process of problem solving in social work

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Helen harris perlman and the problem solving model.

                                         Helen Harris Perlman and the Problem Solving Model

                                                                             By

                                                          Allison D. Murdach LCSW

                                                                2942 Hardeman St.

                                                               Hayward, Ca. 94541

                                                        510-581-6794

                                                           [email protected]

Abstract: This article examines the work of Helen Harris Perlman in developing the problem-solving model of  social work direct practice.  The origins, development and subsequent spread of this approach throughout social work practice is discussed and the various ways in which this model has been applied in the profession is briefly reviewed. The current status of the model, including concerns about its contemporary viability and usefulness, is examined at the conclusion of the article.

Key Words: Problem-Solving Model, Social Work Method, Social Work History, Direct Practice, Social

                    Work Profession

   “I do claim to be an authority on the Problem-solving model in social work, both in

               its methodological aspects and its theoretical roots.  I am the originator and developer

               of that model.”  (Perlman, p. 1, 1980)

     This article examines the work of Helen Harris Perlman (1906-2004) in the development of the problem-solving model of direct practice in social work.  As we approach the third anniversary of her death (September 18, 2004), it is important to recognize once again the importance and magnitude of her contribution to the field. Perlman, a prolific social work author as well as a distinguished clinician and educator in social work, always laid special claim to her model, which she developed in the 1950’s.  Sadly, although she asserted ownership, her model soon slipped from her hands because of its wide acceptance and became, in the latter stages of her life, often misrepresented and at times unrecognizable.

                                                            Perlman and Problem-Solving

     Perlman did not start out to be a social worker.  Her original intention was to become a college humanities professor. After graduating from the University of Minnesota with honors in 1926 with a B. A. in English literature, she was told that she was unemployable at the college level  because she was a woman and especially because she was Jewish.  She then found work as a summer caseworker for the Chicago Jewish Social Service Bureau. Later she reported that  this first exposure to social work was a revelation.  “A whole world opened up to me,” she said, a world in which she also “got a great deal of satisfaction from being able to help people.” ( News & Notes, 2004, p. 1).  She continued working in various social work capacities and assignments at increasingly responsible levels until 1933, when she got a scholarship enabling her to enroll in the New York School of Social Work, now affiliated with ColumbiaUniversity.  While completing her training in social work in New York, she was in demand as a speaker and often addressed various conferences and professional groups about new developments in social work theory and method.  In 1943 she earned her master’s degree in social work from ColumbiaUniversity.  She joined the social work faculty of the Schoolof Social Service Administrationat the Universityof Chicagoin 1945.  While at the school she became first a national and then an international social work figure because of her writing about social work issues, as well as her teaching, consulting, public speaking, and her innovative development of the problem-solving model of social work practice. She published her classic text, Social Casework, A Problem-Solving Process , in 1957.  She officially retired late in her career, but continued to work, teach, write, and do research at the school until just before her death at age 98, even though afflicted near the end of her life with blindness.

     Despite her many scholarly achievements, Perlman always remained a clinician at heart.  As a professional with broad learning and classical training, Perlman was driven to use the insights derived from her clinical work as inspiration for conjecture about social work method and training.  She said her contacts with clients gave her valuable learning opportunities because these relationships involved her in “many cases…(in which) families faced the same kinds of problems and conflicts that one encountered in the great works of literature.” (News & Notes, 2004, p. 5.)   She also stated that it was through these experiences that she came to realize that she “had learned much more of the sickness in people than of their healthiness.”  She soon recognized that she needed to look beyond client pathology to see instead the great “human potential for recuperation and aspiration” that resided in the many ordinary individuals and families who sought her care and assistance on a daily basis (Perlman, 1971, p. xviii).  It was considerations such as these that eventually led to her interest in, and championing of, the importance of processes of everyday human problem-solving in resolving the difficulties in client’s lives (Perlman, 1957).

                                                 Development of the Problem-Solving Approach

     Before discussing Perlman’s model in detail, it will be instructive to review the intellectual background of her approach to gain a better understanding of the context in which it developed.   Prior to the appearance of Perlman’s text in the 1950’s the topic of problem-solving had been, and today continues to be, an area of study in this country in many fields, particularly psychology.  In 1907 the psychologist and philosopher William James established problem solving (which he called  “ common sense”) as a field of intellectual enquiry by giving it a central place in his doctrine of Pragmatism, a philosophical approach to truth which also sought to develop methods that were “helpful in life’s practical struggles” (James, 1963, p.36).  The goal of such methods, James believed, was to help individuals to find their own truth through observation and experience (James, 1963).  In 1910 James’ fellow pragmatist John Dewey conceptualized human problem-solving (or, in his terms, “reflective thinking”)as being composed of four central elements: recognizing and formulating a problem, gathering facts that will lead to a solution, testing each proposed solution, and deciding  upon a course of action (Dewey).  Perlman was the first social work author to use the term “problem-solving” in a social work context and credits Dewey’s writings as her inspiration for the concept (Perlman, 1971).

