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A decent essay writing site with…

A decent essay writing site with professional academics who cover a wide range of subjects areas. Having had a bad experience with a cheap service provider and desperate, I gave New Essays a go . These guys work at high standards, outstanding work received. I totally recommend it. The writer assigned to my work was exceptional.

Date of experience : 29 August 2024

This dissertation writing service saved my life

This dissertation writing service saved my life. I had no time to finish the my dissertation and the deadline was approaching, like a shark. My writer wrote a perfectly coherent piece, that helped me pass the project successfully. A confidential, amazing service. Love it. Now I know they have Essay Writers in UK and offer proofreading service too, I will be using them again.

Date of experience : 06 January 2024

Very good law essay writing service. Reliable essay writing service

This law essay writing service has saved my life. I had no time to finish my law essay and my deadline was approaching like a shark. I have been impressed by the attention to detail and thorough referencing using OSCOLA style. I believe they have the best law writers UK based. Scrolling through their website, I can see that they offer nursing essay writing service and other academic writing assistance. I would be coming back to them for sure.

Date of experience : 31 August 2022

A wide range of services are offered by…

A wide range of services are offered by New Essays to help you with your Uni. I had an essay from them in July and have recently received my dissertation proposal in Criminology. Both my orders have been good with proposal requiring amendments but they revised it with no fuss. I will be knocking this website again for my full dissertation writing service in a few weeks time. A trustworthy essay writing service new essays is. Keep it up guys.

Date of experience : 14 February 2023

The research they did was impeccable

My literature review was rejected several times by my supervisor. I gave up and started looking for help. After visiting this website several times decided to order from New Essays. I was not disappointed. The research they did was impeccable and the sources cited were brilliant. My supervisor kept on telling me that my literature review has to be critical and I must be able to show that I have read, and have a good grasp of, the main published work concerning my topic. I thought I was doing it that way but looking at this super work from New Essays has made me realise what crit ical evaluation actually means. Thank you NE. I owe you guys.

Date of experience : 01 November 2022

Excellent dissertation and essay help service

The writer has crafted a well researched dissertation proposal for me. I am pleased with the work. I was very worried as my research area is new but they have fufilled everything in a very previse manner. I am glad to have found new this UK based reliable essay and dissertation writing service. Thank you so much new essays.

Date of experience : 01 December 2022

A competent team of eminent researchers

The very thought of the marketing assignment made me feel butterflies in the stomach and as I was going through this anxiety, I heard about New Essays from a friend that they have a competent team of eminent researchers. With their timely help, I was able to successfully get through my assignment and hand it in well on time. I am thankful to my friend and new essays for this and now I feel so relaxed. Just got to wait for my grade which I am sure would be very good.

Date of experience : 01 October 2022

The best dissertation writing company in the UK

The best dissertation writing company in the UK in my view. They help you with the topic, proposal followed by full dissertation. They kept me fully involved in the process by sending the work in parts/individual chapters and took my supervisor’s feedbacks on board as required. My tutor is was very pleased with the work in all my meetings. She did give me feedbacks but that’s what her job was. All her comments were well looked after by New Essays. I am very pleased with the completed 15k word dissertation. I am expecting Distinction - fingers crossed. My advice to potential customers would be to order well in time to be able to get the work in parts. If you go on a short notice, they will deliver all work in one go as writer won’t have time to start -stop. I ordered 7 weeks prior to my submission. Hope this helps. All the best friends. Pat

Date of experience : 06 May 2022

Amazing service

Quality: The quality of the essay was far beyond my initial expectations. Clearly the writer knew the material. I believe he/she is a professional academic with access to a lot of sources, because he made reference to psychological material that was only released 2 years ago. The depth of research and the vast amount of resources use in my Research Paper exceeded my hopes.  Support: I had no communication problems with the customer service representatives, they replied to all my emails very quickly and the way they do it simply superb, they clearly uderstand how stressful it can get when you have ordered the work for the first time. Phone support is also handy. I called them yesterday for a friend and they were very helpful.  Order process: Simple order form with no login or registration - hate the sign ups thing. I got my work completed by the agreed deadline. It was good because I gave myself a few days to read it. Everything was pretty great and I didn't have to request revisions.

Date of experience : 22 November 2022

I have been delighted by the speed of response, quality and professionalism of New Essays. Right from my initial contact and throughout the dissertation process they have consistently delivered - ofte

I have been delighted by the speed of response, quality and professionalism of New Essays. Right from my initial contact and throughout the dissertation process they have consistently delivered - often beating the timescales . New Essays team is responsive, professional and great sounding board . I can't recommend them highly enough.

Date of experience : 22 September 2023

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New Essays UK has a rating of 4.6 stars from 113 reviews, indicating that most customers are generally satisfied with their purchases. Reviewers satisfied with New Essays UK most frequently mention customer service, great job, and high quality. New Essays UK ranks 96th among Essay Writing sites.

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“Hope to work with you again”

Thanks a lot for everything guys. Work completed in time. However, you could have done better with this work on the Conclusion and recommendations part but never mind, overall it's still good and will get me a grade I am aiming for. Hope to work with you again. I expect top notch next time. Please assign my work to your most senior writer next time.

“Terrible”

All those positive reviewers are probably paid, you'll not get the quality that you expect after paying their sky-high prices, also customer service is really rude, it's like they're forcing themselves to help you! Stay away.

Reviews (113)

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Follow Melinda D.

If you want an academic agency with easy to afford the costs and genuine plagiarism free content, my advice is that this agency is your best bet! The writer working on my project made sure that throughout the project, I was satisfied and all the requirements stated by my professor were met. Your writers are the best. I am typing this testimonial from the bottom of my heart as the service provided to me was so exceptional! I was in a hurry to get my dissertation as I travelled France to watch the UEFA Euro cup. New Essays not only did my work on time, but the content was thoroughly researched and very well written. Thank you!

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Business History

Established in 2011 Newessays.co.uk is UK’s leading provider of guaranteed 1st Class and 2:1 essays and dissertations, custom written by academics from leading UK universities. We exclusively contract a team of highly qualified academics from the very best UK universities. Our researchers are certified professionals who have passed our stringent recruitment procedures. These include many PhD holders as well as professionals within the law, medicine, business, nursing, health, social work, politics, management, finance and other fields, who are ideally qualified to write the best possible custom essay, dissertation or other written work.

