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To Capitalise or Not To Capitalise: A Useful Guide

• 3-minute read
• 31st July 2014

The question of when to capitalise a word can be tricky. As such, sometimes even the most exacting of grammar nerds will need to consult a guide. If you’re writing an essay and you’re unsure about a word, then, check the rules below to see whether a capital is required.

Which Words Should Be Capitalised?

The following situations always require a capital letter:

• The first word in a sentence
• The first-person pronoun ‘I’, along with the contractions ‘I’m’ and ‘I’ll’
• Countries (e.g. ‘France’)
• Settlements and landmarks (e.g. ‘Paris’, ‘the Eiffel Tower’)
• Languages (e.g. ‘French’, ‘Spanish’ or ‘German’)
• Proper nouns related to nationality, (e.g. ‘Frenchman’ or ‘Englishman’)
• Months and days of the week (e.g. ‘We met on a Thursday in June’)
• Special dates and historical periods (e.g. ‘Christmas Day’ or ‘the Iron Age’)
• Important historical events (e.g. ‘World War One’)
• The names of companies, brands and institutions (e.g. ‘Coca Cola’)
• Abbreviated titles (e.g. ‘Mr’, ‘Ms’ or ‘Dr’)
• Honorifics in salutations or before a name (e.g. ‘Dear Sir’ or ‘Dr Quinn’)
• People’s names (e.g. ‘Donald’ or ‘Hillary’)
• Special honours and awards (e.g. ‘Bachelor of Physics’)

Although this list covers the most common examples, there are also other situations where terms should be capitalised.

For example, when discussing religions, words like ‘God’ and ‘Allah’, as well as words pronouns relating to deities (e.g. ‘ H im’), are often capitalised. This is known as reverential capitalisation .

Sometimes, job titles are also capitalised, especially when used as part of an official title or alongside a name (e.g. ‘Jane Smith, Head of Recruitment, will be attending the meeting’). This isn’t necessary when the same words are used generically, though (e.g. we would write ‘She hopes to become President of the United States’ because it refers to a specific position, but no capitalisation is needed in ‘Many countries have presidents’).

Title Capitalisation

It’s also conventional to capitalise some words in titles, especially with books and films. When it comes to essay titles , many style guides require you to capitalise just the first word of titles and subtitles, plus proper nouns. This is known as ‘sentence case’. A title like this would run:

A guide to English: Perfecting grammar in an academic paper

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Alternatively, some style guide suggest that all of the main words (i.e. any that aren’t articles, conjunctions or prepositions) should be capitalised. This is known as ‘title case’. A title like this would appear as:

A Guide to English: Perfecting Grammar in an Academic Paper

Make sure to check which format your university prefers.

When NOT to Capitalise

Some situations might seem like a word should be capitalised but, in fact, do not require it. Words which don’t need to be capitalised include:

• The seasons (e.g. ‘spring’ or ‘summer’)
• The word ‘god’ when used in relation to the general idea of gods, rather than the Christian God
• Academic subjects which aren’t part of a degree or other qualification title (e.g. ‘He studied maths and science at school’)

It’s also important to be consistent with capitalisation (i.e. to use the same style of capitalisation throughout each document). And make sure to proofread carefully if you’re not sure about certain terms!

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A Little Help with Capitals

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This handout lists some guidelines for capitalization. If you have a question about whether a specific word should be capitalized that doesn't fit under one of these rules, try checking a dictionary to see if the word is capitalized there.

Use capital letters in the following ways:

The first words of a sentence

The pronoun "I"

Proper nouns (the names of specific people, places, organizations, and sometimes things)

Family relationships (when used as proper names)

The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and holy books

Exception: Do not capitalize the nonspecific use of the word "god."

Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names

Directions that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)

Exception: Seasons are capitalized when used in a title.

