critical review on a research paper

How to Write Critical Reviews

When you are asked to write a critical review of a book or article, you will need to identify, summarize, and evaluate the ideas and information the author has presented. In other words, you will be examining another person’s thoughts on a topic from your point of view.

Your stand must go beyond your “gut reaction” to the work and be based on your knowledge (readings, lecture, experience) of the topic as well as on factors such as criteria stated in your assignment or discussed by you and your instructor.

Make your stand clear at the beginning of your review, in your evaluations of specific parts, and in your concluding commentary.

Remember that your goal should be to make a few key points about the book or article, not to discuss everything the author writes.

Understanding the Assignment

To write a good critical review, you will have to engage in the mental processes of analyzing (taking apart) the work–deciding what its major components are and determining how these parts (i.e., paragraphs, sections, or chapters) contribute to the work as a whole.

Analyzing the work will help you focus on how and why the author makes certain points and prevent you from merely summarizing what the author says. Assuming the role of an analytical reader will also help you to determine whether or not the author fulfills the stated purpose of the book or article and enhances your understanding or knowledge of a particular topic.

Be sure to read your assignment thoroughly before you read the article or book. Your instructor may have included specific guidelines for you to follow. Keeping these guidelines in mind as you read the article or book can really help you write your paper!

Also, note where the work connects with what you’ve studied in the course. You can make the most efficient use of your reading and notetaking time if you are an active reader; that is, keep relevant questions in mind and jot down page numbers as well as your responses to ideas that appear to be significant as you read.

Please note: The length of your introduction and overview, the number of points you choose to review, and the length of your conclusion should be proportionate to the page limit stated in your assignment and should reflect the complexity of the material being reviewed as well as the expectations of your reader.

Write the introduction

Below are a few guidelines to help you write the introduction to your critical review.

Introduce your review appropriately

Begin your review with an introduction appropriate to your assignment.

If your assignment asks you to review only one book and not to use outside sources, your introduction will focus on identifying the author, the title, the main topic or issue presented in the book, and the author’s purpose in writing the book.

If your assignment asks you to review the book as it relates to issues or themes discussed in the course, or to review two or more books on the same topic, your introduction must also encompass those expectations.

Explain relationships

For example, before you can review two books on a topic, you must explain to your reader in your introduction how they are related to one another.

Within this shared context (or under this “umbrella”) you can then review comparable aspects of both books, pointing out where the authors agree and differ.

In other words, the more complicated your assignment is, the more your introduction must accomplish.

Finally, the introduction to a book review is always the place for you to establish your position as the reviewer (your thesis about the author’s thesis).

As you write, consider the following questions:

• Is the book a memoir, a treatise, a collection of facts, an extended argument, etc.? Is the article a documentary, a write-up of primary research, a position paper, etc.?
• Who is the author? What does the preface or foreword tell you about the author’s purpose, background, and credentials? What is the author’s approach to the topic (as a journalist? a historian? a researcher?)?
• What is the main topic or problem addressed? How does the work relate to a discipline, to a profession, to a particular audience, or to other works on the topic?
• What is your critical evaluation of the work (your thesis)? Why have you taken that position? What criteria are you basing your position on?

Provide an overview

In your introduction, you will also want to provide an overview. An overview supplies your reader with certain general information not appropriate for including in the introduction but necessary to understanding the body of the review.

Generally, an overview describes your book’s division into chapters, sections, or points of discussion. An overview may also include background information about the topic, about your stand, or about the criteria you will use for evaluation.

The overview and the introduction work together to provide a comprehensive beginning for (a “springboard” into) your review.

• What are the author’s basic premises? What issues are raised, or what themes emerge? What situation (i.e., racism on college campuses) provides a basis for the author’s assertions?
• How informed is my reader? What background information is relevant to the entire book and should be placed here rather than in a body paragraph?

Write the body

The body is the center of your paper, where you draw out your main arguments. Below are some guidelines to help you write it.

Organize using a logical plan

Organize the body of your review according to a logical plan. Here are two options:

• First, summarize, in a series of paragraphs, those major points from the book that you plan to discuss; incorporating each major point into a topic sentence for a paragraph is an effective organizational strategy. Second, discuss and evaluate these points in a following group of paragraphs. (There are two dangers lurking in this pattern–you may allot too many paragraphs to summary and too few to evaluation, or you may re-summarize too many points from the book in your evaluation section.)
• Alternatively, you can summarize and evaluate the major points you have chosen from the book in a point-by-point schema. That means you will discuss and evaluate point one within the same paragraph (or in several if the point is significant and warrants extended discussion) before you summarize and evaluate point two, point three, etc., moving in a logical sequence from point to point to point. Here again, it is effective to use the topic sentence of each paragraph to identify the point from the book that you plan to summarize or evaluate.

Questions to keep in mind as you write

With either organizational pattern, consider the following questions:

• What are the author’s most important points? How do these relate to one another? (Make relationships clear by using transitions: “In contrast,” an equally strong argument,” “moreover,” “a final conclusion,” etc.).
• What types of evidence or information does the author present to support his or her points? Is this evidence convincing, controversial, factual, one-sided, etc.? (Consider the use of primary historical material, case studies, narratives, recent scientific findings, statistics.)
• Where does the author do a good job of conveying factual material as well as personal perspective? Where does the author fail to do so? If solutions to a problem are offered, are they believable, misguided, or promising?
• Which parts of the work (particular arguments, descriptions, chapters, etc.) are most effective and which parts are least effective? Why?
• Where (if at all) does the author convey personal prejudice, support illogical relationships, or present evidence out of its appropriate context?

Keep your opinions distinct and cite your sources

Remember, as you discuss the author’s major points, be sure to distinguish consistently between the author’s opinions and your own.

Keep the summary portions of your discussion concise, remembering that your task as a reviewer is to re-see the author’s work, not to re-tell it.

And, importantly, if you refer to ideas from other books and articles or from lecture and course materials, always document your sources, or else you might wander into the realm of plagiarism.

Include only that material which has relevance for your review and use direct quotations sparingly. The Writing Center has other handouts to help you paraphrase text and introduce quotations.

Write the conclusion

You will want to use the conclusion to state your overall critical evaluation.

You have already discussed the major points the author makes, examined how the author supports arguments, and evaluated the quality or effectiveness of specific aspects of the book or article.

Now you must make an evaluation of the work as a whole, determining such things as whether or not the author achieves the stated or implied purpose and if the work makes a significant contribution to an existing body of knowledge.

Consider the following questions:

• Is the work appropriately subjective or objective according to the author’s purpose?
• How well does the work maintain its stated or implied focus? Does the author present extraneous material? Does the author exclude or ignore relevant information?
• How well has the author achieved the overall purpose of the book or article? What contribution does the work make to an existing body of knowledge or to a specific group of readers? Can you justify the use of this work in a particular course?
• What is the most important final comment you wish to make about the book or article? Do you have any suggestions for the direction of future research in the area? What has reading this work done for you or demonstrated to you?

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Writing Critical Reviews

What is a Critical Review of a Journal Article?

A critical review of a journal article evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of an article's ideas and content. It provides description, analysis and interpretation that allow readers to assess the article's value.

Before You Read the Article

• What does the title lead you to expect about the article?
• Study any sub-headings to understand how the author organized the content.
• Read the abstract for a summary of the author's arguments.
• Study the list of references to determine what research contributed to the author's arguments. Are the references recent? Do they represent important work in the field?
• If possible, read about the author to learn what authority he or she has to write about the subject.
• Consult Web of Science to see if other writers have cited the author's work. (Please see 'How to use E-Indexes'.) Has the author made an important contribution to the field of study?

Reading the Article: Points to Consider

Read the article carefully. Record your impressions and note sections suitable for quoting.

• Who is the intended audience?
• What is the author's purpose? To survey and summarize research on a topic? To present an argument that builds on past research? To refute another writer's argument?
• Does the author define important terms?
• Is the information in the article fact or opinion? (Facts can be verified, while opinions arise from interpretations of facts.) Does the information seem well-researched or is it unsupported?
• What are the author's central arguments or conclusions? Are they clearly stated? Are they supported by evidence and analysis?
• If the article reports on an experiment or study, does the author clearly outline methodology and the expected result?
• Is the article lacking information or argumentation that you expected to find?
• Is the article organized logically and easy to follow?
• Does the writer's style suit the intended audience? Is the style stilted or unnecessarily complicated?
• Is the author's language objective or charged with emotion and bias?
• If illustrations or charts are used, are they effective in presenting information?

Prepare an Outline

Read over your notes. Choose a statement that expresses the central purpose or thesis of your review. When thinking of a thesis, consider the author's intentions and whether or not you think those intentions were successfully realized. Eliminate all notes that do not relate to your thesis. Organize your remaining points into separate groups such as points about structure, style, or argument. Devise a logical sequence for presenting these ideas. Remember that all of your ideas must support your central thesis.

Write the First Draft

The review should begin with a complete citation of the article. For example:

Platt, Kevin M.F. "History and Despotism, or: Hayden White vs. Ivan the Terrible  and Peter the Great." Rethinking History 3:3 (1999) : 247-269.

NOTE: Use the same bibliographic citation format as you would for any bibliography, works cited or reference list. It will follow a standard documentation style such as MLA or APA.

Be sure to ask your instructor which citation style to use. For frequently used style guides consult Queen's University Library's Citing Sources guide.

The first paragraph may contain:

• a statement of your thesis
• the author's purpose in writing the article
• comments on how the article relates to other work on the same subject
• information about the author's reputation or authority in the field

The body of the review should:

• state your arguments in support of your thesis
• follow the logical development of ideas that you mapped out in your outline
• include quotations from the article which illustrate your main ideas

The concluding paragraph may:

• summarize your review
• restate your thesis

Revise the First Draft

Ideally, you should leave your first draft for a day or two before revising. This allows you to gain a more objective perspective on your ideas. Check for the following when revising:

• grammar and punctuation errors
• organization, logical development and solid support of your thesis
• errors in quotations or in references

You may make major revisions in the organization or content of your review during the revision process. Revising can even lead to a radical change in your central thesis.

NOTE: Prepared by University of Toronto Mississauga Library, Hazel McCallion Academic Learning Centre.

• << Previous: Writing Resources
• Next: Annotated Bibliography >>

Additional Resources

Writing a Critical Review (Allyson Skene, The Writing Centre, U of Toronto at Scarborough)

The Book Review or Article Critique (Margaret Procter, Writing Support, University of Toronto)

Critical Reviews of Journal Articles (Herbert Coutts, University of Alberta)

Writing a Critical Review (The Writing Centre, Queen's University)

• Last Updated: Aug 22, 2024 2:41 PM
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• CAREER FEATURE
• 04 December 2020
• Correction 09 December 2020

How to write a superb literature review

Andy Tay is a freelance writer based in Singapore.

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Credit: Getty

Literature reviews are important resources for scientists. They provide historical context for a field while offering opinions on its future trajectory. Creating them can provide inspiration for one’s own research, as well as some practice in writing. But few scientists are trained in how to write a review — or in what constitutes an excellent one. Even picking the appropriate software to use can be an involved decision (see ‘Tools and techniques’). So Nature asked editors and working scientists with well-cited reviews for their tips.

WENTING ZHAO: Be focused and avoid jargon

Assistant professor of chemical and biomedical engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.

When I was a research student, review writing improved my understanding of the history of my field. I also learnt about unmet challenges in the field that triggered ideas.

For example, while writing my first review 1 as a PhD student, I was frustrated by how poorly we understood how cells actively sense, interact with and adapt to nanoparticles used in drug delivery. This experience motivated me to study how the surface properties of nanoparticles can be modified to enhance biological sensing. When I transitioned to my postdoctoral research, this question led me to discover the role of cell-membrane curvature, which led to publications and my current research focus. I wouldn’t have started in this area without writing that review.

Collection: Careers toolkit

A common problem for students writing their first reviews is being overly ambitious. When I wrote mine, I imagined producing a comprehensive summary of every single type of nanomaterial used in biological applications. It ended up becoming a colossal piece of work, with too many papers discussed and without a clear way to categorize them. We published the work in the end, but decided to limit the discussion strictly to nanoparticles for biological sensing, rather than covering how different nanomaterials are used in biology.

My advice to students is to accept that a review is unlike a textbook: it should offer a more focused discussion, and it’s OK to skip some topics so that you do not distract your readers. Students should also consider editorial deadlines, especially for invited reviews: make sure that the review’s scope is not so extensive that it delays the writing.

