research report index

What Is a Journal Index, and Why is Indexation Important?

• Research Process
• Peer Review

A journal index, or a list of journals organized by discipline, subject, region and other factors, can be used by other researchers to search for studies and data on certain topics. As an author, publishing your research in an indexed journal increases the credibility and visibility of your work. Here we help you to understand journal indexing better - as well as benefit from it.

Updated on May 13, 2022

A journal index, also called a ‘bibliographic index' or ‘bibliographic database', is a list of journals organized by discipline, subject, region or other factors.

Journal indexes can be used to search for studies and data on certain topics. Both scholars and the general public can search journal indexes.

Journals in indexes have been reviewed to ensure they meet certain criteria. These criteria may include:

• Ethics and peer review policies
• Assessment criteria for submitted articles
• Editorial board transparency

What is a journal index?

Indexed journals are important, because they are often considered to be of higher scientific quality than non-indexed journals. You should aim for publication in an indexed journal for this reason. AJE's Journal Guide journal selection tool can help you find one.

Journal indexes are created by different organizations, such as:

• Public bodies- For example, PubMed is maintained by the United States National Library of Medicine. PubMed is the largest index for biomedical publications.
• Analytic companies- For example: the Web of Science Core Collection is maintained by Clarivate Analytics. The WOS Core Collection includes journals indexed in the following sub-indexes: (1) Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE); (2) Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI); (3) Arts & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI); (4) Emerging Sources Citation Index.
• Publishers- For example, Scopus is owned by Elsevier and maintained by the Scopus Content Selection and Advisory Board . Scopus includes journals in all disciplines, but the majority are science and technology journals.

Key types of journal indexes

You can choose from a range of journal indexes. Some are broad and are considered “general indexes”. Others are specific to certain fields and are considered “specialized indexes”.

For example:

• The Science Citation Index Expanded includes mostly science and technology journals
• The Arts & Humanities Citation Index includes mostly arts and humanities journals
• PubMed includes mostly biomedical journals
• The Emerging Sources Citation Index includes journals in all disciplines

Which index you choose will depend on your research subject area.

Some indexes, such as Web of Science , include journals from many countries. Others, such as the Chinese Academy of Science indexing system , are specific to certain countries or regions.

Choosing the type of index may depend on factors such as university or grant requirements.

Some indexes are open to the public, while others require a subscription. Many people searching for research papers will start with free search engines, such as Google Scholar , or free journal indexes, such as the Web of Science Master Journal List . Publishing in a journal in one or more free indexes increases the chance of your article being seen.

Journals in subscription-based indexes are generally considered high-quality journals. If the status of the journal is important, choose a journal in one or more subscription-based indexes.

Most journals belong to more than one index. To improve the visibility and impact of your article, choose a journal featured in multiple indexes.

How does journal indexing work?

All journals are checked for certain criteria before being added to an index. Each index has its own set of rules, but basic publishing standards include the following:

• An International Standard Serial Number (ISSN). ISSNs are unique to each journal and indicate that the journal publishes issues on a recurring basis.
• An established publishing schedule.
• Digital Object Identifiers (DOIs) . DOIs are unique letter/number codes assigned to digital objects. The benefit of a DOI is that it will never change, unlike a website link.
• Copyright requirements. A copyright policy helps protect your work and outlines the rules for the use or sharing of your work, whether it's copyrighted or has some form of creative commons licensing .
• Other requirements can include conflict of interest statements, ethical approval statements, an editorial board listed on the website, and published peer review policies.

To be included in an index, a journal must submit an application and undergo an audit by the indexation board. Index board members (called auditors) will confirm certain information, such as the full listing of the editorial board on the website, the inclusion of ethics statements in published articles, established appeal and retraction processes, and more.

Why is journal indexing important?

As an author, publishing your research in an indexed journal increases the credibility and visibility of your work. Indexed journals are generally considered to be of higher scientific quality than non-indexed journals.

With the growth of fully open access journals and online-only journals, recognizing “predatory” journals and their publishers has become difficult. Indexing a journal in one or more well-known databases is a good sign the journal is credible.

Moreover, more and more institutions are requiring publication in an indexed journal as a requirement for graduation, promotion, or grant funding.

As an author, it is important to ensure that your research is seen by as many eyes as possible. Index databases are often the first places scholars and the public will search for specific information. Publishing a paper in a non-indexed journal could be harmful in this context.

However, there are some exceptions, such as medical case reports.

Many journals don't accept medical case reports because they don't have high citation rates. However, several primary and secondary journals have been created specifically for case reports. Examples include the primary journal, BMC Medical Case Reports, and the secondary journal, European Heart Journal - Case Reports.

While many of these journals are indexed, they may not be indexed in the major indexes, though they are still highly acceptable journals.

Open access and indexation

With the recent increase in open access publishing, many journals have started offering an open access option. Other journals are completely open access, meaning they do not offer a traditional subscription service.

Open access journals have many benefits, such as:

• High visibility. Anyone can access and read your paper.
• Publication speed. It is generally quicker to post an article online than to publish it in a traditional journal format.

Identifying credible open access journals

Open access has made it easier for predatory journal publishers to attract unsuspecting or new authors. These predatory journal publishers often publish any article for a fee without peer review and with questionable ethical and copyright policies. Here we show you eight ways to spot predatory open access journals .

One way to identify credible open access journals is their index status. However, be aware that some predatory journals will falsely list indexes or display logos on their website. It is good practice to make sure the journal is indexed on the index's website before submitting your article to that journal.

Major journal indexing services

There are several journal indexes out there. Some of the most popular indexes are as follows:

Life Sciences and Hard Sciences

• Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) Master Journal List
• Engineering Index
• Web of Science (now published by Clarivate Analytics, formerly by ISI and Thomson Reuters)
• Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)

Humanities and Social Sciences

• Arts & Humanities Citation Index (AHCI) Master Journal List
• Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) Master Journal List

Indexation and impact factors

It is easy to assume that indexed journals will have higher impact factors, but indexation and impact factor are unrelated.

Many credible journals don't have impact factors, but they are indexed in several well-known indexes. Therefore, the lack of an impact factor may not accurately represent the credibility of a journal.

Of course, impact factors may be important for other reasons, such as institutional requirements or grant funding. Read this authoritative piece on the uses, importance, and limitations of impact factors .

Final Thoughts

Selecting an indexed journal is an important part of the publication journey. Indexation can tell you a lot about a journal. Publishing in an indexed journal can increase the visibility and credibility of your research. If you're having trouble selecting a journal for publication, consider learning more about AJE's journal recommendation service .

Catherine Zettel Nalen, MS

Academic Editor, Specialist, and Journal Recommendation Team Lead

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• Citable Docs. (3years)
• Total Cites (3years)

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	Title	Type
1		journal	106.094 Q1	211	49	124	4844	35427	89	381.89	98.86	43.95
2		journal	37.044 Q1	39	3	13	897	955	13	100.11	299.00	27.78
3		journal	35.910 Q1	508	123	336	11462	13599	153	34.50	93.19	29.41
4		journal	30.448 Q1	306	47	136	3645	2240	136	11.14	77.55	26.67
5		journal	26.837 Q1	505	105	304	10805	10951	163	31.23	102.90	44.33
6		journal	24.342 Q1	892	439	1496	32820	53447	1207	31.30	74.76	40.19
7		journal	22.399 Q1	391	239	731	8584	13091	153	19.72	35.92	34.15
8		journal	22.344 Q1	359	95	353	6242	4811	351	10.33	65.71	23.89
9		journal	21.836 Q1	184	117	335	8842	13775	196	31.17	75.57	26.86
10		journal	21.048 Q1	217	127	400	9888	10807	183	28.36	77.86	38.85
11		journal	20.544 Q1	1184	1388	4522	14603	107246	1824	21.69	10.52	38.26
12		journal	19.139 Q1	352	83	227	5043	1938	221	7.00	60.76	16.91
13		journal	19.045 Q1	630	595	1363	16478	36243	729	27.23	27.69	43.99
14		journal	18.663 Q1	71	0	19	0	963	19	0.00	0.00	0.00
15		journal	18.587 Q1	23	11	16	0	802	16	47.57	0.00	81.69
16		journal	18.530 Q1	215	83	261	4493	2531	258	7.04	54.13	17.80
17		journal	18.509 Q1	1391	3770	8037	74917	160102	3840	19.40	19.87	38.12
18		journal	18.117 Q1	511	485	1066	13393	17008	461	13.24	27.61	35.19
19		journal	17.828 Q1	833	271	851	115878	50519	819	49.76	427.59	30.50
20		journal	17.701 Q1	223	75	273	3371	1946	268	6.24	44.95	13.84
21		journal	17.654 Q1	234	108	410	6448	4495	409	8.04	59.70	16.43
22		journal	17.507 Q1	398	178	590	11546	12604	360	19.83	64.87	41.91
23		journal	17.497 Q1	229	229	609	6629	16808	379	26.18	28.95	29.53
24		journal	17.300 Q1	639	336	654	13672	13100	504	19.88	40.69	37.01
25		journal	16.061 Q1	388	36	103	14097	4303	99	42.66	391.58	14.94
26		journal	16.009 Q1	467	169	540	11148	13815	304	23.17	65.96	36.44
27		journal	15.966 Q1	264	102	252	19168	11266	244	38.64	187.92	24.30
28		journal	15.827 Q1	140	106	297	4359	4041	62	12.99	41.12	41.35
29		journal	15.620 Q1	328	23	84	4178	2696	83	27.02	181.65	40.68
30		journal	14.943 Q1	115	16	42	403	896	41	24.10	25.19	77.78
31		journal	14.796 Q1	388	400	978	11477	15900	588	17.52	28.69	33.83
32		journal	14.780 Q1	123	0	13	0	374	11	12.56	0.00	0.00
33		journal	14.707 Q1	32	46	35	4815	2160	34	61.71	104.67	36.44
34		journal	14.618 Q1	160	70	247	587	5353	230	21.11	8.39	58.79
35		journal	14.605 Q1	109	23	72	5797	1938	70	14.90	252.04	45.57
36		journal	14.577 Q1	419	262	637	10044	17562	466	27.42	38.34	28.93
37		journal	14.293 Q1	421	123	346	10202	6211	207	17.40	82.94	32.86
38		journal	14.231 Q1	558	306	834	9499	20730	593	24.08	31.04	24.85
39		journal	14.175 Q1	210	28	92	3163	1260	86	10.59	112.96	42.59
40		journal	13.942 Q1	294	144	670	5180	12698	362	18.81	35.97	39.02
41		book series	13.670 Q1	210	14	42	3772	1271	39	23.96	269.43	26.09
42		journal	13.655 Q1	311	89	563	4857	6315	559	11.14	54.57	23.11
43		journal	13.609 Q1	165	93	250	5332	1699	250	6.02	57.33	15.88
44		journal	13.578 Q1	455	233	688	15608	13409	550	16.89	66.99	40.35
45		journal	13.315 Q1	136	180	471	6682	12109	368	24.27	37.12	26.28
46		journal	13.080 Q1	260	243	827	1865	14374	679	16.58	7.67	62.53
47		journal	12.511 Q1	635	252	983	61439	44032	979	38.71	243.81	32.40
48		journal	12.324 Q1	81	55	137	2838	862	137	6.20	51.60	17.36
49		journal	12.294 Q1	46	62	154	8174	4174	86	27.10	131.84	31.14
50		journal	12.288 Q1	44	60	79	4858	3323	78	42.06	80.97	33.06

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Guide to academic journal indexing: Where, when, and how to get indexed

Researchers overwhelmingly rely on scholarly indexes to find vetted academic content online. So to develop and improve the reputation and discoverability of any journal, getting it added to trusted abstracting and indexing (A&I) databases is essential.

Most journal publishers and editors know this, but how to go about seeking inclusion in indexes isn’t always as clear.

Which indexes should you add your journal articles to? What are the indexing criteria you’ll need to fulfill? When should you apply for target indexes? In what order? And how can you keep improving your content discoverability once admitted to indexes?

