the manuscript and help identify the manuscripts by electronic search engines. Most of the journals specify the number of keywords required, usually between 4 and 8. They need to be simple and specific to the manuscript; a good title contains majority of the keywords.

The general flow of the manuscript follows an IMRaD (Introduction, Materials and Methods, Results, and Discussion) structure. Even though this has been recommended since the early 20 th century, most of the authors started following it since the 1970s.[ 13 ]

Important components of the Introduction section

A common error while writing an introduction is an attempt to review the entire evidence available on the topic. This becomes confusing to the reader, and the purpose and importance of the study in question gets submerged in the plethora of information provided. Issues mentioned in the Introduction section will need to be addressed in the Discussion section, and it is important to avoid repetitions and overlapping. Some may prefer to write the Introduction section after preparing the draft of the Materials and Methods and Results sections.

The last paragraph in the Introduction section defines the aim of the study or the study question using active verbs. If there is more than one aim for the study, specify the primary aim and address the secondary aims in a separate sentence. It is recommended that the Introduction section should not occupy more than 10–15% of the entire text.[ 14 ]

This is followed by a detailed description of the study protocol. At times, some of the methods used may be very elaborate and not very relevant to majority of the readers, for example, if polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used for diagnosis, the type of PCR performed should be mentioned in this section, but the entire procedure need not be elaborated in the “methods” section. Either a relevant reference can be provided or the procedural details can be given online as supplemental data.

It is important to mention both the generic and brand names of all the drugs used along with the name of the manufacturer and the place of manufacturing. Similarly, all the hematological, biochemical, hormonal assays, and radiological investigations performed should provide the specifications of the equipment used and its manufacturer’s details. For many biochemical and endocrine parameters, it is preferred that the intra- and interassay coefficients of variation are provided. In addition, the standard units of measurements and the internationally accepted abbreviations should be used.[ 18 ]

There are online guidelines available to maintain uniformity in reporting the different types of studies such as Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials (CONSORT) for randomized controlled trials, Strengthening the Reporting of Observational studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) for observational studies, and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) for systematic reviews.[ 19 ] Adherence to these guidelines improves the clarity and completeness of reporting.

Statistical analysis : One of the most important deterrents for publishing clinical research is the inability to choose and perform appropriate statistical analysis. With the availability of various user-friendly software systems, an increasing number of the researchers are comfortable performing complex analyses without additional assistance. However, it is still a common practice to involve biostatisticians for this purpose. Coordination between the clinicians and biostatisticians is very important for sample size calculation, creation of a proper data set, and its subsequent analysis. It is important to use the appropriate statistical methodologies for a more complete representation of the data to improve the quality of a manuscript.[ 20 ] It may be helpful to refer to a recent review of the most widely used statistical analyses and their application in clinical research for a better data presentation.[ 20 ] There is some evidence that structured training involving data analysis, manuscript writing, and submission to indexed journals improves the quality of submitted manuscripts even in a low-resource setting.[ 21 ] Short, online certificate courses on biostatistics are available free of cost from many universities across the globe. The important aspects regarding the Materials and Methods section are summarized in Table 2 .

Important components of the Materials and Methods section

The results of the study are summarized in the form of tables and figures. Journals may have limitations on the number of figures and tables, as well as the rows and columns in tables. The text should only highlight the findings recorded in the tables and figures and should not repeat every detail.[ 16 ] Primary analysis should be presented in a separate paragraph. Any secondary analysis performed in view of the results seen in the primary analysis should be mentioned separately [ Table 3 ].

Important components of the Results section

When comparing two groups, it is a good practice to mention the data pertaining to the study group followed by that of the control group and to maintain the same order throughout the section. No adjectives should be used while comparing, except for the statistical significance of the findings. The Results section is written in the past tense, and the numerical values should be presented with a maximum of one decimal place.

Statistical significance as shown by P-value, if accompanied by odds ratio and 95% confidence interval gives important information of direction and size of treatment effect. The measures of central tendencies should be followed by the appropriate measures of variability (mean and standard deviation; median and interquartile range). Relative measures should be accompanied by absolute values (percentage and actual value).[ 22 ] The interpretation of results solely based on bar diagrams or line graphs could be misleading, and a more complete data may be presented in the form of box plots or scatter plots.[ 20 ]

The strengths and weaknesses of the study should be discussed in a separate paragraph. This makes way for implications for clinical practice and future research.[ 16 , 23 ]

The section ends with a conclusion of not more than one to two sentences. The Conclusion section summarizes the study findings in the context of evidence in the field. The important components of the Discussion section are summarized in Table 4 [ Figure 1 ].

Important components of the Discussion section

The hourglass structure of the Introduction and Discussion sections

A referencing tool such as EndNote™ may be used to store and organize the references. The references at the end of the manuscript need to be listed in a manner specified by the journal. The common styles used are Vancouver, Harvard, APA, etc.[ 24 ] Despite continued efforts, standardization to one global format has not yet become a reality.[ 25 ]

It is important to understand the evidence in the referenced articles to write meaningful Introduction and Discussion sections. Online search engines such as Pubmed, Medline, and Scopus are some of the sources that provide abstracts from indexed journals. However, a full-text article may not always be available unless one has subscription for the journals. Those with institutional attachments, authors, and even the research division of pharmaceutical companies may be unconventional but helpful sources for procuring full-text articles. Individual articles can be purchased from certain journals as well.

• (9) Acknowledgements : This section follows the Conclusion section. People who have helped in various aspects of the concerned research work, statistical analysis, or manuscript preparation, but do not qualify to be authors for the study, are acknowledged, preferably with their academic affiliations.[ 26 ]

The aforementioned section provides the general guidelines for preparing a good manuscript. However, an exhaustive list of available guidelines and other resources to facilitate good research reporting are provided by the Enhancing the Quality and Transparency of Health Research network ( http://www.equator-network.org ).

A DDITIONAL F ACTORS I NFLUENCING THE M ANUSCRIPT Q UALITY

• (1) Plagiarism : Plagiarism is a serious threat to scientific publications and is described by the office of Research Integrity as “theft or misappropriation of intellectual property and the substantial unattributed textual copying of another’s work and the representation of them as one’s own original work.” The primary responsibility of preventing plagiarism lies with the authors. It is important to develop the skill of writing any manuscript in one’s own words and when quoting available evidence, substantiate with appropriate references. However, the use of plagiarism detection tools and a critical analysis by the editorial team prior to submitting an article for peer review are also equally important to prevent this menace.[ 29 ] The consequences of plagiarism could range from disciplinary charges such as retraction of the article to criminal charges.[ 30 ]
• (2) Language : One of the important limitations to publication is the problem of writing in English. This can be minimized by seeking help from colleagues or using the language editing service provided by many of the journals.
• (3) Professional medical writing support : In recent years, it is acknowledged that the lack of time and linguistic constraints prevent some of the good work from being published. Hence, the role of professional medical writing support is being critically evaluated. Declared professional medical writing support is found to be associated with more complete reporting of clinical trial results and higher quality of written English. Medical writing support may play an important role in raising the quality of clinical trial reporting.[ 31 ] The role of professional medical writers should be acknowledged in the Acknowledgements section.[ 32 ]