A good review should also avoid jargon and explain the basic concepts for someone who is new to the field. Although I trained as an engineer, I’m interested in biology, and my research is about developing nanomaterials to manipulate proteins at the cell membrane and how this can affect ageing and cancer. As an ‘outsider’, the reviews that I find most useful for these biological topics are those that speak to me in accessible scientific language.

Bozhi Tian likes to get a variety of perspectives into a review. Credit: Aleksander Prominski

BOZHI TIAN: Have a process and develop your style

Associate professor of chemistry, University of Chicago, Illinois.

In my lab, we start by asking: what is the purpose of this review? My reasons for writing one can include the chance to contribute insights to the scientific community and identify opportunities for my research. I also see review writing as a way to train early-career researchers in soft skills such as project management and leadership. This is especially true for lead authors, because they will learn to work with their co-authors to integrate the various sections into a piece with smooth transitions and no overlaps.

After we have identified the need and purpose of a review article, I will form a team from the researchers in my lab. I try to include students with different areas of expertise, because it is useful to get a variety of perspectives. For example, in the review ‘An atlas of nano-enabled neural interfaces’ 2 , we had authors with backgrounds in biophysics, neuroengineering, neurobiology and materials sciences focusing on different sections of the review.

After this, I will discuss an outline with my team. We go through multiple iterations to make sure that we have scanned the literature sufficiently and do not repeat discussions that have appeared in other reviews. It is also important that the outline is not decided by me alone: students often have fresh ideas that they can bring to the table. Once this is done, we proceed with the writing.

I often remind my students to imagine themselves as ‘artists of science’ and encourage them to develop how they write and present information. Adding more words isn’t always the best way: for example, I enjoy using tables to summarize research progress and suggest future research trajectories. I’ve also considered including short videos in our review papers to highlight key aspects of the work. I think this can increase readership and accessibility because these videos can be easily shared on social-media platforms.

ANKITA ANIRBAN: Timeliness and figures make a huge difference

Editor, Nature Reviews Physics .

One of my roles as a journal editor is to evaluate proposals for reviews. The best proposals are timely and clearly explain why readers should pay attention to the proposed topic.

It is not enough for a review to be a summary of the latest growth in the literature: the most interesting reviews instead provide a discussion about disagreements in the field.

Careers Collection: Publishing

Scientists often centre the story of their primary research papers around their figures — but when it comes to reviews, figures often take a secondary role. In my opinion, review figures are more important than most people think. One of my favourite review-style articles 3 presents a plot bringing together data from multiple research papers (many of which directly contradict each other). This is then used to identify broad trends and suggest underlying mechanisms that could explain all of the different conclusions.

An important role of a review article is to introduce researchers to a field. For this, schematic figures can be useful to illustrate the science being discussed, in much the same way as the first slide of a talk should. That is why, at Nature Reviews, we have in-house illustrators to assist authors. However, simplicity is key, and even without support from professional illustrators, researchers can still make use of many free drawing tools to enhance the value of their review figures.

Yoojin Choi recommends that researchers be open to critiques when writing reviews. Credit: Yoojin Choi

YOOJIN CHOI: Stay updated and be open to suggestions

Research assistant professor, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Daejeon.

I started writing the review ‘Biosynthesis of inorganic nanomaterials using microbial cells and bacteriophages’ 4 as a PhD student in 2018. It took me one year to write the first draft because I was working on the review alongside my PhD research and mostly on my own, with support from my adviser. It took a further year to complete the processes of peer review, revision and publication. During this time, many new papers and even competing reviews were published. To provide the most up-to-date and original review, I had to stay abreast of the literature. In my case, I made use of Google Scholar, which I set to send me daily updates of relevant literature based on key words.

Through my review-writing process, I also learnt to be more open to critiques to enhance the value and increase the readership of my work. Initially, my review was focused only on using microbial cells such as bacteria to produce nanomaterials, which was the subject of my PhD research. Bacteria such as these are known as biofactories: that is, organisms that produce biological material which can be modified to produce useful materials, such as magnetic nanoparticles for drug-delivery purposes.

Synchronized editing: the future of collaborative writing

However, when the first peer-review report came back, all three reviewers suggested expanding the review to cover another type of biofactory: bacteriophages. These are essentially viruses that infect bacteria, and they can also produce nanomaterials.

The feedback eventually led me to include a discussion of the differences between the various biofactories (bacteriophages, bacteria, fungi and microalgae) and their advantages and disadvantages. This turned out to be a great addition because it made the review more comprehensive.

Writing the review also led me to an idea about using nanomaterial-modified microorganisms to produce chemicals, which I’m still researching now.

PAULA MARTIN-GONZALEZ: Make good use of technology

PhD student, University of Cambridge, UK.

Just before the coronavirus lockdown, my PhD adviser and I decided to write a literature review discussing the integration of medical imaging with genomics to improve ovarian cancer management.

As I was researching the review, I noticed a trend in which some papers were consistently being cited by many other papers in the field. It was clear to me that those papers must be important, but as a new member of the field of integrated cancer biology, it was difficult to immediately find and read all of these ‘seminal papers’.

That was when I decided to code a small application to make my literature research more efficient. Using my code, users can enter a query, such as ‘ovarian cancer, computer tomography, radiomics’, and the application searches for all relevant literature archived in databases such as PubMed that feature these key words.

The code then identifies the relevant papers and creates a citation graph of all the references cited in the results of the search. The software highlights papers that have many citation relationships with other papers in the search, and could therefore be called seminal papers.

My code has substantially improved how I organize papers and has informed me of key publications and discoveries in my research field: something that would have taken more time and experience in the field otherwise. After I shared my code on GitHub, I received feedback that it can be daunting for researchers who are not used to coding. Consequently, I am hoping to build a more user-friendly interface in a form of a web page, akin to PubMed or Google Scholar, where users can simply input their queries to generate citation graphs.

Tools and techniques

Most reference managers on the market offer similar capabilities when it comes to providing a Microsoft Word plug-in and producing different citation styles. But depending on your working preferences, some might be more suitable than others.

Reference managers

Here is a comparison of the more popular collaborative writing tools, but there are other options, including Fidus Writer, Manuscript.io, Authorea and Stencila.

Collaborative writing tools

*Markdown and LaTex are code-based formatting languages favoured by physicists, mathematicians and computer scientists who code on a regular basis, and less popular in other disciplines such as biology and chemistry.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-03422-x

Interviews have been edited for length and clarity.

Updates & Corrections

Correction 09 December 2020 : An earlier version of the tables in this article included some incorrect details about the programs Zotero, Endnote and Manubot. These have now been corrected.

Hsing, I.-M., Xu, Y. & Zhao, W. Electroanalysis 19 , 755–768 (2007).

Article   Google Scholar  

Ledesma, H. A. et al. Nature Nanotechnol. 14 , 645–657 (2019).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Brahlek, M., Koirala, N., Bansal, N. & Oh, S. Solid State Commun. 215–216 , 54–62 (2015).

Choi, Y. & Lee, S. Y. Nature Rev. Chem . https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-020-00221-w (2020).

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Write a Critical Review

Introduction, how can i improve my critical review, ask us: chat, email, visit or call.

Video: How to Integrate Critical Voice into Your Literature Review

Video: Note-taking and Writing Tips to Avoid Plagiarism

More help: Writing

• Book Writing Appointments Get help on your writing assignments.
• To introduce the source, its main ideas, key details, and its place within the field
• To present your assessment of the quality of the source

In general, the introduction of your critical review should include

• Author(s) name
• Title of the source 
• What is the author's central purpose?
• What methods or theoretical frameworks were used to accomplish this purpose?
• What topic areas, chapters, sections, or key points did the author use to structure the source?
• What were the results or findings of the study?
• How were the results or findings interpreted? How were they related to the original problem (author's view of evidence rather than objective findings)?
• Who conducted the research? What were/are their interests?
• Why did they do this research?
• Was this research pertinent only within the author’s field, or did it have broader (even global) relevance?
• On what prior research was this source-based? What gap is the author attempting to address?
• How important was the research question posed by the researcher?
• Your overall opinion of the quality of the source. Think of this like a thesis or main argument.
• Present your evaluation of the source, providing evidence from the text (or other sources) to support your assessment.

In general, the body of your critical review should include

• Is the material organized logically and with appropriate headings?
• Are there stylistic problems in logical, clarity or language?
• Were the author(s) able to answer the question (test the hypothesis) raised
• What was the objective of the study?
• Does all the information lead coherently to the purpose of the study?
• Are the methods valid for studying the problem or gap?
• Could the study be duplicated from the information provided?
• Is the experimental design logical and reliable?
• How are the data organized? Is it logical and interpretable?
• Do the results reveal what the researcher intended?
• Do the authors present a logical interpretation of the results?
• Have the limitations of the research been addressed?
• Does the study consider other key studies in the field or other research possibilities or directions?
• How was the significance of the work described?
• Follow the structure of the journal article (e.g. Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion) - highlighting the strengths and weaknesses in each section
• Present the weaknesses of the article, and then the strengths of the article (or vice versa).
• Group your ideas according to different research themes presented in the source
• Group the strengths and weaknesses of the article into the following areas: originality, reliability, validity, relevance, and presentation

Purpose: 

• To summarize the strengths and weaknesses of the article as a whole
• To assert the article’s practical and theoretical significance

In general, the conclusion of your critical review should include

• A restatement of your overall opinion
• A summary of the key strengths and weaknesses of the research that support your overall opinion of the source
• Did the research reported in this source result in the formation of new questions, theories or hypotheses by the authors or other researchers?
• Have other researchers subsequently supported or refuted the observations or interpretations of these authors?
• Did the research provide new factual information, a new understanding of a phenomenon in the field, a new research technique?
• Did the research produce any practical applications? 
• What are the social, political, technological, or medical implications of this research?
• How do you evaluate the significance of the research? 
• Find out what style guide you are required to follow (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) and follow the guidelines to create a reference list (may be called a bibliography or works cited).
• Be sure to include citations in the text when you refer to the source itself or external sources. 
• Check out our Cite Your Sources Guide for more information. 
• Read assignment instructions carefully and refer to them throughout the writing process.
• Make an outline of your main sections before you write.
• If your professor does not assign a topic or source, you must choose one yourself. Select a source that interests you and is written clearly so you can understand it.
• << Previous: Start Here
• Last Updated: Apr 25, 2024 1:53 PM
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Manisha Bahl, A Step-by-Step Guide to Writing a Scientific Review Article, Journal of Breast Imaging , Volume 5, Issue 4, July/August 2023, Pages 480–485, https://doi.org/10.1093/jbi/wbad028

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Scientific review articles are comprehensive, focused reviews of the scientific literature written by subject matter experts. The task of writing a scientific review article can seem overwhelming; however, it can be managed by using an organized approach and devoting sufficient time to the process. The process involves selecting a topic about which the authors are knowledgeable and enthusiastic, conducting a literature search and critical analysis of the literature, and writing the article, which is composed of an abstract, introduction, body, and conclusion, with accompanying tables and figures. This article, which focuses on the narrative or traditional literature review, is intended to serve as a guide with practical steps for new writers. Tips for success are also discussed, including selecting a focused topic, maintaining objectivity and balance while writing, avoiding tedious data presentation in a laundry list format, moving from descriptions of the literature to critical analysis, avoiding simplistic conclusions, and budgeting time for the overall process.

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Writing a Critical Review

The advice below is a general guide only. We strongly recommend that you also follow your assignment instructions and seek clarification from your lecturer/tutor if needed.

Purpose of a critical review

The critical review is a writing task that asks you to summarise and evaluate a text. The critical review can be of a book, a chapter, or a journal article. Writing the critical review usually requires you to read the selected text in detail and to read other related texts so you can present a fair and reasonable evaluation of the selected text. 

What is meant by critical?

At university, to be critical does not mean to criticise in a negative manner. Rather, it requires you to question the information and opinions in a text and present your evaluation or judgement of the text. To do this well, you should attempt to understand the topic from different perspectives (i.e. read related texts), and in relation to the theories, approaches and frameworks in your course.

What is meant by evaluation or judgement?

This is where you decide the strengths and weaknesses of a text. This is usually based on specific criteria. Evaluating requires an understanding of not just the content of the text, but also an understanding of a text’s purpose, the intended audience, and why it is structured the way it is.