In this blog post, we answer these common indexing questions and more, covering everything you need to know to initiate and keep building upon a successful journal indexing strategy. Feel free to use the section links below to skip ahead based on where you are in your indexing journey.

Getting started: Understanding academic journal indexes

Key journal index types to consider and the benefits of each, how to develop an indexing strategy for one or more titles, key journal indexing criteria, navigating the journal indexing application process, tips for optimizing your article indexing outcomes, putting it all together.

Before we get into the nitty gritty of indexing, let’s start with some basics. What are journal indexes? Or, more specifically, how are we defining journal indexes for the purposes of this blog post?

Per this Walden University Library guide :

“An index is a list of items pulled together for a purpose. Journal indexes (also called bibliographic indexes or bibliographic databases) are lists of journals, organized by discipline, subject, or type of publication.”

Of course, mainstream search engines like Google and Bing also index content, but they do not fit the definition of an academic journal index. So we won’t get into them here.

However, with that said, many scholars use mainstream search engines in their research and want to know that their articles will be discoverable from them. So don’t forget to prioritize search engine optimization (SEO) with scholarly indexing. We cover everything you need to know about journal SEO for mainstream and academic search engines in this blog post .

Now, on to the primary types of academic journal indexes to consider (per the definition above).

Before embarking on any journal indexing initiative, we recommend developing a target list of the indexes you’d like your journal or journals to be part of to get a bird’s-eye view of your ultimate goal. The more quality indexes you identify, the better, as inclusion in multiple indexes will help expand your articles’ reach and potential impacts while boosting the reputation of your journal(s).

From there, you can map out an indexing strategy based on your discovery goals and the specific criteria of the indexes you’re interested in ( more on how to do this later ). For example, Scopus requires journals to have a 2+ year publication history. So if you’re working with a new journal, you’ll logistically have to wait for at least two years before applying to that index, whereas; you’ll be able to seek inclusion in other indexes like Google Scholar sooner.

Below we outline the index types to consider and the benefits of each.

Scholarly search engines and aggregators

One of the best starting points for journal indexing is scholarly search engines and aggregators, many of which are freely available to researchers and the general public and often have less stringent inclusion criteria with regard to publication history, citation counts, and so forth.

The top academic search engine to focus on is Google Scholar , Google’s free crawler-based academic index. You can find our complete guide to Google Scholar indexing here . We also cover how to improve your chances of showing up higher in Google Scholar search results in our guide to journal SEO . You may have also heard of the Microsoft Academic search engine, but that was discontinued in December 2021.

Scholarly aggregator options with search functionality include Semantic Scholar , Dimensions , Lens , and CORE . Aggregators like these pull in content from other trusted academic databases, with the Crossref content registration agency being a prime source. So one of the best starting points for getting a new journal indexed is applying for Crossref membership and registering Digital Object Identifiers or DOIs for all the articles you publish. We cover how to apply for DOIs here and how to leverage the discovery benefits of Crossref in this webinar .

Registering DOIs for all articles is among the most common indexing application requirements, as discussed below. So it’s a good idea to apply for DOIs early on for new journals.

General scholarly archiving and indexing databases

In addition to getting indexed in scholarly search engines and aggregators, you’ll obviously want to seek inclusion in dedicated academic indexing databases, also known as abstracting and indexing databases or A&Is. You can apply to add your journal(s) to indexing databases that cover multiple disciplines as well as discipline-specific or “specialized” A&Is.

Many aggregators also ingest content directly from partner A&Is or require journals to be admitted to specific A&Is before being eligible to be included in their search results as a means of quality control, so applying to A&Is can help your articles appear in aggregator search results as well. For example, Semantic Scholar only indexes journals already in the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), and the National Institute of Health’s (NIH) free scholarly search engine PubMed pulls in all of its content from the NIH’s archiving and indexing databases MEDLINE and PubMed Central (PMC). So to be included in PubMed search, journals must be accepted to one of those databases first. You can learn more about the relationship between the NIH’s databases and how to apply to PMC and/or MEDLINE to be added to PubMed Search in this blog post .

There will be myriad indexing options for every journal, ranging from government and institutional indexes to commercial indexes run by publishers and data analytics companies. We obviously can’t cover every possible index in this blog post. But we’ve done our best to compile a list of some of the most widely-used and reputable general scholarly A&Is below (we cover top discipline-specific A&Is in the next section):

• The Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ): The DOAJ is a non-profit community-curated online directory of peer-reviewed open-access journals. If you’re jumpstarting indexing for a new OA journal, we recommend beginning with the DOAJ because it’s a trusted OA index that various scholarly aggregators use as a data source. We compiled a complete guide to DOAJ indexing here . The DOAJ is a free-access index.
• Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory : Ulrich’s is a leading library directory and database with information about academic journals and serial publications around the world that is part of Clarivate. Ulrich’s is a subscription-access index.
• Scopus : Scopus is Elsevier’s abstract and citation database. It covers over 36,000 titles, spanning the life sciences, social sciences, physical sciences, and health sciences. You can read our guide to Scopus indexing here and a case study with the editors of Precision Nanomedicine , a Scholastica customer, about their experience getting indexed in Scopus here . Scopus is a subscription-access index.
• Web of Science : WoS is Clarivate’s abstract and citation database. Its Core Collection encompasses six citation indexes in the sciences, social sciences, and humanities and collectively contains more than a billion searchable citations spanning over 250 disciplines. We compiled a complete guide to WoS indexing here . WoS is a subscription-access index.
• EBSCO Information Services : EBSCO is a commercial index and aggregator that includes titles compiled by the company and journals from other databases, such as MEDLINE . EBSCO is a subscription-access index.
• JSTOR : JSTOR is a digital library database that covers over 12 million journal articles, books, images, and primary sources in 75 disciplines. They are best known for hosting digitized content from journal back files, books, and other resources. They now publish journals willing to host articles solely on the JSTOR platform.
• SciELO (Scientific Electronic Library Online) : SciELO is a bibliographic database, digital library, and cooperative electronic publishing model for OA journals created to support the publication and increase the visibility of OA research in developing countries. SciELO is a free-access index.
• Cabell’s : This last one is a little different. Rather than being an index readers use to find content, Cabell’s is a directory researchers use to determine which journals will be the best fit to publish in. Of course, attracting more high-quality submissions can also help journals expand their impact and reach, so it’s a good idea to pursue Cabell’s indexing. Cabell’s is a subscription-access index.

Discipline-specific or “specialized” indexes and search engines

Of course, the discipline-specific indexes you choose to apply to will depend on the subject area(s) your journals cover. If you’re unsure which indexes are the most widely used in a given journal’s discipline or across interdisciplinary areas, start to ask around. Query your authors, editors, reviewers, and readers to learn which discipline-specific databases they use.

There are many discipline-specific databases out there to look into. And some broader databases contain discipline-specific segments. For example, the Web of Science Core Collection includes the Science Citation Index Expanded , Social Sciences Citation Index , and Arts & Humanities Citation Index .

Other top discipline-specific or “specialized” indexes include the ones listed below.

STEM journals:

• PubMed Central (PMC): PMC is a digital repository that archives OA full-text articles published in biomedical and life sciences journals. PMC is a free-access index with search functionality. PubMed aggregates articles from PMC. So Applying to PMC is the fastest way to be included in PubMed Search, as explained in this guide .
• MEDLINE : This is the National Library of Medicine’s (NLM) bibliographic database of life sciences and biomedical research. MEDLINE is a free-access index searchable via PubMed.
• PsycInfo : PsycInfo is the American Psychological Association’s abstracting and indexing database, with over three million records of peer-reviewed literature in the behavioral sciences and mental health fields. PsycInfo is a subscription-access index.
• MathSciNet : MathSciNet is the American Mathematical Society’s searchable online bibliographic database containing over three million records of peer-reviewed literature. It is a subscription-access index.

Humanities and Social Sciences (HSS) journals:

• Project MUSE : MUSE is an index of humanities and social sciences content, including journals, which only indexes content published by a not-for-profit press or scholarly society.
• MLA Directory of Periodicals : This is a searchable list of publication information about the journals included in the MLA International Bibliography.
• EconLit : The American Economic Association’s A&I focused on literature in the field of economics.

For more journal indexing options, check out Wikipedia’s list here and Nature’s list of indexes that their journals are part of here . The University of Miami Library also has a comprehensive list of indexes here .

Pro Tip: As a rule of thumb, if your journal is an OA publication, it’s a good idea to make getting added to the DOAJ a priority. The DOAJ is one of the top general indexing databases in terms of use and reputability that journals can usually apply for relatively early in their publication life. With over 12,000 journal members, over 1.2 million visitors a month, and a continually updating stream of journal metadata ingested by leading discovery services across disciplines, the DOAJ is a powerful platform for journal awareness.

Once you know the indexes you want to pursue, it’s time to map out your indexing strategy. Indexes will have varying levels of inclusion criteria (e.g., publication and technical standards journals must fulfill), so it’s a good idea to make a gradual indexing plan. Start with low-hanging fruit indexes that you can have your journal(s) added to early on, and then build up to more selective cross-discipline and discipline-specific/“specialized” scholarly databases such as Scopus and MEDLINE.

Of course, the more highly vetted an index is, the more trustworthy it will be to scholars. So journals should keep working to apply to more stringent databases as they mature and become eligible. Don’t just stop at a few!

When weighing your indexing options, consider the level of article discovery benefits different indexes will offer. For example, some databases only index article titles, abstracts, and/or references. Whereas some index entire article files. Generally, indexes that ingest more article details or the full text will be better for expanding content discoverability since they’ll have more information to go off of when deciding if and when to show your articles in search results. They also offer a more direct search experience for researchers.

As seen in the previous section, indexes also offer different levels of accessibility, with some being freely available to anyone interested in searching them, like Google Scholar and PubMed search, and others requiring a subscription, like Scopus and Web of Science. For open access (OA) journals especially, ensuring articles are easy to find via free online indexes, not just subscription databases, is paramount to maximizing content accessibility.

Pro Tip: When developing your indexing strategy, don’t forget to account for application review timelines. While some indexes review journals on a rolling basis, others only review applications at certain times throughout the year. So that will also factor into when you’ll be eligible for different indexes.

As you’re considering possible indexes to apply to, you’ll obviously want to start by visiting their application requirements pages and reading them thoroughly. Doing a quick Google search for “[index name] application criteria” or “how to get indexed in [index name]” will usually get you there. If you’re having trouble finding an index’s application criteria, you can also always visit their help/contact page to find a support email to write to for guidance.

Now, onto indexing application criteria journals should fulfill.

As noted, reputable scholarly search engines, aggregators, and A&Is have admittance standards and often require journals to undergo an application process before being eligible for inclusion.

Here, we cover the most common indexing application criteria moving from basics to more stringent requirements. These are all publishing best practices, so you should aim to fulfill them regardless of which indexes you decide to pursue.

Publication standards

Starting with publication standards (e.g., journal details, editorial policies, etc.), in good news, many requirements will essentially be the same across scholarly indexes. Some of the most common publication criteria include that all journals should have:

• An International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
• Digital Object Identifiers or DOIs for all articles ( Crossref is the leading DOI registration agency for journals)
• A dedicated editorial board page with the names, titles, and institutional affiliations of all editors
• Clearly stated peer review policies , including an overview of the journal’s peer review process (e.g., type, stages of review) and statements on publication ethics
• An established publishing schedule (e.g., bi-monthly, rolling)
• An established copyright policy (e.g., CC BY for fully OA journals)

From there, indexes may have more specific additional guidelines. For example, some indexes require journals, particularly those that publish online only, to show that their articles are being added to an archive (this is also a general best practice !). Other specific indexing requirements may include guidelines around:

• Publication scope: While many indexes accept journals in all disciplines or within a broad set of disciplinary areas, such as the humanities and social sciences, some only accept journals that publish within a particular subject area.
• Minimum publication history: Some indexes require publishers and/or journals to be around for a minimum amount of time before applying. For example, MEDLINE only accepts applications from organizations that have published scholarly content for two years or more.
• Level of publishing professionalization: Some indexes also look at the readability of published articles (e.g., level of editing) and production quality.
• Geographic diversity: Some indexes look to see that journals have geographically diverse editorial boards and authors.
• Adequate citations: Some indexes will not accept journals until they meet a certain citation-level threshold to demonstrate impact.