S UBMISSION TO J OURNALS AND R EVIEWING P ROCESS

The submission of manuscripts is now exclusively an online exercise. The basic model of submission in any journal comprises the following: the title file or first page file, article file, image files, videos, charts, tables, figures, and copyright/consent forms. It is important to keep all the files ready in a folder before starting the submission process. When submitting images, it is important to have good quality, well-focused images with good resolution.[ 33 ] Some journals may offer the choice of selecting preferred reviewers to the authors and hence, one must be prepared for this. Once the manuscript is submitted, the status can be periodically checked. With minor variations, a submitted article goes through the following review process: The Editor allocates it to one of the editorial team members who checks for the suitability for publication in the journal. It is checked for plagiarism as well at this stage. The article then goes for peer review to two to three reviewers. The review process may take 4–6 weeks, at the end of which, the reviewers submit their remarks, and “article decision” is made, which could be an advice for minor/major revisions, rewriting the whole manuscript for specific reasons, acceptance without any changes (very rare), or rejection. It is important to take into consideration all the comments of the reviewers and incorporate the necessary changes in the manuscript before resubmitting. However, if the manuscript is rejected, revise to incorporate the valid suggestions given by the reviewers and consider submitting to another journal in the field. This should be effected without delay overcoming the disappointment so that the research still remains valid in the context of time.

P REDATORY J OURNALS

Some of the well-known journals provide an “open access” option to the authors, wherein if the manuscript is published, it is accessible to all the readers online free of cost. However, the authors need to pay a certain fee to make their manuscript an open access article. In addition, some of the well-known journals published by reputed publishers such as BioMed Central (BMC) and Public Library of Science (PLoS) have online “open access” journals, where the manuscripts are published for a fee but are subjected to the conventional scrutiny process, and the readers can access the full-text article.[ 34 ] The Directory of Open Access Journals, http://doaj.org , is an online directory that indexes and provides access to high-quality, open access, peer-reviewed journals. However, many online open access journals are mushrooming, which provide a legitimate face for an illegitimate publication process lacking basic industry standards, sound peer review practices, and solid basis in publication ethics. Such journals are known as “predatory journals.”[ 35 ] The pressure of needing to have scientific publications and the lack of knowledge regarding predatory journals may encourage authors to submit their articles to such journals. Currently, it is not easy to identify predatory journals, and authors should seek such information proactively from mentors, journal websites, and recent and relevant published literature. In addition, editorial oversights (editors and editorial board members), peer review practices, the quality of published articles, indexing, access, citations and ethical practices are important aspects to be considered while choosing an appropriate journal.[ 36 ]

A relevant research hypothesis and research conducted within the ethical framework are of utmost importance for clinical research. The natural progression from here is the manuscript preparation, a daunting process for most of the clinicians involved in clinical research. Choosing a journal that provides an appropriate platform for the manuscript, conforming to the instructions specific for the journal, and following certain simple guidelines can result in successful preparation and publishing of scientific work. Allocating certain time at regular intervals for writing and maintaining discipline and perseverance in this regard are very important prerequisites to achieve the goal of successful publication.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

R EFERENCES

Journal of Materials Chemistry A

Promoting your work to the materials community: editor top tips for writing an effective research paper.

* Corresponding authors

a Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7001, USA E-mail: [email protected]

b School of Chemistry, University College Dublin, Belfield, Ireland E-mail: [email protected]

c Electrochemical Process Engineering (EPE) Division, CSIR-Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu 630003, India E-mail: [email protected]

d Department of Chemistry, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA E-mail: [email protected]

e Fachbereich Chemie, Universität Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78457 Kostanz, Germany E-mail: [email protected]

Authors and editors alike want publications in the Journal of Materials Chemistry A to be visible to the community and to have strong impact in their respective fields and beyond. To help authors craft manuscripts that will be exciting, impactful and meaningful, and to withstand the test of time, the editors of J. Mater. Chem. A provide their tips and recommendations on structuring your paper to emphasise the new insights, rigour, and significance of your work.

Article information

Download citation, permissions.

V. Augustyn, S. A. Cussen, S. Kundu, F. E. Osterloh and M. M. Unterlass, J. Mater. Chem. A , 2024,  12 , 17753 DOI: 10.1039/D4TA90097A

To request permission to reproduce material from this article, please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

If you are an author contributing to an RSC publication, you do not need to request permission provided correct acknowledgement is given.

If you are the author of this article, you do not need to request permission to reproduce figures and diagrams provided correct acknowledgement is given. If you want to reproduce the whole article in a third-party publication (excluding your thesis/dissertation for which permission is not required) please go to the Copyright Clearance Center request page .

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Using the Library

We're a bit different to your local library. You can't take books out, but you can use our Reading Rooms in London and Yorkshire for personal study and to access our collection. All you need is a free Reader Pass.

Our users include academic researchers, undergraduate and postgraduate students and members of the public.

We're continuing to experience a major technology outage as a result of a cyber-attack . At the moment, our Reading Rooms in London and Yorkshire are open, but access to our collection and online resources is limited.

Consult the collection

We've released a searchable online version of our main catalogue, which contains the majority of our printed collections, but not everything is included.

Read our collection item FAQs below or watch our 'how to' video for more details.

What would you like to do?

Get your Reader Pass

A Reader Pass gives free access to our Reading Rooms and collection. Anyone can get a Reader Pass, you’ll just need to bring some identification to Reader Registration in London or Yorkshire.

Study in our Reading Rooms

All our Reading Rooms are open for personal study, with access to free Wi-Fi and limited access to collection items.

To use our Reading Rooms you will need your free Reader Pass.

Access our collection

Search our online catalogue to find the majority of books and special collections held at St Pancras and limited collection items at Boston Spa.

You will need to come onsite to order, and please note not everything is available. Please contact us to check availability.

Use our online resources

Our full website is currently unavailable, in the meantime there are some useful resources below. You can access these from home and you don't need a Reader Pass.

Speak to one of our team

Our Reference Services team are on hand to answer your research queries and advise on collection item availability. We're receiving a high volume of enquiries at the moment so please bear with us. We'll get back to you as soon as we can.

Frequently asked questions

Reader registration.

If you have a question about our registration process, please email [email protected] and we’ll get back to you as soon as we can.

How do I become a Reader?

Please visit Reader Registration in St Pancras or Boston Spa to be issued with your Reader Pass.

We’re now able to issue photographic passes again, and these will last for one year. The pass will allow you to use our Reading Rooms for personal study, use our free Wi-Fi, access items on the shelves and order collection items to consult.

If you have previously been issued with a temporary paper pass, you will need to revisit Reader Registration to exchange it for a photographic pass.

Please note you need to be over 18 to get a Reader Pass, and you must bring identification with you when you visit Reader Registration.

My Reader Pass has expired, how can I renew it?

Please visit Reader Registration in St Pancras or Boston Spa to be issued with your Reader Pass. This pass will last for one year. Your pass will allow you to use our Reading Rooms for personal study, use our free Wi-Fi, access items on the shelves and order collection items to consult.

Please bring your expired pass with you to Reader Registration, as your new pass will need to carry your expired Reader number to order any collection items.

You must bring identification with you when you visit Reader Registration.

I have pre-registered as a Reader but haven't completed my registration, what do I do?