What is meant by analysis?

Analysis requires separating the content and concepts of a text into their main components and then understanding how these interrelate, connect and possibly influence each other.

  Next: Structure of a critical review

Essay and assignment writing guide.

• Essay writing basics
• Essay and assignment planning
• Answering assignment questions
• Editing checklist
• Structure of a critical review
• General criteria for evaluating
• Sample extracts
• Annotated bibliography
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Methodology

• How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates

Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates, and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and its scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position your work in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate
• Evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.

Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models, and methods?
• Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat—this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.

Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, you can follow these tips:

• Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers — add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts

In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.

When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !

This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.

Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.

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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other  academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .

An  annotated bibliography is a list of  source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a  paper .  

Cite this Scribbr article

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McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved August 21, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/

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PSY290 - Research Methods

• Identifying & Locating Empirical Research Articles
• Survey & Test Instruments

Writing a Critical Review

Sample summaries, verbs to help you write the summary, how to read a scholarly article.

• APA Citation Style Help

A critical review is an academic appraisal of an article that offers both a summary and critical comment. They are useful in evaluating the relevance of a source to your academic needs. They demonstrate that you have understood the text and that you can analyze the main arguments or findings. It is not just a summary; it is an evaluation of what the author has said on a topic. It’s critical in that you thoughtfully consider the validity and accuracy of the author’s claims and that you identify other valid points of view.

An effective critical review has three parts:

• APA citation of article
• Clearly summarizes the purpose for the article and identifies the strengths and weaknesses of the research. (In your own words – no quotations.)
• Evaluates the contribution of the article to the discipline or broad subject area and how it relates to your own research.

Steps to Write a Critical Review:

• Create and APA style citation for the article you are reviewing.
• Skim the text: Read the title, abstract, introduction, and conclusion.
• Read the entire article in order to identify its main ideas and purpose.

Q. What were the authors investigating? What is their thesis? Q. What did the authors hope to discover?

        D. Pay close attention to the methods used by the authors to collection information.

Q. What are the characteristics of the participants? (e.g.) Age/gender/ethnicity

Q. What was the procedure or experimental method/surveys used?

Q. Are their any flaws in the design of their study?

  E. Review the main findings in the “Discussion” or “Conclusion” section. This will help you to evaluate the validity of their evidence, and the credibility of the authors.             Q.   Are their conclusions convincing?            Q.   Were their results significant? If so, describe how they were significant.  F. Evaluate the usefulness of the text to YOU in the context of your own research.

Q. How does this article assist you in your research?

Q. How does it enhance your understanding of this issue?

Q. What gaps in your research does it fill?

Good Summary:

Hock, S., & Rochford, R. A. (2010). A letter-writing campaign: linking academic success and civic engagement. Journal  of Community Engagement and Scholarship, 3 (2), 76-82.

Hock & Rochford (2010) describe how two classes of developmental writing students were engaged in a service-learning project to support the preservation of an on-campus historical site. The goal of the assignment was to help students to see how they have influence in their community by acting as engaged citizens, and to improve their scores on the ACT Writing Sample Assessment (WSA) exam. The authors report that students in developmental classes often feel disempowered, especially when English is not their first language. This assignment not only assisted them in elevating their written communication skills, but it also gave real-life significance to the assignment, and by extension made them feel like empowered members of the community. The advancement in student scores serves as evidence to support my research that when students are given assignments which permit local advocacy and active participation, their academic performance also improves.

Bad Summary:

Two ELL classes complete a service-learning project and improve their writing scores. This article was good because it provided me with lots of information I can use. The students learned a lot in their service-learning project and they passed the ACT exam.  

Remember you're describing what someone else has said. Use verbal cues to make this clear to your reader.  Here are some suggested verbs to use: 

* Adapted from: http://www.laspositascollege.edu/raw/summaries.php

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How to write a critical review

Our guide on what it means to think critically when assessing a piece of writing for a student assignment or a workplace project.

When an academic assignment asks you to “critically review” or include a “critical analysis” of the work of other people, it generally means that you’ll need to “think critically”. This means analysing and assessing the work in terms of what the author was trying to achieve, the approach they took, how they conducted the research, and whether the outcomes were valid and acceptable. 

A critical review evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of an item’s ideas and content. It provides description, analysis and interpretation that assess the item’s value. It’s an exercise that can be carried out on many different types of writing, but is most often carried out on a report, a book or a journal article. 

Thousands of publications relevant to HR appear every year, via established journals, websites, management consultancy reports and universities all over the world. With so much information becoming available, many of which offer new ideas, new HR theories and approaches, it’s important that HR practitioners can evaluate whether what they read is valid, sound and unbiased. We can’t take everything we read at face value, and it’s an important skill, and a very important activity to conduct, if you’re going to base corporate change and your proposals to management on information from published sources. 

On this page

Selecting an item to review, the critical review process, writing the critical review, useful contacts and books, view our other study guides.

For study purposes, it's likely that you'll be asked to carry out a critical review of one or more journal articles. You may be directed to a specific journal article, or asked to select one based on your own research on a particular topic, or on a topic of your choice.  

If you're given options to make a choice, you're more likely to achieve the required outcome if you use well-known academic journals. These might be found in a library, on HR websites such as HR Focus, or via any online journal hosting service, such as EBSCO which is provided free to CIPD members.  

An article will only be useful for a critical review assignment if the author has stated what the question was, how the research was done and the outcomes or conclusions based on the facts and evidence listed.  

What is a journal?  

A journal (sometimes also called a “ periodical ” ) is a publication produced on a regular continuing basis – it may be weekly, monthly, quarterly (every three months) or annually.  

The titles of journals (for example The Journal of Occupational Psychology ) indicate the main topic focus of the articles contained in it.  

As they are published regularly, journals usually have volume and issue numbers, and sometimes months, to identify them.  

A volume usually covers a specific year – so, for example, volume 45 may be all the issues published in 2013.  

A n issue number refers to a specific instalment of the journal within that volume – they are often numbered issue or number 1, 2, 3, etc.  

A s well as, or instead of, a volume and issue number, some journals use the month of publication. This information is often crucial in finding specific articles.  

There are two main types of journal :  

Academic journal (also called scholarly journals) – T hese often contain research articles written by subject experts; they contain academic commentary and critical evaluation of issues by experts. The articles will be written in an academic style and they may be “ refereed ” or “ peer-reviewed ” – that is they articles are assessed, often by members of an editorial board who are experts in the field, before they are accepted for publication. Articles from this type of journal are usually suitable for a critical review exercise. The International Journal of Human Resource Management and Harvard Business Review are examples.  

Trade or professional journals – T hese usually contain news articles and comment on current issues. The articles often contain practical information and are written in everyday language. They also often have a “ jobs ” section and news of people in that profession. They are likely to be written by journalists rather than academics and don't usually have such rigorous publishing criteria. These articles may not be so suitable for a critical review exercise. People Management is an example.  

Take time to:  

Think about what content are you expecting, based on the title?  

Read the abstract for a summary of the author's arguments.  

Study the list of references to determine what research contributed to the author's arguments. Are the references recent? Do they represent important work in the field by accredited authors?  

Find out more about the author to learn what authority they have to write about the subject. Have they published other works which have been peer-assessed by other experts?  

Read the article carefully, but straight-through the first time to form an impression. You may find it useful to note down your initial reactions and questions. Then re-read it, either right-through or in sections, taking notes of the key ideas. Use these questions as a framework.  

Who was the article written for?  

Why has the author written the article? To survey and summarise research on a topic? Or to present an argument that builds on past research? Or to disagree with another writer’s stated argument?  

Does the author define important terms?  

Is the information in the article fact or opinion? Facts can be verified, while opinions arise from perceptions and interpretation.  

Is the article well-structured? Is it organised logically and easy to follow?  

Is the information well-researched, or is it largely unsupported?  

What are the author’s central arguments or conclusions? Are they supported by evidence and analysis?  

If the article reports on an experiment or study, does the author clearly outline methodology and the expected result?  

Is the article lacking any information or arguments that you expected to find?  

For more on effective reading and note-taking, see our guide on studying effectively.  

A key part of a critical review is assessing the author's “argument”. In this context, the argument is the line of reasoning or the approach or point of view of the author. It may be the author is defending a particular idea. They may be trying to make a case for something, perhaps a new idea, in which case there would then need to be evidence, examples and a clear set of conclusions coming from the research, or investigation done. To be academically acceptable, any outcomes stated should not be just the author's ideas alone, they must be backed up with valid, appropriate evidence.  

Questions to ask yourself about the item you're reviewing are:  

Is there a logical progression through the argument?  

Do you feel the argument is strong enough?  

Is there enough valid evidence?  

Does the author make any assumptions and, if so, are they reasonable?  

Are any surveys valid – for example, is the sample size representative and large enough for any conclusions to be valid?  

Would the findings and conclusions apply to other organisations, or are they too specific? Why?  

Do you think the author was biased? Why? For example, it can be useful to think about who funded the research and whether could that have influenced the findings.  

It's important to remember that you don't need to agree with the author's views – this would form part of your critical thinking.  

A key skill when thinking critically is to be objective in what you are reading or thinking through. Look at both sides of the argument, think of some tests you could do to establish if the ideas are sound. You might apply them to your own organisation for instance.  

The output from critical thinking in a professional context is usually a report – a critical review of the item(s) chosen for a given purpose (for example, as student assignment or, in a work setting, to a project team).  

The steps are to:  

Select your area for review, and the reason for choosing it.  

Identify the different information sources reviewed, naming type, when accessed, and through which online database or source.  

Explain why you chose these source(s) to review (unless they were given to you).  

Highlight and comment on the different research approaches and methods used by the author(s).  

Comment on the argument and conclusions, drawing where necessary on your wider research.  

If required, make recommendations to named stakeholders for sustaining or improving practice, based on the findings in your sources.

Open University – critical reading techniques  

Open University – critically processing what you read  

Palgrave Study Skills – critical thinking  

CAMERON, S. (2009) The business student's handbook: skills for study and employment . 5th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education.  

COTTRELL, S. (2013) The study skills handbook . 4th ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.  

COTTRELL, S. (2011) Critical thinking skills . 2nd ed. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.  

HORN. R. (2009) The business skills handbook . London: CIPD.  

NORTHEDGE, A. (2005) The good study guide . 2nd ed. Milton Keynes: Open University.  

OPEN UNIVERSITY. (2007) Develop effective study strategies . Milton Keynes: Open University

Our guide to helping you compile bibliographies based on the Harvard system.

There are a number of key considerations when developing an approach to studying to suit you. These study tips will help ensure you study effectively.

Practical advice on the report-writing process, with key steps to improve the quality of business reports

An academic essay is a formal piece of writing which presents an argument to the reader. Learn how to write persuasive and robust academic essays.

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Ten Simple Rules for Writing a Literature Review

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1 Centre for Functional and Evolutionary Ecology (CEFE), CNRS, Montpellier, France

2 Centre for Biodiversity Synthesis and Analysis (CESAB), FRB, Aix-en-Provence, France

Literature reviews are in great demand in most scientific fields. Their need stems from the ever-increasing output of scientific publications [1] . For example, compared to 1991, in 2008 three, eight, and forty times more papers were indexed in Web of Science on malaria, obesity, and biodiversity, respectively [2] . Given such mountains of papers, scientists cannot be expected to examine in detail every single new paper relevant to their interests [3] . Thus, it is both advantageous and necessary to rely on regular summaries of the recent literature. Although recognition for scientists mainly comes from primary research, timely literature reviews can lead to new synthetic insights and are often widely read [4] . For such summaries to be useful, however, they need to be compiled in a professional way [5] .

When starting from scratch, reviewing the literature can require a titanic amount of work. That is why researchers who have spent their career working on a certain research issue are in a perfect position to review that literature. Some graduate schools are now offering courses in reviewing the literature, given that most research students start their project by producing an overview of what has already been done on their research issue [6] . However, it is likely that most scientists have not thought in detail about how to approach and carry out a literature review.

Reviewing the literature requires the ability to juggle multiple tasks, from finding and evaluating relevant material to synthesising information from various sources, from critical thinking to paraphrasing, evaluating, and citation skills [7] . In this contribution, I share ten simple rules I learned working on about 25 literature reviews as a PhD and postdoctoral student. Ideas and insights also come from discussions with coauthors and colleagues, as well as feedback from reviewers and editors.