Company Representative

Quality
Prices
Customer Support
SUMMARY

NewEssays.co.uk is an online site that helps students with custom papers.

The site opens up to a page full of positive reviews, emails, and messages about the services. So, it looks like the company is successful and that the clients are happy.

However, if you dive into the website and additional reviews, you may find that the agency is not as dependable as it seems.

According to multiple New Essays reviews, the services are terrible. Here are some examples.

“I ordered a college essay in computer science and got a highschool cheat-sheet. Incomplete, incoherent, and full of grammar issues. Never ordering from here again!” – Kevin S.

“I shouldn’t have wasted my cash on this website. All I wanted was a research paper. Instead, I received a useless three-page essay. No bibliography, no plagiarism check, no rewriting, no refund. I don’t recommend New Essays!” – Emma F .

The site offers the following services, each with their own presentation page:

Dissertation help.
Proofreading.

Furthermore, New Essays UK has an entire page dedicated to guarantees. Here are some of them:

Custom papers written from scratch.
No plagiarism.
No missed deadlines.
No publication (no one has the right to use your paper other than you).
Full confidentiality.
Your writer is specialized in the subject you need.
Full referencing list.
Free chapter-by-chapter delivery.
Free amendments.
Free quality report.
Support by phone and email.
100% safe and legal website.

According to the site, their services are brilliant. Nevertheless, we found more than one NewEssays.co.uk review that states the contrary.

Many of them complain about the quality of the services: grammar errors, plagiarism, formatting problems, missed deadlines, and more.

On the other hand, some negative criticism is centered around customer support, communication issues, and price.

The main page on the front of the site is meant to deflect the negative comments. This may trick some customers into buying from them, specifically if the users are not savvy with paper companies.

Unfortunately, New Essays doesn’t have a price calculator. Instead, you have to contact them through an order form and request a quote.

This is a problem because, as a student, you want to know right away if you can afford an essay at this specific agency. You might have a tight deadline or schedule, and simply lack time to request a quote and wait for an answer.

So, if you’re desperate, you might order without requesting a quote just because your friend suggested it, and you’re in a rush.

They claim to provide a quote in less than two hours. Nevertheless, that’s two hours closer to your due date, and you haven’t even ordered yet.

This is a marketing strategy on New Essays’ part because it pushes you to commit before you know what to expect.

Here are some quotes:

A 6-page dissertation, with a 10-day deadline, college-level, costs around £100.
A 2-page research proposal, with a 10-day deadline, college-level, costs around £40.

Most paper agencies give a 15% discount on the first order, regardless of the type of service.

That’s not the case for New Essays.

They claim to offer a “Bundle Discount”: 15% off on two or more essays in one order, which might seem convenient. Nonetheless, this is another marketing strategy.

Also, they offer a 10% discount, but you have to roam around the site to find it.

For quality control, we ordered a paper from the service to complete our New Essays UK review.

We asked for a five-page essay in geology (“The cycle of water: how rivers, lakes, and seas are born”). We gave a 10-day deadline, and we paid £129.99.

Then we wrote some guidelines to the writer.

At first, we chatted with them, but after two days, they stopped answering. So, we tried to reach the writer through the contact info. They kept sending us from one department to another.

On the 10 th day, we received the finished product, and we were disappointed.

Grammar errors, plagiarism, and a superficial outlook on such a vast topic are unacceptable. So, we asked for a refund.

Needless to say, they answered by saying that it’s not in their policy to give refunds.

So, our experience verified all the negative reviews.

Website usability

The website seems outdated and old-fashioned. The info is cluttered and all over the site.

Also, they don’t have a price table or calculator, which is inconvenient.

Customer support

Customer support is offered in the form of:

Online chatbox.
Facebook messenger.
Three phone numbers.
“Contact Us” area.

As we said in the “Quality” section, customer service is slow, and you need to ask for a quote to know the cost of your paper.

They don’t offer refunds, and if you ask for one, you might get ignored.

We cannot recommend New Essays for online student help.

The site is outdated, and the customer support is unacceptably slow.

Furthermore, we wrote many essay writing service UK reviews and can claim that the quality of their work is below average.

From grammar errors to missed deadlines, you can expect anything bad to happen if you choose New Essays.

Lastly, our experience with them was just as awful as the reviews predict. Our final product was unfinished, superficial, and full of errors.

So, if you want to get excellent grades, try to use a different website.

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The Best Reviewed Essay Collections of 2022

Featuring bob dylan, elena ferrante, zora neale hurston, jhumpa lahiri, melissa febos, and more.

We’ve come to the end of another bountiful literary year, and for all of us review rabbits here at Book Marks, that can mean only one thing: basic math, and lots of it.

Yes, using reviews drawn from more than 150 publications, over the next two weeks we’ll be calculating and revealing the most critically-acclaimed books of 2022, in the categories of (deep breath): Fiction ; Nonfiction ; Memoir and Biography ; Sci-Fi, Fantasy, and Horror ; Short Story Collections ; Essay Collections; Poetry; Mystery and Crime ; Graphic Literature ; and Literature in Translation .

Today’s installment: Essay Collections .

Brought to you by Book Marks , Lit Hub’s “Rotten Tomatoes for books.”

1. In the Margins: On the Pleasures of Reading and Writing by Elena Ferrante (Europa)

12 Rave • 12 Positive • 4 Mixed

“The lucid, well-formed essays that make up In the Margins are written in an equally captivating voice … Although a slim collection, there is more than enough meat here to nourish both the common reader and the Ferrante aficionado … Every essay here is a blend of deep thought, rigorous analysis and graceful prose. We occasionally get the odd glimpse of the author…but mainly the focus is on the nuts and bolts of writing and Ferrante’s practice of her craft. The essays are at their most rewarding when Ferrante discusses the origins of her books, in particular the celebrated Neapolitan Novels, and the multifaceted heroines that power them … These essays might not bring us any closer to finding out who Ferrante really is. Instead, though, they provide valuable insight into how she developed as a writer and how she works her magic.”