Please bring your pre-registration confirmation email with you to Reader Registration, as your photographic pass will need to carry your Reader number to order any collection items.

What ID do I need to bring to register as a Reader?

At the moment we can only issue one-year photographic passes.

Whether you are renewing, replacing or getting a new pass, please bring:

• a state-issued photo ID, printed with your photo, name and address (driving license or national ID card) or
• two separate documents, one showing your name and one showing your home address.

Types of documents we can accept include:

• State-issued documents e.g. passport
• Bills and financial documents
• NHS documentation e.g. NHS appointment letters and prescriptions
• DVLA documentation or correspondence
• Residency e.g. tenancy agreements.

Please note:

• We can accept original documents, photos, online versions or scanned copies of the documents above. Please ensure all text is legible
• Some driving licenses and national identity cards do not show your address. If yours doesn't, we can't accept it as your sole ID
• All documents need to be valid, or the paperwork issued within the last 12 months
• If necessary, it's up to you to provide official translations for foreign documents
• If you would like to bring a guest aged over 18 into our Reading Rooms, they will also need a Reader Pass. If you require a carer or have an adult dependent, they will also need a Reader Pass.
• Unfortunately, we can't issue a Reader Pass without seeing the ID listed above. Without a Reader Pass, you won't be able to use our Reading Rooms.

Can I pre-register for my Reader Pass before I visit the Library?

At the moment you can only get a Reader Pass by visiting the Reader Registration in St Pancras or Boston Spa, and you can’t pre-register online.

With this Reader Pass you will be able to use the Reading Rooms for personal study, use our free Wi-Fi, access items on the shelves, and order collection items to consult.

My temporary paper pass is still valid, what should I do?

You can continue using your temporary paper pass until it expires.

If you have a temporary white paper pass but you need to order collection items, you can revisit Reader Registration to exchange it for a photographic pass before its expiry date.

If you have a temporary blue paper pass you can continue to use it until it expires, and then exchange it for a photographic pass.

With a photographic pass you will be able to use the Reading Rooms for personal study, use our free Wi-Fi, access items on the shelves, and order collection items to consult.

You must bring identification with you when you visit Reader Registration, even when replacing your temporary pass. You may want to consider visiting the Reader Registration in the afternoons, when it is likely to be quieter.

Reading Rooms and our collection

All our Reading Rooms are open for personal study, and you can now search an online version of our main catalogue . Please read our FAQs for more information about how to search for and order collection items at the moment.

Are the Reading Rooms open?

All of our Reading Rooms are open during their normal opening hours , for personal study, and for accessing books and other items from our collection, subject to availability and certain restrictions. See FAQs below for more details. Digital and audio-visual collections are not currently available.

When will more services be restored?

The cyber-attack caused substantial damage that is complex and challenging to repair, and includes the installation of a completely new computing infrastructure for the entire Library.

As we approach the new academic year our CEO, Sir Roly Keating, has issued a new blog about the rebuild of our systems and services.

Further improvements and restoration of services you can expect in the coming months:

• Access to more collection items held in Boston Spa – August: Due to technical work taking longer than expected, material stored in our Additional Storage Building in Boston Spa should now be available by the end of August, rather than July. Access to materials held in the National Newspaper Building is more complex and will take longer. In the meantime, you can find a wide range of newspaper titles available in microform in the Newsroom at St Pancras.
• Digital collections acquired through Non-Print Legal Deposit (NPLD) – September: A solution has now been developed to enable the restoration of access to Non-Print Legal Deposit content to our partner libraries in the Legal Deposit network: the National Library of Wales, the National Library of Scotland, the Bodleian Libraries, Cambridge University Library and the library of Trinity College Dublin. The technical solution will be in place by early September, after which, each library in the network will restore access arrangements in their own reading rooms, once they have the capacity to do so.
• Learning websites and digitised manuscripts – September: We hope to begin to restore some of our unique collection of digitised manuscripts, and our popular Learning resources, including Discovering Literature, in September
• Remote ordering – September: An interim remote collection ordering method will be in place by the start of the new academic year in September, and we’ll share more about this process once it’s in place.

How can I find out what's currently available?

There are a few ways to explore what's in our collection and find out what's currently available:

• You can now use a searchable online version of our main catalogue . This catalogue contains records of the majority of our printed collection and some freely available online resources
• You can consult printed catalogues in the Reading Rooms
• You can work with our Reading Room staff on-site to search for items in our special collections, such as archives and manuscripts
• You can search Jisc Library Hub Discover , WorldCat , The National Archives and The Archives Hub for records of items held in our collection, and see if they are held elsewhere.

The following table can help you find the collection types you require:

We're working hard to expand access to all of our collection as soon as we can, and will update our website and social media channels with more information.

Online ordering is not currently possible, so you will need to come to the Reading Rooms to order your collection items. Please contact our Reference Services Team before you visit to check what you need will be available, by contacting us .

What's in the online catalogue?

The online catalogue is a searchable version of our main catalogue of books and other printed material. It contains records relating to the following collection item categories:

How do I order collection items in your St Pancras Reading Rooms?

To order an item you'll need to place a manual order in one of our Reading Rooms by completing a paper order form. Our staff can help you with this.

To identify the items you need, you can use our online catalogue to search for the item you require. If a record is marked ‘Not available’, this means the item is unavailable at the moment. If a record is marked ‘Should be available’, you will be able to see a shelfmark reference. You can take note of the shelfmark, because you will need it to place a manual order in the Reading Rooms by completing a paper order form.

We can’t guarantee that items marked ‘Should be available’ are available to order; they may be in use by another Reader or restricted for other reasons. To check the availability before you visit, contact our Reference Services team by contacting us .

In the Reading Rooms you can also consult our printed catalogues, which contain items not currently included in the online catalogue.

To see if items are held elsewhere, you can search Jisc Library Hub Discover , WorldCat , The National Archives and The Archives Hub .

Orders for same-day delivery close at 16.00.

How can I find out if a collection item is available before I visit?

Before you visit, you can use our online catalogue to search for the items you require. If a record is marked ‘Not available’, this means the item is unavailable at the moment. If a record is marked ‘Should be available’, you will be able to see a shelfmark reference. Please take note of the shelfmark as you will need it to place a manual order in the Reading Rooms by completing a paper order form.

How quickly will my orders be delivered to the Reading Room?

We will endeavour to deliver your order within 70 minutes. However, please bear in mind that in some cases it may take longer if our staff have to do extra checks to ensure that the items you ordered are available. Orders for same-day delivery close at 16.00.

Can I order collection items to your Boston Spa Reading Room?

We’ve now restarted the transfer of collection items between our two sites, which has expanded the range of collection materials available for you to order. This means Readers in Boston Spa can access material stored in St Pancras, and vice versa. This has restored access to material that can be retrieved manually from our stores in Boston Spa, but as we are currently unable to access our automated stores, not everything is available.

If your item is being transferred from another site please allow two working days for delivery. You still need to visit in person and complete paper forms to order collection items at the moment.

We recommend contacting our Boston Spa Reading Room team before you visit to check what you need will be available, by emailing [email protected] .

We plan to restore access to more collection items stored in Boston Spa, including those held in our automated stores, over the coming months.

Can I access special collections such as archives and manuscripts?

