nuclear energy in kazakhstan essay

It should be noted that the nuclear fast-breeder reactor BN-350 has operated in Aktau, for more than 25 years, on the base of the Mangistau nuclear energy complex.[13] There is qualified staff that for 50 years has provided the constant operation of BN-350 and is now dealing with reactor decommission.[13] There are specialists from the institute of nuclear physics in place, and new staff could be educated while the plant is built.[13] Thus, Kazakhstan is ready for NPP's construction and operation.

© Ernar Sagatov. The author grants permission to copy, distribute and display this work in unaltered form, with attribution to the author, for noncommercial purposes only. All other rights, including commercial rights, are reserved to the author.

[1] " Kazakhstan ," CIA World Factbook 2010.

[2] " Power Resources of Kazakhstan ," KazAtomExpo, 2010 (in Russian).

[3] T. Kassenova, " Kazakhstan's Nuclear Ambitions ," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 28 Apr 08.

[4] " The Nuclear Fuel Cycle ," World Nuclear Association, August 2010.

[5] " In Situ Leaching (ISL) Mining of Uranium ," World Nuclear Association, June 2009.

[6] M.Dzhakishev, " Uranium Production of Kazakhstan as Potential Source for Covering the World Uranium Shortage ," Nuclear World Association Annual Symposium, 2004.

[7] C. Garrett and Z. Aidymbekova, " Uranium Mining in Kazakhstan and Pervasive State Participation ," Macleod Dixon LLP, 2008.

[8] " Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan ," World Nuclear Association, 29 Oct 10.

[9] " Conversion ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

[10] " Enrichment ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

[11] " Fuel Pellets ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

[12] M. Á. P. Martin, " Geo-Economics in Central Asia and the 'Great Game' of Natural Resources: Water, Oil, Gas, Uranium and Transportation Corridors ," Real Institute Elcano, April 2010.

[13] " VBER-300 ," KazatomProm, 10 Dec 10 (in Russian).

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The case for nuclear energy in Kazakhstan

As the world shifts toward clean and sustainable energy, Kazakhstan stands on the cusp of a significant move into nuclear energy. Kazakh president Kassym-Jomart Tokayev has suggested a national referendum to gauge the country’s position on building a nuclear power plant, setting the stage for an in-depth discussion about the nation’s energy trajectory.

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Kazakhstan shines spotlight on nuclear-powered future

16 April 2024

As the world's largest producer of uranium gears up for a referendum on the construction of a nuclear power plant, national policymakers and stakeholders have shared Kazakhstan's vision for a civilian nuclear programme at the World Nuclear Spotlight Kazakhstan event in Almaty.

Organised by World Nuclear Association in collaboration with the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, the 15 April event was held to provide support and insight ahead of the upcoming referendum. It brought high-level representatives from Kazakh government, industry and institutions together with international industry leaders to provide information and exchange views on Kazakhstan's requirements for deployment of nuclear power and opportunities for the country in driving forward its nuclear power plans. 

The event kicked off with introductory addresses from high-level speakers followed by a comprehensive overview of energy development in Kazakhstan and the country's progress towards potentially embarking on a nuclear programme, provided by speakers from government bodies, industry and institutions.

With three currently operating research reactors - and as the former home to a fast reactor - nuclear is already a critical component of Kazakhstan's identity, Vice-Minister of Energy Sungat Yessimkhanov told delegates. Citing the growing recognition of nuclear energy as a key tool in achieving net zero - underlined by the IAEA-led Nuclear Energy Summit in Brussels last month and the multinational ministerial declaration signed at COP28 last year which recognised the need for a tripling of nuclear energy capacity by 2050 - he said nuclear is becoming a key tool for achieving net-zero ambitions. "Kazakhstan is a uranium producing and exporting country, so we are obliged to use this advantage to the maximum," he said.

Yernat Berdigulov is managing director of Strategy and Asset Management at Samruk-Kazyna, Kazakhstan's sovereign wealth fund which is a major shareholder in national atomic company NAC Kazatomprom JSC. As well as recognising the need for nuclear as a low-carbon baseload energy source for Kazakhstan, he said, the fund is also "following the advancement" of small modular reactor (SMR) technology which he said offers a "versatile solution" especially for remote areas of the country.

"It's very obvious that uranium fuel is indispensable for our net-zero carbon objectives," he said.

Milestones to decarbonisation

Kazakhstan is a country rich in resources including coal - which is relied on by many regions - but is working hard to decarbonise, and is making rapid progress with the development of renewable energy as well as looking to nuclear, Gulmira Mursalova, deputy director of the Department of Atomic Energy and Industry at Kazakhstan's Ministry of Energy, said. The country is following the IAEA's Milestones approach - a progressive, phased method to support countries which are considering or planning their first nuclear power plant in establishing the infrastructure for a nuclear power programme.

Last year, President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev announced plans for a referendum to be held on the construction of a nuclear power plant. The date for the referendum is not yet known - it will depend on a presidential decree which has not yet been issued, she said. A positive outcome from the referendum will be needed for Kazakhstan's nuclear project to proceed, but some actions already being taken include looking at technology options as well as capacity building to support nuclear projects and public outreach and information activities, Mursalova added. A site at Ulken, on the shores of Lake Balkhash, has already been identified as a suitable location for a nuclear power plant, but any nuclear power plant location will need the agreement of the local community.

Technology options

Kazakhstan's first nuclear power plant will be a large reactor, and coal will continue to play a major role in the country's energy mix over the next 10 years, Mursalova said. But beyond that, SMRs could be an option for replacing retiring coal plants and could provide a "perfect" solution for some regions, she added.

Financing a nuclear programme is another consideration, and Mursalova said the Department of Atomic Energy and Industry is talking to partners about possible options including loans. But "this is not a decision for now" she said.

Using nuclear plants for district heating and process heat needs could help reduce the commercial risk of future plants, Timur Zhantikin, director general of Samruk-Kazyna subsidiary Kazakhstan Nuclear Power Plants, told delegates. This is an area in which Kazakhstan already has experience: the former BN-350 fast reactor at Aktau operated commercially from 1973 until 1999, and provided steam for a desalination plant as well as generating electricity for the nearby town.

Capacity building

As well as being a reliable and responsible supplier of uranium to the global community for more than 25 years Kazatomprom wants to have an active role in producing uranium fuel for Kazakhstan's nuclear plant, the company's CEO Meirzhan Yussupov said. The company is also considering potential investment in nuclear fuel cycle services to further leverage Kazakshtan's uranium resources to accelerate the nuclear programme, particularly through uranium conversion and enrichment. But such investment decisions are also a "delicate balance" that will take into account market dynamics, Yussupov said.

Subject to the necessary investment being forthcoming, Kazatomprom is "ready and interested", he said.

Kazakhstan already has a degree of capacity to support a nuclear energy programme, from its experience with its current research reactors and the BN-350 fast reactor as well as its natural uranium industry, and already has a strong nuclear regulatory regime. Kazakh institutions are ready to develop the workforce that will be needed, said Erlan Batyrbekov, director general of the National Nuclear Centre of the Republic of Kazakhstan. The National Nuclear Centre is also providing support to efforts to provide information to the Kazakh public and the government ahead of the referendum, he said.

Supporting Kazakhstan

World Nuclear Spotlight is an international event held in a country considering starting or re-starting a civilian nuclear power programme. Kazakhstan is well placed to take advantage of the benefits that nuclear will provide, and the entire global nuclear community is ready to support it in its efforts, World Nuclear Association Director General Sama Bilbao y Léon said.

"Each country must take a serious, pragmatic assessment on what it will take for that country to reach net zero in a way that is both effective and equitable," she said.

"The next step is very, very important, which is achieving a national consensus … and here it is very, very important that whatever decision is made … is one that the country is going to be happy with," she said, adding that the global industry and international organisations including the International Atomic Energy Agency and World Nuclear Association stand ready to support Kazakhstan as it works towards a decision.

