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Modern California Houses Case Study Houses 1945 1962

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THE CASE STUDY HOUSES

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To fully appraise the Case Study program one should first see it within the context of similar endeavors which have been tried from time to time in this country and abroad. Throughout the 20th century, nu­merous “Idea houses” or “Houses of the future” have appeared in exhibitions and others have been spon­sored by home and women’s magazines. In 1927–28 the internationally famous Weissonhof housing proj­ects featured designs by Le Corbusier, Gropius, Mart Stam, J. J. P. Oud and others. A similar project to encourage the acceptance of modern architecture was instituted before the Second World War by the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis in their first “Idea house,” and continued in a second “Idea house” con­structed in 1947 behind the Center. In 1948 The Museum of Modern Art commissioned Marcel Breuer to build an exhibition house in the Museum court­yard; a second house was commissioned in 1950 to the California architect Gregory Ain. In the 1950’s the Guggenheim Museum, as part of its exhibition of Frank Lloyd Wright, built one of his “Usonian” houses.

Few of these programs have been able to sustain themselves for any appreciable length of time and it is difficult to say whether they have actually pro­duced their desired result. Even the influential ex­hibition and publication program of the Museum of Modern Art in architecture and design, first under Phillip Johnson in the early 1930’s, and later in the 40’s and early 50’s under Edgar Kaufman has pretty well fallen into a respectable intellectual doldrum in the hands of Arthur Drexler.

That this path is a precarious one is well illustrated by several of the most recent Case Study Houses, especially the Towri House on the Rivo Alto Canal, near Long Beach, and the Triad Development of houses at La Jolla, all by the firm of Killingsworth, Brady and Smith. In each of these houses there is a decided tinge of what has so aptly been labeled “Hollywood Regency.” Not that their forms are in any way eclectic––there is no evidence whatsoever of “French Provincial” or “English Regency” which is the normal mode of the Beverly Hills version of “Holly­wood Regency.” Yet their own involvement with formalism, with forced symmetry and their self-con­scious concern for uncluttered forms and surfaces has created a preciousness which compromises their total architectural statement. Man’s physical frame may well be symmetrical, but this does not mean that he necessarily lives or operates in this way. There is something dramatic about entering a house over a bridge, or via a series of stepping stones over a pool of water, but in the end is this architecture or simply a stage setting? In their house “A” at La Jolla, Kil­lingsworth, Brady and Smith provide this stagey, im­pressive entrance for guests and visitors and then they furnish an entrance for the family directly off the garage area which frankly conveys the informality of the contemporary California scene.

The view of architecture as an intellectual exercise in the realm of pristine sharp-edged forms and pre­cise proportions has long been a dominant theme in the Case Study program (as it has continually cropped up throughout the history of architecture), but in the earlier Case Study Houses by Craig Ellwood and Pierre Koenig the esthetic articulation of planes and volumes defined by precise rectangular shapes had been dominated by the structural form of the building. In Killingsworth, Brady and Smith there is a tendency to play down the structure as the salient motif and in its place to substitute an involvement with form.

The most recent of the Case Study Houses reveals as well a marked shift in the use of materials and the way in which they are exposed. The employment of steel as a relatively new building material in do­mestic architecture was initiated in the Case Study House program by Charles Eames for his own house and studio, built in 1949. The Eames house was the most successful of all the Case Study Houses in that it illustrated how the mass-produced product might be used in domestic architecture. The Eames house used materials, primarily steel and glass, in such a way that their quality of regularity and order never dominated the total form. In the later Case Study Houses of Ellwood and Koenig the steel frame did become the controlling element in the design, forci­bly establishing the surface, the proportion and the volume of the building. In several of the most recent examples of the Case Study Houses this directness of approach to materials and structure has been par­tially abandoned. The materials and structure no longer are an organic part of the design. As Mies van der Rohe, Walter Gropius and even Frank Lloyd Wright have pointed out, good design, especially in our century and here in America, is as much a result of negative self-restraint as it is positive affirmation. Certainly the success of the Eames house was the result of his adherence to the principle of self-re­straint.