The majority of special collections held at St Pancras are now available, including restricted material. Our specialist archive and manuscripts catalogue is not online at the moment, please contact us using LibAnswers or LibChat (via the green Ask Us tab on the right of the catalogue) so we can help you find what you need and advise on its availability.

Where can I consult restricted material?

Asian & African: India Office Records and Private Papers, Asian and African Collections (manuscripts and printed items) and the Visual Arts collection (by appointment in the Print Room)

Manuscripts: Restricted western manuscripts

Rare Books & Music: Restricted printed books and restricted music collections

Maps: Restricted maps collections

To access restricted material you must have a Reader Pass issued after 21 March 2024. If your pass was issued before this date, please visit Reader Registration to replace it .

How do I arrange to view restricted material?

You will need to submit a request either in person in one of the special collections Reading Rooms (Asian & African, Manuscripts, Rare Books & Music, and Maps), or via LibAnswers or LibChat (via the green Ask Us tab on the right of the catalogue).

If you wish to consult Select manuscripts in the Manuscripts Reading Room, you will need to provide a “Letter of introduction”. Please ask via LibAnswers or LibChat if you need more information about this.

Approval to consult restricted material may take up to 3 working days (excluding Saturdays) and making an item available might take longer. We therefore recommend you plan your visit to the Reading Rooms carefully.

Please note self-service photography is not permitted for restricted items.

Once your request to access special collections is approved, we will let you know how to order and view your item

Can I access your sound and vision collection?

How up to date is the online catalogue.

The catalogue is a snapshot as of April 2023, and we will not be adding any new records to it for the time being. Please see the table above for details of the categories of collection data it includes.

Is this version of the online catalogue just an interim solution?

Yes - we will ultimately bring back a fully integrated catalogue with online ordering and other features. However, this will take some time to implement so in the meantime we will work iteratively to improve the service we can offer to Readers using this version of the main catalogue as a basis.

How many items can I order?

You can order up to six collection items per day. Please note that as usual it is possible for only four manuscripts to be in process at any one time.

Can I increase my daily order limit?

Please speak to a member of our team in the Reading Rooms for help with this.

Can I order the collection items I require in advance of coming to the Reading Rooms?

We hope to implement a system for this soon but unfortunately it's not possible at the moment.

Can I reserve my items to view again?

Yes, you can reserve your items for up to three working days. Please speak to a member of our team in the Reading Room for help with this.

Can I extend the reservation period?

That may be possible, please speak to a member of our team in the Reading Room for help with this.

Can I consult material on the shelves in the Reading Room?

Yes, you can access collection items held on the open shelves in the Reading Rooms.

Can I access your digital collection?

Most of our digital collection and electronic resources are currently unavailable, but some freely available online resources are included in our online catalogue.

You can also access the resources below from home without a Reader Pass:

• search HathiTrust or Archive.org for older and out-of-copyright digitised material
• use Google Books to search a huge range of digitised content from our collection
• access 1 million images of items from our collection on Flickr
• search millions of newspaper articles via the British Newspaper Archives
• explore Artstor's digital library.

We plan to restore access to a range of other digital and digitised content over the next few months.

Can I access online services in the Reading Rooms?

• digital content including electronic resources
• online and advance ordering
• Reading Room PCs.

Why do I have to surrender my Reader Pass in the specialist Reading Rooms when collection items are issued to me?

To help us maintain collection security, we need to monitor the collection items consulted in the specialist Reading Rooms.

What time do I need to return the special collection items I'm consulting?

We would appreciate if you can return these items to the Issue Desk 45 minutes before closing time.

Will I be able to take photographs from special collection items?

Please ask our staff in the Reading Rooms who will be able to assist you.

Can I access the Print Room?

Yes, prints, drawings, photographs and related visual material held in the Visual Art collection can be consulted in the Print Room located in the Asian and African Reading Room. The Print Room is open by appointment only on Monday and Friday between 10.30 and 12.30. Please contact the Visual Arts team via email ( [email protected] ) to check the availability of required items and to book an appointment. Please note that advanced booking is required.

Can I access UK doctoral theses?

Our online catalogue now provides access to digital doctoral theses held in UK institutional repositories. To access these documents, search for a thesis and then click on a title of interest to view the full details for that work. The link can be found under the section labelled "View Online - External Resource Available" (in green) just above the "I want this" section (in red) at the bottom of the page.

Are the Eccles Centre Fellowships going ahead in 2024?

The Eccles Institute has unfortunately decided to suspend the Visiting Fellowship programme for 2024-25. We know that this will be disappointing, and this decision has not been taken lightly. We anticipate that there will be some opportunities for Eccles Institute support after key Library services have resumed.

How can I access high-res images of items from your collection?

At the moment, most of our digital collection and electronic resources are unavailable, but you can use alternate online resources including our Flickr and Images Online sites. You can also find digitised resources on a number of our blogs , and on the IDP website .

We can supply hi res images for all images that are available on Images Online, and are working on adding some additional images without captions/metadata that have been kindly given by previous users.

If you have any questions about the image you'd like to use please email [email protected] and we'll come back to you as soon as we can.

If you have previously been supplied images by the Library please get in touch as we can redistribute them to users who may need them.

British Library On Demand

We are now offering an interim manual interlibrary loan and scan from print service to business account holders. We'll be contacting account holders with more details about this service. British Library On Demand from digital collections and some of our print collections remains unavailable. We're working on restoring the whole service as soon as we can.

In the meantime:

• all requests submitted before Saturday 28 October and in our system will be cancelled, with the option for you to reapply once our service is up and running should items still be required
• renewal charges will not apply, and you can continue to return your items to us when no longer required.

I have an outstanding request, when will this be fulfilled?

All requests in our system will be cancelled, with the option for you to reapply once our service is up and running, should items still be required.

Should I still send my items back?

Yes, you can continue to return your items to us when no longer required.

Can I renew my items?

Renewal charges will not apply, so you can keep hold of your items if you need them for longer and send them back to us when no longer required.

Can I request an interlibrary loan?

We are now offering an interim, manual interlibrary loan and scan from print service to business account holders. We’ll be contacting account holders with more details about this service.

Access digitised content

Most of our digital collection and electronic resources are currently unavailable, but some freely available online resources are included in our online catalogue. See our collection item FAQs above for more information about what's included.

Out-of-copyright material

Search HathiTrust or Archive.org for older and out-of-copyright digitised material.

Access 1 million images of items from our collection on Flickr . Find and buy images from our unique collections on our images online site.

Google Books

Use this filtered search to access over 700,000 digitised books from our collection on Google Books.

Search millions of newspaper articles via the British Newspaper Archives .

Theatrical playbills

The British Library Playbills collection gives access to 80,000 theatre posters. It includes high resolution images with searchable text of English, Scottish, and Irish playbills made between 1600 and 1902 (mostly 19th century).

Other available resources

Research repository.

Search our open access Research Repository for outputs from our staff, open access data sets, 3D models of collection items and content from other heritage organisations.

English Short Title Catalogue

Access a temporary search interface for the English Short Title Catalogue (ESTC), to search over 480,000 pre-1801 records, many with links to Early English Books Online (EEBO) . Created by Nikolai Vogler for the collaborative research project Print & Probability .