–Malcolm Forbes ( The Star Tribune )

2. Translating Myself and Others by Jhumpa Lahiri (Princeton University Press)

8 Rave • 14 Positive • 1 Mixed

“Lahiri mixes detailed explorations of craft with broader reflections on her own artistic life, as well as the ‘essential aesthetic and political mission’ of translation. She is excellent in all three modes—so excellent, in fact, that I, a translator myself, could barely read this book. I kept putting it aside, compelled by Lahiri’s writing to go sit at my desk and translate … One of Lahiri’s great gifts as an essayist is her ability to braid multiple ways of thinking together, often in startling ways … a reminder, no matter your relationship to translation, of how alive language itself can be. In her essays as in her fiction, Lahiri is a writer of great, quiet elegance; her sentences seem simple even when they’re complex. Their beauty and clarity alone would be enough to wake readers up. ‘Look,’ her essays seem to say: Look how much there is for us to wake up to.”

–Lily Meyer ( NPR )

3. The Philosophy of Modern Song by Bob Dylan (Simon & Schuster)

10 Rave • 15 Positive • 7 Mixed • 4 Pan

“It is filled with songs and hyperbole and views on love and lust even darker than Blood on the Tracks … There are 66 songs discussed here … Only four are by women, which is ridiculous, but he never asked us … Nothing is proved, but everything is experienced—one really weird and brilliant person’s experience, someone who changed the world many times … Part of the pleasure of the book, even exceeding the delectable Chronicles: Volume One , is that you feel liberated from Being Bob Dylan. He’s not telling you what you got wrong about him. The prose is so vivid and fecund, it was useless to underline, because I just would have underlined the whole book. Dylan’s pulpy, noir imagination is not always for the squeamish. If your idea of art is affirmation of acceptable values, Bob Dylan doesn’t need you … The writing here is at turns vivid, hilarious, and will awaken you to songs you thought you knew … The prose brims everywhere you turn. It is almost disturbing. Bob Dylan got his Nobel and all the other accolades, and now he’s doing my job, and he’s so damn good at it.”

–David Yaffe ( AirMail )

4. Body Work: The Radical Power of Personal Narrative by Melissa Febos (Catapult)

13 Rave • 2 Positive • 2 Mixed Read an excerpt from Body Work here

“In her new book, Body Work: The Radical Power of Personal Narrative , memoirist Melissa Febos handily recuperates the art of writing the self from some of the most common biases against it: that the memoir is a lesser form than the novel. That trauma narratives should somehow be over—we’ve had our fill … Febos rejects these belittlements with eloquence … In its hybridity, this book formalizes one of Febos’s central tenets within it: that there is no disentangling craft from the personal, just as there is no disentangling the personal from the political. It’s a memoir of a life indelibly changed by literary practice and the rigorous integrity demanded of it …

Febos is an essayist of grace and terrific precision, her sentences meticulously sculpted, her paragraphs shapely and compressed … what’s fresh, of course, is Febos herself, remapping this terrain through her context, her life and writing, her unusual combinations of sources (William H. Gass meets Elissa Washuta, for example), her painstaking exactitude and unflappable sureness—and the new readers she will reach with all of this.”

–Megan Milks ( 4Columns )

5. You Don’t Know Us Negroes by Zora Neale Hurston (Amistad)

12 Rave • 3 Positive • 1 Mixed

“… a dazzling collection of her work … You Don’t Know Us Negroes reveals Hurston at the top of her game as an essayist, cultural critic, anthropologist and beat reporter … Hurston is, by turn, provocative, funny, bawdy, informative and outrageous … Hurston will make you laugh but also make you remember the bitter divide in Black America around performance, language, education and class … But the surprising page turner is at the back of the book, a compilation of Hurston’s coverage of the Ruby McCollom murder trial …

Some of Hurston’s writing is sensationalistic, to be sure, but it’s also a riveting take of gender and race relations at the time … Gates and West have put together a comprehensive collection that lets Hurston shine as a writer, a storyteller and an American iconoclast.”

–Lisa Page ( The Washington Post )

6. Strangers to Ourselves: Unsettled Minds and the Stories That Make Us by Rachel Aviv (Farrar, Straus and Giroux)

11 Rave • 4 Positive • 2 Mixed Listen to an interview with Rachel Aviv here

“… written with an astonishing amount of attention and care … Aviv’s triumphs in relating these journeys are many: her unerring narrative instinct, the breadth of context brought to each story, her meticulous reporting. Chief among these is her empathy, which never gives way to pity or sentimentality. She respects her subjects, and so centers their dignity without indulging in the geeky, condescending tone of fascination that can characterize psychologists’ accounts of their patients’ troubles. Though deeply curious about each subject, Aviv doesn’t treat them as anomalous or strange … Aviv’s daunted respect for uncertainty is what makes Strangers to Ourselves distinctive. She is hyperaware of just how sensitive the scale of the self can be.”

–Charlotte Shane ( Bookforum )

7. A Line in the World: A Year on the North Sea Coast by Dorthe Nors (Graywolf)

11 Rave • 1 Positive Read an excerpt from A Line in the World here

“Nors, known primarily as a fiction writer, here embarks on a languorous and evocative tour of her native Denmark … The dramas of the past are evoked not so much through individual characters as through their traces—buildings, ruins, shipwrecks—and this westerly Denmark is less the land of Hans Christian Andersen fairy tales and sleek Georg Jensen designs than a place of ancient landscapes steeped in myth … People aren’t wholly incidental to the narrative. Nors introduces us to a variety of colorful characters, and shares vivid memories of her family’s time in a cabin on the coast south of Thyborøn. But in a way that recalls the work of Barry Lopez, nature is at the heart of this beautiful book, framed in essay-like chapters, superbly translated by Caroline Waight.”

–Claire Messud ( Harper’s )

8. Raising Raffi: The First Five Years by Keith Gessen (Viking)

4 Rave • 10 Positive • 1 Mixed Read an excerpt from Raising Raffi here

“A wise, mild and enviably lucid book about a chaotic scene … Is it OK to out your kid like this? … Still, this memoir will seem like a better idea if, a few decades from now, Raffi is happy and healthy and can read it aloud to his own kids while chuckling at what a little miscreant he was … Gessen is a wily parser of children’s literature … He is just as good on parenting manuals … Raising Raffi offers glimpses of what it’s like to eke out literary lives at the intersection of the Trump and Biden administrations … Needing money for one’s children, throughout history, has made parents do desperate things — even write revealing parenthood memoirs … Gessen’s short book is absorbing not because it delivers answers … It’s absorbing because Gessen is a calm and observant writer…who raises, and struggles with, the right questions about himself and the world.”