"Once Kazakhstan decides to become part of the global nuclear family, we will embrace you," she said.

Researched and written by World Nuclear News

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(Updated 2016)

This report provides information on the status and development of nuclear power programmes in Kazakhstan, including factors related to the effective planning, decision making and implementation of the nuclear power programme that together lead to safe and economical operations of nuclear power plants.

The CNPP summarizes organizational and industrial aspects of nuclear power programmes and provides information about the relevant legislative, regulatory and international framework in Kazakhstan.

1. COUNTRY ENERGY OVERVIEW

1.1. energy information, 1.1.1. energy policy.

Kazakhstan is a net energy exporter, with large reserves of uranium, oil and coal. Fossil-fired power plants are the basis of the electric energy. The energy policy aims to achieve energy independence through electric power production with maximum use of cheap, low-grade coal. Introduction of nuclear power is included as a necessary option for energy security.

There are six gas pipelines that connect Kazakhstan to other central Asian republics and Russia, but the gas producing regions in the western part of Kazakhstan are not connected to the populous southeast and industrial north parts of the country. Kazakhstan has a major need for more gas pipelines. Kazakhstan is rich in natural resources, but its power sector needs considerable rehabilitation and upgrading to improve the efficiency of energy production and use. The TRACECA Program (Transport System Europe-Caucasus-Asia) is developing an East-West corridor from Central Asia, through the Caucasus, across the Black Sea to Europe.

Kazakhstan is in the process of transition toward a free market, privatization in energy, and encouraging foreign investment to exploit the oil and gas resources of the country. In 1997, the government of Kazakhstan issued a decree on privatization and restructuring in the energy sector. Through this decree, all companies in the energy sector have gone through an incorporation process and are legally prepared for future privatization and restructuring. The Ministry of Oil and Gas and Ministry of Industry and New Technologies of the Republic of Kazakhstan are the main government entity responsible for implementing the policy.

The energy policy of Kazakhstan aims to achieve energy independence through electric power production with maximum use of its cheap, low-grade coal. Table 2.1 shows the dynamical increase of the production of coal, oil and natural gas in the last few years.

Table 2.1. DOMESTIC COAL, OIL AND NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION

1.1.2. Estimated Available Energy

Kazakhstan, the second largest of the former Soviet republics in territory, possesses enormous fossil fuel reserves (see Table 1) as well as plentiful supplies of other minerals and metals. It also is a large agricultural – livestock and grain – producer. Kazakhstan’s industrial sector rests on the extraction and processing of these natural resources and also on a growing machine-building sector specializing in construction equipment, tractors, agricultural machinery, and some defence items.

Table 1. ESTIMATED ENERGY RESERVES

* Solid, Liquid: Million tons; Gas: Billion m 3 ; Uranium: Metric tons; Hydro, Renewable: TW

Power plants fuelled with coal and crude oil are the basis of Kazakhstan’s electrical energy. Coal is the country’s largest industry, with planned further development if corresponding investments are secured. Coal reserves are estimated at 64 billion tons. Annual hard coal production is about 111.8 million tons; brown coal production is estimated at 4.6 million metric tons. Kazakhstan also has a well-developed oil and gas industry. More than 1,600 oil and gas fields have been located in Tengiz and Karachaganak, containing more than 2.9 billion tons of conditional fuel. Natural gas production was estimated at 5,416 million m 3 in 1993. Kazakhstan has begun building a major oil pipeline, 1,200 km from the west to the east. Construction of three new oil refineries is planned. Every year, about 25 million tons of liquid hydrocarbons and 7 billion m 3 of natural gas are extracted. About 20% of the world’s uranium reserves are in Kazakhstan.

1.1.3. Energy Statistics

Information not available.

Table 2. ENERGY STATISTICS (EJ)

* Latest available data

** Energy consumption = Primary energy consumption in country.

*** Solid fuels include coal, lignite

**** - hydro, atomic in 1990 year, and other

Source: The Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Statistics

1.2. The Electricity System

1.2.1. electricity system and decision making process.

To ensure sustainable and balanced growth of the economy through the effective development of the power industry, the need to implement the following tasks:

Modernization, reconstruction of existing generating capacity and construction of new generating capacity.

Construction, modernization and reconstruction of power facilities.

The development of the coal industry.

Improving the structure of the electricity market:

Entering the market power;

the development of the spot market through legislative recognition norms sale-purchase certain volumes of electricity in spot trading.

Involvement in the balance of renewable energy sources.

1.2.2. Structure of Electric Power Sector

The total length of electric lines of all voltages is more than 460,000 km. The first section of the international Siberia-Kazakhstan-Ural transmission line (1,900 km) is operational. This line is expanded to the south to connect north and south Kazakhstan and the power grids in Central and Middle Asian countries. Electricity production is given in Table 3.

The biggest producers of electricity in Kazakhstan are - the "Euro-Asian Power Corporation" (in 1998 14% of total power production), the Joint-stock Company "GRES-2" Pavlodar Region (8.9%), the "Kazakhmis Corporation" (8.5%), the Closed Joint-stock Company "Almaty Power Consolidated" (7.8%), the Open Joint-stock Company "Ispat-Karmet" (6.8%), LLP, "Karaganda Power" (4.4%) and the Joint-stock Company "Aluminium of Kazakhstan" (3.9%).

1.2.3. Main Indicators

Table 3. ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION AND CAPACITY

* – Preliminary data

Table 4. ENERGY RELATED RATIOS

Source: The Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan on statistic

2. NUCLEAR POWER SITUATION

2.1. historical development and current organizational structure, 2.1.1. overview.

The nuclear scientific-industrial complex in Kazakhstan was established as a unified part of the atomic industry and science in the former Soviet Union.

Kazakhstan's uranium industry consists of uranium prospecting firms, a number of natural mines using mining and underground leaching techniques, and a metallurgical plant producing fuel pellets for NPP fuel assemblies. The power plant at Aktau (MAEC) was shut down in June 1999. It consisted of natural gas units and a nuclear unit. The latter unit is a BN-350 sodium cooled fast neutron reactor.

On the territory of the former Semipalatinsk Nuclear Test Site three research reactors are engaged in testing and development of nuclear space engines and safe nuclear power plants (NPP). The fourth research reactor is located at the RSE Institute of Nuclear Physics, near Almaty.

The following enterprises are involved in the nuclear industry:

RSE "Institute of Nuclear Physics," situated in Almaty;

NNC, situated in Kurchatov, has the following branches:

"Institute of Atomic Energy"

"Institute of Radiation Safety and Ecology";

2.1.2. Current Organizational Structure

2.2. Nuclear Power Plants: Overview

2.2.1. status and performance of nuclear power plants.

Table 5. STATUS OF NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

2.2.2. Plant Upgrading, Plant Life Management and License Renewals

BN-350 reactor facility - fast neutron sodium-cooled reactor - is located near Aktau city in the part of the eastern Caspian Sea shore belonging to the Republic of Kazakhstan. It was designed and built for electricity generation and seawater desalination for the Aktau region.

The BN-350 reactor was commissioned in 1973 and operated for its design life of 20 years.

In 1993, on the basis of estimation of actual reactor condition, qualified personnel availability and taking into consideration significant progress in fulfillment of measures by safety enhancement, a lifetime extension until 2003 was granted. Thereafter it operated on the basis of annual licenses of the regulatory body - The Kazakhstan Atomic Energy Committee (KAEC) and positive conclusion of its safety level from General Designer (VNIPIET, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation), Chief Designer (OKBM, Nizhni Novgorod, Russian Federation) and research Manager (FEI, Obninsk, Russian Federation) of reactor facility.

Due to financial and technical problems it was concluded that the further use of the reactor is not safe. In April 1999, the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan adopted the Decree on the Decommission of BN-350 reactor.