The names of countries, nationalities, and specific languages

The first word in a sentence that is a direct quote

The major words in the titles of books, articles, and songs (but not short prepositions or the articles "the," "a," or "an," if they are not the first word of the title)

Members of national, political, racial, social, civic, and athletic groups

Periods and events (but not century numbers)

Words and abbreviations of specific names (but not names of things that came from specific things but are now general types)

• NAU Editorial Style Guide
• Abbreviations and acronyms

Capitalization

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• Inclusive writing
• Numbers and Dates
• Punctuation
• Writing tips
• Writing about Flagstaff and Northern Arizona University
• Treatment of titles
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General rules, academic and administrative titles, academic degrees, academic departments, building and room names, course titles, government references, regional references, semesters and sessions, scholarships and fellowships, sentence vs. title case for titles and headings, student classification.

• Capitalize only when necessary. The more words you capitalize, the more you complicate your text.
• College of Arts and Letters
• Comptroller’s Office
• Office of the President
• The W. A. Franke School of Business (always include The and W. A. has a space between letters)
• Northern Arizona University offers courses in a variety of disciplines through the Grand Canyon Semester.
• The university partners with Grand Canyon National Park to offer courses in the field.
• financial aid office
• the college
• liberal arts
• San Francisco and Beaver streets
• Gabaldon and Raymond halls
• lakes Powell and Mead
• Headings should always be in sentence case with limited exceptions where approved by University Marketing.
• official : NAU Homecoming
• unofficial : homecoming
• official : Dean’s Office
• unofficial : the office
• official : Native American Cultural Center
• unofficial : the center

See our word list for institutional standards, dictionary exceptions, and guidance on specific words not listed here.

• Professor Ana Yazzie
• Ana Yazzie, professor of communication
• a diligent professor, Ana Yazzie
• Northern Arizona University President José Luis Cruz Rivera
• José Luis Cruz Rivera, president of Northern Arizona University
• José Luis Cruz Rivera became president in 2021
• Exception: Capitalize titles that follow names in formal contexts, such as lists in the front areas of reports and books (see rule 6).
• Capitalize named chairs or professorships that include the academic title and titles such as Distinguished Professor .
• Use lowercase for terms denoting roles, such as nurse, coach, citizen, or historian, when they precede a name.
• Veronica Begay, Master of Arts
• Tara Jackson, Bachelor of Science
• Martin Rodriguez, BA
• Silke Solies, MS
• William Wallace Covington, PhD, Regents’ Professor
• Charles C. Avery, Professor Emeritus
• Dewey Cheatham, Esq.

Note : Never use the plural or plural possessive—bachelors’, masters’—in reference to degree names.

NAU degrees

Always capitalize when writing about NAU degrees, even if it’s not the entire formal title. Search for the formal degree name in the catalog and capitalize accordingly. For alumni, just capitalize their degree as told.

Formal : she graduated with a BS in Forestry Informal : BA in Literature

Other institutions

This rule does NOT apply when writing informally about academic degrees from other institutions:

bachelor of science Jeff earned a bachelor of science degree.

bachelor’s degree Julie earned a bachelor’s degree in communications.

master’s degree The university offers a master’s degree in biology.

doctoral degree Sandra has a doctoral degree in chemistry.

• Capitalize full, formal department names: Department of Geology, School of Forestry, Politics and International Affairs, History Department.
• Arizona Board of Regents
• the board, the regents
• Flagstaff Symphony Orchestra
• the symphony, the orchestra
• Center for Environmental Sciences and Education
• Gabaldon Hall (Building 58)
• research center
• Grand Canyon Room
• The meeting will be held in Performing and Fine Arts, room 210.
• Cline Library, Room 304

Official names of academic courses are capitalized. Search the catalog for the correct course title.

• Adrian is enrolled in Mass Communication and Human Behavior.

Do not capitalize federal, state, or city unless part of an official name:

• city of Flagstaff
• state of Arizona
• federal government
• Federal Communications Commission

Use the capital letters. Add s to indicate plurals. To avoid confusion with the word as , use the apostrophe to designate the plural of the letter grade A:

A’s, Bs, Cs, etc.