Originally the Case Study House program had an­other dominating characteristic and that was its interest in the direct solution of the problems of the mass-produced project house. The first Case Study House by J. R. Davidson was an admirable and highly influential minimal house (of 1100 sq. ft.) and was reproduced as a mass-produced house. The same was true of Summer Spaulding’s and John Rex’s 1947 Case Study House, where a strict modular system was ad­hered to.

By the 1950’s Arts & Architecture had pretty well abandoned any direct concern for mass housing. The houses of the last 12 to 13 years seemed to be based upon the premise of influencing design through osmosis––by creating visual and structural “master­pieces” which will serve as a source of inspiration in the area of project and mass-produced housing. That the Case Study House Project has created significant monuments of the “modern movement” is undeniable and it is hoped that it will continue to do so, but whether this approach, as opposed to its direct in­volvement, can or will affect mass housing (which constitutes well over 90% of all houses built in the U.S.) is open to serious doubt.

–– David Gebhard

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How Did Materials Shape the Case Study Houses?

• Written by Lilly Cao
• Published on May 20, 2021

The Case Study Houses (1945-1966), sponsored by the Arts & Architecture Magazine and immortalized by Julius Shulman ’s iconic black-and-white photographs, may be some of the most famous examples of modern American architecture in history. Designed to address the postwar housing crisis with quick construction and inexpensive materials, while simultaneously embracing the tenets of modernist design and advanced contemporary technology, the Case Study Houses were molded by their central focus on materials and structural design. While each of the homes were designed by different architects for a range of clients, these shared aims unified the many case study homes around several core aesthetic and structural strategies: open plans, simple volumes, panoramic windows, steel frames, and more. Although some of the Case Study Houses’ materials and strategies would become outdated in the following decades, these unique products and features would come to define a historic era of architectural design in the United States.

Among the most important unifying aesthetic strategies of the Case Study projects was a modernist focus on exposed structure and functional design. The Eames House (Case Study House 8), designed by prominent industrial design couple Charles and Ray Eames, was intended to express man’s life in the modern world using “straightforward, unselfconscious” design. Thus, the designers made no attempt to conceal or disguise the structural functions of the steel: it acted as interlocking decking and open-webbed joists on the roof, sashing for windows and doorways, exterior wall siding, and H-beams securing the home’s rectangular frame. The most that these components were altered was with an unobtrusive coating of paint: the façade’s steel beams were originally painted a “warm grey” that over time became glossy black, while the Ferrobord steel roof decking system was painted white on its underside with open-web joists left exposed and alternately painted white, black, and yellow. These paint treatments, rather than obscuring the structural performance of these steel pieces, only served to highlight and integrate them within the building’s larger design scheme of colorful paints and panels.

Two of the other most famous Case Study Houses , the Bailey House (Case Study House 21) and the Stahl House (Case Study House 22), were designed by Pierre Koenig and similarly embraced what were then advanced steel construction strategies. Koenig had had previous hands-on experience with steel construction: while still enrolled as an architecture student at the University of Southern California, he designed and built his first steel-framed house for himself and his family. For the Bailey House, he used four prefabricated steel bents to compose the home’s steel framing system and another three half-span bents for the covered carport. Designed according to an L-shaped plan with a solid rectangular core that housed utilities, the volume was a simple rectangular box with visual emphasis placed on the steel structural skeleton. In the core, the sandwiched steel decking walls concealed insulation wiring and pipes, while the perimeter language of the home alternated between sliding glass doors and opaque steel walls. Koenig’s Stahl House , which was built several years later, similarly embraced a simple L-shaped rectangular volume with alternating steel beams and panoramic glass windows.

Aesthetically functioning hand-in-hand with the stripped steel frame, glass windows are therefore another essential component of many of the Case Study Houses . Three sides of the Stahl House were made with plate glass, the largest available size at the time, allowing for panoramic views from the site’s elevated Los Angeles hillside. Similarly, the Eames House variously utilized clear polished plate glass, factrolite textured glass, wire-embedded safety glass, and translucent corrugated glass, which helped cast planes, shadows, and beams of light through the steel frame and colored façade panels. Using the factrolite glass for privacy and the wire-embedded glass for utilitarian uses and safety, the Eames couple made glass an essential part of the house’s aesthetic and functional design.