As the decision on the reactor decommissioning was adopted before the end of scheduled operation (2003), the plan to decommission the BN-350 reactor had not yet been developed. To determine the activities required for ensuring reactor safety and preparation for decommissioning, the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan had developed and approved a "Plan of priority measures on BN-350 reactor decommissioning". This plan has the status of managerial and ruling document and defines the activity on provision of safety for the BN-350 and preparation of decommissioning while the "Project of BN-350 Decommissioning" is being approved. By now, the following activities have been fulfilled:

All spent nuclear fuel had been transferred from the interim spent fuel storage facility at the BN-350 site to the long-term spent fuel storage facility at Baikal-1 site.

Drainage of primary radioactive sodium has been carried out and is in storage vessels. Secondary nonradioactive sodium is drained and utilized.

Technical design of the Liquid Radioactive Waste Processing Facility has been developed.

Technical task for the Solid Radioactive Waste Processing Facility design has been developed.

The main works on Combined Engineering and Radiation Survey (KIRO) of systems and components of primary and secondary cooling circuits, as well as of other reactor plant engineering systems and external communications have been completed.

Scheduled decommissioning phases

Management of fuel removal

2.3. Future Development of Nuclear Power Sector

According to Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan NPP will be constructed after Government Resolution

No data available data for sections 2.3.1-2.3.5

Table 6. PLANNED NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

2.4. Organizations Involved in Construction of NPPs

Not applicable

2.5. Organizations Involved in Operation of NPPs

The BN-350 reactor is owned by National Atomic Company "KAZATOMPROM" and operated by LLP "MAEC-Kazatomprom". The reactor was shut down according the decree of the Kazakhstan Government on April 22, 1999. The decision was taken to place it into SAFSTOR state for 50 years with subsequent final dismantling. Now the works on putting of the reactor into SAFSTOR are carrying out. The fuel is unloaded and packaged into canisters and now they are in a temporary store in the reactor cooling ponds. TUKs with spent fuel are transferred from BN-350 site long-term spent fuel storage facility at Baikal-1 site.

About 200 people are working at the power plant. There are 4 shifts. The task of these shifts is maintenance of the reactor in nuclear, radiation and fire safety.

2.6. Organizations Involved in Decommissioning of NPPs

In the decommissioning of nuclear power plants involved different organizations. Some of them are:

LTD "KATEP"

RSE "Institute of Nuclear Physics

National Atomic Company "KAZATOMPROM

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY CENTER OF NUCLEAR SAFETY TECHNOLOGY

2.7. Fuel Cycle Including Waste Managemen

Kazakhstan has more than 50 uranium deposits in six provinces: the Kokshetau province in the north and the Pribalkhashsky province in the south have endogenetic type uranium deposits; Iliskaya, Chu-Sarysu, Syr-Dariya, and Prikaspiy provinces have endogenic type deposits. Deposits in Chu-Sayusu and Syr-Dariya provinces are located in sand penetrating sediments and are useful for in-situ leaching processes.

Waste from uranium mining and milling constitutes more than 90% of all radioactive waste in Kazakhstan. Therefore, implementation of the Republic's Concept on the radioactive waste management is the main task.

The Ulba Metallurgical Plant (UMZ) started production of UO 2 fuel pellets in 1976. Physical and chemical technologies are used at all stages of production, from treatment of UF6 material, to conversion into UO 2 , production of UO 2 pellets, and sintering of the pellets. Quality control is maintained during all process stages. The design capacity of the plant is 2,000 tons of pellets per year. Fuel assemblies from UMZ are used at nuclear power plants in Russia, Ukraine, and other countries. The U 235 content is 1.6-5 %. UMZ also produces rare earth metal products and super conducting materials.

The International Atomic Energy Agency Low Enrichment Uranium Bank will be sited in Kazakhstan (JSC “UMZ”).

2.8. Research and Development

2.8.1. r&d organizations.

RSE «Institute of Nuclear Physics»

RSE «National Nuclear Centre»

2.8.2. Development of Advanced Nuclear Power Technologies

Kazakhstan has three research reactors at the National Nuclear Centre and one research reactor at Institute Nuclear Physics where the following research is carried out:

radiation material science; study of the interaction between construction materials and coolants; investigation of fission produced emission from fuel rods, its precipitation and filtration under different conditions;

safety of nuclear power plants; fuel assemblies and rod tests at transition and break-down modes of operation; simulation of reactor core fragment melting and interaction of melted material with coolant;

development and implementation of nuclear physics methods and technologies; production of isotopes for different applications, for example, thallium-201 chloride for early diagnostics of heart decease.

The work on creation and development of Kazakhstan nuclear power composed one of the principal sections in the Republican Target Scientific-and-Technical Program elaborated in 1992 - 1993 and defined goals, tasks and directions of the National Nuclear Center and its institutions.

Kazakhstan Governmental Resolution #925 dated August 20, 2002 adopts the development concept for uranium industry and nuclear power engineering of the Republic of Kazakhstan for the years 2002-2030. The tasks put by in the concept aim at transformation of Kazakhstan power engineering into a high-tech, science intensive, dynamically developing branch that would become a solid basis of forced and sustainable development of the national economics and the nation's prosperity improvement. Now, a national program of RK nuclear industry and power engineering development is under elaboration.

The Program covers the period 2000 to 2030 and defines a strategy of the first stage in creating and developing the national nuclear power.

One of the first steps in carrying out this program was to conduct a feasibility study for construction of nuclear power plants. The NNC RK specialists performed a great work to conduct feasibility studies for building nuclear power plants in certain regions (South Kazakhstan NPP), to validate investments in construction of low-power atomic plants in Leninogorsk and Kurchatov, to develop feasibility proposals on use of nuclear power sources in order to solve problems of Almaty heat-and-power supply.

A successful development of the nuclear power is impossible without solving problems of its safe operation. To create reactors of enhanced safety and systems for localizing design and out-of-design accidents there is a need for detailed analysis of processes related to core melting, fuel, material and nuclear reactor structure behavior in transient and accident modes. One of the directions to validate nuclear power safety is experimental simulation of processes accompanying specific phases in evolution of NPP severe accidents that involve reactor core melting.

At present final phases of severe accidents are least examined when core materials melt (corium) falls on a lower head of the reactor power vessel. The work in this direction on the Semipalatinsk experimental base was started in 1983 and is still continued.

The uniqueness of NNC RK experimental base, results and experience gained through studying the behavior of nuclear reactor fuel, material and structure in simulating transient and accident operation modes cause interest of specialists from different countries.

The most important studies in recent years are those on two projects: experimental studies to validate light-water reactor safety ( COTELS project ) and experimental studies to validate safety of fast reactors ( EAGLE project ).

2.8.3. International Co-operation and Initiatives

Kazakhstan national projects under the program of technical cooperation with

IAEA for 2012-2014

European Regional projects of IAEA for 2014-2015 in which Kazakhstan is taking part

2.9. Human Resources Development

When Kazakhstan officially decides to start a NPP, it will be necessary to have a constant flow of highly qualified human resources on all topics related to nuclear power, but since the country has not taken any decision yet, preparing of these human resources is not an immediate priority

2.10. Stakeholder Involvement

The KAEC is the institution in charge of interacting with stakeholders concerned in the country’s current situation in the nuclear field. One of its roles is to supervision on nuclear energy uses spread Public Information and Promotion office by means of presentations, seminars, visits to nuclear and radiological facilities, and through its website.

3. NATIONAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS

3.1. safety authority and the licensing process, 3.1.1. regulatory authority(s).

Atomic Energy Committee of the Ministry of Industry and New Technologies of the Republic of Kazakhstan is the regulatory authority.

3.1.2. Licensing Process

The licensing stages for nuclear installations can be briefly represented as follows:

Application for the License;

Analysis of application materials;

Inspection at the nuclear installation;

Conclusion on application materials examination;

Conclusion on nuclear installation inspection;

General conclusion on obtaining license; License.