Open University

Freely available eresources are listed by The Open University .

Journal articles

Anyone can sign up for a free Jstor account. Creating an account gives access to 100 free articles per month from their range of journal articles, books, images, and primary sources in 75 disciplines.

Artstor digital library

Explore Artstor's digital library of images, videos, documents, and audio files.

Endangered Archive Programme

Look at digitised collections items from around the world through our Endangered Archive Programme (EAP) .

British National Bibliography (BNB)

The British National Bibliography (BNB) records the publishing activity of the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland since 1950. The BNB is available on the Share Family beta portal . To request a CIP record, please contact BDS . To request a weekly PDF of new additions to the BNB, please contact [email protected] .

Our website content

Our full website is unavailable, but it is possible to find some of our content using the Internet Archive's Wayback Machine to search for archived copies of our website.

MARC and ISIL assignment service

Our MARC organization code and ISIL assignment service is still available for libraries and related organizations, such as archives and museums. If you are such an organization and require a MARC organization code or an ISIL, please contact [email protected] and we can assign those identifiers for you.

ISSN UK Centre applications and confirmation

To submit an application for ISSN assignment please request an application form from [email protected] . For conversion of ISSN records from provisional to confirmed status, please send copies of the first issue of your publication to the ISSN UK Centre, digital copies to [email protected] and print to ISSN UK Centre, British Library, Boston Spa, Wetherby, West Yorkshire, LS23 7BQ.

Asian and African Studies

Americas and Oceania Collections

Collection Care

Digital Scholarship

Endangered Archives

English and Drama

European Studies

Innovation and enterprise

Knowledge Matters

Maps and Views

Medieval Manuscripts

Social Science

Sound and Vision

The Newsroom

UK Web Archive

Untold lives

Other services

Find more information about other services at the Library, including Public Lending Right (PLR), legal deposit and the International Library Leaders programme.

Sci-Hub and the Future Academic Publishing: Trends and Prediction

Websites like Sci-Hub have significantly impacted the landscape of academic publishing by offering free access to millions of research papers, circumventing the often prohibitive costs associated with traditional subscription models. This shift has sparked considerable debate around copyright, accessibility, and the future trajectory of scholarly communication. In this blog post, we will explore the trends and predictions that are shaping the future of academic publishing in light of Sci-Hub’s influence.

The Emergence of Sci-Hub

Founded by Alexandra Elbakyan in 2011, Sci-Hub has become a major player in the academic world by providing unrestricted access to over 80 million research papers . This platform has rapidly evolved into a crucial resource for researchers globally, challenging the traditional paywall model of academic publishing. By offering free access, Sci-Hub has fundamentally altered how research is disseminated and accessed, pushing the boundaries of the conventional publishing industry.

Key Trends in Academic Publishing

Several key trends are currently reshaping academic publishing:.

• The Open Access Movement: One of the most significant trends is the rise of open access (OA) journals, which offer free and unrestricted access to research outputs. This model aims to remove financial barriers, making academic research more accessible to a broader audience.
• Preprint Servers and Repositories: The adoption of preprint servers and digital repositories is growing. These platforms allow researchers to share their findings before they undergo peer review, accelerating the dissemination of knowledge and fostering collaboration within the research community.
• Focus on Accessibility and Inclusivity: There is an increasing emphasis on making research more inclusive and accessible. This trend includes efforts to ensure that research outputs are available to a global audience, regardless of their financial resources or geographical location.

Emerging business models, such as article processing charges (APCs) and innovative publishing platforms, are transforming the industry. These models aim to enhance transparency, equity, and the broad dissemination of knowledge, redefining scholarly communication in the process.

The Current State of Academic Publishing

Open Access Journals (OAJ) present an alternative to traditional subscription-based models by providing free access to research articles. Despite their advantages, OA journals face criticism over high APCs, inconsistent quality control, and concerns about long-term sustainability. The growth of OAJ underscores the need for more affordable, inclusive, and equitable publishing models, which could reshape the future of the industry.

The Case of Sci-Hub in India

In India, Sci-Hub’s role is complex. While it offers free access to research papers and bypasses expensive subscriptions, it also raises significant copyright issues. In 2020, Indian courts considered a case against Sci-Hub, but a verdict is still pending. The widespread use of Sci-Hub by researchers and students highlights the urgent need for affordable access to academic resources.

Understanding Research Paper Repositories

Research paper repositories are digital platforms designed to store and provide access to academic papers, data, and other scholarly materials. These repositories can be institutional (affiliated with universities), disciplinary (focused on specific subjects), or open (accessible globally). They facilitate the sharing, collaboration, and preservation of research outputs, enhancing visibility and accessibility for both researchers and the public.

The Impact of Sci-Hub on Academic Publishing

Sci-Hub’s existence has disrupted traditional publishing models by providing free access to millions of research papers, which raises legal and ethical concerns. While it has faced criticism for copyright infringement, Sci-Hub has also proven to be a valuable resource for researchers and students, particularly in developing countries where access to paid journals is limited. This highlights the pressing need for more equitable solutions in academic publishing.

Predictions for the Future of Academic Publishing

Looking ahead, several predictions can be made about the future of academic publishing:.

• Increased Open Access Adoption: The open access model is expected to gain further traction, leading to a broader shift away from subscription-based access.
• Disruption of Traditional Models: Emerging technologies, such as blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI), are likely to continue disrupting traditional publishing models, introducing new ways of managing and disseminating research.
• Focus on Accessibility and Equity: The future of academic publishing will likely see a heightened focus on accessibility and inclusivity. Innovative platforms and business models will prioritize transparency, collaboration, and the free dissemination of academic resources.

In conclusion, Sci-Hub has catalyzed a significant shift in academic publishing , emphasizing the need for greater accessibility, inclusivity, and transparency. As traditional publishing models are challenged, emerging technologies and innovative platforms are redefining scholarly communication. The future of academic publishing will likely prioritize equity and knowledge sharing, transforming the way research is disseminated and accessed.

• [Charting the Future of Academic Publishing in the Digital Age – Forbes](https://www.forbes.com/sites/thelabbench/2017/09/09/charting-the-future-of-academic-publishing-in-the-digital-age/)
• [How Is Sci-Hub Affecting Academic Publishing? – Enago Academy](https://www.enago.com/academy/how-is-sci-hub-affecting-academic-publishing/)
• [The Future of Academic Publishing – Wiley Online Library](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/leap.1258)

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Richard Nixon’s Political Scandal: Researching Watergate in the Manuscript Collections at the Library of Congress

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Authors: Ryan Reft, Historian of Modern America, Manuscript Division

Connie L. Cartledge, Senior Archives Specialist, Manuscript Division

Created: May 21, 2019

Last Updated: March 18, 2021

The Manuscript Division of the Library of Congress preserves, arranges, and makes available for research the personal papers and organizational records of historical significance that have been acquired by the Library. The content of this guide is not intended to be comprehensive, but provides an overview of selected manuscript materials to help researchers navigate collections in the Manuscript Division relating to the Watergate Affair and related topics such as impeachment, executive privilege, wiretapping, and the presidency of Richard M. Nixon.