This material illuminated another one of the Case Study House’s most essential aesthetic strategies: facilitating a connection with nature by merging and reflecting interior and exterior. Each of the homes utilized an open plan and glass façade explicitly open to their natural surroundings, with some—including the Eames House, Bailey House, Stahl House, and Case Study House 28—incorporating an artificial courtyard, pool, or pond as well. In the Eames House, which included a rectangular residential building and separate studio building connected linearly by an intermediate courtyard, the doors, curtains, and windows could be opened to unify the site into a single long open-air span. In the Bailey House, which incorporated a small shallow pond along the perimeter, the pond mirrored the reflectiveness of the panoramic windows and made the structure appear as if it was floating. Moreover, while the interior core of the house—including bathrooms and utility areas—was largely concealed by opaque steel walls, the roof was pierced to allow access to exterior elements in even these private spaces. Finally, melting the barriers between interior and exterior through the extensive use of glass, Case Study House 28 incorporated a total of 4500 square feet of glass windows shaded by large overhangs.

This connection to nature was facilitated by other material strategies as well. In Koenig’s Bailey House, the pond water was actually circulated up through the gutters and roof scuppers, rendering it an early experiment with environmental control systems. In the Eames House, a long tallowwood wall (tallowwood being the hard, durable wood of eucalyptus trees) was installed parallel to the line of eucalyptus trees gracing the front of the façade. These experiments in incorporation and reflection tempered the efficiency and functionalism of high modernist design with a correlative attention to nature.

Another important part of the Case Study House experiment was their use of new postwar materials and technologies. The Eames House, for example, used the Celotex Corporation’s Cemesto , a pioneering, pre-engineered construction panel that was touted at the time for its low maintenance and ease of installation. With a structural strength that entirely eliminated the need for intermediate structural support, the Cemesto panel could function simultaneously as an interior and exterior wall surface with no extra insulation, protective coating, or interior wall surfacing. The Eames House also utilized Wall-tex, a form of waterproof protection and wear resistance for interior walls invented in 1931, and plyon, a type of laminated lightweight material for cabinetry facing that was originally used in aircraft during World War II. These products demonstrated the design mission of the Case Study Houses as efficient residences for modern Americans.

Yet despite these many unifying characteristics, each of the Case Study Houses featured important material idiosyncrasies as well. The design motivation for Case Study House 28, for example, was to use the traditional material of facebrick in a structural, modern way. Thus, almost the entirety of the house was constructed with facebrick and glass, meaning it also required almost no maintenance or finishes. The use of brick was highly unusual among the Case Study Houses, most of which, as stated above, predominately used steel, glass, and occasionally wood or concrete. Likewise, the Eames House is perhaps most famous for its colorful paneling, mixing Grey Cemesto panels, off-white, black, blue, and orange/red plaster panels, and gold leaf or photographic panels in special locations around the site. Finally, the Entenza House , which Charles and Ray Eames and Eero Saarinen codesigned, similarly utilized a simplistic and flexible steel frame structure yet chose to conceal this structure with interior wood paneled cladding.

Over time, the flaws in the original material choices were also slowly revealed: many of the case study houses used only single panel glass, which would prove to make passive temperature control difficult and thus poor from a sustainability perspective. Most tellingly, the Stahl House—which may be the most famous of the Case Study Houses--, while remembered fondly by its inhabitants, would also have to suffer important changes to make it more livable: replacing the windows with shatterproof glass, adding a walkway around the cantilevered living room for window washers, and covering the floors with carpet to make them safer for children.

Altogether, the materials of the Case Study Houses played an essential role in their aesthetics, structures, and function. Despite the incredible innovations and advancements that would change architecture dramatically in the years following, these materials would nevertheless define one of the most iconic eras of American modernist architecture. Embracing stripped-back structural aesthetics, a connection to nature, advanced technology and materials, and experimental design, these houses—and their materials—represented the vanguard of modern construction and design.