3.2. National Laws and Regulations in Nuclear Power

Main national laws

Law on use of atomic energy;

Law on radiation safety of population;

Law on licensing;

Ecology Code

Main Regulations in nuclear power

Provision on licensing rules and qualifying requirements claimed to licensable kinds of activities in the sphere of atomic energy use

Regulation on the Atomic Energy Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Technical rules “Nuclear and radiation safety of research nuclear facilities”, adopted by the Government Provision

Technical rules “Nuclear and radiation safety of NPP”, adopted by the Government Provision

Technical rules “Nuclear and radiation safety”, adopted by the Government Provision

All regulating documents have been compiled into a "List of main technical documents of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of atomic energy use”.

APPENDIX 1: INTERNATIONAL, MULTILATERAL AND BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS

BILATERAL AGREEMENTS

The Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan on the Peaceful use of Atomic Energy.

The Agreement between the Russian Federation and the Republic of Kazakhstan on Transportation of fission materials.

Agreement of KAEA and GAN of the Russian Federation on co-operation in the field of nuclear safety.

Agreement of KAEA and NRC of the USA on technical information exchange and co-operation in the field of nuclear safety.

The Agreement for Co-operation between the United States of America and the Republic of Kazakhstan concerning Peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

The Agreement for co-operation between European Atomic Energy Community and the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of nuclear safety.

The Agreement for co-operation between European Atomic Energy Community and the Republic of Kazakhstan in the field of guided nuclear fusion.

The Agreement for cooperation between the Republic of Korea and the Republic of Kazakhstan concerning Peaceful uses of nuclear energy.

APPENDIX 2: MAIN ORGANIZATIONS, INSTITUTIONS AND COMPANIES INVOLVED IN NUCLEAR POWER RELATED ACTIVITIES

Report coordinator:

Murat Tulegenov

Institution: Department of development of nuclear and energy projects of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan

Contacts: [email protected] ; [email protected]

Focal persons: Igor Panov, Tuyakbayev Kanat ;

Institution: Institution: Department of development of nuclear and energy projects of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan; Committee of Atomic and Energy Supervision and Control of the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Contacts: [email protected] ; [email protected]

Serving the nuclear industry since 1956

Kazakhstan confirms site for first NPP

Kazakhstan’s Energy Ministry has provided an update on previously conducted studies related to the choice of reactor technologies and siting for Kazakhstan’s first NPP. The Ministry said that, based on studies, Ulken village in the Zhambyl district of Almaty region was chosen as the most preferred locality.

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The Ministry also recommends choosing a technology “proven by the experience of construction and successful operation of a similar plant”. As a result, a shortlist has been compiled consisting of the following potential suppliers of nuclear technologies:

• China National Nuclear Corporation’s HPR-1000 (Hualong One) reactor;
• Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power’s APR1400 reactor;
• Rosatom’s VVER-1200 and VVER-1000 reactors; and
• EDF’s EPR-1200 reactor.

The Ministry said the research results were reviewed and approved at the meeting of the Interdepartmental Commission for the Development of the Nuclear Industry in May 2022. In accordance with Kazakhstan’s law "On the Use of Atomic Energy", the decisions on construction and siting of nuclear installations are made by the Government with the consent of the local representative bodies on whose territory the installation is planned to be built. In this case the local representative body is the Almaty city Maslikhat – legislative branch.

The Almaty Maslikhat in November 2022 agreed to construction, of the plant subject to the support of local residents. As a result, the Akimat (local government) of Almaty region has initiated public discussions. Local media and social media (Instagram Facebook were used to encourage participation in public discussions on the issue. Public hearings will be held later in accordance with the Environmental Code at the stage of the environmental assessment of the project after development of project documentation, the Ministry said. According to the plan, construction of the NPP should be completed in 2034 for commissioning in 2035.

Ulken village in the Almaty Region is located on the western shore of Lake Balkhash, some 370 kilometres from Almaty. The choice for the NPP site was between this village and the town of Kurchatov in the Abai Region. Ulken is a relatively new village founded in the early 1980s. It was originally built to house workers who were constructing the South Kazakhstan Hydroelectric Power Plant, which was never completed. Its population is around 1,500.

Construction of a nuclear plant has been under consideration long before President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev voiced the idea in his state-of-the-nation address in 2021. Kazakhstan Nuclear Power Plant (KNPP) company, a subsidiary of the Samruk Kazyna Sovereign Wealth Fund, which has been designated as the future plant operator, began preparing a feasibility study in 2018 to justify the need for nuclear power and the selection of a site.

The plant is expected to have two reactors with a capacity ranging from 1,000 to 1,400 megawatts to compensate for the shortage of baseload capacity. According to Tokayev, the looming energy shortage obliges countries to look for new sources and so constructing a NPP is now back on the agenda. In February 2022, Tokayev addressed an expanded government meeting, saying that without clean nuclear energy, Kazakhstan “will lose the entire economy, not to mention investments, and lose regional leadership”.

Kazakhstan possesses the world’s second-largest uranium reserves, accounting for 14% of the global total. It also operates research reactors and a range of other nuclear facilities associated with the initial stages of the nuclear fuel cycle, including uranium processing and fuel fabrication.

At a June roundtable discussion in Almaty on the nuclear industry, KNPP CEO Timur Zhantikin said NPP construction will have a multiplier effect on Kazakhstan’s development. “An increase in the scientific, technical and highly qualified personnel potential of the country is predicted. It will be necessary to create up to 8,000 new jobs during construction and find up to 2,000 high-quality personnel for the operation. As a rule, one job while constructing a nuclear power plant creates another ten in related sectors of the economy,” he said.

However, some officials are more cautious. Speaking to journalists in July, Samruk Kazyna CEO Nurlan Zhakupov said the decision to construct nuclear plant should be made carefully. He stressed the need to consider factors such as water availability and affordability.

International Atomic Energy Agency experts visited Kazakhstan in 2016 for an eight-day Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR) mission to review the country’s overall nuclear infrastructure, including its legal, regulatory, technical, and human resource capabilities for developing a peaceful nuclear programme.

A follow-up INIR mission in April noted that Kazakhstan had fully addressed earlier recommendations related to coordination of a nuclear power programme, financing of the NPP, emergency planning and radioactive waste management. However, the team said that further work is needed to complete the comprehensive report that supports the decision-making process for the nuclear power programme. This includes assessing funding requirements for nuclear power infrastructure, planning for further development of the regulatory body and future owner/operator KNPP, and developing a policy for industrial involvement in the nuclear power programme.

“By requesting the INIR mission, Kazakhstan has demonstrated its interest in obtaining an objective, professional assessment of the readiness of its nuclear infrastructure to supply nuclear power to the country,” said Zhandos Nurmaganbetov, Kazakhstan’s Vice Minister of Energy.

Image courtesy of Rosatom

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Conceptual View of the Nuclear Energy Program Implementation in the Republic of Kazakhstan

10 Pages Posted: 17 Jun 2024

Vladimir Vityuk

affiliation not provided to SSRN

Erlan Batyrbekov

Denis zarva, mazhit sharipov.

The paper presents an analysis of the existing prerequisites and opportunities for the startup of its own full-fledged Nuclear Energy Program in the Republic of Kazakhstan, a conceptual vision of the development of the Kazakhstani nuclear industry. The recommendations have been formulated for the timely and successful implementation of the Program for the introduction of nuclear power plants into the country's energy generation structure, the development of necessary related nuclear infrastructure facilities, national legislation and other issues directly related to the nuclear power development.

Keywords: Nuclear Energy Program, Republic of Kazakhstan, Integration of nuclear sources, Priority tasks, Analysis and recommendations, Development scenarios

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Vladimir Vityuk (Contact Author)

Affiliation not provided to ssrn ( email ).