Technical requirements

In addition to publication standards like those outlined above, many scholarly search engines, aggregators, and indexes require or encourage journals to meet specific technical criteria for content ingestion.

First, it’s helpful to understand the three main ways scholarly search engines, aggregators, and A&Is ingest content:

• Web crawlers: Some scholarly search engines like Google Scholar index journal articles via web crawlers or bots that systematically scan websites for content. For crawlers to be able to find and index articles, publishers must apply machine-readable metadata to all article pages via HTML meta tags and maintain a website structure that complies with the search engine’s requirements. For example, Google Scholar will only index articles hosted on their own webpage with HTML meta tags. You can learn more about Google Scholar’s technical inclusion criteria here .
• Metadata/content deposits: Many indexes do not have web crawlers and instead require content deposits. In this case, publishers must submit article-level metadata and/or full-text article files to the index. Some indexes have forms for making manual metadata deposits. However, many require journals to directly deposit machine-readable metadata and/or full-text article files into the index via an FTP server or API integration. Making machine-readable metadata/article deposits is also a best practice because machine-readable metadata files are generally richer, more uniform, and less prone to inaccuracies than metadata input manually. JATS XML is the standard machine-readable format for journal metadata/article files. JATS, which was developed by the National Information Standards Organization (NISO), stands for Journal Article Tag Suite.
• Cascading metadata: As noted above, some scholarly aggregators automatically ingest content from other trusted academic databases such as the Crossref content registration service and DOAJ index.

At a minimum, journals should aim to produce front-matter JATS XML article-level metadata files that include:

• Journal publisher
• Journal issue details (e.g., publication date and volume/issue number)
• Journal title
• Article title
• Author names
• Copyright license
• Persistent Identifiers or PIDs (e.g., Digital Object Identifier, ORCID iD, ROR ID)

Once journals have the above core metadata fields, they can work to continue enriching their metadata outputs. We cover five elements of “richer” metadata to prioritize in this blog post .

Some databases also require full-text XML article files like PMC, which has specific JATS XML formatting guidelines.

We cover JATS XML 101 in this blog post and the what, why, and how of producing JATS XML in this webinar .

Producing XML in the JATS standard can get quite technical, but thankfully, there are software and services that can help. For example, Scholastica’s digital-first production service generates full-text JATS XML articles with rich metadata, and our fully-OA journal publishing platform features JATS XML metadata on all article pages.

From publication standards to technical requirements, most indexing criteria will be straightforward in nature. But fulfilling them will require a high level of attention to detail. That’s why, in all of your indexing endeavors, it’s so so so important to take your time!

Read indexing applications carefully, then re-read them again — we can’t emphasize this enough. And if you’re already in one index, don’t assume the criteria will be the same for the others. You’ll need to account for variables, big and small.

Also, if you have to update or add information to your journal website to fulfill indexing criteria, be sure to do so in all relevant places and to make required indexing information as specific and explicit as possible. For example, you don’t want your DOAJ application denied because you have missing or inconsistent copyright information on one of your website pages. (Yes, one page can make or break an application!).

Of course, it’s not the end of the world if an index denies your application! All indexes will allow you to reapply. But many require a waiting period for re-application (e.g., the DOAJ has a 6-month wait), so it pays to take some extra time to get your application right on the first round.

If you’re unsure whether one of your journals meets the criteria for a particular database, you can visit their website or contact their support staff to find out what you need to do to be eligible. Another great indexing resource is university libraries. Reach out to scholarly communication or subject-specific librarians to find out what they recommend. Many libraries are well-versed in helping journals get indexed.

A good indexing strategy extends beyond your initial application. Once admitted to indexes, adhering to the highest technical standards is critical to maximizing their discovery benefits.

Start by focusing on producing and enriching machine-readable article-level metadata to have more article details to send to indexes. That means including descriptive HTML meta tags on article website pages for crawler-based search engines and producing rich machine-readable metadata files for deposit-based A&Is. As noted, the machine-readable format standard for academic journals is JATS XML. JATS is preferred or required by many academic indexes, including all National Library of Medicine indexes (i.e., PubMed, PubMed Central, and MEDLINE).

For deposit-based indexes, it’s also important not to lose sight that content won’t be discoverable from those channels until it’s added. So the sooner you can make metadata/article file deposits for new or updated articles, the better. Ideally, you should automate index deposits where possible. Journal publishing platforms can help you here. For example, Scholastica’s OA publishing platform includes integrations with leading discovery services, including Crossref, the DOAJ, and PubMed.

As you can see from this blog post, journal indexing is a process — and it will take time . But it’s well worth the effort to seek inclusion in various relevant indexes and to work to optimize your indexing outcomes. Adding journals to indexes helps expand their reach, reputation, and, consequently, their impacts.

We hope you’ve found this guide helpful! You can learn more about how Scholastica is helping journal publishers automate indexing steps here and how we’re helping journals produce machine-readable metadata to make articles more discoverable here .

Update note: This blog post was originally published on the 21st of June 2017 and updated on the 13th of April 2023.

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Title: artificial intelligence index report 2024.

Abstract: The 2024 Index is our most comprehensive to date and arrives at an important moment when AI's influence on society has never been more pronounced. This year, we have broadened our scope to more extensively cover essential trends such as technical advancements in AI, public perceptions of the technology, and the geopolitical dynamics surrounding its development. Featuring more original data than ever before, this edition introduces new estimates on AI training costs, detailed analyses of the responsible AI landscape, and an entirely new chapter dedicated to AI's impact on science and medicine. The AI Index report tracks, collates, distills, and visualizes data related to artificial intelligence (AI). Our mission is to provide unbiased, rigorously vetted, broadly sourced data in order for policymakers, researchers, executives, journalists, and the general public to develop a more thorough and nuanced understanding of the complex field of AI. The AI Index is recognized globally as one of the most credible and authoritative sources for data and insights on artificial intelligence. Previous editions have been cited in major newspapers, including the The New York Times, Bloomberg, and The Guardian, have amassed hundreds of academic citations, and been referenced by high-level policymakers in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the European Union, among other places. This year's edition surpasses all previous ones in size, scale, and scope, reflecting the growing significance that AI is coming to hold in all of our lives.

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THE AI INDEX REPORT

Measuring trends in Artificial Intelligence

ai iNDEX anNUAL rEPORT

Welcome to the 2023 AI Index Report

The AI Index is an independent initiative at the Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HAI), led by the AI Index Steering Committee, an interdisciplinary group of experts from across academia and industry. The annual report tracks , collates , distills , and visualizes data relating to artificial intelligence, enabling decision-makers to take meaningful action to advance AI responsibly and ethically with humans in mind. The AI Index collaborates with many different organizations to track progress in artificial intelligence. These organizations include: the Center for Security and Emerging Technology at Georgetown University, LinkedIn, NetBase Quid, Lightcast, and McKinsey. The 2023 report also features more self-collected data and original analysis than ever before. This year’s report included new analysis on foundation models, including their geopolitics and training costs, the environmental impact of AI systems, K-12 AI education, and public opinion trends in AI. The AI Index also broadened its tracking of global AI legislation from 25 countries in 2022 to 127 in 2023.

TOP TAKEAWAYS

• Industry races ahead of academia.

Until 2014, most significant machine learning models were released by academia. Since then, industry has taken over. In 2022, there were 32 significant industry-produced machine learning models compared to just three produced by academia. Building state-of-the-art AI systems increasingly requires large amounts of data, compute, and money, resources that industry actors inherently possess in greater amounts compared to nonprofits and academia.

• Performance saturation on traditional benchmarks.

AI continued to post state-of-the-art results, but year-over-year improvement on many benchmarks continues to be marginal. Moreover, the speed at which benchmark saturation is being reached is increasing. However, new, more comprehensive benchmarking suites such as BIG-bench and HELM are being released.

• AI is both helping and harming the environment.

New research suggests that AI systems can have serious environmental impacts. According to Luccioni et al., 2022, BLOOM’s training run emitted 25 times more carbon than a single air traveler on a one-way trip from New York to San Francisco. Still, new reinforcement learning models like BCOOLER show that AI systems can be used to optimize energy usage.

• The world’s best new scientist … AI?

AI models are starting to rapidly accelerate scientific progress and in 2022 were used to aid hydrogen fusion, improve the efficiency of matrix manipulation, and generate new antibodies.

• The number of incidents concerning the misuse of AI is rapidly rising.

According to the AIAAIC database, which tracks incidents related to the ethical misuse of AI, the number of AI incidents and controversies has increased 26 times since 2012. Some notable incidents in 2022 included a deepfake video of Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy surrendering and U.S. prisons using call-monitoring technology on their inmates. This growth is evidence of both greater use of AI technologies and awareness of misuse possibilities.

• The demand for AI-related professional skills is increasing across virtually every American industrial sector.

Across every sector in the United States for which there is data (with the exception of agriculture, forestry, fishery and hunting), the number of AI-related job postings has increased on average from 1.7% in 2021 to 1.9% in 2022. Employers in the United States are increasingly looking for workers with AI-related skills.

• For the first time in the last decade, year-over-year private investment in AI decreased.

Global AI private investment was $91.9 billion in 2022, which represented a 26.7% decrease since 2021. The total number of AI-related funding events as well as the number of newly funded AI companies likewise decreased. Still, during the last decade as a whole, AI investment has significantly increased. In 2022 the amount of private investment in AI was 18 times greater than it was in 2013.

• While the proportion of companies adopting AI has plateaued, the companies that have adopted AI continue to pull ahead.

The proportion of companies adopting AI in 2022 has more than doubled since 2017, though it has plateaued in recent years between 50% and 60%, according to the results of McKinsey’s annual research survey. Organizations that have adopted AI report realizing meaningful cost decreases and revenue increases.

Policymaker interest in AI is on the rise.

An AI Index analysis of the legislative records of 127 countries shows that the number of bills containing “artificial intelligence” that were passed into law grew from just 1 in 2016 to 37 in 2022. An analysis of the parliamentary records on AI in 81 countries likewise shows that mentions of AI in global legislative proceedings have increased nearly 6.5 times since 2016.

Chinese citizens are among those who feel the most positively about AI products and services. Americans … not so much.

In a 2022 IPSOS survey, 78% of Chinese respondents (the highest proportion of surveyed countries) agreed with the statement that products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks. After Chinese respondents, those from Saudi Arabia (76%) and India (71%) felt the most positive about AI products. Only 35% of sampled Americans (among the lowest of surveyed countries) agreed that products and services using AI had more benefits than drawbacks.

Chapter 1: Research and Development

This chapter captures trends in AI R&D. It begins by examining AI publications, including journal articles, conference papers, and repositories. Next it considers data on significant machine learning systems, including large language and multimodal models. Finally, the chapter concludes by looking at AI conference attendance and open-source AI research. Although the United States and China continue to dominate AI R&D, research efforts are becoming increasingly geographically dispersed.

• The United States and China had the greatest number of cross-country collaborations in AI publications from 2010 to 2021, although the pace of collaboration has since slowed.
• AI research is on the rise, across the board.
• China continues to lead in total AI journal, conference, and repository publications.
• Large language models are getting bigger and more expensive.

Chapter 2: Technical Performance

This year’s technical performance chapter features analysis of the technical progress in AI during 2022. Building on previous reports, this chapter chronicles advancement in computer vision, language, speech, reinforcement learning, and hardware. Moreover, this year this chapter features an analysis on the environmental impact of AI, a discussion of the ways in which AI has furthered scientific progress, and a timeline-style overview of some of the most significant recent AI developments.

• Generative AI breaks into the public consciousness.
• AI systems become more flexible.
• Capable language models still struggle with reasoning.
• AI starts to build better AI.

Chapter 3: Technical AI Ethics

Fairness, bias, and ethics in machine learning continue to be topics of interest among both researchers and practitioners. As the technical barrier to entry for creating and deploying generative AI systems has lowered dramatically, the ethical issues around AI have become more apparent to the general public. Startups and large companies find themselves in a race to deploy and release generative models, and the technology is no longer controlled by a small group of actors. In addition to building on analysis in last year’s report, this year the AI Index highlights tensions between raw model performance and ethical issues, as well as new metrics quantifying bias in multimodal models.