Rule 1: Define a Topic and Audience

How to choose which topic to review? There are so many issues in contemporary science that you could spend a lifetime of attending conferences and reading the literature just pondering what to review. On the one hand, if you take several years to choose, several other people may have had the same idea in the meantime. On the other hand, only a well-considered topic is likely to lead to a brilliant literature review [8] . The topic must at least be:

• interesting to you (ideally, you should have come across a series of recent papers related to your line of work that call for a critical summary),
• an important aspect of the field (so that many readers will be interested in the review and there will be enough material to write it), and
• a well-defined issue (otherwise you could potentially include thousands of publications, which would make the review unhelpful).

Ideas for potential reviews may come from papers providing lists of key research questions to be answered [9] , but also from serendipitous moments during desultory reading and discussions. In addition to choosing your topic, you should also select a target audience. In many cases, the topic (e.g., web services in computational biology) will automatically define an audience (e.g., computational biologists), but that same topic may also be of interest to neighbouring fields (e.g., computer science, biology, etc.).

Rule 2: Search and Re-search the Literature

After having chosen your topic and audience, start by checking the literature and downloading relevant papers. Five pieces of advice here:

• keep track of the search items you use (so that your search can be replicated [10] ),
• keep a list of papers whose pdfs you cannot access immediately (so as to retrieve them later with alternative strategies),
• use a paper management system (e.g., Mendeley, Papers, Qiqqa, Sente),
• define early in the process some criteria for exclusion of irrelevant papers (these criteria can then be described in the review to help define its scope), and
• do not just look for research papers in the area you wish to review, but also seek previous reviews.

The chances are high that someone will already have published a literature review ( Figure 1 ), if not exactly on the issue you are planning to tackle, at least on a related topic. If there are already a few or several reviews of the literature on your issue, my advice is not to give up, but to carry on with your own literature review,

The bottom-right situation (many literature reviews but few research papers) is not just a theoretical situation; it applies, for example, to the study of the impacts of climate change on plant diseases, where there appear to be more literature reviews than research studies [33] .

• discussing in your review the approaches, limitations, and conclusions of past reviews,
• trying to find a new angle that has not been covered adequately in the previous reviews, and
• incorporating new material that has inevitably accumulated since their appearance.

When searching the literature for pertinent papers and reviews, the usual rules apply:

• be thorough,
• use different keywords and database sources (e.g., DBLP, Google Scholar, ISI Proceedings, JSTOR Search, Medline, Scopus, Web of Science), and
• look at who has cited past relevant papers and book chapters.

Rule 3: Take Notes While Reading

If you read the papers first, and only afterwards start writing the review, you will need a very good memory to remember who wrote what, and what your impressions and associations were while reading each single paper. My advice is, while reading, to start writing down interesting pieces of information, insights about how to organize the review, and thoughts on what to write. This way, by the time you have read the literature you selected, you will already have a rough draft of the review.

Of course, this draft will still need much rewriting, restructuring, and rethinking to obtain a text with a coherent argument [11] , but you will have avoided the danger posed by staring at a blank document. Be careful when taking notes to use quotation marks if you are provisionally copying verbatim from the literature. It is advisable then to reformulate such quotes with your own words in the final draft. It is important to be careful in noting the references already at this stage, so as to avoid misattributions. Using referencing software from the very beginning of your endeavour will save you time.

Rule 4: Choose the Type of Review You Wish to Write

After having taken notes while reading the literature, you will have a rough idea of the amount of material available for the review. This is probably a good time to decide whether to go for a mini- or a full review. Some journals are now favouring the publication of rather short reviews focusing on the last few years, with a limit on the number of words and citations. A mini-review is not necessarily a minor review: it may well attract more attention from busy readers, although it will inevitably simplify some issues and leave out some relevant material due to space limitations. A full review will have the advantage of more freedom to cover in detail the complexities of a particular scientific development, but may then be left in the pile of the very important papers “to be read” by readers with little time to spare for major monographs.

There is probably a continuum between mini- and full reviews. The same point applies to the dichotomy of descriptive vs. integrative reviews. While descriptive reviews focus on the methodology, findings, and interpretation of each reviewed study, integrative reviews attempt to find common ideas and concepts from the reviewed material [12] . A similar distinction exists between narrative and systematic reviews: while narrative reviews are qualitative, systematic reviews attempt to test a hypothesis based on the published evidence, which is gathered using a predefined protocol to reduce bias [13] , [14] . When systematic reviews analyse quantitative results in a quantitative way, they become meta-analyses. The choice between different review types will have to be made on a case-by-case basis, depending not just on the nature of the material found and the preferences of the target journal(s), but also on the time available to write the review and the number of coauthors [15] .

Rule 5: Keep the Review Focused, but Make It of Broad Interest

Whether your plan is to write a mini- or a full review, it is good advice to keep it focused 16 , 17 . Including material just for the sake of it can easily lead to reviews that are trying to do too many things at once. The need to keep a review focused can be problematic for interdisciplinary reviews, where the aim is to bridge the gap between fields [18] . If you are writing a review on, for example, how epidemiological approaches are used in modelling the spread of ideas, you may be inclined to include material from both parent fields, epidemiology and the study of cultural diffusion. This may be necessary to some extent, but in this case a focused review would only deal in detail with those studies at the interface between epidemiology and the spread of ideas.

While focus is an important feature of a successful review, this requirement has to be balanced with the need to make the review relevant to a broad audience. This square may be circled by discussing the wider implications of the reviewed topic for other disciplines.

Rule 6: Be Critical and Consistent

Reviewing the literature is not stamp collecting. A good review does not just summarize the literature, but discusses it critically, identifies methodological problems, and points out research gaps [19] . After having read a review of the literature, a reader should have a rough idea of:

• the major achievements in the reviewed field,
• the main areas of debate, and
• the outstanding research questions.

It is challenging to achieve a successful review on all these fronts. A solution can be to involve a set of complementary coauthors: some people are excellent at mapping what has been achieved, some others are very good at identifying dark clouds on the horizon, and some have instead a knack at predicting where solutions are going to come from. If your journal club has exactly this sort of team, then you should definitely write a review of the literature! In addition to critical thinking, a literature review needs consistency, for example in the choice of passive vs. active voice and present vs. past tense.

Rule 7: Find a Logical Structure

Like a well-baked cake, a good review has a number of telling features: it is worth the reader's time, timely, systematic, well written, focused, and critical. It also needs a good structure. With reviews, the usual subdivision of research papers into introduction, methods, results, and discussion does not work or is rarely used. However, a general introduction of the context and, toward the end, a recapitulation of the main points covered and take-home messages make sense also in the case of reviews. For systematic reviews, there is a trend towards including information about how the literature was searched (database, keywords, time limits) [20] .

How can you organize the flow of the main body of the review so that the reader will be drawn into and guided through it? It is generally helpful to draw a conceptual scheme of the review, e.g., with mind-mapping techniques. Such diagrams can help recognize a logical way to order and link the various sections of a review [21] . This is the case not just at the writing stage, but also for readers if the diagram is included in the review as a figure. A careful selection of diagrams and figures relevant to the reviewed topic can be very helpful to structure the text too [22] .

Rule 8: Make Use of Feedback

Reviews of the literature are normally peer-reviewed in the same way as research papers, and rightly so [23] . As a rule, incorporating feedback from reviewers greatly helps improve a review draft. Having read the review with a fresh mind, reviewers may spot inaccuracies, inconsistencies, and ambiguities that had not been noticed by the writers due to rereading the typescript too many times. It is however advisable to reread the draft one more time before submission, as a last-minute correction of typos, leaps, and muddled sentences may enable the reviewers to focus on providing advice on the content rather than the form.

Feedback is vital to writing a good review, and should be sought from a variety of colleagues, so as to obtain a diversity of views on the draft. This may lead in some cases to conflicting views on the merits of the paper, and on how to improve it, but such a situation is better than the absence of feedback. A diversity of feedback perspectives on a literature review can help identify where the consensus view stands in the landscape of the current scientific understanding of an issue [24] .

Rule 9: Include Your Own Relevant Research, but Be Objective

In many cases, reviewers of the literature will have published studies relevant to the review they are writing. This could create a conflict of interest: how can reviewers report objectively on their own work [25] ? Some scientists may be overly enthusiastic about what they have published, and thus risk giving too much importance to their own findings in the review. However, bias could also occur in the other direction: some scientists may be unduly dismissive of their own achievements, so that they will tend to downplay their contribution (if any) to a field when reviewing it.

In general, a review of the literature should neither be a public relations brochure nor an exercise in competitive self-denial. If a reviewer is up to the job of producing a well-organized and methodical review, which flows well and provides a service to the readership, then it should be possible to be objective in reviewing one's own relevant findings. In reviews written by multiple authors, this may be achieved by assigning the review of the results of a coauthor to different coauthors.

Rule 10: Be Up-to-Date, but Do Not Forget Older Studies

Given the progressive acceleration in the publication of scientific papers, today's reviews of the literature need awareness not just of the overall direction and achievements of a field of inquiry, but also of the latest studies, so as not to become out-of-date before they have been published. Ideally, a literature review should not identify as a major research gap an issue that has just been addressed in a series of papers in press (the same applies, of course, to older, overlooked studies (“sleeping beauties” [26] )). This implies that literature reviewers would do well to keep an eye on electronic lists of papers in press, given that it can take months before these appear in scientific databases. Some reviews declare that they have scanned the literature up to a certain point in time, but given that peer review can be a rather lengthy process, a full search for newly appeared literature at the revision stage may be worthwhile. Assessing the contribution of papers that have just appeared is particularly challenging, because there is little perspective with which to gauge their significance and impact on further research and society.

Inevitably, new papers on the reviewed topic (including independently written literature reviews) will appear from all quarters after the review has been published, so that there may soon be the need for an updated review. But this is the nature of science [27] – [32] . I wish everybody good luck with writing a review of the literature.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to M. Barbosa, K. Dehnen-Schmutz, T. Döring, D. Fontaneto, M. Garbelotto, O. Holdenrieder, M. Jeger, D. Lonsdale, A. MacLeod, P. Mills, M. Moslonka-Lefebvre, G. Stancanelli, P. Weisberg, and X. Xu for insights and discussions, and to P. Bourne, T. Matoni, and D. Smith for helpful comments on a previous draft.

Funding Statement

This work was funded by the French Foundation for Research on Biodiversity (FRB) through its Centre for Synthesis and Analysis of Biodiversity data (CESAB), as part of the NETSEED research project. The funders had no role in the preparation of the manuscript.

Tax Experiments in Developing Countries: A Critical Review and Reflections on Feasibility

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Do endocrine disrupting compounds impact earthworms? A comprehensive evidence review

• Review Paper
• Open access
• Published: 24 August 2024

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• Tiago Azevedo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3030-4510 1 , 2 ,
• Mariana Gonçalves 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ,
• Rita Silva-Reis 1 , 2 , 6 ,
• Beatriz Medeiros-Fonseca 1 , 2 , 7 ,
• Marta Roboredo 1 , 2 ,
• João R. Sousa 1 ,
• Paula A. Oliveira 1 , 2 , 8 ,
• Maria de Lurdes Pinto 1 , 9 ,
• Francisco Peixoto 1 , 10 ,
• Isabel Gaivão 1 , 9 ,
• Manuela Matos 1 , 2 , 8 &
• Ana M. Coimbra   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3110-7153 1 , 2 , 8  

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are ubiquitous in soil, posing serious risks to soil biota, especially earthworms, which have been found to be affected by these compounds, despite not being their typical target organisms. Earthworms are essential for sustaining soil health and quality, by promoting soil aeration, organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling, among other functions. This review synthesizes available literature evidencing the negative impact of EDC exposure, through traditional endocrine pathways and other toxicological mechanisms, on histopathological, biochemical, molecular and reproductive endpoints of earthworms. The compounds described, in the consulted literature, to induce histopathological, biochemical, genotoxicity and molecular and reproductive alterations include antibiotics, antimicrobial additives, flame retardants, fragrances, fungicides, herbicides, hormones, inorganic ions, insecticides, organic UV filters, parabens, perfluoroalkyl substances, pesticides, petroleum derivatives, plasticizers and polychlorinated biphenyls. These compounds reach soil through direct application or via contaminated organic amendments and water derived from potentially polluted sources. The findings gather in the present review highlight the vulnerability of earthworms to a broad spectrum of chemicals with endocrine disrupting capacity. Additionally, these studies emphasize the physiological disruptions caused by EDC exposure, underscoring the critical need to protect biodiversity, including earthworms, to ensure soil quality and ecosystem sustainability. Ongoing research has provided insights into molecular mechanisms responsive to EDCs in earthworms, including the identification of putative hormone receptors that exhibit functional similarity to those present in vertebrates. In conclusion, this review emphasizes the impact of EDCs in earthworms, especially through non-hormonal mediated pathways, and addresses the need for strong regulatory frameworks to mitigate the detrimental effects of EDCs on soil invertebrates in order to safeguard soil ecosystems.