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Case Study Houses: The Complete CSH Program 1945-1966

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EDITORIAL INPUT

CASE STUDY HOUSES: THE COMPLETE CSH PROGRAM 1945-1966

By Elizabeth A. T. Smith. Cologne: Taschen. 2002. L100

John Entenza, founder of the Los Angeles-based case Study House Program under his internationally influential Arts & Architecture magazine, was not English, but could have played a peculiar stereotype in the canon. Untanncd and unfit, his default dark suit and tailored white shirt draped a tall, soft frame. His dry wit was more nuanced than US custom allowed; he was disinclined to suffer fools, in his case the inertia of American stick building culture. In any case, the magazine's influence was renowned in Europe and South America. It has been argued that in Britain, the 'High-Tech' style is in part the result of strong links to the Eames and to Entenza through figures such as structural engineer Frank Newby, architects John Winter and Peter and Alison Smithson and Ian McCallum (once executive editor of AR), all keenly receptive to the pared-down clarity, steel-and-glass aesthetic and hands-on curiosity of CSH architects. Perhaps the timing was perfect.

The seed was already here: coke smelting was invented in 1709, fuelling the Industrial Revolution; the iron-and-glass 1851 Crystal Palace enjoys matriarchal status in the Modernist pantheon; houses are smaller anyway. But on the other side of the ocean, what difference did the famous programme for experimental building, dwelling and thinking make? Despite continued efforts and stories on storage container/'pre-fab Modernist' housing featured in the New York Times or the live/work/ mixed-use preached...

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Case Study Houses

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Taschen Basic Architecture

Case study houses: the complete csh program 1945-1966, elizabeth a.t. smith , peter g�ssel  ( editor ) , julius shulman  ( photographs ).

512 pages, Hardcover

First published February 1, 2002

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Elizabeth A.T. Smith

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• Case Study House #8

The Eames House, Case Study House 8, was one of roughly two dozen homes built as part of The Case Study House Program. John Entenza, the editor and owner of Arts & Architecture magazine, spearheaded the program in the mid-1940s until its end in the mid-1960s.

In a challenge to the architectural community, the magazine announced that it would be the client for a series of homes designed to express man’s life in the modern world. These houses were to be built and furnished using materials and techniques derived from the experiences of WWII. Each home would be specific in its intention for either a real or hypothetical client, considering various housing needs and scenarios of the era. Case Study House #8 proposed a house for a married couple working in design and graphic arts whose children no longer lived at home.

“The house would make no demands for itself and would serve as a background for life in work, with nature as a shock absorber.” Charles Eames

The first plan of the Eameses’ home, known as the Bridge House, was designed in 1945 by Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen. The design used pre-fabricated materials ordered from industrial and commercial catalogs. Materials were ordered for the Bridge House and the design was published in the December 1945 issue of the magazine, but due to a war-driven shortage, the steel did not arrive until late 1948. By then, according to Ray, she and Charles had “fallen in love with the meadow.” The nature of the site, and the Eameses themselves, yearned for a different solution.

Charles and Ray were summoned by a new problem: how to build a house that would not destroy the meadow, but would “maximize volume from minimal materials.” Using the same off-the-shelf parts, but notably ordering one extra steel beam, Charles and Ray reconfigured the house’s first design into a two-story pair of structures: a residence and separate studio. They integrated the new design into the landscape’s north-south hillside, rather than imposing on it. Construction began in February 1949, and after 16 hours, the foundation and steel frame were complete. The remainder of the modular home was finished by December. 

Charles and Ray moved into the Eames House (Case Study House #8) on Christmas Eve in 1949, and lived there for the rest of their lives. The interior, its objects, and its collections remain very much the way they were in Charles and Ray’s lifetimes. Case Study House 8 offered these spouses and designers space where work, play, life, and nature coexisted.

The Eames House, now a National Historic Landmark, is visited by people from all across the globe. Its charm and appeal are perhaps best explained by Case Study House founder John Entenza, who felt that the Eames House “represented an attempt to state an idea rather than a fixed architectural pattern.”