Capitalize recognized geographical regions of the country but not general directions:

Ellen, who grew up in the East, moved west after she visited Arizona. The West Coast is beautiful. Our campus is in northern Arizona.

Use lowercase for seasons and derivatives unless they begin a sentence or are part of a formal name:

spring, summer, autumn, winter wintertime, springtime 2006 Winter Olympics

• Cowden Microbiology Scholarship
• Arizona Broadcasters Association Scholarship
• broadcasters scholarship
• Cowden grant

Do not capitalize the common names of semesters, terms, or academic sessions:

fall semester summer session registration orientation

Use sentence case for all marketing materials, including headings and email subject lines. Sentence case capitalizes the first letter of the first word and proper nouns in a title—just like in a regular sentence.

Title case uses capital letters for the principal words. Articles, conjunctions, and prepositions do not get capital letters unless they start the title. Use title case for reports and documents only—not in marketing materials or email subject lines.

<!–

UPDATE: Previous best practice required title case in email subject lines. This practice has been amended for consistency and in accordance with updated spam filtering information.

Sentence case examples

NAU: The world looks different from here Earn an NAU degree right where you are

Title case examples

NAU: The World Looks Different From Here Earn an NAU Degree Right Where You Are

Do not capitalize:

freshman sophomore junior senior

Note: “undergrad” and “grad” can be used only in web menus and other cases of extreme space limitations. In all other cases, it should be spelled out as “undergraduate” and “graduate.”

Menus: sentence case Headers: sentence case Buttons: sentence case Menus: Main menu headings should be capitalized following sentence case rules. Menu subheads should be capitalized following sentence case rules unless the subhead is a continuation of the above heading.

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– 5 min read

A brief guide to capitalization rules

Jessica Malnik

There are some capitalization rules that might seem like common sense, such as capitalizing the first word in a new sentence.

However, capitalization rules are more complex than they might seem on the surface.

In this post, we cover ten of the most common rules of capitalization. We’ll also share examples of each to help you understand when to use uppercase or lowercase in your writing.

What are the 10 rules of capitalization?

1. capitalize the first word of a sentence.

This is one of the easiest, most straightforward rules of capitalization. Whenever you start a new sentence, capitalize the first letter of the first word. Simple as that!

2. Capitalize proper nouns and names

A proper noun is a specific name for a person, place, or thing. These types of nouns should always be capitalized, no matter where they land in a sentence. Proper nouns include but aren’t limited to: companies, countries, cities, political parties, and religions.

Names should also be capitalized. That includes first, middle, and last names.

3. Capitalize the majority of titles

Capitalization rules for titles can vary from style guide to style guide. As a rule of thumb, you should capitalize the first word of a title, verbs, adjectives, nouns, and of course, proper nouns. This leaves prepositions, articles, and conjunctions in lowercase.

Pro Tip : You should also capitalize someone’s title – like Doctor or Judge – if you directly address them, even if you leave out their name. 

4. Capitalize events and periods

You will need to capitalize periods, eras, and specific events. However, centuries and century numbers should not be capitalized.

5. Capitalize “I” as a pronoun

We’re all used to seeing words like iPhone, iPad, and iMac by now. You don’t have to capitalize the “i” in these words. It would look strange if you did and wouldn’t be grammatically correct. However, if the “I” is a pronoun, then it should always be uppercase.

6. Capitalize any locations and direct addresses 

When a direction is part of a name, then you should capitalize it. For example, South Bend or Northern California. However, if it’s just a direction and not part of a name, then it shouldn’t be capitalized, like “turn east at the stop sign.”

7. Capitalize family relationships

When you use a word to indicate a family relationship, it should be capitalized if it’s used as a proper noun. For instance, “Grandpa” or “Uncle Bob.” However, if you aren’t referring to that person by name, then it wouldn’t need to be capitalized. For example, “my grandpa” or “our uncle.”

8. Capitalize months, holidays, and days

The names of months, holidays, and days are considered to be proper nouns. This means they need to be capitalized.