     Social work was at first slow to adopt the pragmatic idea of problem-solving as a style of intervention.   Mary Richmond, the founder of social work direct practice method, was influenced more strongly by medical methods of intervention (i.e., “study”, “diagnosis”, and “treatment”) (Richmond, 1917) than the philosophical and psychological approach taken by James and Dewey.  Although also a form of problem-solving, the medical approach was, and continues to be, practitioner-driven and assumes the pathology and passivity of the client.  The pragmatic approach, on the other hand, has always emphasized client normality and capacity for personal self-determination, which it seeks to enlist in a search for growth and positive change (Perlman, 1957). 

     The medically-oriented view of the helping relationship prevailed in social work throughout the early twentieth century, largely due toRichmond’s extensive impact on the profession’s development (Garton & Otto, 1964).  Due to the growing popularity of the pragmatic point of view in this country (Menand, 2001), the problem-solving mode of thinking began to influence direct social work practice and social work theorists in the 1920’s and social work authors increasingly began to refer to the practitioner’s efforts to involve clients in the helping interaction by engaging the client’s own problem-solving capacities.  The following list of recommended worker interventions from classic social work writers over several decades, much condensed, helps to indicate the progress of this development: 

a)   Help client acknowledge difficulty.

b)  Assist client in understanding the meaning of the situation.

c)  Aid client in making decision to change.  (Sheffield, 1922)

a)      Show sympathetic approach with client.

b)      Establish rapport.

c)      Present and discuss facts of the case.

d)      Stimulate the client to action.  (Young, 1935)

 a) Demonstrate to the client your ability to observe and listen.

b) Begin where the client is.

c) Ask only necessary questions.

d) Take leadership only when needed, otherwise use client’s own resourcefulness.

e) Offer interpretations of client’s situation, as well as resources and direction only as needed.

                                                                                                   (Garrett, 1942)

a)      Demonstrate acceptance of client.

b)      Discuss client request.

c)      Gather facts about request.

d)      Note and discuss client stresses and patterns of behavior.

e)      Offer only interpretations of the situation that can also utilize the client’s own insight and can aid the client to take action.  (Hamilton, 1951)

     In developing her problem-solving model, Perlman utilized the best features of these intervention schemes but infused them with even greater attention to client problem-solving efforts and capacities (Perlman, 1970).  First in a journal article in 1953 (Perlman, 1971b) and finally fully in her book, Social Casework, a problem-solving process (Perlman, 1957), she laid out the intervention stages required by her model.   These can be outlined briefly as follows:

a) Ascertaining and clarifying the facts of the problem.

b) Thinking through the facts.

      c) The making of some choice or decision.  (Perlman, 1957)

     Perlman’s problem-solving approach, which appears  extremely simple and derivative in bare outline, was actually sophisticated and innovative (Bunston, 1985).   Far from being just a rehash of John Dewey, her model was a synthesis derived from a number of sources: her background in the humanities, her philosophical reflections combined with her knowledge of psychodynamics and the social sciences, her extensive clinical experience, and her study of the “functional” version of social work originated by Jessie Taft, with its strong emphasis on the importance of the helping relationship in direct practice (Perlman, 1957, 1970).  Building from this foundation, she brilliantly formulated a unique cognitively-oriented and client-centered problem-solving process for social work intervention.  In doing so, she highlighted her concepts of “focus” and  “partialization”, which described ways of aiding the client to overcome difficulties by tackling small problems first and thus building confidence to move on to more challenging goals.

     Though this brief sketch of her work hardly does justice to the power and complexity of Perlman’s accomplishment, it does at least highlight the principal stages of her model: problem definition, problem analysis (including the generation and review of alternatives), and the need for specific decision about a course of action (including methods of monitoring and evaluating the results of such action) ( Perlman, 1957). This intervention method was initially controversial in the profession.  Some thought it a mere social work copy of long existent business and management intervention techniques.  Others found it too “rationalistic” and structured, and overly focused on method instead of process, while some in the “diagnostic” social work tradition complained that it was superficial and did not sufficiently address in depth issues of diagnosis, psychopathology, or treatment.  It also was buffeted by competing versions of problem-solving and by “adaptations” of her model  that both amused Perlman and caused her dismay (Perlman, 1980). However in the end, her brilliant synthesis of cognitive analysis, practicality, and psychodynamic compassion and understanding led her model to triumph over her social work critics and imitators.  So successful has the problem-solving approach become that it has now recently been enshrined in the international definition of social work practice (International Definition of the Social Work Profession, Supplement of International Social Work, p. 5, 2007).

                                                             Concerns about Problem-Solving

     It is ironic that the wide-spread influence, success, and acceptance of Perlman’s model makes her achievement appear today to be almost commonplace and banal.  This has even led some to question the method’s apparent efficiency and effectiveness and to seek more in-depth explanations of what actually constitutes problem-solving activity (DeRoos, 1990).  The easy accessibility of the problem-solving approach        has also caused others to question the accuracy of its empirical foundations (Bunston, 1985).  Perlman herself, reflecting on her model’s lack of adornment, was to complain in her later years that many social workers seemed to talk as if the problem-solving method in social work had always existed and “just happened”, that it seemed to have no author or source, and was not even inspired by her work (Perlman, p. 1, 1980).  The popularity and appeal of her approach, it seems, did indeed have its price.