In 2004, Charles’s daughter, Lucia Eames, created a non-profit organization called the  Eames Foundation  to preserve and protect the Eames House and provide educational experiences that celebrate the creative legacy of Charles and Ray.

The Getty Conservation Institute is continually partnering with the Eames Foundation on the 250 Year Project to conserve this historic landmark for long-term enjoyment. The 2019 GCI publication, the Eames House  Conservation Management Plan , outlines the preservation of the home’s materials and cultural significance. Learn more about the  Eames Foundation , its 250-year preservation plan for the Eames House, and how to visit this historic landmark.

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10 Iconic Case Study Houses in Southern California

Architectural photographer Julius Shulman’s iconic image of Pierre Koenig’s 1960 modernist masterpiece, the Stahl House—also known as Case Study House #22—shows the Hollywood Hills residence overlooking the sprawling City of Angels. It turned the photogenic Stahl House into the virtual "poster child" for a series of homes centered around the greater Los Angeles area known as the Case Study Houses.

The homes in the Case Study House Program were built between 1945 and 1966 when Arts & Architecture magazine commissioned the major architects of the day to create inexpensive and replicable model homes to accommodate the housing boom in the United States caused by the flood of returning soldiers at the end of World War II. The resulting experiment in American home design involved many of the great architects of the day, such as Richard Neutra, Charles and Ray Eames, and Eero Saarinen—and had a major impact on modern residential architecture. 

Of the 36 houses and apartment buildings that were commissioned, only a couple dozen were built, with around 20 still standing today. Ten  were added to the National Register  in 2013. While most of the homes are still private residences, some—like the Eames and Stahl Houses—are open to the public for tours. Here are some of our favorite Case Study Houses, in no particular order.

Renowned architectural photographer Julius Shulman’s famous photos of Pierre Koenig’s Stahl House helped make it one of the most famous designs from the Case Study House program.

The Stahl House (Case Study House #22)

Pierre Koenig’s Stahl House remains one of the most famous Case Study Houses, and one of L.A.’s best-known midcentury residences. In the years since it was completed in 1960, the Hollywood Hills home been featured in numerous films , fashion shoots, and advertising campaigns. (Renowned architectural photographer Julius Shulman’s iconic photos of the glass-and-steel house  are credited with helping to immortalize it.)

Pierre Koenig also designed the midcentury-modern Bailey House for the Case Study House program.

The Bailey House (Case Study House #21)

Lesser known than Stahl House, but equally representative of the Case Study House program vision, is Koenig’s Bailey House, also in the Hollywood Hills. Completed in 1959, the simple, flat-roofed, one-story box is built mostly of steel and glass. Koenig oriented it on a north/south axis to trap the sun’s warmth in the winter and screen it out during summer. 

Charles and Ray Eames built the 1949 Eames House as their home and studio.

The Eames House (Case Study House #8)

Located in L.A.’s Pacific Palisades neighborhood, the Eames House is a landmark of midcentury-modern architecture. Constructed in 1949 by husband-and-wife team Charles and Ray Eames , the modular house consists of two glass-and-steel rectangular boxes: one served as their longtime residence, while the other was their studio. The facades are comprised of black-painted grids with different-sized glass inserts (clear, translucent, or wired), Cemesto panels , stucco, aluminum, and specially treated panels, some painted white or in primary colors that lend a Mondrian-style touch to the exterior.

Saul and Dr. Ruth Bass pictured poolside at Case Study House #20B in Altadena, California.

The Bass House (Case Study House #20B)

The 1958 Bass House in Altadena, California, differs from other Case Study Houses of the late ’50s in that it was built primarily out of wood, instead of steel. Architectural firm Buff, Straub, and Hensman worked closely with the owners, renowned graphic illustrator Saul Bass and his wife, biochemist Dr. Ruth Bass, for the design of the post-and-beam construction. The architects were interested in the possibilities of wood as it pertained to mass production in home building.

Case Study House #1 by Julius Ralph Davidson was not actually the first home completed for the program. 