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Kazakhstan Takes Lead in Global Push for Nuclear Disarmament Amid Heightened Tensions

By Katsuhiro Asagiri in Opinions on 26 August 2024

In a world increasingly overshadowed by the threat of nuclear conflict, Kazakhstan is stepping up its efforts in the global disarmament movement. On Aug. 27-28, 2024, in collaboration with the United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA), Kazakhstan will host a critical workshop in Astana. This gathering, the first of its kind in five years, is set to reinvigorate the five existing Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones (NWFZs) and enhance cooperation and consultation among them.

Botanical garden in Astana. Photo credit: The Astana Times

This initiative aligns with UN Secretary-General António Guterres’s Agenda for Disarmament, particularly Action 5, which emphasizes the strengthening of NWFZs through enhanced collaboration between zones, urging nuclear-armed states to respect relevant treaties, and supporting the establishment of new zones, such as in the Middle East. This effort reflects the global community’s ongoing push to reduce the nuclear threat and foster regional and global peace.

Kazakhstan’s historical commitment to disarmament

Kazakhstan’s vision for a nuclear-free world is deeply rooted in its leadership in global disarmament efforts. This vision is not just aspirational; it is grounded in the country’s lived experience of the devastating impact of nuclear weapons.  The Semipalatinsk Test Site in northeastern Kazakhstan, often referred to as “The Polygon,” was the site of 456 nuclear tests conducted by the Soviet Union between 1949 and 1989. These tests exposed over 1.5 million people to radiation, resulting in severe health consequences, including cancer and birth defects, as well as environmental degradation.

Kazakhstan’s dedication to disarmament is further highlighted by its initiative to establish August 29 as the International Day against Nuclear Tests, recognized by the United Nations. This date commemorates both the first Soviet nuclear test at Semipalatinsk in 1949 and the closure of the site in 1991, serving as a reminder of the horrors of nuclear testing and a call to action for the global community.

The Role of NWFZs in Global Security

NWFZs are critical components of the global nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament architecture. There are five established NWFZs, created through treaties: Treaty of Tlatelolco (Latin America and the Caribbean), Treaty of Rarotonga (South Pacific), Treaty of Bangkok (Southeast Asia), Treaty of Pelindaba (Africa), Treaty of Semey (Central Asia). In addition, Mongolia’s unique status as a self-declared nuclear-weapon-free state , recognized through a United Nations General Assembly resolution, exemplifies a national commitment to nuclear non-proliferation.

These zones prohibit the presence of nuclear weapons within their territories, reinforced by international verification and control systems. NWFZs play a crucial role in maintaining regional stability, reducing the risk of nuclear conflict, and promoting global disarmament.

Astana Workshop: A critical gathering for disarmament

The upcoming workshop in Astana is a critical opportunity for states-parties to the five NWFZ treaties, alongside representatives from international organizations, to engage in vital discussions aimed at overcoming the challenges facing these zones. This gathering is particularly timely, given the escalating geopolitical tensions in regions where nuclear capabilities remain central to national security.

Nuclear Weapon Free Zones. Photo credit: IAEA.

A key focus of the workshop will be on enhancing cooperation among the NWFZs, as outlined in the Secretary-General’s Agenda for Disarmament. This includes facilitating consultation between the zones and encouraging nuclear-armed states to adhere to the protocols of these treaties. The workshop builds on the 2019 seminar titled “Cooperation Among Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zones and Mongolia,” co-organized by UNODA and Kazakhstan in Nur-Sultan(Astana), which produced key recommendations aimed at revitalizing cooperation among NWFZs.

Participants will discuss strategies to advance the objectives of NWFZs, with an emphasis on strengthening security benefits for member states and fostering more robust consultation mechanisms. The workshop will also address the challenges posed by the reluctance of certain nuclear-armed states, particularly the United States, to ratify protocols related to several NWFZ treaties. Despite being a party to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), the U.S. has yet to ratify protocols to treaties covering the South Pacific (Treaty of Rarotonga), Africa (Treaty of Pelindaba), and Central Asia. This reluctance has impeded the full realization of the security benefits these zones could offer.

Kazakhstan’s leadership in the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW)

Kazakhstan’s role in nuclear disarmament extends beyond NWFZs to include leadership in the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (TPNW). In March 2025, Kazakhstan will host the third Meeting of State Parties to the TPNW at the United Nations, further solidifying its position as a champion of nuclear disarmament.

Kazakhstan has been a vocal advocate of the TPNW and has actively pushed for the creation of an international fund to support victims of nuclear testing and remediate environments affected by nuclear activities, in line with Articles 6 and 7 of the treaty.

The Vienna Action Plan , developed during the First Meeting of States Parties to the TPNW, outlines actions for implementing these articles, including exploring the feasibility of an international trust fund and encouraging affected states parties to assess the impacts of nuclear weapons use and testing and to develop national plans for implementation.

At the Second Meeting of States Parties (2MSP), co-chaired by Kazakhstan and Kiribati, progress was made, but challenges remain. The informal working group on victim assistance, environmental remediation, and international cooperation presented a report, and its mandate was renewed, with the goal of submitting recommendations for the establishment of an international trust fund at the 3rd Meeting of States Parties (3MSP). Kazakhstan’s leadership in this area underscores its commitment to addressing the humanitarian impacts of nuclear weapons, drawing from its own experience with the devastating consequences of nuclear testing at Semipalatinsk.

Civil Society’s Crucial Role

As a part of the two day event, Soka Gakkai International (SGI) from Japan and the Center for International Security and Policy (CISP) will hold a side event in the evening of  September 28 to screen the documentary “I Want to Live On: The Untold Stories of the Polygon,” highlighting the survivors of nuclear testing at Semipalatinsk. This documentary, produced by CISP with SGI’s support, was first shown at the UN during the second meeting of state parties to the TPNW in 2023. This side event is part of a broader initiative by SGI and Kazakhstan, which have co-organized several events focusing on the humanitarian consequences of nuclear weapons at the UN , Vienna , and Astana in recent years.

Also coinciding with the Astana workshop, t he International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons (ICAN) will hold a conference convening civil society organizations and activists including Hibakusha from some countries. This confluence of governmental and civil society efforts in Astana marks a significant moment in the global disarmament movement. While diplomats and state representatives discuss policy and cooperation during the official workshop, the parallel activities organized by civil society will amplify the humanitarian message and emphasize the urgent need for a world free of nuclear weapons.

As global tensions rise, the Astana workshop represents a beacon of hope, a critical moment in the global journey toward disarmament. Through cooperation, dialogue, and a shared commitment to peace, the dream of a world free of nuclear weapons remains within reach. Kazakhstan, with the support of the international community, is at the forefront of this vital effort.

The author is President of INPS Japan, Bureau Chief for Far East of London Post, Japan representative of Inter Press Service North America and The Nepali Times.

The article was originally published in INPS Japan media. 

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IAEA INIR mission: International and IAEA experts with representatives from Kazakhstan (Photo: the Department for Atomic and Energy Projects Development, Ministry of Energy, Republic of Kazakhstan)

An International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) team of experts has concluded an eight-day mission to Kazakhstan to review the country’s infrastructure development for a nuclear power programme. The Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review (INIR) mission was carried out at the invitation of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan.

Due to a desire to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, diversify primary energy sources and curtail greenhouse gas emissions, Kazakhstan is considering the potential role for nuclear power in the country’s energy mix.

The INIR team, in its closing meeting on 7 November 2016 in Astana, concluded that Kazakhstan has developed a considerable base of knowledge and experience in nuclear activities. The team made recommendations and suggestions aimed at assisting Kazakhstan in making further progress in its nuclear infrastructure development.

“Kazakhstan has undertaken several studies over a number of years and has developed a good understanding of all the infrastructure issues described in the IAEA Guide Milestones in the Development of a National Infrastructure for Nuclear Power,”  said team leader Milko Kovachev, Head of the IAEA’s Nuclear Infrastructure Development Section.