• The effects of model scale on bias and toxicity are confounded by training data and mitigation methods.
• Generative models have arrived and so have their ethical problems.
• Fairer models may not be less biased.
• Interest in AI ethics continues to skyrocket.
• Automated fact-checking with natural language processing isn’t so straightforward after all.

Chapter 4: The Economy

Increases in the technical capabilities of AI systems have led to greater rates of AI deployment in businesses, governments, and other organizations. The heightening integration of AI and the economy comes with both excitement and concern. Will AI increase productivity or be a dud? Will it boost wages or lead to the widespread replacement of workers? To what degree are businesses embracing new AI technologies and willing to hire AI-skilled workers? How has investment in AI changed over time, and what particular industries, regions, and fields of AI have attracted the greatest amount of investor interest? This chapter examines AI-related economic trends by using data from Lightcast, LinkedIn, McKinsey, Deloitte, and NetBase Quid, as well as the International Federation of Robotics (IFR). This chapter begins by looking at data on AI-related occupations and then moves on to analyses of AI investment, corporate adoption of AI, and robot installations.

• Once again, the United States leads in investment in AI.
• In 2022, the AI focus area with the most investment was medical and healthcare ($6.1 billion); followed by data management, processing, and cloud ($5.9 billion); and Fintech ($5.5 billion).
• AI is being deployed by businesses in multifaceted ways.
• AI tools like Copilot are tangibly helping workers.
• China dominates industrial robot installations.

Chapter 5: Education

Studying the state of AI education is important for gauging some of the ways in which the AI workforce might evolve over time. AI-related education has typically occurred at the postsecondary level; however, as AI technologies have become increasingly ubiquitous, this education is being embraced at the K–12 level. This chapter examines trends in AI education at the postsecondary and K–12 levels, in both the United States and the rest of the world. We analyze data from the Computing Research Association’s annual Taulbee Survey on the state of computer science and AI postsecondary education in North America, Code.org’s repository of data on K–12 computer science in the United States, and a recent UNESCO report on the international development of K–12 education curricula.

• More and more AI specialization.
• New AI PhDs increasingly head to industry.
• New North American CS, CE, and information faculty hires stayed flat.
• The gap in external research funding for private versus public American CS departments continues to widen.
• Interest in K–12 AI and computer science education grows in both the United States and the rest of the world.

Chapter 6: Policy and Governance

The growing popularity of AI has prompted intergovernmental, national, and regional organizations to craft strategies around AI governance. These actors are motivated by the realization that the societal and ethical concerns surrounding AI must be addressed to maximize its benefits. The governance of AI technologies has become essential for governments across the world. This chapter examines AI governance on a global scale. It begins by highlighting the countries leading the way in setting AI policies. Next, it considers how AI has been discussed in legislative records internationally and in the United States. The chapter concludes with an examination of trends in various national AI strategies, followed by a close review of U.S. public sector investment in AI.

• From talk to enactment—the U.S. passed more AI bills than ever before.
• When it comes to AI, policymakers have a lot of thoughts.
• The U.S. government continues to increase spending on AI.
• The legal world is waking up to AI.

Chapter 7: Diversity

AI systems are increasingly deployed in the real world. However, there often exists a disparity between the individuals who develop AI and those who use AI. North American AI researchers and practitioners in both industry and academia are predominantly white and male. This lack of diversity can lead to harms, among them the reinforcement of existing societal inequalities and bias. This chapter highlights data on diversity trends in AI, sourced primarily from academia. It borrows information from organizations such as Women in Machine Learning (WiML), whose mission is to improve the state of diversity in AI, as well as the Computing Research Association (CRA), which tracks the state of diversity in North American academic computer science. Finally, the chapter also makes use of Code.org data on diversity trends in secondary computer science education in the United States. Note that the data in this subsection is neither comprehensive nor conclusive. Publicly available demographic data on trends in AI diversity is sparse. As a result, this chapter does not cover other areas of diversity, such as sexual orientation. The AI Index hopes that as AI becomes more ubiquitous, the amount of data on diversity in the field will increase such that the topic can be covered more thoroughly in future reports.

• North American bachelor’s, master’s, and PhD-level computer science students are becoming more ethnically diverse.
• New AI PhDs are still overwhelmingly male.
• Women make up an increasingly greater share of CS, CE, and information faculty hires.
• American K–12 computer science education has become more diverse, in terms of both gender and ethnicity.

Chapter 8: Public Opinion

AI has the potential to have a transformative impact on society. As such it has become increasingly important to monitor public attitudes toward AI. Better understanding trends in public opinion is essential in informing decisions pertaining to AI’s development, regulation, and use. This chapter examines public opinion through global, national, demographic, and ethnic lenses. Moreover, we explore the opinions of AI researchers, and conclude with a look at the social media discussion that surrounded AI in 2022. We draw on data from two global surveys, one organized by IPSOS, and another by Lloyd’s Register Foundation and Gallup, along with a U.S-specific survey conducted by PEW Research. It is worth noting that there is a paucity of longitudinal survey data related to AI asking the same questions of the same groups of people over extended periods of time. As AI becomes more and more ubiquitous, broader efforts at understanding AI public opinion will become increasingly important.

• Chinese citizens are among those who feel the most positively about AI products and services. Americans … not so much.
• Men tend to feel more positively about AI products and services than women. Men are also more likely than women to believe that AI will mostly help rather than harm.
• People across the world and especially America remain unconvinced by self-driving cars.
• Different causes for excitement and concern.
• NLP researchers … have some strong opinions as well.

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Project Report Index Format (Updated 2023)

Published by admin on june 15, 2020 june 15, 2020.

This is a Sample Index Format for Project Report useful for students of MBA, MMS, PGDM, BBA, MMM, B. Com, BCA, Engineering (BE) and other courses. This will also help researchers and professionals of management as well as technical departments. You can use this format for the Summer Internship Project (SIP), Summer or winter training report, General Project report, and other research reports. You can modify this Index format as per your need.

Sample Project Report Index Format

This sample project report index includes three important columns – chapter number, Topics or Particulars i.e. Name of the Chapter and Page No.

Table of Contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS (FORMAT 1)

Chapter No.	Topics	Page No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
11.

TABLE OF CONTENTS (FORMAT 2)

Chapter No.	Topics	Page No.
1.
	Background of the study
	Need and Significance of the study
	Statement of problem (If any)
2.
	Objectives of the Study
	Scope of the study
	Limitations of the study
3.
4.
	Fundamental Concepts
	Review of Literature
5.
	Introduction to Research Methodology
	Research Design
	Sources of Data (Primary and Secondary data)
	Population
	Sample Size
	Sample Design
	Sampling Method
	Data Collection Method
	Data Analysis Techniques
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Project Report Index – Chapters in Detail

Given below are chapter-wise details of this Sample Project Report Index format.

Executive Summary

Executive summary generally summarises key points of your project or study. You can add following keypoints to your project’s executive summary.

• Introductory First paragraph: start your executive summary with this paragraph without giving any title to this paragraph. Write about your project title, company name and project duration etc. This should be in paragraph format and precise.
• Background of the Study (Or Problem Statement Or Purpose of the study)
• Key Objectives: Write about key objectives & scope of the study in this paragraph.
• Methods Used : Write about various research methods used to process the data anf interpret it.
• Findings : Write key findings and conclusion related statement here.
• Few more details about your topic
• Suggestions (or Recommendations) : Add key points about suggestions and learnings

Chapter 1: Introduction (1 to 2 pages)

Write introductory information about your research or project work.

• Title of the project
• Background or need of the project
• Key objectives & scope of the project
• Research tool to be used
• Information about topic i.e. theoretical part in short

Chapter 2: Objectives of the Study (1 Page)

• Write 3 to 5 objectives of the study.
• Start objectives with word “To”. For example, To understand the process of buying.
• Be clear and specific while writing objectives.
• Objectives are nothing but detailed version or explanation of your project title.

Chapter 3: Organization Profile or Company Profile (3 to 5 pages)

• Company Name, Logo, Address & Location Of Company
• Organization Chart
• Company’s Vision & Mission
• Company’s History
• Product Profile (or Service Profile)
• Awards (or Achievements)

Chapter 4: Theoretical  Background (5 to 10 pages)

This chapter consists of theoretical and conceptual part of the study.

• Review Of Literature
• Fundamental Concepts

Chapter 5. Research Methodology (3 to 5 Pages)

• Research Conceptual Clarification : Write about Definition & concept of research methodology in short, Also add steps involved in research methology etc.
• Research Design (Research Type): For example – Descriptive research, Exploratory research etc.
• Statement of Problem (If any)
• Research Hypothesis (If Any)
• Sources of Data Collection: For example – Primary Data, Secondary Data
• Data Collection Instruments: For example – Questionnaire
• Sample Description: Sampling Design, Sample Size, Sampling Method, Sampling Unit etc.
• Outline of analysis : a brief outline of tools and techniques to be used for analysis, statistical tools and tests to be used

Chapter 6. Data Analysis & Interpretation (10 to 20 page or more depends)

This chapter includes tabular representation of data Charts, Statistical tests, Analysis and Interpretation.

For each objective there has to be a supportive data collected, from either primary or secondary or in some cases from both the sources.

Analyse responses of primary data and/or secondary data with the help of charts and tables. You can use various tools like SPSS, MS Excel, Google Sheets or any other tool to process and analyse data. Create suitable pie charts, bar charts to represent the data.

Each page will consist following sequence-

• Question (Title/Heading)
• Interpretation

Chapter 7. Findings (1 to 2 Pages)

Write key finding of your project. Use interpretations from data analysis chapter to identify or calculate key findings.

• Must include data with percentage (%)
• Your findings must be aligned with your objectives
• Stick to precise and necessary findings only

Chapter 8. Suggestions or Recommendations (1 to 2 pages)

This chapter is all about your suggestions or recommendations to the company based on your findings.

• Ensure that you are not suggesting anything which is not studied in the course of project.
• Ensure all the suggestions are (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time bound).

Chapter 9. Contribution of Research Project to the Organization (Optional) (1 Page)

Researcher can write about overall Contribution of Research Project to the company or Organization .

Chapter 10. Learning of the student through the project (Optional) (1 Page)

Researcher can write about overall learnings from the project work. For example, the researcher learned various techniques like SPSS to analyze the data thoroughly. The researcher comes to know the real problems and solutions in the practical world of business.

Chapter 11. Conclusion (1 to 2 Pages)

Conclude your project in a few paragraphs. Write about your overall experience, key learning, and impact of this work on organization and society.

Conclude the project in simple words and talk of the study in short.

Bibliography (1 to 2 Pages)

Provide list of books or websites referred for your project. Use Harvard style or APA or MLA style of referencing list.

Also known as Appendix.

This includes supportive documents like:

• Questionnaire
• Data Sheets
• Glossary of terms if any
• Any other document

Note:  Students are free to re-frame the index and align with guidelines provided by respective university or institution. It’s recommended to pre-consent your project guide before finalising the index.

Outline of the problem or task undertaken

This will help readers to understand the problem or reason behind starting the project or research work.

This mainly focus on the statement of the problem.

Contribution to the host organization

The researcher can write about his or her contribution to the company. For example, the researcher improved the process of increasing leads for XYZ products by suggesting the ABC tool.

We hope this Sample format of the Project Report Index will help you in your SIP (Summer Internship Project) work.

You’ll also like to read:

• MBA Project Report Format & guidelines
• MBA Project Viva Questions And Answers

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What is an index and do you need one?

Want to know former US president Bill Clinton’s thoughts on the Watergate scandal? The 1993 World Trade Center bombing? Monica Lewinsky? There’s no need to read all 957 pages of his autobiography,  My Life . Simply flick to the back of the book and check the index for the page number.

An index is a list of all the names, subjects and ideas in a piece of written work, designed to help readers quickly find where they are discussed in the text. Usually found at the end of the text, an index doesn’t just list the content (that’s what a table of contents is for), it analyses it.