Case Study House #1

Despite its numbering, this 1948 home designed by Julius Ralph Davidson was not the first to be completed as part the Case Study House program. (Davidson’s Case Study House #11, completed in 1946, actually won that distinction, but was later also unfortunately the first to be demolished.) The 2,000-square-foot residence, constructed on a gently sloping lot in L.A.’s Toluca Lake neighborhood, incorporates architectural elements that came to characterize the program, including floor-to-ceiling glass, a flat roof, an open floor plan, and multipurpose rooms.

Craig Ellwood’s Case Study House #16 sits in the hills of L.A.’s Bel Air neighborhood.

Case Study House #16

This one-story, flat-roofed home was the first of three Case Study Houses designed by Craig Ellwood. The steel, glass, and concrete residence was completed in 1952 in L.A.’s Bel Air neighborhood. Today, it’s the only surviving, intact example of Ellwood’s designs for the program.

Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen designed the Entenza House adjacent to the Eames House.

The Entenza House (Case Study House #9)

Designed by Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen and completed in 1949, the Entenza House is situated on a flat bluff in the Pacific Palisades overlooking the Pacific Ocean (adjacent to the Eames House). The modular home features a steel frame construction concealed with wood-paneled cladding.

The West House by Rodney Walker marks the first of four adjacent Case Study Houses on Pacific Palisades’s Chautauqua Boulevard.

The West House (Case Study House #18)

Rodney Walker’s West House, completed in 1948, was the first of four adjacent Case Study Houses on Chautauqua Boulevard in Pacific Palisades. The neighboring Case Study Houses #8, #9, and #20 were completed within the next two years. The 1,600-square-foot home takes full advantage of panoramic ocean views with floor-to-ceiling glass panels. 

Richard Neutra’s only built Case Study House design is the Bailey House in Pacific Palisades.

The Bailey House (Case Study House #20)

Built in 1948, the two-bedroom Bailey House marks the only Case Study House designed by Richard Neutra that was actually built. Working with limited square footage and a low budget, the architect employed a classic midcentury layout: open, with flexible living areas, and large, floor-to-ceiling glass sliding doors.

Case Study House #23A, completed in 1960, marks the largest of three adjacent single-family homes intended to be a pilot project for a large tract of houses in San Diego’s La Jolla area.

Triad (Case Study House #23A)

Case Study House #23A is the largest of three adjacent single-family residences that form the Triad in San Diego’s La Jolla neighborhood, completed in 1960. The three homes, designed by the architectural firm of Edward Killingsworth, Jules Brady, and Waugh Smith, were planned to be the pilot project for a large tract of houses, but only the Triad was ever built. The goal for the three homes was to design in a manner that created a close relationship between the houses, while still maintaining privacy.

Top photo of the Stahl House by @christineevi

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Bibliography: p. 213. First ed. published in 1962 under title: Modern California houses. Includes index.

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The application of solar collectors in district heating systems: a case study in Krasnodar Krai

E A Buzoverov 1 and A Z Zhuk 1

Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering , Volume 1035 , The II "International Theoretical and Practical Conference on Alternative and Smart Energy" (TPCASE 2020) 16th-18th September 2020, Voronezh, Russia Citation E A Buzoverov and A Z Zhuk 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1035 012007 DOI 10.1088/1757-899X/1035/1/012007

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1 Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 13/2, Izhorskaya str., 125412, Moscow, Russia

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Though renewable energy sources are widely used around the world, the cost of "green" energy in most cases is still uncompetitive with the "traditional" one. This is most pronounced in countries and regions with a developed resource base, including Russia. However, renewable energy sources in some cases can be successfully implemented in district heating systems using natural gas. This paper reports on the effective use of simple design solar collectors in a gasified central heat supply system in the city of Gelendzhik, Krasnodar Krai, with the cost of heat generated does not exceed 0.01 USD/kWh. The conditions for reproduction of this project are defined following the results of its operation.

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Content from this work may be used under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 licence . Any further distribution of this work must maintain attribution to the author(s) and the title of the work, journal citation and DOI.

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Ukraine reportedly strikes ferry crossing in occupied Crimea, boat in Krasnodar Krai, official says

Editor's note: This is a developing story and is being updated.