     In addition to the above, other theorists have raised objections that question the whole notion of using a  problem-solving model in helping interventions.  In essence, these objections can be boiled down to the following four general statements:

1)      In reality problem “solving” doesn’t often happen– Some have claimed that in real life social workers and their clients deal with tremendous uncertainty and rarely with well-identified problems, therefore problem “solving” does not often happens and the most that can be hoped for is problem reduction and management—goals that are more realistic and far easier for clients and workers to achieve (Schon, 1983).

2)      Problem- s olving is only one form of thought— Authors in the narrative tradition of social work and therapuetic intervention have worried that fixation on the problem-solving mode of interaction can constrict the client’s ability to freely tell his or her “story” and thus fail to tap into alternate styles of thought and reflection ( Anderson, 1997).

3)      The problem-solving model is culture-bound— Since the social work problem-solving approach was developed initially in social work in the context of white, middle-class culture in the United States (though Perlman did have extensive clinical experience working with minority populations, Perlman, 1971a), some have raised concerns that the approach may be unsuitable for clients from other cultures or social groups.  It is held this model may be especially inappropriate for individuals from cultures that rely on less organized and  less focused methods to address difficulties in social life (such as Native Americans and Mexican-Americans) (Sue, 1981; Galan, 2001).

4)      The model is based on non-experimental (i. e., “soft”) evidence— Since Perlman developed her model when social work research was in its infancy, most of her supporting documentation was drawn from clinical and anecdotal sources, plus her own extensive clinical experience.  In other words, when developing her approach Perlman made extensive use of the now discredited “argument from authority” in her research (Gambrill, 1999).  Although this may put her model on shaky ground in our current social work world of evidence-based practice, it is also true that her problem-solving approach today stands out as a final tribute to the power of “practice wisdom” (DeRoos, 1990) especially as used by a practitioner like Perlman, who possessed a solid liberal arts background as well as infinite discretion and finesse.

                                                                       Conclusion

     Although today no social work author who today used Perlman’s model-building procedures exclusively would be readily considered for academic advancement, the fact that her conceptualizations were generally successful in actual practice appears to bear out psychologist Kurt Lewin’s famous adage that “there is nothing so practical as a good theory.”  However, it still needs to be asked how the model measures up today in our current research-heavy climate in social work practice?  In general one can answer: pretty well.  A number of evaluation research studies done over the past several decades have documented that problem-solving approaches and their variants, such as task-centered treatment and problem-solving therapy, have an impressive record of effectiveness in work with diverse different populations, cultural groups, treatment methodologies, and diagnostic categories (Reid, 1988; Reid & Fortune 2002; Dobson, Backs-Dermott, &

Dozois, 2000).  Indeed these research efforts have, for the most part, laid to rest the objections to Perlman’s problem-solving approach mentioned in the previous section.  One issue remain still remains, however.  As mentioned above, though the many current variants of  Perlman’s approach have been demonstrated to have proven efficacy and effectiveness, Perlman’s model itself is based on theory which has never been empirically tested.  Although some have tried to develop ways to accomplish this goal (Bunston, 1985), many of her sources now go back as far as seventy or eighty years, and it may never be possible to fully validate Perlman’s claims empirically. However as Perlman, who loved proverbs, would probably note: “the proof of the pudding is in the tasting.” Thus it appears that it is now in the proof offered by actual practice success that we can best find the final validation of her method.

                                                                        References

Bunston, T. (1985).  Mapping practice: problem solving in clinical social work. Social Casework,

     66, 225-236.

DeRoos, Y. S. (1990).  The development of practice wisdom through human problem-solving

     processes.  Social Service Review, 64, 276-287.

Dewey, J. (1910).  How we think.  Boston: D. C. Heath.

Dobson, K. S., Backs-Dermott, B. J. & Dozois, D. J. A (2000).  Cognitive and cognitive-behavioral

    therapies.  In C. R. Snyder & R. E. Ingram (Eds.) Handbook of psychological change , pp. 409-428.

   New York: Wiley.

Galan, F. J. (2001).  Experiential approach with Mexican-American males with acculturation stress.

     In H. E. Briggs & K. Corcoran (Eds.), Social work practice, pp. 283-302. Chicago: Lyceum.

Gambrill, E. (1999).  Evidence-based practice: an alternative to authority-based practice.  Families in

     Society, 80, 341-350.

Garrett, A. (1942).  Interviewing.  New York: Family Service Association.

Garton, N. R. &  Otto, H. A. (1964).  The development of theory and practice in social casework.

     Springfield,ILL: Charles C. Thomas.

Hamilton, G. (1951).  Theory and practice of social case work (2 nd ed.) .  New York:ColumbiaUniversity.