The INIR mission reviewed the status of 19 nuclear power programme infrastructure issues using the IAEA Nuclear Energy Series Technical Report (NG-T-3.2 Rev.1) Evaluation of the Status of National Infrastructure Development . Prior to the INIR mission, Kazakhstan prepared a Self-Evaluation Report covering all infrastructure issues using this evaluation methodology and submitted the report and other relevant supporting documents to the IAEA.

The INIR team, comprising international experts from the Russian Federation, Spain, the United Kingdom as well as  IAEA staff, highlighted areas where further action would benefit Kazakhstan, including:

• Developing a comprehensive report that summarizes the assessment of all nuclear infrastructure issues.
• Continuing the assessment of its legal and regulatory framework for the nuclear power programme.
• Ensuring that the key responsibilities and options with respect to spent fuel and radioactive waste management are developed.
• Developing a plan for establishing a competent owner/operator.

The team also identified three good practices that would benefit other countries considering the introduction of nuclear power:

• Early assignment of responsibilities for the development of the future owner/operator
• Use of a non-governmental organization to carry out stakeholder involvement activities including outreach to parliamentarians, visits to nuclear facilities and institutions in other countries and the early establishment of a nuclear information centre.
• Use of a government commission and an expert working group with representatives from all relevant institutions to review the initial site survey and to take into account lessons learned from the Fukushima Daiichi accident.

Kazakhstan, the world’s largest uranium producer, is developing capabilities to implement all stages of the front end of the nuclear fuel cycle. It has a well-developed scientific research base, including three research reactors in operation and several other nuclear installations. It also has 25 years of experience operating the BN-350 fast breeder reactor, which is currently under decommissioning. More than 80 percent of electricity in Kazakhstan is currently produced from fossil fuels.

Batyrzhan Karakozov, Director of the Department for Atomic and Energy Projects Development, in the Ministry of Energy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, welcomed the outcome of the INIR mission.  “The conclusions will be very useful to us. The discussions have given us new insight into some of the issues, which we had not noted previously,” he said.

About INIR Missions:

Integrated Nuclear Infrastructure Review missions enable IAEA Member State representatives to have in-depth discussions with international experts about experiences and best practices in different countries. In developing its recommendations, the INIR team takes into account the comments made by the relevant national organizations. Implementation of any of the team's recommendations is at the discretion of the Member State requesting the mission. The results of the INIR mission are expected to help the Member State to develop an action plan to fill any gaps, which in turn will help the development of the national nuclear infrastructure.

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• Division of Nuclear Power
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Nuclear Power in a Clean Energy System

About this report.

With nuclear power facing an uncertain future in many countries, the world risks a steep decline in its use in advanced economies that could result in billions of tonnes of additional carbon emissions. Some countries have opted out of nuclear power in light of concerns about safety and other issues. Many others, however, still see a role for nuclear in their energy transitions but are not doing enough to meet their goals.

The publication of the IEA's first report addressing nuclear power in nearly two decades brings this important topic back into the global energy debate.

Key findings

Nuclear power is the second-largest source of low-carbon electricity today.

Nuclear power is the second-largest source of low-carbon electricity today, with 452 operating reactors providing 2700 TWh of electricity in 2018, or 10% of global electricity supply.

In advanced economies, nuclear has long been the largest source of low-carbon electricity, providing 18% of supply in 2018. Yet nuclear is quickly losing ground. While 11.2 GW of new nuclear capacity was connected to power grids globally in 2018 – the highest total since 1990 – these additions were concentrated in China and Russia.

Global low-carbon power generation by source, 2018

Cumulative co2 emissions avoided by global nuclear power in selected countries, 1971-2018, an aging nuclear fleet.

In the absense of further lifetime extensions and new projects could result in an additional 4 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions, underlining the importance of the nuclear fleet to low-carbon energy transitions around the globe. In emerging and developing economies, particularly China, the nuclear fleet will provide low-carbon electricity for decades to come.

However the nuclear fleet in advanced economies is 35 years old on average and many plants are nearing the end of their designed lifetimes. Given their age, plants are beginning to close, with 25% of existing nuclear capacity in advanced economies expected to be shut down by 2025.

It is considerably cheaper to extend the life of a reactor than build a new plant, and costs of extensions are competitive with other clean energy options, including new solar PV and wind projects. Nevertheless they still represent a substantial capital investment. The estimated cost of extending the operational life of 1 GW of nuclear capacity for at least 10 years ranges from $500 million to just over $1 billion depending on the condition of the site.

However difficult market conditions are a barrier to lifetime extension investments. An extended period of low wholesale electricity prices in most advanced economies has sharply reduced or eliminated margins for many technologies, putting nuclear at risk of shutting down early if additional investments are needed. As such, the feasibility of extensions depends largely on domestic market conditions.

Age profile of nuclear power capacity in selected regions, 2019

United states, levelised cost of electricity in the united states, 2040, european union, levelised cost of electricity in the european union, 2040, levelised cost of electricity in japan, 2040, the nuclear fade case, nuclear capacity operating in selected advanced economies in the nuclear fade case, 2018-2040, wind and solar pv generation by scenario 2019-2040, policy recommendations.

In this context, countries that intend to retain the option of nuclear power should consider the following actions:

• Keep the option open:  Authorise lifetime extensions of existing nuclear plants for as long as safely possible. 
• Value dispatchability:  Design the electricity market in a way that properly values the system services needed to maintain electricity security, including capacity availability and frequency control services. Make sure that the providers of these services, including nuclear power plants, are compensated in a competitive and non-discriminatory manner.
• Value non-market benefits:  Establish a level playing field for nuclear power with other low-carbon energy sources in recognition of its environmental and energy security benefits and remunerate it accordingly.
• Update safety regulations:  Where necessary, update safety regulations in order to ensure the continued safe operation of nuclear plants. Where technically possible, this should include allowing flexible operation of nuclear power plants to supply ancillary services.
• Create a favourable financing framework:  Create risk management and financing frameworks that facilitate the mobilisation of capital for new and existing plants at an acceptable cost taking the risk profile and long time-horizons of nuclear projects into consideration.
• Support new construction:  Ensure that licensing processes do not lead to project delays and cost increases that are not justified by safety requirements.
• Support innovative new reactor designs:  Accelerate innovation in new reactor designs with lower capital costs and shorter lead times and technologies that improve the operating flexibility of nuclear power plants to facilitate the integration of growing wind and solar capacity into the electricity system.
• Maintain human capital:  Protect and develop the human capital and project management capabilities in nuclear engineering.

Executive summary

Nuclear power can play an important role in clean energy transitions.

Nuclear power today makes a significant contribution to electricity generation, providing 10% of global electricity supply in 2018.  In advanced economies 1 , nuclear power accounts for 18% of generation and is the largest low-carbon source of electricity. However, its share of global electricity supply has been declining in recent years. That has been driven by advanced economies, where nuclear fleets are ageing, additions of new capacity have dwindled to a trickle, and some plants built in the 1970s and 1980s have been retired. This has slowed the transition towards a clean electricity system. Despite the impressive growth of solar and wind power, the overall share of clean energy sources in total electricity supply in 2018, at 36%, was the same as it was 20 years earlier because of the decline in nuclear. Halting that slide will be vital to stepping up the pace of the decarbonisation of electricity supply.

A range of technologies, including nuclear power, will be needed for clean energy transitions around the world.  Global energy is increasingly based around electricity. That means the key to making energy systems clean is to turn the electricity sector from the largest producer of CO 2 emissions into a low-carbon source that reduces fossil fuel emissions in areas like transport, heating and industry. While renewables are expected to continue to lead, nuclear power can also play an important part along with fossil fuels using carbon capture, utilisation and storage. Countries envisaging a future role for nuclear account for the bulk of global energy demand and CO 2 emissions. But to achieve a trajectory consistent with sustainability targets – including international climate goals – the expansion of clean electricity would need to be three times faster than at present. It would require 85% of global electricity to come from clean sources by 2040, compared with just 36% today. Along with massive investments in efficiency and renewables, the trajectory would need an 80% increase in global nuclear power production by 2040.