–Dwight Garner ( The New York Times )

9. The Crane Wife by CJ Hauser (Doubleday)

8 Rave • 4 Positive • 2 Mixed • 1 Pan Watch an interview with CJ Hauser here

“17 brilliant pieces … This tumbling, in and out of love, structures the collection … Calling Hauser ‘honest’ and ‘vulnerable’ feels inadequate. She embraces and even celebrates her flaws, and she revels in being a provocateur … It is an irony that Hauser, a strong, smart, capable woman, relates to the crane wife’s contortions. She felt helpless in her own romantic relationship. I don’t have one female friend who has not felt some version of this, but putting it into words is risky … this collection is not about neat, happy endings. It’s a constant search for self-discovery … Much has been written on the themes Hauser excavates here, yet her perspective is singular, startlingly so. Many narratives still position finding the perfect match as a measure of whether we’ve led successful lives. The Crane Wife dispenses with that. For that reason, Hauser’s worldview feels fresh and even radical.”

–Hope Reese ( Oprah Daily )

10. How to Read Now by Elaine Castillo (Viking)

8 Rave • 2 Positive • 1 Mixed Read an excerpt from How to Read Now here

“Elaine Castillo’s How to Read Now begins with a section called ‘Author’s Note, or a Virgo Clarifies Things.’ The title is a neat encapsulation of the book’s style: rigorous but still chatty, intellectual but not precious or academic about it … How to Read Now proceeds at a breakneck pace. Each of the book’s eight essays burns bright and hot from start to finish … How to Read Now is not for everybody, but if it is for you, it is clarifying and bracing. Castillo offers a full-throated critique of some of the literary world’s most insipid and self-serving ideas …

So how should we read now? Castillo offers suggestions but no resolution. She is less interested in capital-A Answers…and more excited by the opportunity to restore a multitude of voices and perspectives to the conversation … A book is nothing without a reader; this one is co-created by its recipients, re-created every time the page is turned anew. How to Read Now offers its audience the opportunity to look past the simplicity we’re all too often spoon-fed into order to restore ourselves to chaos and complexity—a way of seeing and reading that demands so much more of us but offers even more in return.”

–Zan Romanoff ( The Los Angeles Times )

Our System:

RAVE = 5 points • POSITIVE = 3 points • MIXED = 1 point • PAN = -5 points

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Essay: One day, while the nurse was administering back injections, she asked me to hold a patient’s hand to soothe her. As she trembled from the injections In doing so, I began to see just how much difficulty patients underwent (crossed out) endured, from their medical issues and even treatments. Response by Vinay: Can you make this more "in the moment"? You jumped from a specific example to a general statement about your experience. It would be more effective to continue with the specific example.

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Only essays comprise our most-read prose this year, but it’s a list that proves how capacious the essay is as a form, with criticism that changes the way we encounter a text, personal reflections, and reconsiderations of literary figures we thought we knew. The list includes Garth Greenwell ’s rousing defense of the indefensible in art, classics scholar Emily Greenwood ’s review of Emily Wilson’s new translation of the Iliad , and Alec Pollak ’s compassionate unearthing of Lorraine Hansberry’s fraught relationship with queerness. Collectively, they bring depth and humanity to questions as varied as where the dead go, whom we write for, and whether failure is a blessing in disguise. These essays represent some of our favorite work of the year, and we invite you to enjoy them—or enjoy them again.

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Garth Greenwell, “ A Moral Education ” Greenwell offers a lesson in art, morality, and God in an unexpected reading of Sabbath’s Theater by Philip Roth.

Kamran Javadizadeh, “ Ahead of Time ” Javadizadeh picks up the threads of his sister’s diagnosis and death by returning to the poems they shared.

Becca Rothfeld, “ In the Shallows ” As intellectuals and academics write for a public readership, Rothfeld makes a case against condescension.

Percival Everett, “ Abstraction and Nonsense ” Everett reconsiders his lifelong quest to write an abstract novel.

Emily Greenwood, “ How Emily Wilson Reimagined Homer ” Greenwood, a classics scholar in her own right, considers the choices that make Emily Wilson’s translation of the Iliad a new classic.

Elleza Kelley, “ Ordinary Allurements ” Kelley traces the tenderness and rigor that structure Christina Sharpe’s reading and writing of black life in Ordinary Notes .

Jennifer Ratner-Rosenhagen, “ The Consolations of Failure ” Reviewing In Praise of Failure by Costica Bradatan and Political Disappointment by Sara Marcus, Ratner-Rosenhagen asks what it might mean for a book about failure to succeed.

Azareen Van der Vliet Oloomi, “ James Baldwin in Turkey ” Van der Vliet Oloomi considers James Baldwin through the lens of the decade he spent on and off in Turkey, where he—and his writing—blossomed.

Kathryn Lofton, “ Cancel Culture and Other Myths ” Lofton asks us to examine the mythology of cancel culture as we reckon with its effects on society and art.

Alec Pollak, “ Lorraine Hansberry’s Queer Archive ” Pollak delves into Lorraine Hansberry’s unknown lesbian writings, giving new breadth to our understanding of the playwright’s life offstage.

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From Rules to Meanings: New Essays on Inferentialism

Ondřej Beran, Vojtěch Kolman, and Ladislav Koreň (eds.), From Rules to Meanings: New Essays on Inferentialism , Routledge, 2018, 357pp., $145.00 (hbk), ISBN 9781138102613.

Reviewed by Preston Stovall, University of Hradec Králové

This volume was produced in response to Jaroslav Peregrin's Inferentialism: Why Rules Matter (2014), and it brings together the work of a number of established and junior philosophers working within this tradition. The essays are grouped into four sections: language and meaning; logic and semantics; rules, agency, and explanation; and history and the present. Collectively they survey some of the ongoing and historical developments in inferentialism, and they lay out guidelines for a systematic and integrated view of the world and our places in it as rational beings. This lends the essays a degree of coherence it can sometimes be difficult to find in edited collections.

With an introduction that canvasses the intellectual background of inferentialism and summarizes the essays, this volume provides a timely update on some of the various projects that have developed in this philosophical tradition. And there is clearly a research program here, one whose participants work closely with related areas in philosophical logic, the philosophy of language, the philosophy of mind, the life sciences, the philosophy of perception, the philosophy of testimony, and the history of philosophy. It will be valuable for those who are either working in these areas, working at the boundaries of these and related areas, or are interested in a state-of-the-art overview of inferentialism as a strand of research that grows out of certain trends in 19 th and 20 th century European and North American philosophy. After a summary discussion of the individual essays I will use the remainder of this extended review to raise some questions about just what inferentialism is, and to push out in a few directions of further research.