International definition of the social work profession (2007).  Supplement of International Social Work,50,

James, W. (1967).  Pragmatism and other essays.  New York:Washington Square.

Menand, L. (2001).  The metaphysical club.  New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

News & Notes (2004). Helen Harris Perlman, social work pioneer and distinguished educator,

     p. 1 and p. 5. Chicago: TheSchool ofSocial Service Administration.

Perlman, H. H. (1957).  Social casework.  Chicago: TheUniversity ofChicago.

Perlman, H. H. (1970).  The problem-solving model in social casework.  In R. W. Roberts & R. H.

    Nee (Eds.), Theories of social casework , pp. 131-179. Chicago: TheUniversity ofChicago.

Perlman, H. H. (1971a).  A guide to the reader of this book.  In H. H. Perlman, Perspectives

     On social casework , pp. ix-xxiv. Philadelphia:TempleUniversity.

Perlman, H. H. (1971b).  The basic structure of the casework process.  In H. H. Perlman, Perspectives

     On social casework , pp. 51-64. Philadelphia:TempleUniversity.

Perlman, H. H. (1980).  Letter to author.

Reid, W. J. (1988).  Brief task-centered treatment.  In R. A. Dorfman (Ed.), Paradigms of clinical social

     Work , pp. 196-219.

Reid, W. J. & Fortune, A. E. (2002).  The task-centered model.  In A. R. Roberts & G. J. Greene (Eds.),

     Social workers’ desk reference , pp. 101-104. Oxford:OxfordUniversity.

Richmond, M. E. (1917). Social diagnosis.  New York: Russell Sage.

Schon, D. A.(1983).  The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books.

Sheffield, A. E. (1922).  What is the case worker really doing?  The Journal of Social Forces, 1,

     362-366.

Sue, D. W. (1981).  Counseling the culturally different.  New York: Wiley.

Young, P. (1935).  Interviewing in social work.  New York: McGraw-Hill.

Share this:

I’m a social worker writing a paper on Corrective Action but have been influenced by Helen Harris Perlmans Problem solving process so I love this page.

Erika–Thanks for your comment. As a student social worker and later as a professional social worker I have always been deeply influenced by H. H. Perlman’s pioneering work. I’m glad you enjoyed the article. Allison D. Murdach

i m doing presentation on problem solving in social work, this is very usful article for students. Ashok.k. MPHIL IN PSW, NIMHANS, BANGALORE.

Dear Ashok–I am glad you find my article interesting and useful for students. I believe Perlman’s work on problem solving has helped to give social work intervention a firmer foundation in practical and effective helping approaches. Thanks for your comment. Allison Murdach

Definitely believe that which you stated. Your favorite reason appeared to be on the internet the easiest thing to be aware of. I say to you, I definitely get annoyed while people think about worries that they just don’t know about. You managed to hit the nail upon the top as well as defined out the whole thing without having side-effects , people can take a signal. Will likely be back to get more. Thanks

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Integrated Practice: A Framework for Problem Solving

Ruth J. Parsons, PhD, is Assistant Professor, Graduate School of Social Work, University of Denver, Denver, CO 80208. Santos H. Hernandez, PhD, is Associate Professor, Department of Social Work Education, California State University-Fresno. James D. Jorgensen, MSW, is Professor, Graduate School of Social Work, University of Denver. The authors acknowledge M. S. Gould for her contribution to Table 1.

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Ruth J. Parsons, Santos H. Hernandez, James D. Jorgensen, Integrated Practice: A Framework for Problem Solving, Social Work , Volume 33, Issue 5, September-October 1988, Pages 417–421, https://doi.org/10.1093/sw/33.5.417

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For social workers to be prepared to practice in postindustrial society, social work education must teach practice perspectives that view the whole of social problems and that concentrate on the habilitation of victims of those problems. An integrated practice framework for social work assumes the root of problems originates in the larger environmental context and must be resolved by the collective action of both victims and nonvictims. In this article, the theoretical constructs, values, basic assumptions, practice principles, and strategies contained in an integrated practice approach are discussed.

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Online MSW Programs / Social Work / 6 Important Theories in Social Work

Six important theories in social work

Social work theories attempt to describe, explain and predict social events based on scientific evidence, studies and research. Social work perspectives draw from psychology, philosophy, economics, education and other fields to attempt to explain what drives and motivates people at various stages of life.

Some social work students studying for a  bachelor’s degree in social work  or  master of social work  may wonder, “Why is theory important in social work?” Studying theory ensures that aspiring professionals are both competent and confident when the time comes to apply social work theories to practice.

Why is theory important in social work?

Social work theories help social workers analyze cases, understand clients, create interventions, predict intervention results, and evaluate outcomes. While the theories are constantly evolving as new evidence is produced, referencing social work theories that have been used over time enables social workers to explore causes of behavior and identify potential solutions.

A crucial objective of learning social work theories is to train and encourage social workers to set aside personal assumptions and beliefs when engaging in social work practice. Social workers should use evidence-based theories to investigate issues and drive their decision making.