Nuclear power plants contribute to electricity security in multiple ways.  Nuclear plants help to keep power grids stable. To a certain extent, they can adjust their operations to follow demand and supply shifts. As the share of variable renewables like wind and solar photovoltaics (PV) rises, the need for such services will increase. Nuclear plants can help to limit the impacts from seasonal fluctuations in output from renewables and bolster energy security by reducing dependence on imported fuels.

Lifetime extensions of nuclear power plants are crucial to getting the energy transition back on track

Policy and regulatory decisions remain critical to the fate of ageing reactors in advanced economies.  The average age of their nuclear fleets is 35 years. The European Union and the United States have the largest active nuclear fleets (over 100 gigawatts each), and they are also among the oldest: the average reactor is 35 years old in the European Union and 39 years old in the United States. The original design lifetime for operations was 40 years in most cases. Around one quarter of the current nuclear capacity in advanced economies is set to be shut down by 2025 – mainly because of policies to reduce nuclear’s role. The fate of the remaining capacity depends on decisions about lifetime extensions in the coming years. In the United States, for example, some 90 reactors have 60-year operating licenses, yet several have already been retired early and many more are at risk. In Europe, Japan and other advanced economies, extensions of plants’ lifetimes also face uncertain prospects.

Economic factors are also at play.  Lifetime extensions are considerably cheaper than new construction and are generally cost-competitive with other electricity generation technologies, including new wind and solar projects. However, they still need significant investment to replace and refurbish key components that enable plants to continue operating safely. Low wholesale electricity and carbon prices, together with new regulations on the use of water for cooling reactors, are making some plants in the United States financially unviable. In addition, markets and regulatory systems often penalise nuclear power by not pricing in its value as a clean energy source and its contribution to electricity security. As a result, most nuclear power plants in advanced economies are at risk of closing prematurely.

The hurdles to investment in new nuclear projects in advanced economies are daunting

What happens with plans to build new nuclear plants will significantly affect the chances of achieving clean energy transitions.  Preventing premature decommissioning and enabling longer extensions would reduce the need to ramp up renewables. But without new construction, nuclear power can only provide temporary support for the shift to cleaner energy systems. The biggest barrier to new nuclear construction is mobilising investment.  Plans to build new nuclear plants face concerns about competitiveness with other power generation technologies and the very large size of nuclear projects that require billions of dollars in upfront investment. Those doubts are especially strong in countries that have introduced competitive wholesale markets.

A number of challenges specific to the nature of nuclear power technology may prevent investment from going ahead.  The main obstacles relate to the sheer scale of investment and long lead times; the risk of construction problems, delays and cost overruns; and the possibility of future changes in policy or the electricity system itself. There have been long delays in completing advanced reactors that are still being built in Finland, France and the United States. They have turned out to cost far more than originally expected and dampened investor interest in new projects. For example, Korea has a much better record of completing construction of new projects on time and on budget, although the country plans to reduce its reliance on nuclear power.

Without nuclear investment, achieving a sustainable energy system will be much harder

A collapse in investment in existing and new nuclear plants in advanced economies would have implications for emissions, costs and energy security.  In the case where no further investments are made in advanced economies to extend the operating lifetime of existing nuclear power plants or to develop new projects, nuclear power capacity in those countries would decline by around two-thirds by 2040. Under the current policy ambitions of governments, while renewable investment would continue to grow, gas and, to a lesser extent, coal would play significant roles in replacing nuclear. This would further increase the importance of gas for countries’ electricity security. Cumulative CO 2 emissions would rise by 4 billion tonnes by 2040, adding to the already considerable difficulties of reaching emissions targets. Investment needs would increase by almost USD 340 billion as new power generation capacity and supporting grid infrastructure is built to offset retiring nuclear plants.

Achieving the clean energy transition with less nuclear power is possible but would require an extraordinary effort.  Policy makers and regulators would have to find ways to create the conditions to spur the necessary investment in other clean energy technologies. Advanced economies would face a sizeable shortfall of low-carbon electricity. Wind and solar PV would be the main sources called upon to replace nuclear, and their pace of growth would need to accelerate at an unprecedented rate. Over the past 20 years, wind and solar PV capacity has increased by about 580 GW in advanced economies. But in the next 20 years, nearly five times that much would need to be built to offset nuclear’s decline. For wind and solar PV to achieve that growth, various non-market barriers would need to be overcome such as public and social acceptance of the projects themselves and the associated expansion in network infrastructure. Nuclear power, meanwhile, can contribute to easing the technical difficulties of integrating renewables and lowering the cost of transforming the electricity system.

With nuclear power fading away, electricity systems become less flexible.  Options to offset this include new gas-fired power plants, increased storage (such as pumped storage, batteries or chemical technologies like hydrogen) and demand-side actions (in which consumers are encouraged to shift or lower their consumption in real time in response to price signals). Increasing interconnection with neighbouring systems would also provide additional flexibility, but its effectiveness diminishes when all systems in a region have very high shares of wind and solar PV.

Offsetting less nuclear power with more renewables would cost more

Taking nuclear out of the equation results in higher electricity prices for consumers.  A sharp decline in nuclear in advanced economies would mean a substantial increase in investment needs for other forms of power generation and the electricity network. Around USD 1.6 trillion in additional investment would be required in the electricity sector in advanced economies from 2018 to 2040. Despite recent declines in wind and solar costs, adding new renewable capacity requires considerably more capital investment than extending the lifetimes of existing nuclear reactors. The need to extend the transmission grid to connect new plants and upgrade existing lines to handle the extra power output also increases costs. The additional investment required in advanced economies would not be offset by savings in operational costs, as fuel costs for nuclear power are low, and operation and maintenance make up a minor portion of total electricity supply costs. Without widespread lifetime extensions or new projects, electricity supply costs would be close to USD 80 billion higher per year on average for advanced economies as a whole.

Strong policy support is needed to secure investment in existing and new nuclear plants

Countries that have kept the option of using nuclear power need to reform their policies to ensure competition on a level playing field.  They also need to address barriers to investment in lifetime extensions and new capacity. The focus should be on designing electricity markets in a way that values the clean energy and energy security attributes of low-carbon technologies, including nuclear power.

Securing investment in new nuclear plants would require more intrusive policy intervention given the very high cost of projects and unfavourable recent experiences in some countries.  Investment policies need to overcome financing barriers through a combination of long-term contracts, price guarantees and direct state investment.

Interest is rising in advanced nuclear technologies that suit private investment such as small modular reactors (SMRs).  This technology is still at the development stage. There is a case for governments to promote it through funding for research and development, public-private partnerships for venture capital and early deployment grants. Standardisation of reactor designs would be crucial to benefit from economies of scale in the manufacturing of SMRs.

Continued activity in the operation and development of nuclear technology is required to maintain skills and expertise.  The relatively slow pace of nuclear deployment in advanced economies in recent years means there is a risk of losing human capital and technical know-how. Maintaining human skills and industrial expertise should be a priority for countries that aim to continue relying on nuclear power.

The following recommendations are directed at countries that intend to retain the option of nuclear power. The IEA makes no recommendations to countries that have chosen not to use nuclear power in their clean energy transition and respects their choice to do so.