Unsurprisingly, Robert Brandom's work figures heavily in the discussion of a number of these essays. The bulk of the introduction is devoted to surveying the lines of thinking he and others have drawn together, and it provides a remarkably thorough overview of inferentialism and its intellectual roots.

The first four essays cover themes in the philosophy of language. Christopher Gauker's "Grounding Assertion and Acceptance in Mental Imagery" builds a bridge between the representational and inferential sides of cognition by appealing to evolved and habituated cooperative activity and non-conceptual mental images that develop over the course of problem-solving in natural and social settings. Hans-Johann Glock's "Semantics: Why Rules Ought to Matter" argues that the rulish activities that underlie linguistic discursiveness must be conceived to include a dimension of linguistic understanding, an area that has not received much attention among inferentialists. In "Quine Peregrinating: Norms, Dispositions, and Analyticity" Gary Kemp presents a Quinean dispositionalist analysis of normativity. In "Let's Admit Defeat: Assertion, Denial, and Retraction" Bernhard Weiss examines the prospect of treating both assertion and denial as primitive semantic attitudes.

The next six essays are devoted to issues in logic and formal semantics. Those with a mind for formal philosophy and its history will enjoy these papers. In "Inferentialism, Structure, and Conservativeness" Ole Hjortland and Shawn Standefer examine foundational issues in proof-theoretic semantics concerning the relationship between the rules of inference for logical operators and the properties of the proof systems defined by those rules. In a similar vein, and at a more programmatic level, Brandom's "From Logical Expressivism to Expressivist Logics: Sketch of a Program and Some Implementations" outlines and motivates his contention that the rules of logic should be understood as devices for making explicit the material inferential connections that hold among the non-logical concepts of a language.

Two essays in this section critique elements of Brandom's expressivist program for logic. Lionel Shapiro's "Logical Expressivism and Logical Relations" argues that logical vocabulary expresses something about our attitudes rather than about relations among the sentences of a language. This interesting essay will repay close study. Ladislav Koreň's "Propositional Contents and the Logical Space" argues that Brandom's conception of a linguistic community whose members do not use logical vocabulary is a conception of a community whose linguistic utterances are too imprecise to count as conceptually contentful. He proposes a view of logic as a device that enables a community to control the use and development of conceptually contentful utterances that already employ logical vocabulary, rather than as something that could be introduced into a language via a set of pre-logical inferences that the logic makes explicit.

Finally, two essays look at the relationship between inferential relations and logical operators. In "Inferentialist-Expressivism for Explanatory Vocabulary" Jared Millson, Kareem Khalifa, and Mark Risjord define a non-monotonic proof theory employing explanatory inferences, and on this basis they individuate introduction and elimination rules sufficient to introduce a 'best explains why' operator into the object language over which these rules are imposed. This work has since been developed in Khalifa, Millson, and Risjord (2018) and Millson and Straßer (2019), and it offers a formally precise framework for thinking about explanations of the sort used in scientific inquiry. Peter Milne's "Assertion, Inference, and the Conditional" is wide-ranging, examining the normative constraints imposed on assertion, the relationship between belief revision and logical consequence, and the prospect of developing a probability analysis for the natural language indicative conditional.

Four essays are grouped under "Rules, Agency, and Explanation". In "Naturecultural Inferentialism" Joseph Rouse argues that we can understand human rationality if we adopt a theoretical framework that foregrounds "our lives and lineage as organisms, perceptually and practically responsive to a partially shared biological environment" (239). Peregrin's "Inferentialism: Where Do We Go from Here?" examines the prospect of reconciling the normative framework of inferentialist semantics with recent developments in the scientific understanding of human psychology. In "The Nature and Diversity of Rules" Vladimír Svoboda draws on work from Peregrin, Cristina Bicchieri, Wilfrid Sellars, G.H. von Wright, and Ludwig Wittgenstein to provide a taxonomy of the kinds of rules one needs to posit when making sense of linguistic behavior as rule governed. The literature on the normativity of meaning would do well to consider the kinds of distinctions Svoboda draws. In "Governed by Rules, or Subject to Rules?" Ondřej Beran uses Rush Rhees' criticism of Wittgenstein on rule following to argue that some of what we say about following a rule should be thought of as an expression of the goal or aim of the practice the rule governs.

The final section is historically oriented. In "Inferentialism After Kant" Danielle Macbeth argues that the inferentialism of Brandom and Peregrin is, despite their avowals, not very Fregean insofar as the latter held that truth and representation were as fundamental as inference. This is an important point to emphasize, as inferentialism under the influence of Brandom has developed by contrast with representational and truth-conditional theories of meaning. James R. O'Shea's "Inferentialism, Naturalism, and the Ought-to-Bes of Perceptual Cognition" defends Sellars' account of perception as a suitably naturalistic story about how ordinary empirical descriptive vocabulary comes to be meaningful. In "Inferentialism and Its Mathematical Precursor" Vojtěch Kolman illustrates the sense in which David Hilbert's axiomatic approach to mathematics anticipates the development of inferentialist theories of meaning. Finally, Leila Haaparanta's "Inferentialism and the Reception of Testimony" examines the interaction between inferentialism in the philosophy of language and inferentialism in the epistemology of testimony, and argues that to accept someone's testimony is to recognize them as a certain kind of person.

The theoretical framework these philosophers have developed offers fertile ground for rethinking a range of issues in philosophy, and many of the foundational positions underlying current philosophical debate in the Anglophone world thereafter show up as optional . But inferentialism offers more than a deconstructive analysis of recent trends in different parts of philosophy. It also provides a framework with its own explanatory virtues and challenges.

One of those challenges concerns just how to think of inferentialism. For the term will be used a bit differently when applied to logicians and philosophers of language, or epistemologists and philosophers of perception. In a movement as varied as this it can be hard to know how to survey the field. This volume does that well. What is lacking is a sense of the whole as a whole. But one cannot fault the editors for not providing that unifying conception, as it is not clear there is one.