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Applying social work theory to practice

Social work theory provides a starting point for social workers to address client problems through a research-based lens.

The theories help social workers better understand complex human behaviors and social environments, which influence their clients lives and the challenges they face. A good grasp of theory that is backed by research-based scientific evidence helps guide social workers by providing them with a sense of direction and purpose.

One challenge when applying social work theories to practice is choosing the right theory for the situation. It can be difficult to assign a single theory to complex client issues. Often, it’s more practical to draw upon the knowledge of multiple theories and use that understanding to design multifaceted interventions.

List of important social work theories

The following list of social work theories includes some of the most widely referenced theories used in social work.

1. Social learning theory

Social learning theory , which is also known as social cognitive theory , was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. This theory posits that learning occurs by observing others and modeling their behavior.

In order for social learning to occur, a person must want to emulate the person they’re watching. The individual pays close attention to the action and retains the action in memory. Then, the individual must experience a situation where the behavior can be repeated and must be motivated to repeat the behavior.

Social workers can use this theory to better understand how role models affect the behaviors and emotions of their clients. Social learning theory can also help social workers form intervention strategies that use positive modeling and reinforcement to encourage their clients to engage in new positive behaviors.

2. Systems theory

Systems theory proposes that people are products of complex systems, rather than individuals who act in isolation. According to this theory, behavior is influenced by a variety of factors that work together as a system. These factors include family, friends, social settings, religious structure, economic class, and home environment.

Systems theory can be used to treat issues like eating disorders, depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, school trauma, and risky behavior. In ecological systems theory, individuals are observed in multiple environments so that behavior is fully understood. Family systems theory examines the family as a social system influencing behavior and thoughts.

Social workers using systems theory will work to understand how their clients are influenced by the systems they’re a part of. Social workers then identify where systemic breakdowns are affecting behavior.

3. Psychosocial development theory

Psychosocial development theory  was introduced by German psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, who believed personality develops in a series of stages. Erikson created an  eight-stage theory of psychosocial development . According to the theory, the eight stages of development that people pass through in life are:

• Trust versus mistrust
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt
• Initiative versus guilt
• Industry versus inferiority
• Identity versus confusion
• Intimacy versus isolation
• Generativity versus stagnation
• Integrity versus despair

Psychosocial development theory explains that humans pass through these stages as they age. By identifying which stage of development their clients are experiencing, social workers can better understand the challenges their clients face.

4. Psychodynamic theory

Psychodynamic theory  was introduced by the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud. This theory is founded on the idea that humans are biologically driven to seek gratification. The theory states that people do this based on processes that have developed outside of conscious awareness, with origins in childhood experiences. This drive influences everyday behavior, leading to actions like aggression, sex and self-preservation.

In social work, psychodynamic theory can help to explain the internal processes individuals use to guide their behavior , some of which may be unconsciously motivated. Social workers may also examine how early childhood experiences have played a role in influencing their clients’ current behavior.

5. Social exchange theory

Social exchange theory suggests that relationships are based on cost-benefit analysis. Each person seeks to maximize their benefits and is expected to reciprocate for the benefits they’ve received. When risks outweigh potential rewards, relationships may be abandoned. When one person in a relationship has greater personal resources than another, that person is predicted to have greater power as well.

Social workers can use social exchange theory to understand their clients’ relationships,  including why they continue to maintain certain relationships or abandon them.

Social exchange theory can also be applied to the techniques social workers use to connect with their clients. This theory can influence how social workers position the social worker-client relationship as one that benefits their clients.

6. Rational choice theory

Rational choice theory helps explain why people make the choices they do, by weighing risks, costs and benefits. This theory suggests that all choices are rational because people calculate the costs and benefits before making a decision. Even when a choice seems irrational, there is reasoning behind it.

This theory can help social workers understand the decision-making processes and motivations of their clients.

Six practice models in social work

Social work practice models enable social workers to implement theories in their day-to-day work. Just like a social worker may use various theories to guide their interventions, social workers may also use various practice models depending on the problems their clients encounter.

1. Cognitive behavioral therapy

Cognitive behavioral therapy focuses on how thoughts and feelings influence behaviors, which can sometimes lead to psychological problems. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy methods help clients identify self-destructive thoughts that influence negative emotions and behaviors.

Cognitive behavioral therapy is often used for individuals who are experiencing mental health issues, mental illness or depression resulting from crisis or trauma. Social workers using cognitive behavioral therapy help their clients eliminate negative thoughts to prevent destructive behaviors and adverse outcomes.

2. Crisis intervention model

The crisis intervention model is used for clients who are experiencing crisis and trauma, such as victims of domestic violence, and for clients who require intervention to prevent physical harm or suicide. Albert R. Roberts, PhD, and Allen J. Ottens, PhD, developed a  seven-stage crisis intervention model :

• Take a psychosocial and lethality assessment.
• Rapidly establish rapport.
• Identify the major crisis cause(s).
• Enable the client to express their feelings and emotions.
• Generate and explore safe alternatives for coping.
• Create an action plan.
• Follow up after the intervention.