“The Watergate Affair has been called the greatest political scandal of the twentieth century, the standard against which all subsequent scandals have been judged,” writes historian Geraldo Cadava. “It caused many to lose faith in government, led to campaign finance reform … and drove Americans to demand greater transparency in politics, which led to broad transformations that reshaped the cultural and political landscape for decades to come.” 1

Though some historians have questioned just how much transparency improved and government corruption declined after the scandal, much of Cadava’s point remains true, a testament to Watergate’s enormous influence. Looking back almost fifty years, Nixon’s tenure has proven more broadly influential than initially thought and in ways that might have been unexpected even for him. Watergate undoubtedly looms large in such evaluations, but Nixon’s political accomplishments, skills, and to some extent, his gruff persona all factored into a broader and longer lasting influence. The scandal cascades across the papers in the Manuscript Division; detaching it from Nixon’s larger legacy remains a difficult, if not impossible task. An overview, however, placing the scandal in larger context is provided below so as to aid researchers in their study of Watergate, the Nixon Administration, and the political milieu of the 1970s.

Nixon in American Culture

Well before the impeachment of President Bill Clinton in 1998, as the twentieth anniversary of Watergate approached, interest in Nixon’s administration sprung anew. In 1990, the PBS series American Experience released its documentary “Nixon”; five years later Oliver Stone premiered his feature film, of the same name with Anthony Hopkins in the title role.

Twenty first century observers have witnessed numerous films and documentaries about the 37 th president as well. From the farcical satire of Dick (1999) to the intensity of Frost/Nixon (first as a play in 2006 and then as a film in 2008 film), feature films have continued to remark upon the late president, as recently in the 2016 with the release of the dramedy Elvis and Nixon . Documentaries continue to tackle his legacy as well notably Nixon by Nixon: In His Own Words (2014), and Our Nixon (2013).

Even when not a character, Nixon serves as an almost existential force in numerous movies. For example, his ashen presence filters into The Post (2017), a film about the Washington Post ’ s struggle to publish the Pentagon Papers. In both the film adaptation of the Watchmen (2009) and the television series (2019), Nixon exists as a dystopian influence on an alternative reality America.

The classic film  All the President’s Men , has come to define celluloid journalism and was credited as the main influence on the 2016 Oscar winner Spotlight . Watergate’s shadow, for better and worse, reshaped how Americans thought about and consumed journalism while also reframing portrayals of journalists. The book upon which the movie was based “transformed [nonfiction] book publishing into a red-hot part of media,” former editor in chief of Simon and Schuster, Michael Korda told the New Yorker in 2018. 2

Though they had written a groundbreaking work in the field, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein had critics. “The heroized investigative reporters, Bernstein and Woodward, established a new low watermark for using unnamed sources,” historian Ruth P. Morgan argues in a 1996 article. For Morgan, the Washington Post reporters’ methods transformed a generation of journalists into “unlicensed detectives” focusing on the more salacious aspects of politicians’ lives while utilizing “’leaked’ information rather than … legitimate research into the substantive concerns of policy.” Morgan reserved her praise for books like J. Anthony Lukas’s Nightmare: The Underside of the Nixon Years (1976). 3

The film also flipped the new journalism ethos practiced by Tom Wolfe, Guy Talese, and others in which the writer obscured his or her role in the narrative. Instead, the movie focused intensely on Woodward and Bernstein, a practice that continued decades afterward. As a result, some historians argue that journalists now think of their profession with greater regard and importance, ever seeking “the broadest possible autonomy with the least accountability under the First Amendment.” The consequence has been a public that views the media more dimly than ever argues historian Joan Hoff. 4

Nixon's Political Influence

At Nixon’s April 1993 funeral, President Bill Clinton asked the public to stop “judging President Nixon on anything less than his entire life and career.” On the break-in’s 40 th anniversary historian Joan Hoff echoed Clinton’s sentiments, reminding New York Times readers that it “is worth remembering Nixon's achievements as well as his failures.” 5

During the 1990s, writers engaged Nixon anew. In 1990, Stanley I. Kutler published what some consider the most definitive account of the scandal: The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon . A year later, journalist Tom Wicker and Hoff each followed with One of Us: Nixon the American Dream (1991) and Nixon Reconsidered (1994). Wicker and Hoff offered new assessments of Nixon’s presidency that foregrounded his domestic policy achievements over the traditional narrative that the president’s acumen in international relations would be his most lasting contribution to U.S. history, a pattern that arguably persisted into the twenty-first century.

Nixon’s own dismissiveness regarding domestic policy reinforced such views. “I’ve always thought that the country could run itself domestically without a president … You need a president for foreign policy,” Nixon once told journalist Theodore White. In moments, Nixon could be baldly Machiavellian such as at a 1970 White House meeting with leading environmentalists during which he lectured attendees on political leverage. "All politics is a fad. Your fad is going right now. Get what you can, and here's what I can get you." 6

Nixon's own final words in office also helped to emphasize his foreign policy accomplishments. On the eve of his resignation, in his final speech before the American people on August 7, 1974, Nixon eschewed references to any achievements domestically and instead focused mostly on his accomplishments in international relations. In Asia, he had opened diplomatic relations with communist China, and though he had extended the Vietnam War, he had also ended it. U.S.-Middle East relations had been arguably improved. His policy of détente had accomplished arms reductions agreements with the Soviet Union. “He said nothing about the conditions in the United States, except to allude to the ‘turbulent history of this era,” notes historian Jill Lapore. 7

As evidenced, by the 1990s, many sought to reevaluate Nixon’s foreign policy accomplishments. “In the final analysis, Nixon’s diplomatic legacy is weaker than he and many others have maintained,” Hoff wrote in 1996. According to Hoff, Nixon resolved Vietnam with neither peace nor honor and lacked “a systematic Third World policy … except to use certain countries as pawns in the geopolitical and ideological battle with the USSR.” Détente with the USSR failed to carry the day in subsequent administrations and the “Nixon Doctrine” resulted in “unprecedented arms sales by the United States” while U.S. deployment of troops abroad continued. Nixon spent his first term focusing on Vietnam, China, and the USSR, leaving the Middle East for his second four years, during which Nixon remained largely distracted by Watergate. 8

Others added that even if one views Nixon’s Vietnam policy as ultimately a success, the controversy over Watergate prevented the United States from coming to a “national consensus” on just what the nation’s role in the world should be after unsuccessful excursions into Indochina. 9 For Hoff, none of this robs Nixon of his foreign policy talents, which she and others acknowledge, but rather emphasizes the difficulties of cementing or consolidating diplomatic triumphs past one’s own administration. 10

Whatever priority Nixon placed on his domestic policy, his administration did have several domestic accomplishments. When asked about these achievements in 1983, Nixon included “desegregation of Southern schools, environmental initiatives like the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency and the pursuit of international cooperation in space, as well as his declarations of war on cancer, illegal drugs and hunger.” One could add Nixon’s establishment of the Office of Management and Budget and the Office of Energy Policy, the latter focusing on oil policy, and advocating for the Clean Air Act of 1970. 11