Knowing this capitalization rule, a lot of people mistakenly capitalize the names of seasons. But seasons like winter and summer should NOT be capitalized. They are not categorized as proper nouns.

9. Capitalize trademark names

Trademark and brand names are typically seen as proper nouns. This means you’ll need to capitalize them.

10. DON’T capitalize after a colon

The final rule on our list is a little different. This one tells you when NOT to capitalize. In general, you shouldn’t capitalize the word following a colon. You aren’t starting a new sentence, so there’s no need for it.

However, there is an exception to this rule. If the first word following a colon is a proper noun, then it needs to be capitalized.

Capitalization rules and examples

The best way to learn when to capitalize is by example.

Here’s are correct and incorrect ways to use capitalization for the rules above:

Example #1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence

In this example, the incorrect sentence should start with a capital letter.

Example #2. Capitalize proper nouns and names

In both of the incorrect examples above, the capitalized noun should have been lowercase. This is because they are common nouns instead of proper nouns.

Example #3. Capitalize the majority of titles

Articles, prepositions, and conjunctions shouldn’t be capitalized in titles.

Example #4. Capitalize historical events and time periods

Example #5. Capitalize “I” as a pronoun

The “i” in the incorrect example is part of a trademark that begins with a lowercase letter. It’s not a pronoun. It shouldn’t be capitalized.

Example #6. Capitalize any locations and direct addresses

Example #7. Capitalize family relationships

Example #8. Capitalize months, holidays, and days

Seasons do not need to be capitalized.

Example #9. Capitalize trademark names

Example #10. DON’T capitalize after a colon

Normally, you wouldn’t capitalize a word after a colon. However, if the first word is a proper noun, then you should.

In sum, the best way to remember the rules of capitalization is to keep writing. Practice and you’ll get the hang of it. You can always keep the rules on hand to refer back to as needed.

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Capital Letters: A Usage Guide

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When and how to use capital letters can be a thorny problem. It may be acceptable to drop capital letters when writing casually to friends but if you are writing anything more formal then you need to use capital letters correctly.

This page lists the rules, and provides examples of when to use (and when not to use) capital letters in English writing.

Capital Letters Were Always The Best Way Of Dealing With Things You Didn't Have A Good Answer To

Douglas Adams

To Start a Sentence

There are no exceptions to this rule.

This means that, after a full stop, you always use a capital letter.

If the previous sentence ends with a question mark or exclamation mark, you should also use a capital letter, ? and !, like full stops, indicate the end of a sentence. However if in the sentence you have a clause in parenthesis (brackets) or sequence separated by dashes, and if these end with a question mark or exclamation mark, you should continue with lower case after the second bracket or dash.

Is it always necessary to use capitals to start a sentence? The answer is definitely yes.

She told herself – was it acceptable to talk to oneself? – that the answer was obvious.

The use of a capital after a colon (:) varies depending on whether you are writing in British or US English, just as the spelling of 'capitalisation' and 'capitalization' are different in British and US English.

You should use a capital letter after a colon with US spelling but not with UK spelling.

In titles, capitalise only the important words, not minor words such as ‘and’ and ‘but’.

‘ Title Case ’, with all the important words capitalised, is rather out of fashion at the moment. Most academic journals and standard referencing systems, for instance, prefer what is known as ‘sentence case’, with a single initial capital.

However, it’s good to understand the rules, in case you are required to use title case at any point.

Using the title of this article as an example:

Sentence case: “When to use capital letters”

Title case: “When to Use Capital Letters”

In title case, in this example, ‘Use’, although small, is an important word in the title, and should therefore be capitalised. ‘To’, however, is not important and therefore not capitalised.

For Proper Nouns

Proper nouns name something specific, for example, Jane, John, Oxford University, Denver, Qantas, Microsoft, Everest, Sahara. See our pages on Grammar for more information.

Proper nouns (nearly) always start with a capital letter. There are exceptions to this rule and in marketing sometimes lower-case characters are purposefully used for some proper nouns. Examples include iPhone, eBay and oneworld Alliance. However, in most cases, proper nouns start with a capital letter.