This social work model can be used for clients who are experiencing thoughts of suicide or self-harm or who have undergone an acute crisis, like rape or violence.

3. Narrative therapy

Narrative therapy is the process of helping the individual recognize that they have the power to change their life story, also known as the narrative. Narrative therapy helps individuals realize that they are separate from their problems and can fix them when they view the narrative from an outside perspective.

Using narrative therapy, a social worker can help an individual create a new narrative with different positive actions. The social worker enables the individual to understand how the broader context is contributing to their narrative, so that they can be aware of pitfalls to avoid and can utilize various strategies to tackle their problems.

4. Problem-solving model

The problem-solving model was created by Helen Harris Perlman , a social worker and author of “Social Casework: A Problem-solving Process.” Using the problem-solving model, a social worker helps an individual identify a problem, create an action plan to solve it, and implement the solution. Together, the social worker and individual discuss the effectiveness of the problem-solving strategy and adjust it as necessary. The problem-solving model enables the social worker and individual to focus on one concrete problem at a time.

5. Solution-focused therapy

Solution-focused therapy involves the social worker and client identifying a problem and creating a solution based on the individual’s strengths. It’s a short-term practice model that focuses on helping clients cope with challenges using specific behaviors. Instead of focusing on changing who a client is, solution-focused therapy attempts to change a client’s actions in certain situations to achieve more favorable outcomes.

Collaborating to create solutions allows the client to play an active role in implementing necessary actions and achieving positive change.

6. Task-centered practice

Using task-centered practice, a social worker breaks down a problem into manageable tasks. The individual has deadlines to complete the tasks and agrees to meet them. Task-centered practice is a goal-setting form of social work that helps individuals make consistent steps toward improving their lives.

Instead of focusing on the past, this type of practice encourages clients to live in the present and think about how completing certain tasks will positively impact their future.

Resources to explore social work theories

Social work theories have been practiced over decades and continually evolve when new research is completed. Learn more about social work theories by exploring the resources below.

• Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work : This journal features research on evidence-based practice in social work and evaluates social work theory, techniques, and strategies.
• Journal of Social Work Practice : This journal focuses on psychodynamic and systemic social work perspectives. It features research on theory and practice and includes articles offering critical analysis of systemic and psychodynamic theory.
• Journal of Social Work : This journal includes social work research and short “think pieces” on social work theoretical understanding, policy, and practice.
• Social Work:  This journal is the official journal of the National Association of Social Workers and features articles on social work and social welfare, including new techniques and research.
• Clinical Social Work Journal:  This journal features peer-reviewed articles on clinical social work practice with individuals, groups, families, and couples. It also has articles on theory developments, practice and evidence-based clinical research.

Introductory books

• “A Brief Introduction to Social Work Theory” : This textbook by David Howe explains how social work practice is influenced by various social work theories and shows how social work theories have evolved over time.
• “An Introduction to Applying Social Work Theories and Methods”:    This book by Barbra Teater explains the most prominent social work theories and how those approaches can be used in practice.
• “Social Work Theory and Practice”:  This book by Lesley Deacon and Stephen J. Macdonald explains how social work theory informs practice for various individuals and contexts.
• “Modern Social Work Theory”:  This book by Malcolm Payne introduces the major social work practice theories and explains how to apply theory to practice.
• “An Introduction to Using Theory in Social Work Practice”:  This book by James A. Forte covers 14 social work theories and explains how to use them from engagement through evaluation.

Note: the links in this section on Social Work Theory all go to Google Books and are solely provided for your information. edX does not receive any form of compensation for these links.

Other online resources

• NASW Clinical Social Work : This section of the National Association of Social Workers website covers clinical social work practice. It features content, publications, and related resources for clinical social workers, like the “ NASW Standards for Clinical Social Work in Social Work Practice (PDF, 135 KB) .”
• Encyclopedia of Social Work:  The Encyclopedia of Social Work by the National Association of Social Workers Press and Oxford University Press features tools for applying social work theory to practice. These resources include scholarly articles and bibliographies.
• Social Work Today :  This publication features articles on current social work trends in categories like behavioral health, addictions, children and family, aging and professional practice.

Science-based social work theory helps social workers and their clients succeed

Social work theory helps professionals in the field identify and implement effective interventions for clients. An understanding of the most prominent social work theories gives social workers the tools they need to provide evidence-based treatment and help their clients overcome their problems. As social work theories continue to evolve and emerge, social workers can apply their multifaceted knowledge to unique situations and clients.

Are you considering a career in social work? Read more about the field of social work and the steps to becoming a social worker , which can vary by location. 

Last updated: November 2023

Models of Social-Work Practice

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• Zofia T. Butrym 2  

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The concept of ‘social functioning’, as described in the previous chapter, provides social work with its basic terms of reference in relation to its broad objectives. It is, however, too abstract a concept for operational purposes and it calls for ‘middle-range’ generalisations for its application to social-work practice to be effective. It is not surprising, therefore, that an integral element in all conceptualisations of social-work practice has been an attempt to ‘translate’ the meaning of social functioning into some more tangible terms. An analysis of these different attempts provides valuable insights into the nature of the complexity of social work as a helping activity, and can thus serve as a useful supplement to some of the discussion in the preceding chapter.