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1 Introduction

The rise in human population has driven agricultural intensification to meet growing food demands (van Dijk et al. 2021 ), causing increased strain on vital natural resources, particularly the soil (Kopittke et al. 2019 ). In line with the circular economy concept, which advocates for reducing, reusing, and recycling, several solutions aim to mitigate the impact of agricultural intensification on soil health (Selvan et al. 2023 ). One approach involves integrating organic residues into the soil to efficiently introduce organic matter and essential nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus (Leip et al. 2019 ), while addressing environmental concerns tied to improper disposal (Zubair et al. 2020 ). On one hand, these organic amendments contribute to soil health, crop yield and environmental conservation (Rastogi et al. 2023 ). However, on the other hand, they may pose some challenges such as the introduction of contaminants into the soil, including endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), which pose risks to both the ecosystem and human health (Xu et al. 2018 ; Jauregi et al. 2021 ). Of particular concern are farm animals’ excretions, comprising faeces and urine, which contribute significantly to the presence of natural steroid hormones in the environment (Adeel et al. 2017 ). Bio-waste and wastewater by-products also present additional challenges in effective waste management (Qin et al. 2015 ), raising concerns about contaminants and the presence of EDCs. Responsible waste management practices are essential to mitigate the environmental risks associated with applying these as organic amendments. Green manure and crop residues are also alternative organic amendments and essential sources of organic matter for agricultural soils (Kruidhof et al. 2011 ; Turmel et al. 2015 ). Nevertheless, the presence of phytoestrogens in certain crops also raises concerns about soil contamination with EDCs (Lorand et al. 2010 ). While this contamination is known to impact the health of agricultural animals, the implications for invertebrate life is still under evaluated and needs to be considered. The discussion extends to industrial effluents, encompassing a diverse range of residual organic materials, including those from oil seeds, papermaking, sugar extraction and wood ash (Goss et al. 2013 ). The application of these materials as organic amendments requires careful consideration of their potential impact on soil and environmental health.

Thus, one of the concerns when applying organic residues as soil amendments should be their impact on soil invertebrate health. Earthworms, a significant portion of soil invertebrate biomass (Ganault et al. 2024 ), are sensitive to soil contaminants, due to chemoreceptors and sensory structures on their body surface, and usually serve as indicators of ecosystem quality, displaying responsiveness to various factors such as land use/management practices, environmental conditions, disturbances and contamination levels (Bhaduri et al. 2022 ). Additionally, earthworms play an active role in the decomposition of organic residues (Lubbers et al. 2017 ), nutrient cycling (Edwards and Arancon 2022 ), humus formation (Kumar et al. 2020 ) and improvement of soil structure, fertility, porosity and water infiltration, drainage and retention (Lemtiri et al. 2014 ). The earthworm Eisenia fetida , due to its short life cycle, high fecundity and easy maintenance is commonly chosen for various studies, including ecotoxicological (Guo et al. 2020 ), vermicomposting (Enebe and Erasmus 2023 ), bioaccumulation (Rich et al. 2015 ; Ye et al. 2016 ) and bioremediation (Gan et al. 2021 ). This earthworm species is one model organism selected by several standard protocols for soil contaminations evaluation (OECD 1984 ; 2016 ; International Standard (ISO) 2008 ; 2012 ; 2014 ; 2023 ).

Given these aspects, earthworms provide a compelling model for investigating the effects of EDCs on soil invertebrates and their sensitivity to these compounds, whether through endocrine-mediated processes or not, make them useful bioindicators of potential soil contamination by this class of compounds. This review aims to comprehensively explore evidence of the broad-spectrum impact of EDCs on earthworms, highlighting important biological changes observed in these organisms after exposure to these compounds, such as alterations in oxidative stress balance, DNA damage (genotoxicity), histopathology and the expression of reproductive-related genes. This review intends to showcase the susceptibility of non-target soil species, which have been largely overlooked in the study of this class of toxicants.

A comprehensive and systematic bibliographic search of three electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus) was performed using Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) and keywords related to “earthworms”, “endocrine disruptors”, “histology”, “oxidative stress”, “genotoxicity”, “gene expression”. Inclusion criteria encompassed peer-reviewed articles written in English and published up to the date of the query. The most recent search was performed on February 29th, 2024. The review process involved screening titles and abstracts for relevance, followed by a full-text assessment of potentially eligible articles.

2 Overview of endocrine disruptor compounds

Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) are substances capable of interfering with hormonal synthesis and distribution, as well as hormonal signalling in the body, mimicking hormones such as oestrogens, androgens, and thyroid hormones or blocking their receptors. These compounds belong to a heterogeneous class of exogenous chemicals (Kassotis and Trasande 2021 ) and can be broadly classified according to their occurrence/origin as natural EDCs (e.g., genistein, coumestrol and 17β-oestradiol), and synthesized EDCs, including industrial solvents (e.g., polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), dioxins), plasticizers (e.g. bisphenol derivatives, phlathates), pesticides (e.g., dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), fungicides (e.g., vinclozolin), and some pharmaceutical agents (e.g., diethylstilbestrol; 17α-ethinylestradiol), among others (Kabir et al. 2015 ). As such, establishing a direct correlation between the structural characteristics of EDCs and their effects poses a significant challenge (Karthikeyan et al. 2019 ). Although certain structural markers, like a phenolic ring with specific substitutions, offer clues, the intricate mechanisms of action and the potential toxicity of metabolites add complexity to identifying EDCs based solely on their structure.

Both vertebrates and invertebrates can be affected by these chemicals, although the mechanisms and outcomes can differ significantly among them (Zou 2020 ; Rodríguez 2024 ). Most studies regarding EDCs focus on oestrogen, androgen, and thyroid receptor signalling as well as steroidogenesis (also known as EATS axis), but it is known that these compounds also disrupt non-EATS pathways, which are the axis mechanisms focused on other endocrine signals required for homeostasis in hormone regulated organs (e.g., brain, heart, gastrointestinal system, liver, pancreas, and intestine) (Martyniuk et al. 2022 ). The effects of EDCs on vertebrates, including humans, are well-documented (Street et al. 2018 ). EDC exposure has been linked to various health issues in both wildlife and humans, including reproductive effects, neurobehavioral and metabolic syndrome, decreased fertility and developmental effects on the nervous system (Colborn et al. 1993 ; Marlatt et al. 2022 ). Among invertebrates, gastropods (e.g., snails) and crustaceans (e.g., crabs, shrimp) are the taxonomic groups most studied extensively regarding EDC exposure (Zou 2020 ). The disruptions in these species include improper growth, reproduction, and development, leading to observable anomalies such as imposex in snails (a condition where female snails develop male sexual characteristics, and linked with tin compounds exposure) (Neuparth et al. 2017 ) or altered sex ratios in crustaceans (Zou 2020 ). However, the impact of EDCs on soil invertebrates, particularly earthworms, sparks an extensive discussion.

Earthworms primarily absorb organic and inorganic compounds, such as EDCs, through ingestion of organic matter and/or direct skin exposure (Sivakumar 2015 ; Byambas et al. 2019 ). The presence of steroid receptors in these species is still debated, with only a few authors addressing the possibility of earthworms having such receptors. Regardless of whether EDCs directly influence these soil invertebrates through endocrine-mediated pathways, these organisms are susceptible to these compounds, affecting both their individual and populational health (Scott 2018 ). Interestingly, two aquatic annelid species ( Platynereis dumerilii and Capitella capitate ) have shown the ability to synthesize oestrogen and to possess oestrogen receptors that are sensitive to oestrogens and, subsequently, to estrogenic EDCs (Keay and Thornton 2009 ) and some invertebrates have been found to possess the capacity to metabolize these hormones to some extent (Keay and Thornton 2009 ; Jones et al. 2017 ; Scott 2018 ; Cuvillier-Hot and Lenoir 2020 ; Taubenheim et al. 2021 ). The functional differences observed in the nuclear receptors of invertebrates compared to vertebrates, where only a few ligand-sensitive oestrogen receptors have been described, also contribute to uncertainties in this field (Jones et al. 2017 ). In this context, to our knowledge, information regarding earthworm oestrogen receptors is limited to the study by Novo et al. ( 2019 ) which claimed to have identified a full ORF sequence of the oestrogen receptor in earthworms, albeit with notably low expression levels, that showed high homology to the Nucellus latipes receptor. Similarly, some researchers have identified the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and its respective receptor through immunohistological methods in E. fetida , detecting these in both neuronal and non-neuronal cells of the central nervous system and various peripheral organs (Wilhelm et al. 2006 ); however, it is important to acknowledge that these assays may yield false-positive results as a consequence of cross-reactivities or nonspecific binding of the antibodies to abundant proteins.

If present in earthworms, steroid receptors are most likely to be the ecdysone receptor (EcR), the membrane-associated progesterone receptor (MAPR), and the adiponectin receptor (AdipoR) (Novo et al. 2018 ), rather than the receptors commonly found in vertebrates. These are hypothesized to exist in earthworms, since they have been found in other invertebrate species, however their role is still unknown (Novo et al. 2018 ). In insects and crustaceans, EcR is the receptor for the hormone involved in moulting (Gaertner et al. 2012 ). MAPR has also been defined as a membrane steroid-binding protein in invertebrates (Fujii-Taira et al. 2009 ), although the ligand of this receptor remains unknown, while AdipoR has been described to play a role in the maintenance of germline cells in Drosophila ovaries (Laws et al. 2015 ).

While current knowledge in EATS-mediated mechanisms in earthworms is limited, available studies report evidences of EDCs impact through non-EATS pathways, namely how these compounds affect homeostasis essential for normal physiological processes involved in growth, reproduction, and other functions, regardless of their interaction with steroid receptors analogous to those found in vertebrates. Table 1 briefly resumes the current knowledge regarding the effects of EDCs on both EATS and non-EATS mediated pathways in vertebrates. For the purposes of our methodology, we referenced lists from EU Member States (Belgium, Denmark, France, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden) available on the website «edlists.org» to categorize EDCs in this review. Briefly, list 1 comprises “substances identified as endocrine disruptors at EU level”, list 2 includes “substances under evaluation for endocrine disruption under an EU legislation” and list 3 contains “substances considered, by the evaluating National Authority, to have endocrine disrupting properties” (The Danish Environmental Protection Agency 2020 ). Unlisted compounds that have also shown endocrine-disrupting capability in literature studies were also included.

3 Effects of EDC contaminants in earthworms

This section explores evidence of the impact of EDCs, which can be widely found in soils, mostly through the introduction of organic amendments, on earthworms, emphasizing histopathological abnormalities, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, molecular changes and reproductive toxicity described in the relevant literature. These evidences are summarized in Tables 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 .

3.1 EDC-induced histopathological changes in earthworms

Earthworms, as key members of soil ecosystems, face susceptibility to EDCs, impacting their physiology as evidenced by the occurrence of histopathological changes in their tissues (Fig.  1 ). Numerous studies have emphasized the detrimental consequences of EDC exposure on the histopathological integrity of various organs of earthworms, as summarized in Table  2 . Notably, organophosphate esters such as tricresyl phosphate and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate, usually used as flame retardants, negatively affect earthworm histology (Yang et al. 2018 ). These products leak into the environment through the sewage system from households, industries and stormwater drainage systems and are discharged into the soil when wastewater is used for irrigation and sewage sludge is applied (Mihajlović et al. 2011 ). Exposure of E. fetida to environmentally relevant concentrations (0.1–10 mg kg –1 ) of these compounds resulted in visible degradation of the digestive tract, including exfoliation of the typhlosole (Yang et al. 2018 ). In addition to these histopathological alterations, tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate also caused disintegration of the longitudinal muscular layer and enlargement of the coelom. Tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate, another flame retardant, was also capable of inducing histopathological changes in seminal vesicles from E. fetida exposed to environmental relevant concentrations (50–5000 ng g –1 ), inducing focal necrosis and cytoplasmic vacuolation, damaged epicuticle, thickened cuticle layer and muscle atrophy at the highest concentration (Zhu et al. 2019 ).