Nevertheless, it is often useful to take several otherwise disparate ideas and think them together under some new more general understanding of them as species of this new genus. As Peregrin (2014, p. 22-3) emphasizes, it is to our benefit that we have general concepts under which to subsume particular ones, for by doing so we compress information into more manageable loads. Where falling under any terms F 1 to F n suffices for falling under the term K, and where falling under K entails falling under each of G 1 to G m , in the absence of K a language that encoded these relations would have to specify inferential links from each F i to each G i . With K, however, there need only be the inferential links from each F i to K, together with those from K to each G i . The result is that a language including K can make do with n + m inferential rules whereas without K, and with the same expressive power, a language requires n 𝗑 m rules. Toward the end of forging a more precise understanding of inferentialism, then, it may help to think about how to characterize inferentialism in general terms even if, as yet, there is no clear sense what the genus is.

As a first pass, inferentialism can be understood as the view that linguistic meaning, and the intentionality and contentfulness of thought, is to be understood in terms of the rational relations that govern linguistic and mental activity. This program can be characterized (using resources Brandom has helped us conceive more clearly) as a series of commitments in the philosophies of language and logic that prioritizes the notion of a rule-governed proof system as a basis from which to understand the semantic contentfulness of language and thought. Various examinations of the different senses in which rules are meaning-conferring have been investigated in proof theory, and it may help to draw those resources more to the fore. Francez 2015 and Garson 2013 offer extended investigations on this front, and Brandom and his students have been working on meaning-conferring non-monotonic proof systems for some time, the first results of which are now being published (e.g. Hlobil 2016 and 2018, and Kaplan 2018).

Use of proof theory as a basis for understanding inferentialism helps illustrate some of the strengths of the program. According to the proof-theoretic semanticist, the meaning of a sentence is a function of the rules that govern the occurrences of that sentence in the premises and conclusions of inferences. To date most of the work on meaning-conferring rules in proof theory has focused on the introduction and elimination rules associated with the logical operators, and on the relationship between different rule formats and the deduction systems (e.g. classical or intuitionistic) defined by them. Where semantic values for atomic sentences are discussed, they are generally assumed given from outside the proof system. An adequate semantics for atomic sentences remains an open problem for proof-theoretic semantic systems (cf. Pezlar 2017 and the Afterword to Francez 2015).

Here the philosophical work of someone like Sellars or Peirce may point the way forward. For there is a longstanding idea lying behind inferentialist theories of meaning: some inferences are underwritten by the material content of the non-logical concepts contained within them. Non-extensional notions of meaning of this sort, often glossed in terms of concept containment relations, have been discussed as ' comprehension ' by the Port Royal logicians, ' Inhalt ' by Kant, 'connotation' by Mill, and ' Sinn ' by Frege.

This emphasis on the proof-theoretic dimension of inferentialism has the benefit of making sense of a prominent divide in the study of formal and informal languages. Model theory has been far more prevalent than proof theory in the work that logicians, philosophers, and linguists have undertaken since the middle of the 20 th century, and the model-theoretic presuppositions of the twentieth century have influenced the way researchers approach a range of issues. Linguistic meaning is almost exclusively secured via referential relations between words and the world, with sentence meaning specified by truth conditions (Gibbard's 2003, as a model-theoretic but expressivist semantics, is a notable exception).

It is an irony of the way model theory took hold in certain circles that 'intension' came to be co-extensional with 'extension at a possible world' in the twentieth century, as this occludes the notion of intension that was originally signified by that term. This is important because some of the problems that have occupied philosophers over the last few decades are artifacts of the emphasis on model-theoretic and representational theories of meaning. It is, for instance, unsurprising that the insufficient fineness of grain that attends possible-worlds analyses of meaning would lead to the felt need to posit more rarified model-theoretic resources like property, essence, and ground.

The proof theorist is in a different dialectical position with regard to these debates. Rather than apportioning meaning to object-language sentences on the basis of representational relations specified by a metalanguage employing models that give truth conditions for those sentences under an interpretation, she specifies the meanings of object-language sentences in a metalanguage that lays down rules for inferring to and from those sentences in the object language. In doing so she dispenses with the need to answer a range of metaphysical questions that the model theorist, who uses a metalanguage of objects, properties, worlds, essences, etc., must face. One way of seeing the development of inferentialism, and especially its emphasis on so-called 'intensional' operators like the subjunctive conditional and the alethic and deontic modalities, is as a proof-of-concept that the philosopher need not engage in metaphysical speculation in order to make sense of what we say and do when we speak.

The inferentialist does owe us some story about the rules she posits in her metalanguage, of course, and of how these rules suffice to make us into the kinds of rational beings we are. But that effort has been underway at least since Hegel's discussion of Sprache as the Dasein of Geist in the Phenomenology of Spirit (§652). And if the proof-theoretic semanticist can interpret some apparently representational vocabulary in terms of the rules that govern its use, without having to use that vocabulary in order to understand how we obey those rules, then there may be no representational commitment involved in the everyday use of that vocabulary (Brandom 2008 is an emblematic working out of this idea). It is good to see so many of the essays address this aspect of the program, and it is clear that even where philosophical anthropology (or what used to be called 'the philosophy of nature') is not the topic, the view has been framed with that topic in mind.

This brings me to my first suggestion for expanding the project to which this volume contributes. Analytic metaphysics was fueled by the rise of representational model theories, and questions of consciousness, possibilities, essence, etc. have been almost exclusively pursued as ontological questions: what are these things we speak of? The proof-theoretic deontologist instead asks: how do (or should) we talk about these things? Depending on whether the modal auxiliary is used, the project is either descriptive or prescriptive. And though it might be called a project in metaphysics, it is not the project of mapping the world's ontology -- it is rather a project of self- and communal-understanding (the connection to German idealism again makes a showing).

Because model-theoretic semantics are dominant in linguistics, inferentialism offers something to that discipline as well. Part II of Francez (2015) provides a proof-theoretic semantics for fragments of natural language, but to date this research has been undertaken almost exclusively by logicians.

More work on the historical antecedents of inferentialism would also be welcome. The movements drawn together under inferentialism are a disparate lot, inspired by figures that do not otherwise have much in common. Focusing just on inferentialist conceptions of logic, it does not take much effort to subsume together such apparently dissimilar projects as the Subjective Logic of Hegel and the work of Gerhard Gentzen on proof theory in the 1930s, or the realist logics of Peirce and the intuitionistic logics that Dummett championed. Cases like this show that there is some measure of interconnectedness between the various camps within inferentialism, though the details are insufficiently precise as to need careful examination. Much of this work remains to be done. Despite the effort of philosophers like Brandom and Pirmin Stekeler-Weithofer, the number of people conversant in the ideas of both Hegel and Gentzen remains rather small. Additional attention to the particulars of these different positions will help sort out just what the field of commitments and possibilities looks like.