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R. W. Roberts and R. H. Nee (eds), Theories of Social Casework (University of Chicago Press, 1970).

Google Scholar  

J. W. Reid and L. Epstein, Task Centred Casework (Columbia University Press, 1972) pp. 7, 10.

H. Goldstein, Social Work Practice: A Unitary Approach (Columbia University Press, 1973) p. 187.

H. H. Perlman, Social Casework: A Problem-Solving Process (University of Chicago Press, 1957).

H. H. Perlman, ‘The Problem-Solving Model in Social Casework’, in Theories of Social Casework , ed. Roberts and Nee.

H. H. Perlman, ‘Social Casework in Social Work: its Place and Purpose’, in Casework within Social Work , ed. J. Parker (Department of Social Studies, University of Newcastle, 1973).

Perlman, ‘Social Casework in Social Work’, pp. 13–14.

Perlman, ‘The Problem-Solving Model in Social Casework’, pp. 151–2.

Ibid. p. 152.

F. Hollis, ‘The Psycho-Social Approach to the Practice of Casework’, in Theories of Social Casework , ed. Roberts and Nee, p. 35.

Ibid. p. 48.

Ibid. p. 46.

Ibid. p. 65.

R. E. Smalley, Theory for Social Work Practice (Columbia University Press, 1967) and ‘The Functional Approach to Casework Practice’, in Theories of Social Casework , ed. Roberts and Nee.

Smalley, ‘The Functional Approach to Casework Practice’, p. 93.

Ibid. p. 80.

N. Timms, Social Casework: Principles and Practice (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964) ch. 1.

C. Winnicott, ‘Casework and Agency Function’, in Child Care and Social Work (Welwyn: Codicote Press, 1964).

Ibid. p. 62.

Ibid. pp. 61–2.

Report of the Committee on Local Authority and Allied Personal Social Services , Cmnd. 3703 (London: H.M.S.O., 1968).

P. Halmos, The Faith of the Counsellors (London: Constable, 1965).

Ibid. pp. 26, 27, 28, 182, 190.

C. Rogers, ‘The Characteristics of a Helping Relationship’, Personnel and Guidance Journal , no. 37 (1953) p. 6.

Ibid. p. 16.

E. J. Thomas, ‘Behavioural Modification and Casework’, in Theories of Social Casework , ed. Roberts and Nee, p. 187.

D. Jehu et al. , Behaviour Modification in Social Work (New York: Wiley, 1972).

M. Shaw, ‘Ethical Implications of a Behavioural Approach’, in ibid.

D. Kaplan, ‘A Concept of Acute Situational Disorder’, Social Work (April 1962).

L. Rapoport, ‘Crisis Intervention as a Mode of Brief Treatment’, in Theories of Social Casework , ed. Roberts and Nee, p. 277.

Ibid. p. 277.

Ibid. p. 267.

Reid and Epstein, Task Centred Casework .

J. W. Reid and A. W. Shyne, Brief and Extended Casework (Columbia University Press, 1969).

Reid and Epstein, Task Centred Casework , p. 20.

Ibid. p. 20.

Smalley, Theory for Social Work Practice .

L. von Bertalanffy, General Systems Theory (New York: George Braziller, 1968).

W. Buckley, Sociology and Modern Systems Theory (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967).

E. J. Thomas and R. A. Feldman, ‘Concepts of Role Theory’, in Behavioural Science for Social Workers , ed. E. J. Thomas (London: Macmillan, 1967).

Sister Mary Paul Janchill, R.G.S., ‘Systems Concepts in Casework Theory and Practice’, Social Casework (February 1969).

A. Pincus and A. Minahan, Social Work Practice: Model and Method (Illinois: Peacock, 1973).

Goldstein, Social Work Practice: A Unitary Approach .

Pincus and Minahan, Social Work Practice , pp. 247–71.

A. Pincus and A. Minahan, ‘An Integrated Framework for Social Work: Some Implications for Education and Practice’ , in A Unitary Approach to Social Work Practice , ed. F. Ainsworth and J. Hunter, Conference Report (University of Dundee, 1975) p. 48.

Goldstein, Social Work Practice , p. XIII.

Ibid. p. 54.

Ibid. p. 55.

Ibid. p. 118.

Ibid. p. 188.

Ibid. p. XIII.

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Butrym, Z.T. (1976). Models of Social-Work Practice. In: The Nature of Social Work. Palgrave, London. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-15685-6_2

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Social problem-solving might also be called ‘ problem-solving in real life ’. In other words, it is a rather academic way of describing the systems and processes that we use to solve the problems that we encounter in our everyday lives.

The word ‘ social ’ does not mean that it only applies to problems that we solve with other people, or, indeed, those that we feel are caused by others. The word is simply used to indicate the ‘ real life ’ nature of the problems, and the way that we approach them.