Caution is needed however, even when you are referring to a specific place or thing. If you use the more general noun rather than the proper noun, this should not be capitalised.

Further examples:

“I went to the University of Oxford today.”

“I went to Oxford today and had a look at the university.”

Capitalising is correct in both sentences. In the first the proper noun 'University of Oxford' is used.

In the second sentence, the more general noun ‘university’ is used and so it is not capitalised.

The word 'I' is not a proper noun , it's a pronoun. In English 'I' is always capitalised. In many other languages the equivalent word is not capitalised.

Acronyms generally work like title case: you capitalise the important words, and not ‘and’, ‘of’, ‘for’ and so on.

The easiest way to work this out is to write out the full title, and then you can see which words don’t need to be capitalised.

To make this clear, here are some examples:

Contractions

For contractions, capitalise the initial letters of words, but not subsequent letters within the same word.

Contractions are like acronyms, but also include one or more letters from within the same word. Examples of this include HiFi, which is short for ‘High Fidelity’, and SciFi, short for science fiction.

The way to deal with these is to write out the phrase and have a look. Although the words that are abbreviated may not be capitalised, as in ‘science fiction’, the abbreviation always contains capitals for the start of each new word to make the word boundaries and pronunciation clear. We frequently use SkillsYouNeed, contracting the spaces but making the phrase easier to read.

Many people wrongly assume that Wi-Fi is a contraction of Wireless Fidelity. In fact the word Wi-Fi is an entirely made up word - a marketing invention and does not stand for anything. It is, however, officially written as Wi-Fi.

Overusing Capitals is Rude

WRITING ENTIRELY IN BLOCK CAPITALS IS SHOUTING, and it’s rude.

We’ve all done it: left the Caps Lock on while typing. But in email etiquette , online chats and/or forum posts, writing in capitals is the online equivalent of shouting. It’s rude, so best not to do it unless you really do want to shout at someone. Even then, consider whether you’d really do it if that person was in front of you, and also whether it will get you anywhere.

Although it’s usually best to avoid writing in capitals, it can be useful to write odd words in capitals to give them emphasis. HELP! You're going to LOVE the surprise.

It’s also much harder to read block capitals as all the letters are the same height, so you will make your point much more easily if you use lower case.

Sometimes, especially when completing a handwritten form, BLOCK CAPITALS are preferred since this can make data entry or automatic computer recognition of handwriting easier and more accurate.

Some Computer Specifics

Email addresses ([email protected]) and domain names (skillsyouneed.com) never include capital letters. Most computer applications will correct capital letters in email address or domain names to lower-case.

Web addresses, URLs, can however be case sensitive - although usual convention is to use only lower case letters.

It is usually a good idea to use both upper and lower case characters in computer passwords as this makes them more secure. Passwords are usually case sensitive so they need to be exactly right, hence paSSword is different to pAsswoRd. It is a good idea to use numbers and special characters in passwords to make them even more secure, for example - p@55w0r|].

One Final Word of Advice

Following these rules will generally help you to work out when to use capital letters.

If, however, you are still in doubt, Google the exact phrase, including capitals, and see what comes up. Although some of what you find may be wrong, you can see the general consensus and that will probably be acceptable.

Continue to: Common Mistakes in Writing Grammar

See also: Writing a CV or Resume Formal and Informal Writing How to Write a Letter

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The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips

Published on April 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 8, 2023.

Good academic writing requires effective planning, drafting, and revision.

The writing process looks different for everyone, but there are five basic steps that will help you structure your time when writing any kind of text.

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Table of contents

Step 1: prewriting, step 2: planning and outlining, step 3: writing a first draft, step 4: redrafting and revising, step 5: editing and proofreading, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the writing process.

Before you start writing, you need to decide exactly what you’ll write about and do the necessary research.