Classes of compounds with endocrine disrupting capacity capable of inducing histopathological alterations in earthworms. These alterations represent significant physiological responses to environmental contamination by endocrine-disrupting compounds. The figure has been designed using icons made by Biorender ( www.biorender.com )

Diuron (3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea), a systemic herbicide in the urea chemical family that inhibits photosynthesis, showed gonad and reproductive changes in various species ( Danio rerio , Oryzias javanicus ) (Velki et al. 2017 ; Kamarudin et al. 2020 ), but did not exhibit any obvious effects on earthworm epidermis and intestine after 28 days of exposure to diuron at environmentally relevant concentrations (0.05–5 mg kg −1 ) (Wang et al. 2023b ). Although the study’s goal was to investigate how diuron absorption, be it direct or digestive, could impact E. fetida tissues, studying the gonads’ histology may have provided insight into additional potential effects of this compound.

Hormones, including 17β-oestradiol and dihydrotestosterone, are naturally produced and excreted by all vertebrates, being found in livestock manure (Liu et al. 2012a ). The application of manure, and associated hormones, onto fields to meet crop nutrient requirements causes these compounds to be found in abundance in beef and dairy manure amended fields (Havens et al. 2020 ). Exposure of E. andrei to these hormones (0.1-1 mg L −1 ) resulted in decreased numbers of mature oocytes and detached follicles in the ovaries, while the seminal vesicles exhibited significant inhibition of spermatogenesis, disordered germ cell distribution and decreased mature sperm bundles (Kwak and An 2021 ). These hormonal influences on earthworm gonads are crucial aspects to consider in understanding the broader impact of EDCs in earthworm reproduction.

The inorganic ion perchlorate (ClO 4 − ), generated as both a natural and anthropogenic pollutant, has been recognized as an endocrine disruptor because it affects vertebrate thyroid glands and causes hypothyroidism by outcompeting iodide at the sodium-iodide symporter (Gholamian et al. 2011 ). The improper disposal of ammonium perchlorate, used in propellants, fireworks, as well as thyreostatic drugs and growth promoters in cattle fattening, contributes significantly to environmental contamination (Batjoens et al. 1993 ; Gupta et al. 2014 ). Perchlorate was also found to induce histopathological changes in E. fetida , namely circular and transversal muscle degradation, damage to the muscular layer protecting the digestive system and erosion in tissues after a 14-day exposure (Acevedo-Barrios et al. 2018 ). While it affected several tissues, this study did not explore its effects on gonad histology (Acevedo-Barrios et al. 2018 ).

Bisphenol A (BPA), an industrial synthetic chemical widely used in the production of polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins (Kapustka et al. 2020 ), exhibited varied effects on earthworm histology. BPA primarily contaminates soil through the agricultural application of sewage sludges and biosolids (Yu et al. 2015 ). In earthworms, BPA induced adverse effects on the body wall and in the ovaries, in which vacuolization of interstitial space, theca folliculi hyperplasia and hypertrophy, detachment and predomination of granulosa cells, as well as overall follicular atresia was observed (Babić et al. 2016 ). Lesions to the inner tissues of E. fetida have also been reported, such as circular and transversal muscle disintegration, along with hypertrophy and hyperplasia of muscle fibres with disrupted myofibril architecture, particularly in the circular muscle (Babić et al. 2016 ). Additionally, ovaries showed atrophy and formation of aggregate clusters of necrotized follicles in E. fetida (Babić et al. 2016 ). Exposure of E. andrei to BPA led to a decreased number of mature oocytes and follicles with detached granulosa cells in earthworm ovaries and significant inhibition of spermatogenesis, disordered germ cell distribution, decreased mature sperm bundles and small vacuoles in earthworm seminal vesicles (Kwak and An 2021 ). These results indicate strong negative effects on earthworm reproduction with potential high impact on natural populations.

Methylparaben, found in cosmetics, personal care products (PCPs) and used as a food preservative, has also been found to exhibit estrogenic activity (Sun et al. 2016 ). Directly entering the environment through discarded products and food, methylparaben poses a risk to soil via sewage sludge and aquatic systems. In E. andrei , it resulted in decreased mature oocytes, follicles with cellular detachment, disordered germ cell distribution and decreased mature sperm bundles (Kwak and An 2021 ).

At environmentally relevant concentrations, the organic UV filter benzophenone-3 was found to induce significant histopathological changes in E. fetida tissues (Gautam et al. 2022 ). Widely present in plastics and various PCPs ( e.g. , sunscreens, lotions, shampoos and cosmetics), benzophenone-3 is prevalent in surface waters, sediments and sewage sludge (Balakrishna et al. 2017 ; Campos et al. 2017 ). Agricultural soil contamination occurs through sewage sludge disposal and irrigation with water from wastewater treatment plants, where these compounds persist (Ramos et al. 2016 ). Benzophenone-3 exposure leads to notable degeneration of the epidermal and muscular layers, compromising body wall and intestinal tissues (Gautam et al. 2022 ). Furthermore, the ovaries and seminal vesicles suffer from degeneration, necrosis and disruption of the cellular lining, resulting in a decrease in sperm concentration and disturbed germ cell distribution.

In summary, EDC exposure results in histopathological changes in several earthworm tissues, including significant damage to the digestive tract, muscle disintegration and overall reproductive organs atrophy. The accumulation of EDCs in soil through the application of sewage sludge and wastewater irrigation further exacerbates the risk to earthworm populations.

3.2 EDC-induced oxidative stress in earthworms

Assessment of oxidative stress in earthworms is crucial for understanding the impact of environmental stressors, particularly EDCs (Table  3 ). Even though earthworms are not traditional target organisms for these compounds, they absorb various low molecular weight chemicals through their semipermeable body walls. This makes the assessment particularly crucial in comprehending the implications of EDCs on oxidative balance. The bioaccumulation of pollutants through ingestion of contaminated organic matter also significantly influences their overall health and population dynamics (Phipps et al. 1993 ). These compounds have been found to impact the cellular redox cycle by diffusing freely in the cellular microenvironment and undergoing degradation in molecules that can originate reactive oxygen species (ROS) (Heger et al. 2015 ) (Fig. 2 ).

Classes of compounds with endocrine disrupting capacity capable of inducing alterations on oxidative stress indicators in earthworms. The figure has been designed using icons made by Freepik, Smashicons, Good Ware, monkik, Nes_Kanyanee, Pixelmeetup from www.flaticon.com . BDE-47, 2,2′,4,4′-tetrabromodiphenyl ether; BPA, Bisphenol A; BPS, bisphenol S; BBP, butyl benzyl phthalate; DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; DIBP, diisobutyl phthalate; DINP, diisononyl phthalate, DMP, dimethyl phthalate, DBP, di- n -butyl phthalate; DNOP, di-n-octyl phthalate

Chlortetracycline, a veterinary antibiotic extensively used in farms for disease treatment and growth promotion (Santás-Miguel et al. 2020 ), enters agricultural systems through livestock manure application to soils (Sarmah et al. 2006 ; Pan and Chu 2017 ). This antibiotic affects steroidogenic pathways and alters sex hormone balance in human adenocarcinoma cell line (H295R) and in male medaka fish ( Oryzias latipes ) (Ji et al. 2010 ). Exposure in earthworms at 3 mg kg −1 resulted in significant increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities, along with elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) content at 100 and 300 mg kg −1 , up to increments of 257% and 251% relative to control, respectively (Lin et al. 2012b ). These results indicate a potential to induce cellular damage by lipid peroxidation of membranes and to reduce the individual fitness.

Regarding triclocarban and triclosan, both polychlorinated aromatic antimicrobials, these compounds have been widely used for decades as antimicrobial additives and preservatives in various products (Chrz et al. 2023 ), migrating to the soil when present in biosolids (Sales Junior et al. 2020 ). These compounds are considered bisphenol analogues and thus have been linked to the damage of sexual development and reproductive functions in Pimephales promelas , fathead minnow (Brian et al. 2005 ). In E. andrei , triclocarban exposure resulted in significant decreased CAT activity, at 50 and 100 mg kg −1 , and of glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity on the first days of experiments (21 and 28 days), remaining similar to the control group on days 35 and 42; also, glutathione (GSH) levels were decreased by the highest concentrations (Sales Junior et al. 2020 ). This study proposed that GSH was employed by GST to remove triclocarban potentially bioaccumulated in E. andrei tissues. E. fetida exposure to triclosan in soil and filter paper experiments increased CAT, GR, SOD activities and MDA content at 100 mg kg −1 (Lin et al. 2012a ; Zaltauskaite and Miskelyte 2018 ). In another study, exposure of E. fetida to triclosan resulted in decreased CAT levels, after 2 and 14 days of exposure, with activity being similar to control levels at 7 days of exposure (Lin et al. 2010 ). The same trend was observed for GST and SOD activities, while MDA content increased in a concentration-dependent manner, particularly after 7 days of exposure (Lin et al. 2010 ). Evidence of oxidative damage has also been found in two other studies with E. fetida after exposure to triclosan, where Hsp70 transcript levels were increased at 50 mg kg −1 (Lin et al. 2014 ), as well as elevated CAT, GR, MDA, SOD enzyme activity levels (Zaltauskaite and Miskelyte 2018 ). Elevated MDA levels indicate enhanced lipid peroxidation and the changes observed in antioxidant enzyme activities implies a compromised defence mechanism against ROS.

Flame retardants such as tricresyl phosphate and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate also caused increased GSH levels in E. fetida when exposed to environmentally relevant doses (i.e. 1 and 10 mg kg −1 ) (Yang et al. 2018 ). Another widely used flame retardant, the polybrominated biphenyl ether 2,2’,4,4’-tetrabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-47), has been shown to cause endocrine disruption in zebrafish ( D. rerio ). This disruption led to detrimental effects on ovary development, lowered sex hormone levels, oxidative damage and changes to hypothalamic pituitary-gonad axis-related genes (Shi et al. 2022 ). The presence of this flame retardant in many commercial and household products can lead to soil contamination during product production, use and disposal (Zhao et al. 2011 ). Moreover, acute exposure to this compound induced increased SOD and GST activities in earthworms (Ji et al. 2013 ), suggesting induction of oxidative stress responses. Additionally, exposure to BDE-47 led to decreased cellular stress response ( Hsp70 gene downregulated) (Ji et al. 2013 ). Alterations were also observed in intermediate filament proteins ( IFP ) gene expression, which may compromise cell structure and function, while reduced CAT transcript levels could result in increased oxidative stress. Conversely, increased transcription levels of SOD and GST genes suggest an intensified cellular response to counteract superoxide radicals and enhance detoxification processes, respectively (Ji et al. 2013 ; Xu et al. 2015b ; Yang et al. 2018 ). These combined effects may disrupt cellular homeostasis and potentially impact the overall health of earthworms.

Galaxolide (HHCB) and tonalide (AHTN) are polycyclic musk compounds used in household and PCPs. They are considered contaminants both in aquatic and terrestrial environments (Ehiguese et al. 2021 ). When biosolids are used as fertilizers in agricultural practices, they can introduce these compounds into soils, thus making them available for exposure to non-target organisms like earthworms (Chen et al. 2014 ). Exposure of earthworms to these compounds in a filter paper contact test has been found to increase lipid peroxidation through increased MDA content and SOD activity levels at low doses (0.6 µg cm −2 for AHTN and 0.3 µg cm −2 for HHCB), indicating potential damage to membrane lipids (Chen et al. 2011b ). These compounds have also been observed to influence the expression levels of several genes ( SOD , CAT and Hsp70 ) in E. fetida (Chen et al. 2011b ). Both compounds increased the expression of these genes, but while the effects of tonalide were seen as soon as after 12 h, galaxolide effects were only induced after 24 h. The gene fold alterations persisted longer in E. fetida exposed to the lowest concentration (0.6 µg cm −2 ) (Chen et al. 2011b ). These results indicate potential increased oxidative stress and compromised cellular protection, leading to an imbalance in the cellular redox state, affecting earthworm physiology (Chen et al. 2011b ). In a 28-day exposure study with E. fetida , the same compounds increased CAT and SOD gene expressions in a concentration-dependent manner (Chen et al. 2011a ). While transcript levels of Hsp70 were decreased by both compounds, lower concentrations of tonalide showed more pronounced effects compared with galaxolide (Chen et al. 2011a ).