Where are indexes used?

In addition to back-of-the-book indexes found in non-fiction books and technical reports, indexes are also used to make other sources of information – including journal articles, maps and atlases, art collections, online databases and websites – easier to navigate. Where books are published online, in PDF or e-book format, indexes link directly to points in the text.

Indexes are a common inclusion in many annual reports and are mandatory for annual reports produced by Australian Government departments, executive agencies and other non-corporate Commonwealth agencies.

What makes a good index?

An index provides a map to a report’s content. It does this through identifying key themes and ideas, grouping similar concepts, cross-referencing information and using clear formatting. A good index will:

• be arranged in alphabetical order
• include accurate page references that lead to useful information on a topic
• avoid listing every use of a word reor phrase
• be consistent across similar topics
• use sub-categories to break up long blocks of page numbers
• use italics for publications and Acts
• cross-reference information to point to other headings of interest or preferred terms.

For example, a back-of-the-book index might read:

sales, sales process, 147, 149, 158,  see also  strategy  (directs the reader to a related term)

scripts, 56–59  (grouping term)

podcasts, 56–57  (sub-term)

video, 58–59

search engine optimisation, 100, 156

Security Analysis  (David Dodd and Benjamin Graham), 89–90  (reference to a book)

spelling,  see  proofreading  (directs the reader to the word or phrase used in the text)

While software is available to help indexers arrange, format and edit entries, indexers will also use their judgement when deciding what to put into an index, what to leave out and how to organise it.

Don’t forget to add a table of contents

A good index may be the difference between people referring to a report regularly and it gathering dust on the bookshelf. If you don’t have an index, it’s important to at least have a good table of contents.

Located at the front of a report, a table of contents allows readers to easily see what the report is about and how sections of the text are arranged, in the order they appear.

A good table of contents will include headings, outlining the main sections or themes; sub-headings that indicate what each section of copy is about; and the page numbers they appear on. Additional content such as tables and boxes can also be added.

Want to make your report as easy to navigate as possible? Bookend it with a table of contents and an index – readers will have no excuse for not being able to find the information they’re after.

We can help create a roadmap for your reports, books and other larger documents. Learn more about  indexing  or  contact us here .

How to create an award-winning annual report

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The right words to help you grow sales, deliver messages and meet your compliance needs.

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How to Construct an Index for Research

 Henrik Sorensen/Getty Images

• Research, Samples, and Statistics
• Key Concepts
• Major Sociologists
• News & Issues
• Recommended Reading
• Archaeology

An index is a composite measure of variables, or a way of measuring a construct--like religiosity or racism--using more than one data item. An index is an accumulation of scores from a variety of individual items. To create one, you must select possible items, examine their empirical relationships, score the index, and validate it.

Item Selection

The first step in creating an index is selecting the items you wish to include in the index to measure the variable of interest. There are several things to consider when selecting the items. First, you should select items that have face validity. That is, the item should measure what it is intended to measure. If you are constructing an index of religiosity, items such as church attendance and frequency of prayer would have face validity because they appear to offer some indication of religiosity.

A second criterion for choosing which items to include in your index is unidimensionality. That is, each item should represent only one dimension of the concept you are measuring. For example, items reflecting depression should not be included in items measuring anxiety, even though the two might be related to one another.

Third, you need to decide how general or specific your variable will be. For example, if you only wish to measure a specific aspect of religiosity, such as ritual participation, then you would only want to include items that measure ritual participation, such as church attendance, confession, communion, etc. If you are measuring religiosity in a more general way, however, you would want to also include a more balanced set of items that touch on other areas of religion (such as beliefs, knowledge, etc.).

Lastly, when choosing which items to include in your index, you should pay attention to the amount of variance that each item provides. For example, if an item is intended to measure religious conservatism, you need to pay attention to what proportion of respondents would be identified as religiously conservative by that measure. If the item identifies nobody as religiously conservative or everyone as a religiously conservative, then the item has no variance and it is not a useful item for your index.

Examining Empirical Relationships

The second step in index construction is to examine the empirical relationships among the items you wish to include in the index. An empirical relationship is when respondents’ answers to one question help us predict how they will answer other questions. If two items are empirically related to each other, we can argue that both items reflect the same concept and we can, therefore, include them in the same index. To determine if your items are empirically related, crosstabulations, correlation coefficients , or both may be used.

Index Scoring

The third step in index construction is scoring the index. After you have finalized the items you are including in your index, you then assign scores for particular responses, thereby making a composite variable out of your several items. For example, let’s say you are measuring religious ritual participation among Catholics and the items included in your index are church attendance, confession, communion, and daily prayer, each with a response choice of "yes, I regularly participate" or "no, I do not regularly participate." You might assign a 0 for "does not participate" and a 1 for "participates." Therefore, a respondent could receive a final composite score of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 with 0 being the least engaged in Catholic rituals and 4 being the most engaged.

Index Validation

The final step in constructing an index is validating it. Just like you need to validate each item that goes into the index, you also need to validate the index itself to make sure that it measures what it is intended to measure. There are several methods for doing this. One is called item analysis in which you examine the extent to which the index is related to the individual items that are included in it. Another important indicator of an index’s validity is how well it accurately predicts related measures. For example, if you are measuring political conservatism, those who score the most conservative in your index should also score conservative in other questions included in the survey.

• Constructing a Questionnaire
• The Differences Between Indexes and Scales
• Definition and Overview of Grounded Theory
• Constructing a Deductive Theory
• Data Sources For Sociological Research
• Principal Components and Factor Analysis
• How to Conduct a Sociology Research Interview
• Pros and Cons of Secondary Data Analysis
• An Overview of Qualitative Research Methods
• Social Surveys: Questionnaires, Interviews, and Telephone Polls
• Deductive Versus Inductive Reasoning
• Units of Analysis as Related to Sociology
• What Is Direct Observation?
• Immersion Definition: Cultural, Language, and Virtual
• The Study of Cultural Artifacts via Content Analysis
• How Race and Gender Biases Impact Students in Higher Ed

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2024 Research Leaders: Leading academic institutions

The 2024 Research Leaders are based on Nature Index data from 1 January 2023 to 31 December 2023.