Social problem-solving is generally considered to apply to four different types of problems:

• Impersonal problems, for example, shortage of money;
• Personal problems, for example, emotional or health problems;
• Interpersonal problems, such as disagreements with other people; and
• Community and wider societal problems, such as litter or crime rate.

A Model of Social Problem-Solving

One of the main models used in academic studies of social problem-solving was put forward by a group led by Thomas D’Zurilla.

This model includes three basic concepts or elements:

Problem-solving

This is defined as the process used by an individual, pair or group to find an effective solution for a particular problem. It is a self-directed process, meaning simply that the individual or group does not have anyone telling them what to do. Parts of this process include generating lots of possible solutions and selecting the best from among them.

A problem is defined as any situation or task that needs some kind of a response if it is to be managed effectively, but to which no obvious response is available. The demands may be external, from the environment, or internal.

A solution is a response or coping mechanism which is specific to the problem or situation. It is the outcome of the problem-solving process.

Once a solution has been identified, it must then be implemented. D’Zurilla’s model distinguishes between problem-solving (the process that identifies a solution) and solution implementation (the process of putting that solution into practice), and notes that the skills required for the two are not necessarily the same. It also distinguishes between two parts of the problem-solving process: problem orientation and actual problem-solving.

Problem Orientation

Problem orientation is the way that people approach problems, and how they set them into the context of their existing knowledge and ways of looking at the world.

Each of us will see problems in a different way, depending on our experience and skills, and this orientation is key to working out which skills we will need to use to solve the problem.

An Example of Orientation

Most people, on seeing a spout of water coming from a loose joint between a tap and a pipe, will probably reach first for a cloth to put round the joint to catch the water, and then a phone, employing their research skills to find a plumber.

A plumber, however, or someone with some experience of plumbing, is more likely to reach for tools to mend the joint and fix the leak. It’s all a question of orientation.

Problem-Solving

Problem-solving includes four key skills:

• Defining the problem,
• Coming up with alternative solutions,
• Making a decision about which solution to use, and
• Implementing that solution.

Based on this split between orientation and problem-solving, D’Zurilla and colleagues defined two scales to measure both abilities.

They defined two orientation dimensions, positive and negative, and three problem-solving styles, rational, impulsive/careless and avoidance.

They noted that people who were good at orientation were not necessarily good at problem-solving and vice versa, although the two might also go together.

It will probably be obvious from these descriptions that the researchers viewed positive orientation and rational problem-solving as functional behaviours, and defined all the others as dysfunctional, leading to psychological distress.

The skills required for positive problem orientation are:

Being able to see problems as ‘challenges’, or opportunities to gain something, rather than insurmountable difficulties at which it is only possible to fail.

For more about this, see our page on The Importance of Mindset ;

Believing that problems are solvable. While this, too, may be considered an aspect of mindset, it is also important to use techniques of Positive Thinking ;

Believing that you personally are able to solve problems successfully, which is at least in part an aspect of self-confidence.

See our page on Building Confidence for more;

Understanding that solving problems successfully will take time and effort, which may require a certain amount of resilience ; and

Motivating yourself to solve problems immediately, rather than putting them off.

See our pages on Self-Motivation and Time Management for more.

Those who find it harder to develop positive problem orientation tend to view problems as insurmountable obstacles, or a threat to their well-being, doubt their own abilities to solve problems, and become frustrated or upset when they encounter problems.

The skills required for rational problem-solving include:

The ability to gather information and facts, through research. There is more about this on our page on defining and identifying problems ;

The ability to set suitable problem-solving goals. You may find our page on personal goal-setting helpful;

The application of rational thinking to generate possible solutions. You may find some of the ideas on our Creative Thinking page helpful, as well as those on investigating ideas and solutions ;

Good decision-making skills to decide which solution is best. See our page on Decision-Making for more; and

Implementation skills, which include the ability to plan, organise and do. You may find our pages on Action Planning , Project Management and Solution Implementation helpful.

There is more about the rational problem-solving process on our page on Problem-Solving .

Potential Difficulties

Those who struggle to manage rational problem-solving tend to either:

• Rush things without thinking them through properly (the impulsive/careless approach), or
• Avoid them through procrastination, ignoring the problem, or trying to persuade someone else to solve the problem (the avoidance mode).

This ‘ avoidance ’ is not the same as actively and appropriately delegating to someone with the necessary skills (see our page on Delegation Skills for more).

Instead, it is simple ‘buck-passing’, usually characterised by a lack of selection of anyone with the appropriate skills, and/or an attempt to avoid responsibility for the problem.

An Academic Term for a Human Process?

You may be thinking that social problem-solving, and the model described here, sounds like an academic attempt to define very normal human processes. This is probably not an unreasonable summary.

However, breaking a complex process down in this way not only helps academics to study it, but also helps us to develop our skills in a more targeted way. By considering each element of the process separately, we can focus on those that we find most difficult: maximum ‘bang for your buck’, as it were.

Continue to: Decision Making Creative Problem-Solving

See also: What is Empathy? Social Skills