Azole fungicides, such as epoxiconazole and hexaconazole, widely used in agriculture, have been found to induce endocrine disruption in several fish species (Huang et al. 2022 ). In earthworms, exposure to epoxiconazole led to increased hydroxide ion (OH – ) content and elevated CAT, SOD and GST activities after 10 days at 1 and 10 mg kg −1 (Xue et al. 2023 ). Likewise, exposure to hexaconazole exposure also resulted in increased SOD and CAT activities and lipid peroxidation (MDA content), as well as decreased AChE content (Liu et al. 2021a ).

Herbicides are the main class of compounds studied regarding their impact on oxidative stress parameters in earthworms. These compounds, frequently applied to agricultural soils, have been found to have endocrine-disrupting properties in Xenopus laevis (Orton et al. 2009 ). Acetochlor exposure has shown dual effects, increasing ROS levels, lipid peroxidation, while decreasing enzyme activity (SOD, CAT, POD) at low concentrations in E. fetida (Cao et al. 2022 ). Conversely, increased SOD and CAT activities were observed for the same species at high concentrations exposures (Liu et al. 2021b ). Atrazine exposure generally resulted increased SOD and CAT activities, as well as elevated MDA content (Song et al. 2009 ; Jiang et al. 2022 ). In a study with L. rubellus , with concentrations reaching up to 59 mg kg –1 , the authors found that GST levels were decreased after exposure to atrazine (Owen et al. 2008 ). E. fetida exposed to diuron presented increased ROS content and SOD, CAT and GST activities (Wang et al. 2023b ), while mesotrione exposure resulted in decreased activities of these same enzymes and in increased lipid peroxidation (Zhang et al. 2019 ).

In the case of hormones, such as 17β-oestradiol, found widely in livestock manure, the exposure of E. fetida led to increased metallothionein (MT) levels, GPx activity and changes in the GSH to oxidized glutathione (GSSG) ratio (Heger et al. 2015 ). MT levels were highest at 3rd and 5th weeks and decreased after 8 weeks in a dose-dependent manner (10–100 µg kg −1 ). Elevated concentrations of 17β-oestradiol (50 and 100 µg kg −1 ) prompted a notable increase in the conversion ratio of reduced GSH to GSSG, like the effects observed with MT. The same study found that gene expression of GPx and MT followed similar profiles to the respective proteins (Heger et al. 2015 ). Despite these data, further investigations into the impact of hormones on the oxidative stress response of earthworms are warranted, given the limited availability of studies addressing this aspect.

Insecticides can reach groundwater from agricultural soils through subsurface flow, leaching or vertical movement in the soil (Carpio et al. 2021 ). Furthermore, when biosolids are applied, these insecticides may re-enter soil matrices (Clarke and Smith 2011 ). Cyantraniliprole and thiacloprid, extensively used in agriculture, have been found to significantly alter the oxidative stress enzymes activity profiles (SOD, POD, CAT, GST), increase lipid peroxidation (MDA content) and raise ROS levels in exposed earthworms (Qiao et al. 2019 ; Lackmann et al. 2021 ).

Organic UV filters such as 4-hydroxybenzophenone have been shown to decrease SOD activity and CuZn SOD gene expression levels at the lowest concentration applied to E. fetida (0.02 mg mL −1 ) (Novo et al. 2019 ), while benzophenone-3 resulted in decreased activities of several enzymes (SOD, CAT, GST) and reduced lipid peroxidation (Gautam et al. 2022 ).

Plasticizers are added to plastics to increase their flexibility. However, they can easily leach into the environment, because they are not chemically bonded to plastics (Maddela et al. 2023 ). Common plasticizers like BPA and phthalates have been implicated in adverse health effects in vertebrates (Oehlmann et al. 2009 ; Mathieu-Denoncourt et al. 2015 ) and have also been found to exert oxidative stress in earthworms. For example, BPA exposure led to changes in TBARS levels in E. fetida and increased POD and SOD activities in H. africanus . BPA exposure in E. fetida male reproductive organs resulted in altered expression levels of genes stress response and protein homeostasis ( Hsc70 4 and MT ), lowered at higher doses of BPA and higher at lower doses (Novo et al. 2018 ). Meanwhile, BPS decreased both SOD and CAT activities and MDA content (Qian et al. 2023 ). Several phthalates have also been found to exert oxidative damage in earthworms, especially butyl-benzyl-phthalate (Song et al. 2019a ), di(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (Ma et al. 2017 ) and diisobutyl-phthalate (Yao et al. 2023 ).

In summary, the exposure to substances such as antibiotics ( e.g. chlortetracycline) and antimicrobial additives ( e.g. triclocarban and triclosan), as well as flame retardants and emerging contaminants ( e.g. galaxolide and tonalide), among many others, has been shown to endocrine disrupt several species. This exposure often results in changes of antioxidant enzyme activities, such as SOD, CAT, GST and GPx, as well as in increased lipid peroxidation. These alterations in antioxidant defence mechanisms and oxidative balance can have profound implications for earthworms, potentially leading to population size reduction, altered community dynamics and compromised ecosystem functioning.

3.3 EDC-induced genotoxicity in earthworms

The assessment of genotoxicity in earthworms has emerged as a standard and invaluable practice, offering a straightforward, rapid and highly sensitive mean of evaluating the damage caused by clastogenic agents on DNA (de Lapuente et al. 2015 ). Surprisingly, despite widespread knowledge that EDCs have the capacity to induce genotoxicity, mostly through non-EATS mechanisms, triggering severe pathogenic consequences in humans, genotoxicity assessments have been minimized in research examining the effects of EDCs in earthworms (Fig.  3 ). However, it is worth noting that some studies have consistently highlighted the profound impact of EDCs on earthworm DNA damage (Table  4 ).

Classes of compounds with endocrine disrupting capacity capable of inducing DNA damage in earthworms. The figure has been designed using icons made by Freepik, Smashicons, Good Ware, monkik, Nes_Kanyanee, Pixelmeetup from www.flaticon.com . BPA, Bisphenol A; BPS, bisphenol S; BBP, butyl benzyl phthalate; DEHP, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate; DIBP, diisobutyl phthalate; DINP, diisononyl phthalate, DMP, dimethyl phthalate, DBP, di- n -butyl phthalate, DNOP, di-n-octyl phthalate; PCB, polychlorinated biphenyls; PFOS, perfluorooctane sulfonate; PFOA, perfluorooctanoic acid

Among the substances studied, antibiotics such as chlortetracycline revealed DNA damage in the alkaline comet assay in earthworms ( E. fetida ) coelomocytes after a 28-day exposure to concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 300 mg kg⁻ 1 of soil (Lin et al. 2012b ). Similarly, antimicrobial additives such as triclocarban and triclosan induced significant DNA damage in coelomocytes of E. fetida exposed to various concentrations, with the highest levels of genotoxicity generally observed at the concentrations of 50–100 mg kg −1 (Lin et al. 2010 , 2012a , 2014 ; Sales Junior et al. 2020 ).

Flame retardants like tricresyl phosphate and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate induced DNA damage in coelomocytes of E. fetida , when the concentrations exceeded 1 mg kg⁻ 1 (Yang et al. 2018 ). Additionally, tricresyl phosphate also led to an increase in 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) content, a biomarker of oxidative DNA damage, in the full body tissue of earthworms (Yang et al. 2018 ). Exposure to fungicides, such as hexaconazole, and herbicides, like acetochlor and mesotrione, also resulted in an increase in 8-OHdG content in E. fetida (Zhang et al. 2019 ; Liu et al. 2021a , b ). Surprisingly, exposure to diuron, another herbicide, induced low DNA damage (Wang et al. 2023b ).

A variety of substances, namely polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), insecticides (cyantraniliprole and thiacloprid) and perfluoroalkyl substances (perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid), were all found to induce DNA damage evaluated through the alkaline comet assay in coelomocytes of E. fetida, as evidenced by several studies (Xu et al. 2013 ; Hu et al. 2014 ; Feng et al. 2015 ; Zheng et al. 2016 ; Duan et al. 2017 ; Qiao et al. 2019 ).

Various plasticizers, including butyl-benzyl-phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate, diisobutyl-phthalate, dimethyl-phthalate and di- n -butyl-phthalate, exhibited mostly dose-dependent induction of DNA damage in coelomocytes of E. fetida (comet assay) and increased 8-OHdG content levels in full body tissue studies, with soil exposure times ranging from 7 to 28 days (Ma et al. 2016 , 2017 ; Wang et al. 2018 ; Song et al. 2019a ; Yao et al. 2023 ).

The evidence of genotoxicity across such a broad spectrum of chemical classes and exposure conditions highlights the vulnerability of earthworms to EDCs. Furthermore, various substances, including antibiotics, antimicrobial additives, flame retardants, fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, perfluoroalkyl substances, pesticides and plasticizers, have been found to induce DNA damage in earthworm coelomocytes, the phagocytic leukocytes found within the coelom (Riedl et al. 2022 ). This widespread evidence of genotoxicity emphasises the vulnerability of earthworm coelomocytes to EDCs, which have been shown to impact the genetic integrity of these organisms, potentially compromising their immune system and defence mechanisms and therefore decreasing their ability to cope with environmental changes and impacts.

3.4 EDC-induced molecular changes in earthworms

Exposure to EDCs is of major concern, given the harmful effects observed in a multitude of organisms, crossing different taxa, and therefore multidisciplinary analysis are needed to fully understand their impact on ecosystems. Over the past few decades, a growing body of literature has shed light on the intricate mechanisms through which EDCs influence the expression of several genes (genes related to oxidative stress were already presented and discussed in Sect.  3.2 ) and molecular pathways related with cellular processes (Table  5 ), resulting in substantial physiological and developmental alterations (Fig.  4 ).

Classes of compounds with endocrine disrupting capacity capable of inducing molecular alterations in earthworms. The figure has been designed using icons made by Freepik from www.flaticon.com

EDCs, including hormones like 17β-oestradiol (Heger et al. 2015 ), organic UV filters such as 4-hydroxybenzophenone (Novo et al. 2019 ) or phthalates and plasticizers, including BPA (Novo et al. 2018 ) and BPS (Qian et al. 2023 ) and diisononyl-phthalate (Zhang et al. 2022b ) have been found to induce notable changes in key gene expression levels. BPA exposure in E. fetida male reproductive organs resulted in decreased expression levels of genes involved in epigenetic regulation ( DNMT1 , DNMT3b ), DNA repair and genomic stability ( PARP1 ), as well as hormonal regulation ( ECR , MAPR , AdipoR ), which may lead to impaired fertility and disrupted reproductive function (Novo et al. 2018 ).

Among other compounds classified as EDCs, those commonly used as pesticides and agrochemicals, such as atrazine (Jiang et al. 2022 ), imidacloprid (Wang et al. 2019b ), isoprocarb (Gu et al. 2021 ) and triclosan (Lin et al. 2014 ) have been observed to disrupt the expression of critical genes. Exposure to these compounds induced a decrease in the expressions of annetocin ( ANN ) and calreticulin ( CRT ), potentially disrupting cellular processes and physiological functions. Annetocin is an oxytocin-related peptide that plays a key role in triggering stereotyped egg-laying behaviours in earthworms (Kawada 2016 ), while calreticulin in earthworms plays a crucial role in various cellular functions, including maintaining calcium homeostasis, acting as a chaperone, modulating gene transcription, facilitating integrin-mediated cell signalling, and promoting cell adhesion (Šilerová et al. 2007 ). Other physiological processes such as cellular ion transport and energy metabolism were also found to be compromised in earthworms after exposure to atrazine as observed by the decreased Na + /K + -ATPase (Jiang et al. 2022 ).

In the case of flame retardants such as BDE-47 (Ji et al. 2013 ) and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (Yang et al. 2018 ), the impact of these compounds on the expression of critical genes has also been shown. Exposure to BDE-47 led to compromised energy production, as observed by ATP synthase gene downregulation (Ji et al. 2013 ). Alterations were also observed in intermediate filament proteins ( IFP ) gene expression, which may compromise cell structure and function, and nucleoside diphosphate kinase ( NDK ), which suggests an intensified cellular response to maintain nucleotide balance (Ji et al. 2013 ). Additionally, increased acetylcholinesterase (AchE) levels were found after a 14-day exposure to both tricresyl phosphate and tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate (Yang et al. 2018 ). AchE is sensitive to neurotoxic compounds and plays an important role in nerve signal transduction. It is primarily responsible for the deactivation of acetylcholine, thereby ending the nerve transmitter stimulation at the postsynaptic membrane, but also promotes the development and regeneration of neurons (Calisi et al. 2013 ).