Table criteria

Position	Institution	Share 2022	Share 2023	Count 2023	Change in Adjusted Share* 2022–2023
1		1169.58	1143.43	3763	-3.1%
2		598.85	635.81	3227	5.2%
3		586.57	631.20	1858	6.7%
4		562.29	617.17	2349	8.8%
5		565.57	609.45	1448	6.8%
6		479.35	595.37	1540	23.1%
7		529.08	593.45	1946	11.2%
8		437.07	492.47	1266	11.7%
9		439.68	488.94	1449	10.2%
10		479.97	484.86	2032	0.1%
11		592.62	474.13	1929	-20.7%
12		429.84	461.26	1333	6.4%
13		327.62	413.63	768	25.2%
14		398.90	389.36	1239	-3.2%
15		423.50	388.35	1625	-9.1%
16		372.55	380.50	1415	1.2%
17		428.91	368.12	1436	-14.9%
18		353.52	346.26	1042	-2.9%
19		380.20	342.16	1402	-10.8%
20		316.97	337.67	797	5.6%
21		276.30	334.72	768	20.1%
22		366.05	334.38	1192	-9.4%
23		335.22	331.74	1062	-1.9%
24		342.91	330.31	1232	-4.5%
25		374.65	323.65	1118	-14.4%
26		302.76	320.47	1070	4.9%
27		341.25	313.78	1214	-8.8%
28		248.29	312.65	725	24.8%
29		350.71	312.19	1358	-11.8%
30		263.71	309.49	951	16.3%
31		305.50	295.93	1452	-4.0%
32		313.12	295.49	904	-6.4%
33		351.93	294.65	1358	-17.0%
34		262.58	289.61	569	9.3%
35		246.72	289.15	614	16.2%
36		295.49	279.54	770	-6.2%
37		247.88	268.37	601	7.3%
38		250.00	253.94	904	0.7%
39		189.42	252.70	582	32.2%
40		261.57	251.01	804	-4.9%
41		250.24	247.83	840	-1.8%
42		257.30	241.69	768	-6.9%
43		241.91	240.74	1009	-1.3%
44		284.44	240.47	953	-16.2%
45		181.21	239.94	492	31.3%
46		256.67	235.40	907	-9.1%
47		236.81	232.79	915	-2.6%
48		245.13	231.10	1209	-6.5%
49		230.80	230.06	956	-1.2%
50		201.31	221.69	550	9.2%
51		257.75	220.38	1125	-15.2%
52		194.32	220.12	1137	12.3%
53		229.69	219.00	800	-5.5%
54		206.55	217.26	614	4.3%
55		234.28	208.96	871	-11.6%
56		151.68	207.01	413	35.3%
57		233.89	203.82	886	-13.6%
58		191.61	203.26	463	5.2%
59		188.83	200.01	774	5.0%
60		187.10	198.00	602	4.9%
61		222.37	195.69	745	-12.8%
62		214.57	189.65	892	-12.4%
63		171.71	188.28	556	8.7%
64		187.11	186.80	836	-1.0%
65		224.93	185.13	592	-18.4%
66		172.45	183.94	462	5.7%
67		163.98	183.55	595	11.0%
68		133.07	182.27	644	35.8%
69		163.55	182.08	415	10.4%
70		185.77	176.97	706	-5.6%
71		171.09	175.51	555	1.7%
72		144.74	170.91	356	17.1%
73		184.29	169.96	932	-8.6%
74		191.81	168.68	832	-12.8%
75		177.59	168.65	573	-5.9%
76		171.43	164.37	352	-5.0%
77		166.92	164.14	480	-2.5%
78		166.58	162.68	776	-3.2%
79		157.89	161.48	548	1.4%
80		125.81	160.37	419	26.4%
81		117.34	159.08	417	34.4%
82		162.04	157.59	308	-3.6%
83		127.45	157.22	426	22.3%
84		163.58	156.30	806	-5.3%
85		175.48	156.30	837	-11.7%
86		139.43	156.12	313	11.0%
87		159.57	154.79	865	-3.8%
88		158.71	149.04	652	-6.9%
89		129.36	148.95	591	14.1%
90		116.86	148.29	473	25.8%
91		139.57	147.42	268	4.7%
92		155.12	145.16	722	-7.2%
93		158.00	144.07	423	-9.6%
94		145.11	143.52	661	-2.0%
95		171.67	141.75	627	-18.1%
96		149.39	141.32	652	-6.2%
97		140.60	139.56	347	-1.6%
98		126.50	139.27	447	9.1%
99		161.57	138.48	550	-15.0%
100		150.38	138.10	783	-9.0%
101		131.63	137.91	528	3.9%
102		138.41	137.35	821	-1.6%
103		144.32	135.15	657	-7.2%
104		127.69	133.44	567	3.6%
105		127.98	133.09	545	3.1%
106		118.54	131.73	653	10.2%
107		124.50	131.71	715	4.9%
108		113.34	130.58	493	14.2%
109		139.82	126.31	754	-10.4%
110		114.18	126.03	345	9.4%
111		167.76	125.71	759	-25.7%
112		100.85	124.76	462	22.6%
113		109.96	123.49	491	11.3%
114		111.53	121.66	711	8.1%
115		97.84	120.65	327	22.2%
116		120.01	119.51	549	-1.3%
117		107.61	118.75	477	9.4%
118		115.25	118.72	464	2.1%
119		117.48	118.29	305	-0.2%
120		120.91	117.99	747	-3.3%
121		136.54	116.79	630	-15.2%
122		119.34	115.97	870	-3.7%
123		82.34	113.86	277	37.1%
124		115.60	113.38	620	-2.8%
125		122.07	112.20	782	-8.9%
126		99.69	112.14	289	11.5%
127		114.04	112.06	413	-2.6%
128		98.65	111.36	278	11.9%
129		128.32	110.94	790	-14.3%
130		100.28	109.84	473	8.6%
131		132.33	109.19	717	-18.2%
132		112.41	108.04	425	-4.7%
133		102.82	107.14	246	3.3%
134		120.15	106.93	370	-11.8%
135		111.51	106.10	429	-5.7%
136		93.28	105.96	434	12.6%
137		110.21	105.80	512	-4.8%
138		121.03	105.70	582	-13.4%
139		98.76	104.88	474	5.3%
140		101.18	104.66	359	2.5%
141		129.77	104.55	508	-20.1%
142		129.59	104.21	638	-20.3%
143		94.84	104.14	486	8.8%
144		107.32	103.36	481	-4.5%
145		100.28	102.87	233	1.7%
146		111.46	102.42	450	-8.9%
147		83.89	102.40	171	21.0%
148		110.00	101.59	889	-8.5%
149		95.47	101.59	685	5.5%
150		109.13	101.31	169	-8.0%
151		128.02	100.23	363	-22.4%
152		100.29	100.16	502	-1.0%
153		107.15	98.82	351	-8.6%
154		104.82	98.02	447	-7.3%
155		71.71	97.06	266	34.2%
156		97.84	96.34	323	-2.4%
157		89.93	96.20	243	6.0%
158		103.52	95.34	193	-8.7%
159		100.43	95.26	273	-6.0%
160		100.07	95.04	1168	-5.8%
161		82.78	94.30	550	12.9%
162		93.32	93.93	631	-0.2%
163		49.77	93.81	241	86.9%
164		71.44	92.30	379	28.1%
165		86.85	92.10	492	5.1%
166		97.21	91.43	323	-6.8%
167		94.72	90.87	1275	-4.9%
168		92.33	90.74	419	-2.6%
169		95.86	90.42	432	-6.5%
170		93.51	90.09	266	-4.5%
171		81.52	89.64	240	9.0%
172		97.08	89.51	377	-8.6%
173		95.60	89.04	203	-7.7%
174		103.90	89.03	674	-15.1%
175		111.45	88.46	619	-21.3%
176		65.42	87.79	156	33.0%
177		93.89	87.77	494	-7.3%
178		84.24	87.65	646	3.1%
179		85.48	87.40	482	1.4%
180		86.88	87.13	393	-0.6%
181		113.80	86.90	325	-24.3%
182		65.37	86.55	154	31.2%
183		94.24	85.85	541	-9.7%
184		106.09	85.75	382	-19.9%
185		94.51	85.65	422	-10.2%
186		71.16	85.44	192	19.0%
187		66.48	85.28	193	27.2%
188		72.98	84.60	495	14.9%
189		58.48	84.36	230	43.0%
190		89.03	84.36	276	-6.1%
191		81.11	83.94	392	2.6%
192		87.07	83.06	325	-5.4%
193		79.27	82.89	626	3.7%
194		115.15	82.82	549	-28.7%
195		59.77	82.50	172	36.8%
196		71.08	82.32	956	14.8%
197		87.63	82.24	364	-7.0%
198		71.18	81.99	172	14.2%
199		86.08	81.20	258	-6.5%
200		74.14	80.84	206	8.1%
201		86.84	80.74	352	-7.8%
202		82.91	80.10	584	-4.2%
203		73.17	79.86	332	8.2%
204		81.99	79.34	322	-4.1%
205		81.73	78.29	303	-5.0%
206		85.94	78.10	527	-9.9%
207		69.41	77.58	210	10.8%
208		80.60	77.01	549	-5.3%
209		59.31	76.60	320	28.0%
210		80.22	76.49	321	-5.5%
211		74.31	75.85	512	1.2%
212		91.32	75.11	552	-18.5%
213		62.33	74.70	240	18.8%
214		62.10	74.30	188	18.6%
215		75.74	74.23	372	-2.8%
216		71.32	73.89	308	2.7%
217		65.84	73.68	178	10.9%
218		78.82	73.44	255	-7.6%
219		80.80	72.65	163	-10.9%
220		58.07	72.45	165	23.7%
221		92.08	71.74	277	-22.8%
222		54.31	71.66	129	30.8%
223		71.45	71.54	537	-0.7%
224		77.61	71.26	283	-9.0%
225		73.53	70.94	195	-4.4%
226		64.23	70.32	302	8.5%
227		91.49	70.28	396	-23.8%
228		70.55	70.24	336	-1.3%
229		75.73	70.09	439	-8.3%
230		78.80	69.62	703	-12.4%
231		59.27	69.11	179	15.6%
232		67.82	68.28	348	-0.2%
233		66.30	68.15	303	1.9%
234		22.84	67.51	125	193.0%
235		71.91	67.21	292	-7.3%
236		52.23	66.99	205	27.1%
237		60.84	66.63	114	8.6%
238		53.58	66.62	179	23.3%
239		73.01	66.43	266	-9.8%
240		80.31	66.30	711	-18.2%
241		78.86	66.22	301	-16.8%
242		68.98	66.21	370	-4.8%
243		73.11	65.98	256	-10.5%
244		57.28	65.86	222	14.0%
245		72.84	65.81	304	-10.4%
246		77.98	65.70	182	-16.5%
247		68.96	65.68	930	-5.6%
248		70.26	65.64	363	-7.4%
249		46.50	64.85	135	38.2%
250		36.64	64.66	115	75.0%
251		61.86	64.09	269	2.7%
252		84.51	62.91	328	-26.2%
253		35.87	62.91	134	73.9%
254		60.09	62.90	467	3.8%
255		44.91	62.86	249	38.8%
256		61.39	62.81	451	1.4%
257		56.88	62.80	255	9.5%
258		71.42	62.59	237	-13.1%
259		69.73	62.55	494	-11.1%
260		45.75	62.36	161	35.1%
261		73.39	62.13	419	-16.1%
262		61.87	61.81	244	-1.0%
263		62.55	61.18	274	-3.0%
264		53.35	61.09	133	13.5%
265		64.48	60.68	522	-6.7%
266		55.21	59.79	246	7.3%
267		53.06	59.69	144	11.5%
268		82.07	59.63	243	-28.0%
269		38.28	58.55	247	51.6%
270		55.06	58.06	151	4.5%
271		56.51	57.49	239	0.8%
272		69.67	57.43	439	-18.3%
273		69.86	57.38	259	-18.6%
274		63.86	57.17	549	-11.3%
275		54.85	57.05	224	3.1%
276		30.31	56.91	86	86.1%
277		45.73	56.70	196	22.9%
278		56.53	56.49	217	-0.9%
279		47.88	56.34	433	16.7%
280		39.24	56.05	95	41.6%
281		52.64	55.87	368	5.2%
282		41.74	55.70	233	32.3%
283		55.20	55.70	499	0.0%
284		58.31	55.67	147	-5.4%
285		74.06	55.59	100	-25.6%
286		44.17	55.42	327	24.4%
287		45.83	55.30	231	19.6%
288		46.69	54.72	139	16.2%
289		57.68	54.63	481	-6.1%
290		64.22	54.58	222	-15.8%
291		49.94	54.56	127	8.3%
292		53.07	54.53	288	1.8%
293		63.38	54.51	328	-14.7%
294		54.42	54.22	297	-1.2%
295		59.33	54.05	606	-9.7%
296		52.34	53.26	234	0.9%
297		44.11	52.83	338	18.7%
298		66.69	52.80	232	-21.5%
299		42.55	52.80	392	23.0%
300		50.44	52.28	192	2.8%
301		48.20	52.13	197	7.2%
302		67.41	51.54	177	-24.2%
303		65.66	51.53	383	-22.2%
304		51.73	51.48	465	-1.3%
305		59.27	51.26	335	-14.3%
306		52.57	51.26	200	-3.3%
307		33.31	50.81	74	51.2%
308		57.27	50.49	468	-12.6%
309		46.65	50.19	181	6.7%
310		53.85	49.89	182	-8.2%
311		45.05	49.83	169	9.7%
312		44.93	49.71	96	9.7%
313		46.35	49.47	114	5.8%
314		45.00	48.80	196	7.5%
315		45.04	48.55	129	6.9%
316		39.52	48.36	283	21.3%
317		44.21	48.28	442	8.2%
318		42.57	48.00	417	11.8%
319		49.55	47.77	161	-4.4%
320		29.98	47.76	105	57.9%
321		47.38	47.72	242	-0.2%
322		55.97	47.33	139	-16.2%
323		39.92	47.14	138	17.1%
324		48.57	46.85	552	-4.4%
325		49.02	46.68	205	-5.6%
326		48.74	46.51	318	-5.4%
327		41.03	46.10	65	11.4%
328		45.71	46.06	145	-0.1%
329		38.83	46.04	231	17.5%
330		53.67	45.57	245	-15.8%
331		45.23	45.36	189	-0.6%
332		47.28	45.21	282	-5.2%
333		22.83	44.97	550	95.3%
334		42.02	44.94	324	6.0%
335		59.60	44.90	270	-25.3%
336		29.86	44.03	105	46.1%
337		44.87	43.99	371	-2.8%
338		40.70	43.72	101	6.5%
339		60.33	43.56	203	-28.4%
340		34.12	43.22	347	25.6%
341		42.13	43.08	251	1.4%
342		29.78	43.06	189	43.4%
343		46.44	42.85	230	-8.5%
344		39.77	42.82	165	6.7%
345		48.58	42.78	254	-12.7%
346		40.44	42.53	112	4.3%
347		37.18	42.21	81	12.5%
348		40.00	42.12	101	4.4%
349		37.59	42.08	160	11.0%
350		39.53	41.24	218	3.4%
351		46.06	41.20	257	-11.3%
352		44.51	41.12	219	-8.4%
353		34.90	40.97	146	16.4%
354		64.66	40.89	183	-37.3%
355		34.46	40.77	197	17.3%
356		39.15	40.73	126	3.1%
357		40.65	40.29	167	-1.8%
358		32.93	40.26	284	21.2%
359		45.26	40.01	160	-12.4%
360		29.37	39.94	92	34.8%
361		40.80	39.85	208	-3.2%
362		28.81	39.84	101	37.1%
363		51.53	39.69	395	-23.7%
364		29.37	39.52	67	33.4%
365		50.75	39.45	186	-23.0%
366		38.77	39.42	359	0.8%
367		37.58	39.39	151	3.9%
368		22.29	39.37	119	75.1%
369		21.78	39.26	83	78.7%
370		39.42	39.23	284	-1.4%
371		38.86	39.13	102	-0.2%
372		33.48	39.11	165	15.8%
373		24.75	39.01	102	56.2%
374		31.56	38.80	120	21.9%
375		50.62	38.39	172	-24.8%
376		37.96	38.33	176	0.1%
377		25.39	38.19	113	49.1%
378		46.36	38.18	221	-18.4%
379		35.96	38.11	252	5.0%
380		41.91	37.96	299	-10.2%
381		35.83	37.87	360	4.8%
382		38.89	37.78	237	-3.7%
383		35.88	37.65	57	4.0%
384		47.10	37.50	335	-21.1%
385		40.54	37.40	209	-8.6%
386		33.79	37.00	112	8.5%
387		36.56	36.97	112	0.3%
388		29.43	36.91	264	24.3%
389		29.07	36.60	112	24.8%
390		33.60	36.45	239	7.5%
391		31.19	36.44	203	15.8%
392		43.86	36.20	92	-18.2%
393		26.99	36.11	73	32.6%
394		22.79	35.92	116	56.2%
395		30.30	35.90	182	17.5%
396		41.22	35.90	236	-13.7%
397		37.78	35.82	165	-6.0%
398		27.94	35.78	131	26.9%
399		39.66	35.69	186	-10.8%
400		49.92	35.54	166	-29.4%
401		32.33	35.46	139	8.7%
402		16.25	35.42	85	116.2%
403		39.11	35.41	168	-10.2%
404		40.35	35.37	436	-13.1%
405		39.44	35.11	121	-11.7%
406		32.88	34.88	79	5.2%
407		25.17	34.76	128	36.9%
408		21.15	34.70	90	62.7%
409		41.39	34.44	222	-17.5%
410		40.65	34.42	149	-16.1%
411		17.92	34.28	85	89.7%
412		33.86	33.96	340	-0.6%
413		31.62	33.47	101	4.9%
414		43.49	33.40	171	-23.9%
415		17.40	33.39	110	90.2%
416		41.44	33.22	97	-20.5%
417		33.67	33.18	131	-2.3%
418		34.99	33.10	113	-6.2%
419		27.93	33.07	93	17.4%
420		27.42	32.97	184	19.2%
421		38.31	32.83	177	-15.0%
422		50.53	32.81	157	-35.6%
423		29.21	32.72	144	11.1%
424		35.91	32.64	89	-9.9%
425		30.25	32.59	76	6.8%
426		31.69	32.17	399	0.6%
427		21.37	32.12	235	49.0%
428		18.40	31.94	98	72.1%
429		33.93	31.91	154	-6.8%
430		34.97	31.89	152	-9.6%
431		22.74	31.83	77	38.7%
432		22.52	31.80	124	40.0%
433		38.74	31.72	91	-18.8%
434		34.44	31.67	122	-8.8%
435		38.88	31.62	155	-19.4%
436		32.03	31.49	204	-2.6%
437		26.49	31.34	98	17.3%
438		28.40	31.12	158	8.6%
439		36.95	30.95	100	-17.0%
440		25.11	30.81	105	21.6%
441		35.43	30.52	179	-14.6%
442		43.31	30.47	159	-30.3%
443		26.04	30.34	81	15.5%
444		23.93	30.15	189	24.9%
445		31.11	30.12	224	-4.0%
446		33.67	29.51	111	-13.1%
447		28.87	29.51	134	1.3%
448		30.94	29.46	104	-5.6%
449		22.40	29.38	201	30.0%
450		30.48	29.35	145	-4.6%
451		27.57	29.33	113	5.5%
452		32.27	29.19	137	-10.3%
453		30.42	29.12	87	-5.1%
454		32.79	29.00	133	-12.3%
455		35.50	28.89	43	-19.3%
456		14.35	28.64	84	97.8%
457		26.70	28.58	191	6.1%
458		33.26	28.53	237	-15.0%
459		16.34	28.26	101	71.4%
460		28.43	28.19	84	-1.7%
461		20.50	27.68	83	33.8%
462		29.85	27.38	45	-9.1%
463		29.96	27.14	177	-10.2%
464		26.39	27.02	115	1.5%
465		24.85	26.83	59	7.0%
466		31.23	26.71	46	-15.2%
467		19.81	26.62	110	33.2%
468		18.25	26.34	128	43.1%
469		14.98	26.30	51	74.1%
470		21.89	26.21	119	18.7%
471		32.86	26.01	296	-21.5%
472		22.39	25.99	134	15.1%
473		14.05	25.79	87	81.9%
474		32.60	25.68	198	-21.9%
475		31.78	25.58	98	-20.2%
476		34.84	25.52	105	-27.4%
477		22.31	25.47	165	13.1%
478		18.62	25.45	73	35.5%
479		19.93	25.35	65	26.1%
480		19.55	25.30	107	28.3%
481		18.99	25.20	42	31.6%
482		33.40	25.19	171	-25.3%
483		34.64	25.03	196	-28.4%
484		32.01	24.90	370	-22.9%
485		18.45	24.87	94	33.6%
486		22.94	24.83	97	7.3%
487		22.47	24.78	54	9.3%
488		17.05	24.65	88	43.3%
489		25.49	24.61	119	-4.3%
490		31.91	24.35	114	-24.3%
491		30.53	24.18	282	-21.5%
492		16.18	23.95	222	46.7%
493		22.96	23.80	131	2.8%
494		29.10	23.72	127	-19.2%
495		29.20	23.68	101	-19.6%
496		19.85	23.60	111	17.9%
497		25.12	23.59	261	-6.9%
498		16.38	23.58	142	42.7%
499		20.42	23.56	138	14.4%
500		24.78	23.46	117	-6.2%