Coming up with a topic

If you have to come up with your own topic for an assignment, think of what you’ve covered in class— is there a particular area that intrigued, interested, or even confused you? Topics that left you with additional questions are perfect, as these are questions you can explore in your writing.

The scope depends on what type of text you’re writing—for example, an essay or a research paper will be less in-depth than a dissertation topic . Don’t pick anything too ambitious to cover within the word count, or too limited for you to find much to say.

Narrow down your idea to a specific argument or question. For example, an appropriate topic for an essay might be narrowed down like this:

Doing the research

Once you know your topic, it’s time to search for relevant sources and gather the information you need. This process varies according to your field of study and the scope of the assignment. It might involve:

• Searching for primary and secondary sources .
• Reading the relevant texts closely (e.g. for literary analysis ).
• Collecting data using relevant research methods (e.g. experiments , interviews or surveys )

From a writing perspective, the important thing is to take plenty of notes while you do the research. Keep track of the titles, authors, publication dates, and relevant quotations from your sources; the data you gathered; and your initial analysis or interpretation of the questions you’re addressing.

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Especially in academic writing , it’s important to use a logical structure to convey information effectively. It’s far better to plan this out in advance than to try to work out your structure once you’ve already begun writing.

Creating an essay outline is a useful way to plan out your structure before you start writing. This should help you work out the main ideas you want to focus on and how you’ll organize them. The outline doesn’t have to be final—it’s okay if your structure changes throughout the writing process.

Use bullet points or numbering to make your structure clear at a glance. Even for a short text that won’t use headings, it’s useful to summarize what you’ll discuss in each paragraph.

An outline for a literary analysis essay might look something like this:

• Describe the theatricality of Austen’s works
• Outline the role theater plays in Mansfield Park
• Introduce the research question: How does Austen use theater to express the characters’ morality in Mansfield Park ?
• Discuss Austen’s depiction of the performance at the end of the first volume
• Discuss how Sir Bertram reacts to the acting scheme
• Introduce Austen’s use of stage direction–like details during dialogue
• Explore how these are deployed to show the characters’ self-absorption
• Discuss Austen’s description of Maria and Julia’s relationship as polite but affectionless
• Compare Mrs. Norris’s self-conceit as charitable despite her idleness
• Summarize the three themes: The acting scheme, stage directions, and the performance of morals
• Answer the research question
• Indicate areas for further study

Once you have a clear idea of your structure, it’s time to produce a full first draft.

This process can be quite non-linear. For example, it’s reasonable to begin writing with the main body of the text, saving the introduction for later once you have a clearer idea of the text you’re introducing.

To give structure to your writing, use your outline as a framework. Make sure that each paragraph has a clear central focus that relates to your overall argument.

Hover over the parts of the example, from a literary analysis essay on Mansfield Park , to see how a paragraph is constructed.

The character of Mrs. Norris provides another example of the performance of morals in Mansfield Park . Early in the novel, she is described in scathing terms as one who knows “how to dictate liberality to others: but her love of money was equal to her love of directing” (p. 7). This hypocrisy does not interfere with her self-conceit as “the most liberal-minded sister and aunt in the world” (p. 7). Mrs. Norris is strongly concerned with appearing charitable, but unwilling to make any personal sacrifices to accomplish this. Instead, she stage-manages the charitable actions of others, never acknowledging that her schemes do not put her own time or money on the line. In this way, Austen again shows us a character whose morally upright behavior is fundamentally a performance—for whom the goal of doing good is less important than the goal of seeming good.

When you move onto a different topic, start a new paragraph. Use appropriate transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas.

The goal at this stage is to get a draft completed, not to make everything perfect as you go along. Once you have a full draft in front of you, you’ll have a clearer idea of where improvement is needed.

Give yourself a first draft deadline that leaves you a reasonable length of time to revise, edit, and proofread before the final deadline. For a longer text like a dissertation, you and your supervisor might agree on deadlines for individual chapters.

Now it’s time to look critically at your first draft and find potential areas for improvement. Redrafting means substantially adding or removing content, while revising involves making changes to structure and reformulating arguments.