Preliminary reports indicate that Ukraine struck a ferry crossing in the city of Kerch in occupied Crimea overnight on Aug. 16, as well as a boat near the community of Chernomorsk in Russia's Krasnodar Krai, Serhii Bratchuk, spokesperson for the Odesa Oblast Military Administration said.

No information was immediately available as to the extent of the damage. It was not immediately clear what boat was struck or whether it was a military target.

Explosions rang out across multiple cities in occupied Crimea overnight on Aug. 16, the Crimean Wind Telegram channel claimed, citing resident reports. A fire was reported near the city of Kerch, in the area of the Kerch ferry crossing.

Residents in Sevastopol, Simferopol, and Kerch heard explosions around 3:30 a.m. local time, according to local media reports.

Multiple explosions were also reported in the community of Chernomorsk in Russia's neighbouring region Krasnodar Krai around 4:30 a.m. local time.

The Kerch bridge , connecting occupied Crimea with mainland Russia, was reportedly closed to traffic around 2 a.m., local residents reported. The bridge reopened around 7 a.m. local time.

Russia's Defense Ministry claimed that five Ukrainian unmanned aerial drones and two unmanned naval drones were destroyed overnight in the Black Sea.

The Kyiv Independent cannot independently verify any of the claims.

Since the start of Russia's full-scale invasion, Ukraine has regularly launched attacks on occupied Crimea as well as neighbouring Krasnodar Krai.

Kyiv's Military Intelligence Chief Kyrylo Budanov warned on Aug. 2 that Ukraine is working on a "complex solution" that could destroy the Kerch Bridge in the coming months. Russia reportedly began fortifying the bridge last month.

Ukraine has regularly struck ferry crossings between occupied Crimea and Russia's Krasnodar Krai, prioritizing the crossing over the bridge in recent months as a more important military target.

Navy spokesperson Dmytro Pletenchuk said in an interview with RBC-Ukraine published on June 17 that destroying the Kerch Bridge now would not have the same effect now because Russia barely uses it for military purposes anymore.

The bridge accounts for less than a quarter of the total transiting cargo, and for the rest, Russia uses a ferry crossing in Kerch , Pletenchuk said.

Read also: US considering sending Ukraine first long-range cruise missiles this fall, source says

We’ve been working hard to bring you independent, locally-sourced news from Ukraine. Consider supporting the Kyiv Independent .

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Judge rejects donald trump's latest demand to step aside from hush money criminal case.

Michael R. Sisak And Jennifer Peltz

Associated Press

FILE - Former President Donald Trump awaits the start of proceedings on the second day of jury selection at Manhattan criminal court, April 16, 2024, in New York. (Justin Lane/Pool Photo via AP)

NEW YORK – Donald Trump has lost his latest bid for a new judge in his New York hush money criminal case as it heads toward a key ruling and potential sentencing next month.

In a decision posted Wednesday , Judge Juan M. Merchan declined to step aside and said Trump's demand was a rehash “rife with inaccuracies and unsubstantiated claims” about his ability to remain impartial.

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It is the third time that Merchan has rejected such a request from lawyers for the former president and current Republican nominee. They contend the judge has a conflict of interest because his daughter works as a political consultant for prominent Democrats, including Kamala Harris when she sought the Democrats' 2020 presidential nomination. Harris is now the party’s nominee against Trump.

The judge's daughter, Loren Merchan, met Harris occasionally in 2019 but never “developed an individual relationship” with her, consulting firm founder Mike Nellis told the chairman of the U.S. House Judiciary Committee, Rep. Jim Jordan, R-Ohio, in a letter Tuesday. The firm, Authentic Campaigns Inc., has not worked for Harris’ campaign, President Joe Biden’s now-ended reelection bid or the Democratic National Committee in the 2024 election cycle, Nellis said.

A state court ethics panel said last year that Merchan could continue as the judge on Trump's case. The panel wrote that a relative’s independent political activities are not “a reasonable basis to question the judge’s impartiality."