Each year, the Nature Index publishes tables based on counts of high-quality research outputs in the previous calendar year. Users please note:

• The data behind the tables are based on a relatively small proportion of total research papers, they cover the natural sciences and health sciences only and outputs are non-normalized (that is, they don’t reflect the size of the country or institution, or its overall research output).
• The Nature Index is one indicator of institutional research performance. The metrics of Count and Share used to order Nature Index listings are based on an institution’s or country’s publication output in 145 natural-science and health-science journals. The journals were selected on reputation by an independent panel of leading scientists in their fields. The list is reviewed periodically and journals may be removed or added. Articles from eLife were no longer included in the Nature Index from 2023 after the journal changed its publishing model.
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Research & Reports

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The FDIC conducts research to understand the performance of community banks, the evolution of community banks within the broader banking industry, and the challenges faced by community banks. Research published to this site is based on data available as of the date of publication. These data are subject to periodic revision and update.

This section of the Quarterly Banking Profile provides insight into the condition and performance of community banks. The last 12 months of the Quarterly Banking Profile Community Bank Performance section are provided below. Older issues are located in the Archives section of this page.

The FDIC Quarterly provides a comprehensive summary of the most current financial results for the banking industry, along with feature articles. Articles from the most recent four quarters highlighting community banks are provided below. Older issues are located in the Archives section of this page.

- PDF FDIC Quarterly, 2022, Volume 16, Number 3 The manufacturing industry has undergone fundamental changes in recent decades that are important to communities that rely on manufacturing firms for employment and local economic growth. This article highlights areas where manufacturing is most concentrated, discusses long-term trends, and analyzes community bank performance in manufacturing-concentrated areas.

- PDF FDIC Quarterly, 2022, Volume 16, Number 1 The COVID-19 pandemic pushed the economy into what was, by some measures, the worst contraction on record. However, consumer lending trends did not deteriorate as they usually do during a recession. Consumer loans are a relatively small share of community bank portfolios, totaling $66 billion in fourth quarter 2021. However, for lenders that specialize in consumer lending, trends in the consumer landscape are of great importance. Performance of all types of bank consumer loans improved thanks to government support, forbearance programs, and tighter underwriting standards for new loans. In both the consumer and auto loan categories, the noncurrent rate was lower in community banks than in noncommunity banks. While caution is warranted, and changes in the pandemic and responses could weaken the outlook, the future of consumer lending appears strong.

- PDF FDIC Quarterly, 2022, Volume 16, Number 1 The 2021 Summary of Deposits data reflect the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, changing spending patterns, and government stimulus programs on deposit levels and the number of branch openings and closures. This article evaluates changes in community banks compared with those of noncommunity banks. A special feature discusses branch openings and closings of minority depository institutions. This article also evaluates the likely effect on branch levels of increased availability and use of mobile and electronic banking applications. Responses from the 2021 Summary of Deposits survey show that deposit growth rates for the industry were higher than pre-pandemic growth rates. However, deposit growth rates have moderated compared with the record highs in 2020. Over the past year, deposit growth rates have been higher among community banks compared with those of noncommunity banks. In 2021, the decline in the number of branches accelerated from a year ago, with branches of noncommunity banks closing at a higher rate compared with that of community banks.

- PDF FDIC Quarterly, 2021, Volume 15 Number 4 Commercial real estate (CRE) lending is important to the banking industry, which holds $2.7 trillion in CRE loans. CRE lending is particularly prevalent among community banks. As noted in the FDIC’s December 2020 Community Banking Study, community banks play an outsized role in CRE lending relative to their overall market share. In the pandemic, CRE conditions in several property types came under stress. The pandemic challenged the brick-and-mortar retail, hotel, and office sectors, while multifamily largely held up and the industrial sector benefitted from increased demand. Market conditions improved with economic recovery in 2021, but some of the changes the CRE industry experienced in the pandemic may be long-lasting.

- PDF FDIC Quarterly, 2021, Volume 15 Number 4 In 2020, the pandemic disrupted the global economy, creating stress and uncertainties for consumers and businesses. The U.S. government responded with assistance programs that increased personal savings and contributed to a record inflow of deposits to banks. Community and noncommunity banks face benefits and challenges when liquidity is abundant. Liquid assets grew at a similar rate between noncommunity banks and community banks. The deposit inflows created historically high bank liquidity, and many banks shifted their balance sheet composition to shorter-term, lower-yielding, and non-yielding assets. The shift in asset composition and a prolonged period of low-interest rates caused the net interest margin to decline to the lowest level on record for both noncommunity banks and community banks in 2020 and the first half of 2021.

- PDF FDIC Quarterly, 2021, Volumne 15 Number 3 Community banks that invested more in technology generally reported faster loan and deposit growth in 2020 than did banks with less technology investment. Moreover, the differences in loan and deposit growth associated with technology investment were greater in 2020 than the differences reported prior to the pandemic. Faster loan growth for community banks with greater technology investment largely stemmed from participation in the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP). These community banks, on average, originated a greater share of PPP loans regardless of the loan size, origination date, or borrower distance from the nearest bank branch. Meanwhile, the larger increases in deposit growth of community banks that invested more in technology were due to increases in deposit balances of existing customers rather than from new depositors.

- PDF FDIC Quarterly, 2021, Volume 15 Number 2 The years since the Great Recession generally demonstrate that protracted periods of low interest rates tend to compress net interest margin (NIM) at FDIC-insured banks. In most rate cycles since the 1980s, the median NIM, representative of typical banks, has moved in the same direction as changes in the federal funds rate. Considering that the theoretical predictions of how interest rates affect NIM are unclear, this article explores the topic in all rate cycles since 1984 by examining the change in the median bank NIM during rising and falling rate cycles. It looks at this change for the median community bank and the median noncommunity bank over each rate cycle. The overall positive relationship between short-term interest rates and NIM and the effect of maturity structure on this relationship generally hold true over time for both community banks and noncommunity banks.

FDIC Center for Financial Research Working Paper 2021-01 We study the delivery of subsidized financing to small firms through the Paycheck Protection Program (PPP). Smaller firms are less likely to gain early PPP access, an effect attenuated in small banks and firms with prior lending relationships. Their more even treatment offers a new rationale, beyond traditional soft information arguments, for why small businesses pair with small banks. We also detect a “funding hesitancy” in PPP uptake by small businesses, partly reflecting their wariness of the extensive, subjective government powers to investigate PPP recipients. We discuss the implications of the results for research and policies on small business financing.

Last Updated: June 22, 2023

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How to Write an Index

Last Updated: January 25, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Christopher Taylor, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Christopher Taylor is an Adjunct Assistant Professor of English at Austin Community College in Texas. He received his PhD in English Literature and Medieval Studies from the University of Texas at Austin in 2014. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 2,008,411 times.

An index is an alphabetical list of keywords contained in the text of a book or other lengthy writing project. It includes pointers to where those keywords or concepts are mentioned in the book—typically page numbers, but sometimes footnote numbers, chapters, or sections. The index can be found at the end of the work, and makes a longer nonfiction work more accessible for readers, since they can turn directly to the information they need. Typically you'll start indexing after you've completed the main writing and research. [1] X Research source

Preparing Your Index

• Typically, if you index from a hard copy you'll have to transfer your work to a digital file. If the work is particularly long, try to work straight from the computer so you can skip this extra step.

• If footnotes or endnotes are merely source citations, they don't need to be included in the index.
• Generally, you don't need to index glossaries, bibliographies, acknowledgements, or illustrative items such as charts and graphs.
• If you're not sure whether something should be indexed, ask yourself if it contributes something substantial to the text. If it doesn't, it typically doesn't need to be indexed.

• In most cases, if you have a "works cited" section appearing at the end of your text you won't need to index authors. You would still include their names in the general index, however, if you discussed them in the text rather than simply citing their work.

• For example, if you're writing a book on bicycle maintenance, you might have index cards for "gears," "wheels," and "chain."
• Put yourself in your reader's shoes, and ask yourself why they would pick up your book and what information they would likely be looking for. Chapter or section headings can help guide you as well.

• For example, a dessert cookbook that included several types of ice cream might have one entry for "ice cream," followed by subentries for "strawberry," "chocolate," and "vanilla."
• Treat proper nouns as a single unit. For example, "United States Senate" and "United States House of Representatives" would be separate entries, rather than subentries under the entry "United States."