Evaluating the first draft

It can be difficult to look objectively at your own writing. Your perspective might be positively or negatively biased—especially if you try to assess your work shortly after finishing it.

It’s best to leave your work alone for at least a day or two after completing the first draft. Come back after a break to evaluate it with fresh eyes; you’ll spot things you wouldn’t have otherwise.

When evaluating your writing at this stage, you’re mainly looking for larger issues such as changes to your arguments or structure. Starting with bigger concerns saves you time—there’s no point perfecting the grammar of something you end up cutting out anyway.

Right now, you’re looking for:

• Arguments that are unclear or illogical.
• Areas where information would be better presented in a different order.
• Passages where additional information or explanation is needed.
• Passages that are irrelevant to your overall argument.

For example, in our paper on Mansfield Park , we might realize the argument would be stronger with more direct consideration of the protagonist Fanny Price, and decide to try to find space for this in paragraph IV.

For some assignments, you’ll receive feedback on your first draft from a supervisor or peer. Be sure to pay close attention to what they tell you, as their advice will usually give you a clearer sense of which aspects of your text need improvement.

Redrafting and revising

Once you’ve decided where changes are needed, make the big changes first, as these are likely to have knock-on effects on the rest. Depending on what your text needs, this step might involve:

• Making changes to your overall argument.
• Reordering the text.
• Cutting parts of the text.
• Adding new text.

You can go back and forth between writing, redrafting and revising several times until you have a final draft that you’re happy with.

Think about what changes you can realistically accomplish in the time you have. If you are running low on time, you don’t want to leave your text in a messy state halfway through redrafting, so make sure to prioritize the most important changes.

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Editing focuses on local concerns like clarity and sentence structure. Proofreading involves reading the text closely to remove typos and ensure stylistic consistency. You can check all your drafts and texts in minutes with an AI proofreader .

Editing for grammar and clarity

When editing, you want to ensure your text is clear, concise, and grammatically correct. You’re looking out for:

• Grammatical errors.
• Ambiguous phrasings.
• Redundancy and repetition .

In your initial draft, it’s common to end up with a lot of sentences that are poorly formulated. Look critically at where your meaning could be conveyed in a more effective way or in fewer words, and watch out for common sentence structure mistakes like run-on sentences and sentence fragments:

• Austen’s style is frequently humorous, her characters are often described as “witty.” Although this is less true of Mansfield Park .
• Austen’s style is frequently humorous. Her characters are often described as “witty,” although this is less true of Mansfield Park .

To make your sentences run smoothly, you can always use a paraphrasing tool to rewrite them in a clearer way.

Proofreading for small mistakes and typos

When proofreading, first look out for typos in your text:

• Spelling errors.
• Missing words.
• Confused word choices .
• Punctuation errors .
• Missing or excess spaces.

Use a grammar checker , but be sure to do another manual check after. Read through your text line by line, watching out for problem areas highlighted by the software but also for any other issues it might have missed.

For example, in the following phrase we notice several errors:

• Mary Crawfords character is a complicate one and her relationships with Fanny and Edmund undergoes several transformations through out the novel.
• Mary Crawford’s character is a complicated one, and her relationships with both Fanny and Edmund undergo several transformations throughout the novel.

Proofreading for stylistic consistency

There are several issues in academic writing where you can choose between multiple different standards. For example:

• Whether you use the serial comma .
• Whether you use American or British spellings and punctuation (you can use a punctuation checker for this).
• Where you use numerals vs. words for numbers.
• How you capitalize your titles and headings.

Unless you’re given specific guidance on these issues, it’s your choice which standards you follow. The important thing is to consistently follow one standard for each issue. For example, don’t use a mixture of American and British spellings in your paper.

Additionally, you will probably be provided with specific guidelines for issues related to format (how your text is presented on the page) and citations (how you acknowledge your sources). Always follow these instructions carefully.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy
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• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

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Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, December 08). The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved August 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/writing-process/

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