Merchan, a state court judge in Manhattan, acknowledged last year that he made several small donations to Democratic causes during the 2020 campaign, including $15 to Biden. But Merchan has repeatedly said he is certain he can handle Trump's case fairly and impartially. In his ruling, Merchan wrote he will continue to base decisions “on the evidence and the law, without fear or favor, casting aside undue influence.”

“With these fundamental principles in mind, this Court now reiterates for the third time, that which should already be clear — innuendo and mischaracterizations do not a conflict create,” Merchan wrote in his three-page decision. “Recusal is therefore not necessary, much less required.”

But with Harris now Trump’s opponent, Trump lawyer Todd Blanche argued in a letter to the judge last month that the defense’s concerns have become “even more concrete.”

Prosecutors called the claims “a vexatious and frivolous attempt to relitigate” the issue.

Trump campaign spokesman Steven Cheung, citing Merchan's donation to Biden and Loren Merchan's consulting work, slammed him as a “highly-conflicted judge" who "should have long ago recused himself from this case."

Merchan “has proved to be biased against President Trump and beholden to not only Democrat partisan interests, but also to the glaring financial interests of an immediate family member,” Cheung said.

Trump railed against Merchan on his Truth Social platform for continuing to keep him under a partial gag order — an issue that was not part of the recusal decision. Earlier this month, a state appeals court upheld the gag order , which bars Trump from making public comments about the prosecution team, court staffers or their families, including Merchan’s daughter.

The Manhattan district attorney’s office, which prosecuted the case, declined to comment.

Trump was convicted in May of falsifying his business’ records to conceal a 2016 deal to pay off porn actor Stormy Daniels to stay quiet about her alleged 2006 sexual encounter with him. Prosecutors cast the payout as part of a Trump-driven effort to keep voters from hearing salacious stories about him during his first campaign.

Trump says all the stories were false, the business records were not and the case was a political maneuver meant to damage his current campaign. Manhattan District Attorney Alvin Bragg is a Democrat.

Trump has pledged to appeal, but that can't happen until he is sentenced.

In the meantime, his lawyers have taken other steps to try to derail the case. Besides the recusal request, they've asked Merchan to overturn the verdict and dismiss the case because of the U.S. Supreme Court’s July presidential immunity ruling .

That decision reins in prosecutions of ex-presidents for official acts and restricts prosecutors in pointing to official acts as evidence that a president’s unofficial actions were illegal. Trump’s lawyers argue that in light of the ruling, jurors in the hush money case should not have heard such evidence as former White House staffers describing how the then-president reacted to news coverage of the Daniels deal.

Merchan has said he will rule on the immunity claim on Sept. 16 and set Sept. 18 for “the imposition of sentence or other proceedings as appropriate.”

Jordan, the House committee chairman, sent a letter to Loren Merchan on Aug. 1 demanding she turn over any documents pertaining to the Harris and Biden campaigns, any discussions she or her firm may have had about Trump’s hush money prosecution, and any conversations she may have had with her father about the case.

Jordan suggested that because some Authentic clients have mentioned Trump's case in fundraising solicitations, there was at least “a perception” that Loren Merchan and the firm could profit from it. But Nellis, the firm's founder, said it does not get a percentage of any money its clients raise and that “neither Authentic nor Ms. Merchan benefits financially from any rulings in Donald Trump’s criminal or civil trials.”

The judge’s daughter, who became a partner in the firm after 2019, has had only “minimal input or contact with any political clients” this cycle and wasn’t aware of any client communications that mentioned Trump’s trial, Nellis added.

Anything she may have said to her father about the criminal case would have been “for the purpose of confirming her and her family’s well-being and safety,” Nellis wrote. He noted that she had faced death threats and that law enforcement had advised her and her family to leave their home several times “for their own safety.”

The hush money case is one of four criminal prosecutions brought against Trump last year.

One federal case, accusing Trump of illegally hoarding classified documents at his Mar-a-Lago estate in Florida, was dismissed last month. The Justice Department is appealing.

The others — federal and Georgia state cases concerning Trump’s efforts to overturn his 2020 election loss — are not positioned to go to trial before the November election.

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