• Stick to nouns and brief phrases for subentries, avoiding any unnecessary words.
• For example, suppose you are writing a book about comic books that discusses Wonder Woman's influence on the feminist movement. You might include a subentry under "Wonder Woman" that says "influence on feminism."

• For example, if you were writing a dessert cookbook, you might have entries for "ice cream" and "sorbet." Since these frozen treats are similar, they would make good cross references of each other.

Formatting Entries and Subentries

• The style guide provides specifics for you in terms of spacing, alignment, and punctuation of your entries and subentries.

• For example, an entry in the index of a political science book might read: "capitalism: 21st century, 164; American free trade, 112; backlash against, 654; expansion of, 42; Russia, 7; and television, 3; treaties, 87."
• If an entry contains no subentries, simply follow the entry with a comma and list the page numbers.

• People's names typically are listed alphabetically by their last name. Put a comma after the last name and add the person's first name.
• Noun phrases typically are inverted. For example, "adjusting-height saddle" would be listed in an index as "saddle, adjusting-height." [8] X Research source

• Avoid repeating words in the entry in the subentries. If several subentries repeat the same word, add it as a separate entry, with a cross reference back to the original entry. For example, in a dessert cookbook you might have entries for "ice cream, flavors" and "ice cream, toppings."
• Subentries typically are listed alphabetically as well. If subentry terms have symbols, hyphens, slashes, or numbers, you can usually ignore them.

• If a proper name, such as the name of a book or song, includes a word such as "a" or "the" at the beginning of the title, you can either omit it or include it after a comma ("Importance of Being Earnest, The"). Check your style guide for the proper rule that applies to your index, and be consistent.

• When listing a series of pages, if the first page number is 1-99 or a multiple of 100, you also use all of the digits. For example, "ice cream: vanilla, 100-109."
• For other numbers, you generally only have to list the digits that changed for subsequent page numbers. For example, "ice cream: vanilla, 112-18."
• Use the word passim if references are scattered over a range of pages. For example, "ice cream: vanilla, 45-68 passim . Only use this if there are a large number of references within that range of pages.

• Place a period after the last page number in the entry, then type See also in italics, with the word "see" capitalized. Then include the name of the similar entry you want to use.
• For example, an entry in an index for a dessert cookbook might contain the following entry: "ice cream: chocolate, 4, 17, 24; strawberry, 9, 37; vanilla, 18, 25, 32-35. See also sorbet."

• For example, a beginning cyclist may be looking in a manual for "tire patches," which are called "boots" in cycling terms. If you're writing a bicycle manual aimed at beginners, you might include a "see" cross reference: "tire patches, see boots."

Editing Your Index

• You'll also want to search for related terms, especially if you talk about a general concept in the text without necessarily mentioning it by name.

• If you have any entries that are too complex or that might confuse your readers, you might want to simplify them or add a cross reference.
• For example, a bicycle maintenance text might discuss "derailleurs," but a novice would more likely look for terms such as "gearshift" or "shifter" and might not recognize that term.

• For example, you might include an entry in a dessert cookbook index that read "ice cream, varieties of: chocolate, 54; strawberry, 55; vanilla, 32, 37, 56. See also sorbet."

• Generally, an entry should occur on two or three page numbers. If it's only found in one place, you may not need to include it at all. If you decide it is necessary, see if you can include it as a subentry under a different entry.
• For example, suppose you are indexing a dessert cookbook, and it has ice cream on two pages and sorbet on one page. You might consider putting these together under a larger heading, such as "frozen treats."

• You may want to run searches again to make sure the index is comprehensive and includes as many pointers as possible to help guide your readers.

• Make sure any cross references match the exact wording of the entry or entries they reference.

• Indexes are typically set in 2 columns, using a smaller font than that used in the main text. Entries begin on the first space of the line, with the subsequent lines of the same entry indented.

Expert Q&A

• If creating an index seems like too large of a task for you to complete on your own by the publisher's deadline, you may be able to hire a professional indexer to do the work for you. Look for someone who has some knowledge and understanding about the subject matter of your work. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0
• Make the index as clear and simple as you can. Readers don't like looking through a messy, hard-to-read index. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• If you're using a word processing app that has an indexing function, avoid relying on it too much. It will index all of the words in your text, which will be less than helpful to readers. [15] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://ugapress.org/resources/for-authors/indexing-guidelines/
• ↑ https://www.hup.harvard.edu/resources/authors/pdf/hup-author-guidelines-indexing.pdf
• ↑ https://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/CHIIndexingComplete.pdf
• ↑ https://edinburghuniversitypress.com/publish-with-us/from-manuscript-to-finished-book/preparing-your-index

About This Article

An index is an alphabetical list of keywords found in a book or other lengthy writing project. It will have the chapters or page numbers where readers can find that keyword and more information about it. Typically, you’ll write your index after you’ve completed the main writing and research. In general, you’ll want to index items that are nouns, like ideas, concepts, and things, that add to the subject of the text. For example, a dessert cookbook might have an entry for “ice cream” followed by subentries for “strawberry,” “chocolate,” and “vanilla.” To learn how to format your index entries, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Social Security

Research, statistics & policy analysis, annual statistical supplement, 2023.

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The original version of this report contained errors in Tables  7.B1 and 7.B7 . In Table 7.B1, the payment amounts were incorrect. In Table 7.B7, the Total and Federal SSI payment amounts were incorrect. The corrected values now appear in this report.

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The Supplement is a major resource for data on programs administered by the Social Security Administration—the Old-Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance program, known collectively as Social Security, and the Supplemental Security Income program. The Supplement also includes program summaries and legislative histories that help users of the data understand these programs. Please note that additional disability tables and statistics can be found in the SSI Annual Statistical Report and the Annual Statistical Report on the Social Security Disability Insurance Program .

The Supplement has been published annually since 1940. Decisions affecting the future of Social Security are facilitated by the availability of relevant data over a long period. The data provide a base for research, policy analysis, and proposals for changing the programs. In addition to meeting the Social Security Administration's information needs, the Supplement strengthens the agency's ability to respond to requests for program data from congressional committees, government agencies at all levels, and the research community.

The Supplement is prepared by Social Security Administration staff from various components throughout the agency. I would like to express my thanks to them for their contributions.

Natalie T. Lu Associate Commissioner for Research, Evaluation, and Statistics November 2023

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Is Vanguard 500 Index Investor (VFINX) a Strong Mutual Fund Pick Right Now?

Looking for an Index fund? You may want to consider Vanguard 500 Index Investor ( VFINX Quick Quote VFINX - Free Report ) as a possible option. VFINX has no Zacks Mutual Fund Rank, but we have been able to look into other metrics like performance, volatility, and cost.

History of Fund/Manager

Vanguard Group is based in Malvern, PA, and is the manager of VFINX. Vanguard 500 Index Investor made its debut in August of 1976, and since then, VFINX has accumulated about $3.12 billion in assets, per the most up-to-date date available. The fund's current manager is a team of investment professionals.

Performance

Of course, investors look for strong performance in funds. This fund in particular has delivered a 5-year annualized total return of 14.84%, and is in the top third among its category peers. Investors who prefer analyzing shorter time frames should look at its 3-year annualized total return of 9.44%, which places it in the top third during this time-frame.

It is important to note that the product's returns may not reflect all its expenses. Any fees not reflected would lower the returns. Total returns do not reflect the fund's [%] sale charge. If sales charges were included, total returns would have been lower.

When looking at a fund's performance, it is also important to note the standard deviation of the returns. The lower the standard deviation, the less volatility the fund experiences. Compared to the category average of 0%, the standard deviation of VFINX over the past three years is 17.71%. Over the past 5 years, the standard deviation of the fund is 18.09% compared to the category average of 4%. This makes the fund more volatile than its peers over the past half-decade.

Risk Factors

Investors should note that the fund has a 5-year beta of 1, so it is likely going to be as volatile as the market at large. Another factor to consider is alpha, as it reflects a portfolio's performance on a risk-adjusted basis relative to a benchmark-in this case, the S&P 500. VFINX's 5-year performance has produced a negative alpha of -0.12, which means managers in this portfolio find it difficult to pick securities that generate better-than-benchmark returns.

For investors, taking a closer look at cost-related metrics is key, since costs are increasingly important for mutual fund investing. Competition is heating up in this space, and a lower cost product will likely outperform its otherwise identical counterpart, all things being equal. In terms of fees, VFINX is a no load fund. It has an expense ratio of 0.14% compared to the category average of 58%. VFINX is actually cheaper than its peers when you consider factors like cost.

Investors should also note that the minimum initial investment for the product is $0 and that each subsequent investment has no minimum amount.

Fees charged by investment advisors have not been taken into considiration. Returns would be less if those were included.

Bottom Line

For additional information on this product, or to compare it to other mutual funds in the Index, make sure to go to www.zacks.com/funds/mutual-funds for additional information. Want to learn even more? We have a full suite of tools on stocks that you can use to find the best choices for your portfolio too, no matter what kind of investor you are.

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Lake Ontario April prey fish survey results and Alewife assessment, 2024

The Lake Ontario April bottom trawl survey assesses pelagic prey fish populations, in particular Alewife Alosa pseudoharengus, which are the primary prey supporting the lake’s sport fish populations. The 2024 survey included 234 trawls in the main lake and embayments and sampled depths from 3.9 to 245 m (13 – 809 ft). The survey captured 441,942 fish from 28 species with a total weight of 10,519 kg (23,142 lbs.). Alewife were 89% of the total catch by number while Deepwater Sculpin Myoxocephalus thompsonii, Round Goby Neogobius melanostomus, and Rainbow Smelt Osmerus mordax, comprised 4%, 3%, and 2% of the catch respectively.

The estimated Alewife biomass increases slightly from 2023 to 2024 (83.9 to 84.2 kg·ha-1) and was the largest biomass value since whole lake sampling began in 2016. Adult Alewife abundance increased in 2024 as predicted in 2023, and most of the total Alewife biomass was comprised of adult fish (97%), predominantly from the 2020 and 2022 year classes. In contrast, Age-1 Alewife biomass (2.2 kg·ha-1) was the lowest estimated since whole lake sampling began in 2016 (previous range: 2.7 – 26.7 kg·ha-1), indicating reproductive success was poor in 2023. Adult Alewife biomass is predicted to remain relatively high but decline slightly in 2025 and 2026, due to the smaller year classes produced in 2021 and 2023. Alewife condition as measured by the weight of a standard length fish (165 mm; ~6.5 inches), was 32.8 g, which was within of the range of previously observed values (28.0 – 35.9 g, 1997 – 2023). Acoustic-based prey fish densities, in the water above the bottom trawl, were similar to observations from 2021 – 2023 and were orders of magnitude lower than bottom trawl densities. These acoustic results support the seasonal timing of the April survey, when the majority of Alewife and other pelagic prey fishes are near the lake bottom and susceptible to capture with bottom trawls.

The trawl survey also provides information on the status of other pelagic prey fishes and native fish restorations. In 2024, biomass indices for Rainbow Smelt, Emerald Shiner Notropis atherinoides, and Threespine Stickleback Gasterosteus aculeatus, were similar to 2023 values while the index for Cisco Coregonus artedi declined. The density index for naturally reproduced, juvenile Lake Trout Salvelinus namaycush declined relative to 2023. Density estimates of Lake Whitefish Coregonus clupeaformis continue to be orders of magnitude lower in U.S. waters relative to Canadian waters. A single purported Bloater Coregonus hoyi (total length = 148 mm, sampling depth = 105 m) was captured near Rochester, NY during the 2024 survey. This is the eighth Bloater recaptured during this survey since restoration stocking began in 2012.

Citation Information

Publication Year	2024
Title	Lake Ontario April prey fish survey results and Alewife assessment, 2024
Authors	Brian C. Weidel, Jessica Goretzke, Jeremy P. Holden, Scott David Stahl, Olivia Margaret Mitchinson, Scott P. Minihkeim
Publication Type	Report
Publication Subtype	Organization Series
Index ID
Record Source
USGS Organization	Great Lakes Science Center

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Brian c weidel, phd, research fisheries biologist, scott p minihkeim, biological science technician.