• Keep the option open:  Authorise lifetime extensions of existing nuclear plants for as long as safely possible.
• Value non-market benefits:  Establish a level playing field for nuclear power with other low carbon energy sources in recognition of its environmental and energy security benefits and remunerate it accordingly.
• Create an attractive financing framework:  Set up risk management and financing frameworks that can help mobilise capital for new and existing plants at an acceptable cost, taking the risk profile and long time horizons of nuclear projects into consideration.
• Support new construction:  Ensure that licensing processes do not lead to project delays and cost increases that are not justified by safety requirements. Support standardisation and enable learning-by-doing across the industry.
• Support innovative new reactor designs:  Accelerate innovation in new reactor designs, such as small modular reactors (SMRs), with lower capital costs and shorter lead times and technologies that improve the operating flexibility of nuclear power plants to facilitate the integration of growing wind and solar capacity into the electricity system.

Advanced economies consist of Australia, Canada, Chile, the 28 members of the European Union, Iceland, Israel, Japan, Korea, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland, Turkey and the United States.

Reference 1

Cite report.

IEA (2019), Nuclear Power in a Clean Energy System , IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/reports/nuclear-power-in-a-clean-energy-system, Licence: CC BY 4.0

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• Alternative Energy

RFE/RL staff

RFE/RL journalists report the news in 21 countries where a free press is banned by the government or not fully established. We provide what many…

Trending Discussions

Premium content, kazakhstan's nuclear referendum faces growing opposition.

• Kazakhstan is holding public hearings on a proposed nuclear power plant, but critics say the events are staged and pro-nuclear.
• The government claims nuclear power is needed to address energy shortages, but opponents cite safety concerns and Russia's potential involvement.
• Anti-nuclear activists have been detained and silenced, and a referendum on the issue is expected to be held soon.

The world's largest uranium producer is another step closer to building a nuclear power plant.

The format differed little from the discussions held in other cities.

Official presentations focused only on the perceived advantages of nuclear power, while those wishing to ask questions were allocated just two minutes to speak.

After that time had elapsed, the microphone was turned off and those who continued speaking were ushered away.

Some critics never even made it to the venue.

Antinuclear activist Meiirkhan Abdimanapov was fined 129,000 tenges ($270) after being detained in Almaty on August 19 ahead of his trip to Astana.

The official reason for the detention was his participation in an unsanctioned rally six months before.

But he argued that the real reason was to prevent him from repeating his performance at the public hearing in Kazakhstan's largest city on August 16, when he decried the exercise as "an advert for a nuclear power plant."

Then there was the struggle witnessed by journalists from RFE/RL's Kazakh Service inside the Radisson Hotel in Astana, where the August 20 hearing was held.

"What is it that you were saying about speaking freely while at the same time not letting people in?" complained activist Nagizhan Toleubaev as minders at the event tried to bar him from entering the event's main room.

"Didn't the president himself want the issue to be put to public discussion? How do you explain your actions?"

Despite these apparent attempts to manage attendance, the hearings that began last year on the shores of Lake Balkhash -- near the prospective nuclear facility's likely location -- have still witnessed plenty of emotional speeches.

Toleubaev, who was eventually admitted into the question-and-answer session, warned authorities that "future generations will damn you" if the nuclear power plant goes ahead. He was subsequently dragged from the mic by well-built men standing nearby.

And opposition will surely only grow louder as the referendum, which pro-nuclear President Qasym-Zhomart Toqaev has not yet set a date for, gets closer.

But why is his administration heading down this contentious path?

An apparently widening energy deficit is certainly one reason. But another might be nudging from its overbearing ally Russia, which many view as a shoo-in to build the plant.

Rosatom: First Among Equals?

As government-affiliated experts at the public hearings argued, nuclear power is a cleaner form of power generation than the coal-heated and often aging thermal power plants that most Kazakh cities still rely on.

Yet it is also more controversial, and not just because of renewed anxieties around nuclear power in general, after the accident at the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant in Japan in 2011.

The human and environmental consequences of those tests can still be seen today.

Another source of anxiety, referenced by at least one speaker at the Astana event, is the danger posed by a nuclear power plant in a potential conflict scenario.

Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine saw Russian forces surround and occupy the Zaporizhzhya nuclear power plant -- Europe's largest -- in eastern Ukraine early in the war.

In this sense, the territorial threats issued regularly against Kazakhstan by Russian politicians and pundits after Astana failed to support Moscow's invasion have done little to make the idea of a Russian-built nuclear facility appealing.

"A country whose military illegally occupies the nuclear facilities of another sovereign state and creates unprecedented nuclear risks cannot be seen as a reliable partner in the nuclear field," nuclear politics expert Togzhan Kassenova told RFE/RL.

That along with the complications that Western sanctions against Russia could pose to a Russian-led nuclear project in Kazakhstan mean that its nuclear energy giant, Rosatom, "should be a nonstarter for political and practical reasons," argued Kassenova, who is the author of the book Atomic Steppe: How Kazakhstan Gave Up The Bomb.

Tet the government has suggested otherwise.

In 2023 -- before Toqaev said a referendum on the construction of a nuclear plant would be held – the Kazakh Energy Ministry said Rosatom was one of four contractors whose reactors were under consideration for the plant, with EDF of France, the China National Nuclear Corporation, and South Korea's Korea Hydro & Nuclear Power the other three.

In the past, Kazakh authorities have floated the rather hopeful idea of an international consortium to build the potential plant.

But skeptics of the idea that Russian leadership of the project is not inevitable don't have to look far.

In next-door Uzbekistan, then-Energy Minister Zhurabek Mirzamahmudov stated in November that Uzbek authorities were examining the "experience and technology" of other countries and not just Russia, with whom Uzbekistan had already held talks on building a nuclear power plant.

But Tashkent and Moscow subsequently reached an agreement for a Russian-built, small nuclear power plant (SMR) when Russian leader Vladimir Putin visited the Central Asian country for talks in May.

In Kazakhstan, Moscow and Astana are already cooperating in the nuclear realm in higher education.

Among the young supporters of nuclear power in Astana last week was a collective of students and graduates of the Almaty branch of the National Research Nuclear University (NRNU).

The NRNU opened an affiliate on the grounds of the Al-Farabi Kazakh National University in 2022 -- more than a year before Toqaev said the nuclear power plant plan would be put to a national vote.

'A Test Of Patriotism’

Few doubt that the Kazakh referendum will deliver a "yes," despite visible opposition.

The campaign in favor of nuclear power enjoys the resources of the state.

Naysayers, meanwhile, complain they have been repeatedly refused permission from city councils to hold protests against the proposed plant.

Yet for many citizens, there are some compelling arguments in favor of nuclear power.

In Ulken, where the first public hearing on the project was held in August 2023, some residents expressed enthusiasm for the plant's capacity to generate local jobs for a depressed region, even as Balkhash fishermen raised alarm over the future of their industry.

Nationally, and especially in the provinces, power shortages are a growing problem with high consumption in the densely populated south taking a heavy toll on the national grid.

Last year, Kazakhstan's state-run Samruk Energy company projected the national power deficit could double to reach 3 gigawatts by 2029.

Kazakhstan's future nuclear power plant is projected to be significantly larger in terms of capacity than Uzbekistan's in-progress 330-megawatt version -- a downsize on the plant that Tashkent had originally intended to build.

At an event held by antinuclear activists in Almaty in September, speakers acknowledged that villagers who suffer regular outages might be easily convinced of the benefits of nuclear power.

What the government has not done, they said, is present the population with viable and clean alternatives to the plant, such as ramping up of wind and solar production.

The referendum moved a step closer on August 27, when Energy Minister Almasadam Satkaliev issued a proposal for a presidential decree on holding a nationwide vote at a government meeting, which was backed unanimously.

Toqaev, who earlier promised that the referendum would be held in the fall, is expected to name a date imminently.

Blaming "independent bloggers" and media for stirring up criticism of the nuclear plans, Satkaliev said a Kazakh citizen's position on nuclear power was a "test" of "intellect…patriotism…decency," with opponents apparently failing on all three counts.

Nuclear power was needed for "the next frontier, for the development of the economy and science, so that the country reaches a new civilizational level of development," Satkaliev added.

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