Former Nixon aide and Undersecretary of the U.S. Department of the Interior and one of Nixon's lead advisors on environmental issues, John C. Whitaker credited the administration on these same issues adding that politically Nixon proved more liberal than Dwight Eisenhower, Gerald Ford, Ronald Regan, or George H. W. Bush but more conservative than Franklin Roosevelt, Harry Truman, John F. Kennedy, Jimmy Carter, and even Bill Clinton, planting Nixon “squarely in the middle of the political spectrum of modern presidents.” In addition Whitaker added that Nixon “increased spending for the poor, aged, and handicapped, nearly doubled the Johnson [Native American] budget, started a special program with a $60 million budget to encourage minority businesses, increased college student loans, put $100 million in research for his ‘war on cancer,’ doubled the budget for environmental clean-up and new park land acquisition, and proposed $1.5 billion to help school districts meet problems related to court ordered desegregation.” 12

Nixon’s desegregation accomplishments remain a point of historical debate. His efforts in opposing busing played a key role in earning the votes of middle and working class white Americans particularly across the growing Sunbelt. Indeed, Nixon presaged and oversaw a suburban realignment of the nation’s politics which established a consensus “postliberal” order based on defending middle class entitlements and neighborhoods combined “with the futuristic ethos of color blind moderation and full-throttled capitalism,” an approach emulated by Republican and Democratic politicians alike among them Bill Clinton. 13

When it came to desegregation and its implementation, “Nixon’s record was a mixture of principle and politics, progress and paralysis, success and failure,” writes Lawrence J. McAndrews. “In the end, he was neither simply the cowardly architect of a racially insensitive ‘Southern strategy’ which condoned segregation, nor the courageous conductor of a politely risky ‘no-so-Southern strategy’ which condemned it.” Still, despite efforts by historians and former officials to highlight Nixon's domestic policy accomplishments, for many, foreign policy remains his primary contribution. "[H]is interests and arguably his greatest achievements lay in foreign affairs," Meir Rinde noted in a 2017 article evaluating Nixon's environmental legacy. "his administration's domestic initiatives though substantial, are only dimly remembered." 14

Nixon and the Electorate

While Nixon’s efforts to court white voters have been well documented, his efforts with the nation’s communities of color have been a source of more recent scholarship. Though not always the case, by 1972, Black voters found the president wanting. Nixon won nearly a third of the African American electorate in 1960, however, Barry Goldwater's 1964 campaign, due to his opposition to civil right legislation, had alienated Black voters. The Arizona senator could only lay claim to six percent of the Black vote. By 1968, this improved marginally, but Nixon could muster only 10 percent. “During his first term in office,” argues historian Leah Wright-Rigueur, “Nixon vacillated between support for racial equality and outright hostility toward civil rights.” While he did net 13 percent in 1972, his own political ambivalence as well as the race-neutral approach he deployed in which colorblind rhetoric replaced more overt racial language won over few African American voters who “saw such overtures as implicitly racist or exclusionary in tone,” adds Wright-Rigueur. 15

Yet, Nixon’s support among non-whites varied, in part, due to his outreach to such communities. For example, he spent much of his first term shoring up support from Hispanic Americans. Nixon made political appointments, established financial programs aimed at providing aid to Hispanic entrepreneurs and promoted “Brown capitalism” while also forming “cabinet level committees” which functioned to connect leaders in the capital to Hispanics across the United States. Combined, Presidents Kennedy and Johnson only made nine appointments of Hispanics to significant policy positions such as secretary, under secretary, or assistant secretary. Nixon made 55 such appointments perhaps best exemplified by his selection of Romana Acosta Banuelos as Treasurer of the United States in the fall of 1971.

In foreign policy, Republican Hispanics cheered his “strident anti-communism” such as his administration’s role in ousting Chile’s Salvador Allende, the U.S.’s continued embargo of Cuba, and Operation Condor which lent aid to South American nations promoting neoliberal economics against left leaning opponents in the region. Such efforts paid dividends as he won a third of the Hispanic vote in 1972. “He established a new normal,” argues Cadava, “and developed a national strategy that future Republicans sought to replicate.” Ronald Reagan emulated this example in 1980 when he won nearly forty percent of Latino voters. 16

Native Americans also saw in Nixon an opportunity to protect their interests. “Nixon showed sympathy for Native Americans, whom he considered a ‘safe’ minority to help,” historian Dean J. Kotlowski noted in 2003. “Because the Indian movement was just getting under way during the late 1960s, Native Americans proved responsive to presidential gestures.” In the wake of what some Native American leaders viewed as less advantageous policies under Jimmy Carter, prominent voices such as LaDonna Harris (Comanche) openly stated many of her allies in the movement believed “that the Nixon Administration was much more accessible.” 17

Watergate, the Media, and the 1972 Presidential Election

At the same time, Watergate unhurriedly seeped into the political landscape. Initially, the media moved slowly in covering the scandal. Nixon appeared at four press conferences between the Democratic National Committee Headquarters break-in on June 17, 1972, and the election on November 7. He fielded only three questions about Watergate from journalists. Despite handing out federal indictments to the five Watergate burglars as well as E. Howard Hunt and G. Gordon Liddy less than two months before the election, the media persisted in considering “the subject of marginal importance,” observes historian Keith W. Olson. Network news covered Watergate with more frequency during the 1972 presidential campaign than did the nation’s newspapers. Though among print media, the Washington Post proved the exception. "Although there had been occasional incremental stories in the New York Time s, the Los Angeles Times , and Time magazine, the Post had been mostly alone on Watergate for months," then Metro desk editor and later executive editor of the newspaper, Leonard Downie remembered in his 2020 memoir. "Between June 17 and December 31, 1972, the Post published two hundred Watergate stories - most of them on the front page." Double that of their closest competitor the New York Times . Still, pressure mounted on the newspaper. In moments even publisher Kay Graham had doubts. "I sometimes privately thought .... if this is such a hell of a story, where is everybody else?" 18

Instead, the scandal manifested well after the 1972 election. Nixon romped to a landslide victory but the Republican Party did not. Though the GOP gained a dozen seats in the House, it lost two Senate seats and both houses of Congress remained under Democratic control. “After you take the President’s personal landslide,” then RNC chair Bob Dole noted, “there wasn’t any landslide at all.” Though Nixon tallied an impressive electoral-college victory, his Gallup Poll approval ratings ranked between 11 and 19 points below the five presidents who preceded him. When it finally did explode in the national news during the first few months of 1973, Watergate savaged his popularity; the public’s support of Nixon dropped from a post- election high of 68 percent approval to 24 percent in July/August of 1974. 19

Once the media finally latched on to the story of intrigue and scandal, it did so aggressively. Coverage became all-encompassing in both print and television media as well as in entertainment. In fact, Watergate references worked their way into children’s television. In an episode of “Sesame Street” Cookie Monster stood accused of thievery after having allegedly absconded with cookies. “[A]n offense, after whispered consultation with his lawyer, he happened not to recollect at this point in time. Then he started eating the microphone,” recounts historian Rick Perlstein. Even just a few years later, international observers expressed equal parts fatigue and concern regarding the American drama. "Never mind the stars and stripes/Let's print the Watergate Tapes," the Clash's Joe Strummer sang on "I'm So Bored with the U.S.A." from the band's 1977 debut album. 20

If the media and Congress chose to saunter rather than sprint in exposing Watergate, the nation’s federal court system, specifically the United States District of Columbia district court and court of appeals acted early and played a major role in events. At the time some observers expressed criticism over District Court Judge John J. Sirica’s actions in Watergate -- lawyer Joseph L. Rauh charged the judge with denying “the Watergate Seven” a fair trial -- in retrospect, many historians believe Sirica performed well as did his peers on the District Court such as Gerhard Gesell, Carl McGowan, June Greene, Aubrey Robinson and John Garrett Penn. “It was during this period that the District Court … became the focal point for some of the great tests of American constitutionalism,” observes historian Jeffrey Brandon Morris. 21

Though perhaps overshadowed during this period by the lower District Court, the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit also played a significant role in Watergate. Judges J. Skelly Wright, Harold Leventhal, David Bazelon, and Spottswood Robinson III, among several others, presided over Watergate related cases that ultimately shaped federal law. The decisions handed down by the District of Columbia Circuit answered important questions regarding executive privilege, separation of powers, and administrative law more broadly. A tragedy for the nation, Watergate and Nixon’s general tenure from 1969 to 1974 proved an enduring period of precedent for the federal courts regarding important constitutional issues.