Finally, research into inferentialism will profit from continued investigation into the biological and social grounds of human cognition. This volume contributes to that end, and Peregrin puts the point well:

I am convinced that Brandomian inferentialism should not only be compatible with the results of relevant empirical research, but that it is virtually impossible to separate its philosophical from its empirical part. (p.258)

Above I said that a proof-theoretic approach to metaphysical vocabulary absolves the philosopher of an apparent need to adopt metaphysical oddities into her ontology. That may be so, but insofar as this explanatory framework is to hang together, its architects must be familiar with -- and make use of -- current work in the relevant natural and social sciences. For if human cognition is not to appear naturalistically mysterious, and if merely animal cognition is categorially different from the rule-governed activities of discursive intentionality, then we are owed some line of explanation and understanding that gets us from there to here. What seems needed is a notion of cognition sufficiently capacious as to include both rational and non-rational instances.

Some friends of inferentialism may bristle at the suggestion that cognition could be thought to involve specifications of both non-linguistic animal cognition and the rational cognition characteristic of human beings. After all, philosophers in this tradition generally conceive of rational cognition as the actualizations of a capacity for self-determination or autonomy. The idea, given perspicuous treatment in an early essay by Brandom (1983), is that assertion should be conceived as a discursive commitment in which one binds oneself and is bound by others to the rules that govern the language. Because a discursive commitment is the kind of thing that is subject to public assessment in the context of the rest of one's discursive commitments and entitlements, and those of the rest of the community, this view of rational cognition centers its explanatory framework on the socio-linguistic activities of historical communities.

It would seem that animal cognition involves none of this. But so long as we have the right commentary on the model, I see no reason to bar an analogical understanding of animal cognition on the basis of rational cognition (or vice versa for that matter). And, as logicians have recognized for centuries, one function of analogical reasoning is to subsume otherwise disparate notions together as species under a new genus.

Furthermore, the effort to construct a theory of cognition sufficient to cover both human rationality and merely animal cognition is itself an exercise of the autonomy of reason. For the process of reflection, comparison, abstraction, and analogy needed to subsume particulars under a new universal is rife with the lunges and feints that characterize the free play of the faculty of judgment in its reason-seeking mode (to put the point in Kantian terminology). It would seem, then, that the philosophical program advanced by these essays remains a living thing; though how it will develop and just what its concept is remain open to discovery.

Brandom, Robert B. (1983). "Asserting". Noûs 17 (4): 637-650.

-- (2008). Between Saying and Doing: Towards an Analytic Pragmatism . New York: Oxford University Press.

Francez, Nissim (2015). Proof Theoretic Semantics . Studies in Logic, vol. 57 . (London: College Publications).

Garson, James W. (2013). What Logics Mean: From Proof Theory to Model-Theoretic Semantics . (New York: Cambridge University Press).

Gibbard, Allan (2003). Thinking How to Live (Cambridge: Harvard University Press).

Hlobil (2016). "A Nonmonotonic Sequent Calculus for Logical Expressivist Inferentialists". In Pavel Arazim and Michal Dancak (eds.) The Logica Yearbook 2015 , p. 87-105 (College Publications: London).

-- (2018). "Choosing Your Nonmonotonic Logic: A Shopper's Guide." In Pavel Arazim and Tomáš Lávička (eds.) The Logica Yearbook 2017 , p.109-123 (London: College Publications).

Kaplan, Dan (2018). "A multi-succedent sequent calculus for logical expressivists". In Pavel Arazim and Tomáš Lávička (eds.) The Logica yearbook 2017 , p. 139-153 (London: College Publications).

Khalifa, Kareem, Jared Millson, and Mark Risjord (2018). "Inference, Explanation, and Asymmetry". Synthese .

Millson, Jared and Christian Straßer (2019). "A Logic for Best Explanation". Journal of Applied Non-Classical Logics : 1-48.

Peregrin, Jaroslav (2014). Inferentialism: Why Rules Matter . (New York: Palgrave Macmillan).

Pezlar, Ivo (2017). Review of Proof-Theoretic Semantics , by Nissim Francez. Mind 126 (501): 299-304.

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‘On Swift Horses’ Review: Jacob Elordi & Daisy Edgar-Jones In Star-Crossed Noir-ish Queer Love Story — Toronto Film Festival

By Pete Hammond

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Awards Columnist/Chief Film Critic

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Director Daniel Minaha, who created the Emmy-winning limited series Halston and was also an executive producer and director on this year’s Emmy-nominated Fellow Travelers , is right to believe there are the bones of an intriguing and complex romantic drama here, but Bryce Kass’ adaptation of the novel just can’t quite find the way to blend it. Fellow Travelers , which also takes place partially in the sexually repressed ’50s, magnificently does just that in following the doomed romance of Matt Bomer and Jonathan Bailey’s characters all the way into the ’80s, but this scenario has too many detours diverting our attention to really make it memorable.

Edgar-Jones also seems to have a tough time getting a real handle on just who Muriel is, although certainly someone longing for a same-sex relationship while being newly married in the 1950s might not be the easiest character to define. Poulter is the poor lost soul in all this, and he could have been the antagonist standing between his brother and wife but he’s really a good old boy. You feel for him since he thought he was going to live the American dream. Elordi is becoming one of the most interesting actors around, especially after Saltburn and Euphoria have cemented his sex symbol bonafides. If they ever remake Hud , he’s the guy. However it is Calva, the discovery from Damian Chazelle’s Babylon , who is the standout, an intriguing character to be sure. And Calva hits all the right notes in and out of bed with Elordi.

Luc Montpellier’s golden-hued cinematography really reflects California’s allure of the times, and the film looks terrific. Producers are Peter Spears, Daniel Minahan, Tim Headington, Mollye Asher, Theresa Steele Page and Michael D’Alto. It is looking for distribution.

Title: On Swift Horses Festival: Toronto (Special Presentations) Director: Daniel Minahan Screenplay: Bryce Kass Cast: Daisy Edgar-Jones, Jacob Elordi , Will Poulter, Sasha Calle, Diego Calva Sales agent: UTA Running time: 1 hr 59 min

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‘unstoppable’ review: jennifer lopez stars in a fantastic, inspiring sports movie, unstoppable.

Running time: 116 minutes. Rated PG-13 (some strong language and thematic material.)