In the end, one cannot limit Watergate to Nixon nor Nixon to Watergate. His accomplishments and failures in governance, whether in domestic or foreign policy, were perhaps not shaped by the scandal but affected by it. It cannot be confined to the period of June 1972 to August 1974, its roots stretch well before the former and its branches extended well beyond the latter. The Manuscript Division’s collections remain one of the top repositories in the nation to investigate, explore, and evaluate dozens of political, cultural, and legal issues that Watergate influenced. From the nation’s judges to its reporters to its elected Congressional members and their staffs to Nixon’s advisors, researchers will find both questions and answers about Watergate, Richard Nixon, and the 1970s in their papers. Even today, we still have not fully ascertained the impact and long-term importance of Watergate on the culture and politics of the United States.

Arrangement of the collections

The guide is arranged into five categories: Administration Officials, Journalists, Justices and Judges, Members of Congress and Staff, and Additional Collections. Each entry includes links to catalog records for an individual collection. On each catalog record, find more information about the collection. Many of these collections have a finding aid linked from the record. The finding aid provides a description of the content and arrangement of the collection. Information about Searching Finding Aids is available on the Search Tips page of this guide.

A few collections in this guide list access restrictions. Many of them, however, are available for research and include restrictions for only a small part of the collection. Collections not available online are accessible in the Manuscript Reading Room.

• Geraldo Cadava, The Hispanic Republican: The Shaping of an American Political Identity from Nixon to Trump (New York: Harper Collins, 2020): 113. Back to text
• Jordan Orlando, "William Goldman Turned Reporters into Heroes in ‘All the President’s Men,'" New Yorker , November 27, 2018. Back to text
• Ruth P. Morgan, Nixon Watergate, and the Study of the Presidency,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol 26, No. 1 (Winter, 1996): 230. Back to text
• Joan Hoff, “Introduction” in J. Anthony Lukas, Nightmare: The Underside of the Nixon Years (Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1999), ix. Back to text
• Joan Hoff, “Nixon Had Some Successes, Before His Disgrace,” New York Times , June 13, 2012. Back to text
• Rick Perlstein, Nixonland: The Rise of a President and the Fracturing of America (New York: Scribner, 2008), 393; Meir Rinde, "Richard Nixon and the Rise of American Environmentalism," Distillations Blog External , June 2, 2017 accessed February 1, 2021. Back to text
• Jill Lapore, These Truths: A History of the United States (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2018), 645. Back to text
• Joan Hoff, “A Revisionists View of Nixon’s Foreign Policy,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 26, No. 1, (Winter 1996): 107, 120. Back to text
• Stephen W. Stathis, “Nixon, Watergate, and American Foreign Policy," Presidential Studies Quarterly , Vol. 13, No. 1 (Winter, 1983): 142. Back to text
• Hoff, “A Revisionists View of Nixon’s Foreign Policy,” 123-124. Back to text
• John C. Whitaker, “Nixon’s Domestic Policy: Both Liberal and Bold in Retrospect,” Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol 26, No. 1, (Winter 1996): 131, 133. Back to text
• Matthew Lassiter, The Silent Majority: Suburban Politics in the Sunbelt South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006), 158, 227. Back to text
• Lawrence J. McAndrews, “The Politics of Principle: Richard Nixon and School Desegregation,” Journal of Negro History , Vol 83, No. 3 (Summer 1998): 187; Meir Rinde, "Richard Nixon and the Rise of American Environmentalism," Distillations Blog External , June 2, 2017. Back to text
• Leah Wright-Rigueur, The Loneliness of the Black Republican (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2015), 164, 131, 311, 131, 309. Back to text
• Cadava, The Hispanic Republican , 153, 147, 84-85; Wright-Rigueur, The Loneliness of the Black Republican , 291. Back to text
• Dean J. Kotlowski, “Alcatraz, Wounded Knee, and Beyond: The Nixon and Ford Administrations Respond to Native American Protest,” Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 72 No. 2 (May 2003): 205, 226. Back to text
• Keith W. Olson, Watergate: The Presidential Scandal that Shook America (Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 2003), 59, 65; Stanley I. Kutler, The Wars of Watergate: The Last Crisis of Richard Nixon (New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1990), 212; Leonard Downie, Jr, All About the Story: News, Power, Politics, and the Washington Post (New York: Public Affairs, 2020), 85. Back to text
• Wright-Rigueur, The Loneliness of the Black Republican , 193; Morgan, “Nixon, Watergate, and the Study of the Presidency," 233. Back to text
• Rick Perlstein, The Invisible Bridge: The Fall of Nixon and the Rise of Reagan (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2014), 133. Back to text
• Lukas, Nightmare , 305; Jeffrey Brandon Morris, Calmly to Poise the Scales of Justice: A History of the Courts of the District of Columbia Circuit (Durham, N.C.: North Carolina Press, 2001), 237. Back to text
• Next: Administration Officials >>
• Last Updated: Jul 10, 2024 8:24 AM
• URL: https://guides.loc.gov/watergate-manuscripts

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China’s domination of electric cars, which is threatening to start a trade war, was born decades ago in university laboratories in Texas, when researchers discovered how to make batteries with minerals that were abundant and cheap.

Companies from China have recently built on those early discoveries, figuring out how to make the batteries hold a powerful charge and endure more than a decade of daily recharges. They are inexpensively and reliably manufacturing vast numbers of these batteries, producing most of the world’s electric cars and many other clean energy systems.

Batteries are just one example of how China is catching up with — or passing — advanced industrial democracies in its technological and manufacturing sophistication. It is achieving many breakthroughs in a long list of sectors, from pharmaceuticals to drones to high-efficiency solar panels.

Beijing’s challenge to the technological leadership that the United States has held since World War II is evidenced in China’s classrooms and corporate budgets, as well as in directives from the highest levels of the Communist Party.

A considerably larger share of Chinese students major in science, math and engineering than students in other big countries do. That share is rising further, even as overall higher education enrollment has increased more than tenfold since 2000.

Spending on research and development has surged, tripling in the past decade and moving China into second place after the United States. Researchers in China lead the world in publishing widely cited papers in 52 of 64 critical technologies, recent calculations by the Australian Strategic Policy Institute reveal.

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