As we head into the fall, and films gunning for awards are about to hit theaters like so many brown leaves, feel-good movies have been rather thin on the ground.

Stopping the trend is “Unstoppable,” an inspiring true story starring a seriously talented young actor named Jharrel Jerome that premiered Friday night at the Toronto International Film Festival.

The 26-year-old plays Anthony Robles, the NCAA champion wrestler who was born with one leg but nonetheless climbed to the top of his sport. His movie, co-starring Jennifer Lopez as Anthony’s hardworking mom Judy, is a veritable tear factory.

You know what you’re in for when, after winning a national high school championship in Philadelphia at the start of the film, teenaged Anthony quietly ducks out of a banquet celebrating him.

“Someone should tell him he won,” a college recruiter says.

The humble kid, who always refused to wear a prosthetic leg, instead walks alone to the Philadelphia Museum of Art and stares at the monument to his fictional idol, Rocky Balboa.

That’s the kind of underdog tale “Unstoppable” aspires to be — one in which the hero’s home life struggles are indistinguishable from the peaks and valleys of competition. One in which Adrian matters as much as Creed.

Anthony’s version of those steps, by the way, is a mountain in Arizona where he was attending ASU as a walk-on with no guaranteed spot on the team.

Determined, he runs up the steep rocks using crutches with his fellow wrestlers. When he reached the top, it was one of many moments of victory that got applause on Friday.

Physically a beast, what Robles had to overcome most of all was the doubts of those around him.

His coach, played by Don Cheadle, is initially skeptical of Anthony but comes around after he witnesses his drive and ability.

Ceaseless in her belief though is Judy, played by Lopez in one of her best performances in a minute. Her arc as a struggling mother of several kids is every bit as involving as Anthony’s and gets its proper due.

Lopez is lucky to have scene partners as giving as Jerome and Bobby Cannavale as her abusive deadbeat husband Rick.

“Unstoppable” marks the directorial debut of William Goldenberg, who also edited the Michael Jordan sneaker sensation “Air.” He has a knack for making the cliches and sentimentality of sports biopics not feel so, well, cliched and sentimental. I didn’t feel like I needed a shower when it was over.

And Goldenberg makes wrestling — which doesn’t have the cinematic punches boxing boasts — compelling to watch.

Vitally, though, the director gets a terrific performance from Jerome, which prevents “Unstoppable” from falling into the traps so many athletic yarns do.

Jerome, exploding with confidence, never screams or showboats. His passionate stares are not those of a trained Hollywood actor, but a very real student who’s concerned for his family while he grows up too fast.

There will be big things to come for Jerome.

What a pleasure it is to witness a young talent already ascend the mountain.

A photo illustration shows a paper airplane made of the U.S. Constitution crashing into the ground. It is against a colorful background.

Critic’s Notebook

The Constitution Is Sacred. Is It Also Dangerous?

One of the biggest threats to America’s politics might be the country’s founding document.

Credit... Photo illustration by Ben Denzer

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By Jennifer Szalai

Aug. 31, 2024

The United States Constitution is in trouble. After Donald Trump lost the 2020 election, he called for the “ termination of all rules, regulations and articles, even those found in the Constitution.” Outraged critics denounced him for threatening a document that is supposed to be “sacrosanct.” By announcing his desire to throw off constitutional constraints in order to satisfy his personal ambitions, Trump was making his authoritarian inclinations abundantly clear.

It’s no surprise, then, that liberals charge Trump with being a menace to the Constitution . But his presidency and the prospect of his re-election have also generated another, very different, argument: that Trump owes his political ascent to the Constitution, making him a beneficiary of a document that is essentially antidemocratic and, in this day and age, increasingly dysfunctional.

After all, Trump became president in 2016 after losing the popular vote but winning the Electoral College (Article II). He appointed three justices to the Supreme Court (Article III), two of whom were confirmed by senators representing just 44 percent of the population (Article I). Those three justices helped overturn Roe v. Wade, a reversal with which most Americans disagreed . The eminent legal scholar Erwin Chemerinsky, worried about opinion polls showing “a dramatic loss of faith in democracy,” writes in his new book, “No Democracy Lasts Forever”: “It is important for Americans to see that these failures stem from the Constitution itself.”

Back in 2018, Chemerinsky, the dean of Berkeley’s law school, still seemed to place considerable faith in the Constitution, pleading with fellow progressives in his book “We the People” “not to turn their back on the Constitution and the courts.” By contrast, “No Democracy Lasts Forever” is markedly pessimistic. Asserting that the Constitution, which is famously difficult to amend , has put the country “in grave danger,” Chemerinsky lays out what would need to happen for a new constitutional convention — and, in the book’s more somber moments, he entertains the possibility of secession . West Coast states might form a nation called “Pacifica.” Red states might form their own country. He hopes that any divorce, if it comes, will be peaceful.

The prospect of secession sounds extreme, but in suggesting that the Constitution could hasten the end of American democracy, Chemerinsky is far from alone. The argument that what ails the country’s politics isn’t simply the president, or Congress, or the Supreme Court, but the founding document that presides over all three, has been gaining traction, especially among liberals. Books and op-eds critiquing the Constitution have proliferated. Scholars are arguing that the Constitution has incentivized what Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt call a “Tyranny of the Minority.”

The anguish is, in some sense, a flip side of veneration. Americans have long assumed that the Constitution could save us; a growing chorus now wonders whether we need to be saved from it.

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How the World Became Rich by Mark Koyama and Jared Rubin and Slouching Towards Utopia, by J. Bradford DeLong: A Review Essay

This essay provides a review of two important recent books on economic growth: How the World Became Rich by Mark Koyama and Jared Rubin and Slouching Towards Utopia, by J. Bradford DeLong. Each book is noteworthy for its erudition and breadth. I explore strengths and weaknesses of these books and make some proposals on new ways to conceptualize and study long run socioeconomic development. My discussion emphasizes the importance of contingency in determining long run inequalities across countries as well the potential for ideas from complexity theory to augment standard growth modelling.

Financial support from the James M. and Cathleen D. Stone Foundation is appreciated. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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From Rules to Meanings: New Essays on Inferentialism
This volume was produced in response to Jaroslav Peregrin's Inferentialism: Why Rules Matter (2014), and it brings together the work of a number of established and junior philosophers working within this tradition.The essays are grouped into four sections: language and meaning; logic and semantics; rules, agency, and explanation; and history and the present.
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