Furthermore, fragrance and PCPs, exemplified by galaxolide (HHCB) and tonalide (AHTN), have been observed to influence the expression levels of several genes in a 28-day exposure study with E. fetida . These compounds increased CRT gene expression in a concentration-dependent manner (Chen et al. 2011a ). While transcript levels of ANN were decreased by both compounds, lower concentrations of tonalide showed more pronounced effects compared with galaxolide (Chen et al. 2011a ).

In a recent study exploring the effects of tebuconazole (fungicide), RNA-seq has been used to explore total gene expression in E. fetida (Li et al. 2022a ). This agricultural chemical was found to induce complex responses in various systems, such as nervous and immune systems. Notably, the study highlighted the induction of cytochrome P450-dependent detoxification and oxidative stress pathways, shedding light on the potential mechanisms underlying the observed toxicity. Transcriptomic analysis identified the MAPKKK gene as a key biomarker in these compounds toxicity and the involvement of the MAPK signalling pathway in the adverse effects of these pesticides (Li et al. 2022a ).

The exposure to endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), ranging from hormones like 17β-oestradiol to UV filters, phthalates and pesticides, presents a significant concern due to their detrimental effects on various organisms. A wealth of research, summarized in Table  5 , has elucidated that EDCs impact cellular and metabolic changes observed in earthworms. Overall, the findings suggest that exposure to EDCs can lead to cellular damage, reductions in immune system function and disruptions in reproductive processes, ultimately impacting the overall fitness of these organisms.

3.5 EDC-induced reproductive toxicity in earthworms

In recent years, concerns have intensified regarding the impact of EDCs on environmental health, particularly their effects on soil ecosystems and organisms such as earthworms, potentially affecting both soil health and quality. In vertebrates, these compounds have been found to disrupt normal physiological processes, including growth and reproduction. In ecotoxicology, reproductive outcomes in many species are used as endpoints for evaluating the impact of EDCs on populations (Celino-Brady et al. 2021 ; Marlatt et al. 2022 ). However, comprehensive studies on the reproductive toxicity of EDCs in earthworms are still limited (Table  6 ) and with most studies describing decrease reproductive outputs in earthworms exposed to EDCs.

Exposure of E. fetida to varying concentrations of 17β-oestradiol over a 56-day period revealed dose-dependent effects on reproductive outcomes. While lower concentrations (10, 30, and 50 μg kg −1 ) stimulated reproduction, higher concentrations (80 and 100 μg kg −1 ) significantly inhibited it, highlighting the existence of complex dose–response relationships of this hormone in earthworms (Heger et al. 2015 ), and potentially indicating the existence of different feedback regulatory mechanisms. Therefore, this natural hormone, commonly found in animal manures (Liu et al. 2012a ) and on E. fetida natural environment, seems to support earthworm growth and reproduction to some extend at low doses, but having a negative impact when higher doses are present and a turn-over value is overpassed.

Chlortetracycline, an antibiotic, was studied at concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 300 mg kg −1 . Results indicated a significant decrease in cocoon and juvenile number at higher concentrations (100 and 300 mg kg −1 ) (Lin et al. 2012b ). Triclosan, an antimicrobial additive, was assessed at various concentrations (ranging from 0.5 to 750 mg kg −1 ). Higher concentrations of triclosan significantly reduced both cocoon production and juvenile hatching rates, with notable adverse effects observed at concentrations as low as 6.25 mg kg −1 , indicative of its potent impact on earthworm reproduction (Lin et al. 2014 ; Zaltauskaite and Miskelyte 2018 ).

Herbicides like atrazine (10 mg kg −1 ) and mesotrione (10 mg kg −1 ) exhibited varied effects on E. fetida . While atrazine significantly reduced cocoon production, mesotrione showed no significant difference in reproductive outcomes, showing the differential toxicity profiles among herbicidal compounds (Zhang et al. 2019 ; Jiang et al. 2022 ). The insecticide imidacloprid, tested at concentrations ranging from 0.011 to 0.282 mg kg −1 , in E. fetida showed a dose-dependent decrease in cocoon and juvenile numbers, indicating its potential reproductive toxicity in earthworms (Wang et al. 2019b ). Exposure to benzophenone-3, a UV filter, at concentrations ranging from 3.64 to 36.4 mg kg −1 also resulted in a significant reduction in cocoon production in E. fetida , emphasizing the adverse effects of UV filters on earthworm reproductive health (Gautam et al. 2022 ).

Overall, these studies highlight the significant reproductive toxicity of various EDCs on earthworm populations. The effects observed, which ranged from decreased cocoon and juvenile number to inhibition of hatching rates, show the potentially high threat that EDCs pose to earthworm populations. Given the crucial role of earthworms in soil fertility and nutrient cycling, the widespread presence of EDCs in the environment raises serious concerns regarding soil health and quality and ecosystem function.

4 Concluding remarks and future perspectives

The collective findings regarding the impact of these compounds on histopathological, biochemical and reproductive endpoints in earthworms underscore the urgent need to continue pressing for stricter regulations and comprehensive strategies to mitigate the release of pollutants, including EDCs, into the environment. Triclosan, for instance, shows an increase in Hsp70 gene expression alongside elevated levels of CAT, GR, MDA and SOD activities, suggesting a multifaceted impact on cellular stress response and antioxidant activity (Lin et al. 2012a , 2014 ; Zaltauskaite and Miskelyte 2018 ). Similarly, exposure to BDE-47 results in complex changes, including decreased ATP synthase and Hsp70 expression but increased NDK , GST and SOD transcript levels, indicating alterations in energy metabolism and oxidative stress defence mechanisms. Tris(2-chloroethyl) phosphate exhibits alterations in gene expression alongside visible tissue degradation and histopathological changes in the digestive tract, emphasizing its profound physiological effects. Moreover, substances like BPA induce significant changes in gene expression related to masculine and reproductive organs, accompanied by biochemical alterations and histopathological abnormalities, highlighting potential endocrine-disrupting effects, complex regulatory mechanisms or indirect influences on cellular processes. The majority of the studied EDCs also cause decreased reproduction and/or reproductive success, indicative of potential negative impact on soil health, quality and biodiversity, but also on ecosystems function and services.

While current research has focused predominantly on the consequences of endocrine disruptor exposure in aquatic species such as Daphnia magna (Cho et al. 2022 ), Gammarus fossarum (Gauthier et al. 2023 ), and Danio rerio (Barros et al. 2022 ) among others, it is imperative to recognise the widespread presence of EDCs in soil matrices, exerting similar impacts on soil biota. Protecting soil invertebrates, particularly earthworm populations, is crucial for maintaining soil quality and health and ecosystems stability (Al-Maliki et al. 2021 ). Considering how agricultural practices can impact earthworm populations in the soil is crucial for promoting biodiversity conditions (Vršič et al. 2021 ). This review highlights the need for careful consideration, even in relatively sustainable practices such as the application of organic amendments, namely livestock manure, biosolids, and crop residues, rich in nutrients and organic matter. Despite these benefits, these amendments can have lasting impacts on soil biota health, leading to decreased biodiversity over time, due to the presence of compounds such as phytoestrogens, hormones and industrial pollutants.

This work highlights the importance of ongoing research in invertebrate endocrinology to understand the direct impact of such compounds on these organisms’ endocrine systems. Earthworms are clearly susceptible to a diverse range of EDCs at biochemical and cellular levels, despite not necessarily interacting with endocrine pathways found in vertebrates. The efforts by Novo et al. ( 2019 ) should be complemented by new studies to identify molecular mechanisms responsive to these compounds in earthworms. Intriguingly, several studies have already shown the ability of these compounds to affect gonad development and population dynamics, indicative of putative steroid nuclear receptors.

Ultimately, the adverse effects of EDCs on earthworms, through EATS and non-EATS pathways, have the potential to disrupt earthworm population dynamics, consequently affecting all the earthworm associated microbiome and soil ecosystems function and services. Considering the current necessity of fertile and healthy soils to answer increasing population nutritional needs and to help plants to cope with a climate change environment, it urges to increase studies and awareness to these compounds impact in soil organisms. Therefore, and in light of these considerations, effective legislation should institute rigorous control measures, tailored to the origin and nature of contamination, for responsible soil management. Even seemingly innocuous sources, such as livestock manure, may harbour hormones or antibiotics capable of exerting unanticipated effects on soil organisms. A well-considered regulatory framework is indispensable to strike a balance between agricultural practices and the preservation of soil ecosystems.

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Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) through projects from CITAB (UIDB/04033/2020, DOI: 10.54499/UIDB/04033/2020), Inov4Agro (LA/P/0126/2020, DOI: 10.54499/LA/P/0126/2020), CECAV (UIDB/00772/2020, DOI: 10.54499/UIDB/00772/2020), AL4AnimalS (LA/P/0059/2020, DOI: 10.54499/LA/P/0059/2020), and CQ-VR (DOI: 10.54499/UIDB/00616/2020), as well as doctoral grants for Tiago Azevedo (2023.01329.BD), Mariana Gonçalves (2022.13676.BD), Rita Silva-Reis (2022.14518.BD), and Beatriz Medeiros-Fonseca (2020.07675.BD). Additionally, funding was provided by FCT through the Grant-in-Aid “Verão com Ciência” for the course "Practical Application of Biological Models to Ecotoxicology Studies" (file 50/20/7/254).

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Azevedo, T., Gonçalves, M., Silva-Reis, R. et al. Do endocrine disrupting compounds impact earthworms? A comprehensive evidence review. Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-024-09698-z

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A systematic review and critical appraisal of menopause guidelines

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Objective and rationale To identify and appraise current national and international clinical menopause guidance documents, and to extract and compare the recommendations of the most robust examples. Design Systematic review. Data sources Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Web of Science Eligibility criteria for selecting studies Practice guidance documents for menopause published from 2015 until 20 July 2023. Quality was assessed by the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II (AGREE II) instrument. Results Twenty-six guidance papers were identified. Of these, five clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) and one non-hormonal therapy position statement met AGREE II criteria of being at least of moderate quality. The five CPGs listed symptoms associated with the perimenopause and menopause to be vasomotor symptoms (VMS), disturbed sleep, musculoskeletal pain, decreased sexual function or desire, and mood disturbance (low mood, mood changes or depressive symptoms). Acknowledged potential long-term menopause consequences were urogenital atrophy, and increased risks of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. VMS and menopause-associated mood disturbance were the only consistent indications for systemic menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). Some CPGs supported MHT to prevent or treat osteoporosis, but specific guidance was lacking. None recommended MHT for cognitive symptoms or prevention of other chronic disease. Perimenopause-specific recommendations were scant. A neurokinin 3B antagonist, selective serotonin/norepinephrine (noradrenaline) reuptake inhibitors and gabapentin were recommended non-hormonal medications for VMS, and cognitive behavioural therapy and hypnosis were consistently considered as being of potential benefit. Discussion The highest quality CPGs consistently recommended MHT for VMS and menopause-associated mood disturbance, whereas clinical depression or cognitive symptoms, and cardiometabolic disease and dementia prevention were not treatment indications. Further research is needed to inform clinical recommendations for symptomatic perimenopausal women.

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MenoPROMPT: a co-designed, comprehensive, evidence-based program to improve the care of women at and after menopause

Davis, S. , Manski-Nankervis, J. A. E., Bell, R., Islam, R. , Vincent, A. , Boyle, D., Temple-Smith, M. J., Ebeling, P. , Jane, F., Allan, C., Tonkin, A. & McMorrow, R.

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T1 - A systematic review and critical appraisal of menopause guidelines

AU - Hemachandra, Chandima

AU - Taylor, Sasha

AU - Islam, Rakibul M.

AU - Fooladi, Ensieh

AU - Davis, Susan R.

N1 - Funding Information: This research was funded by the Australian National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) (Grant 2015514). SRD holds an NHMRC Leadership Grant (2016627) Publisher Copyright: © Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2024.

PY - 2024/4

Y1 - 2024/4

N2 - Objective and rationale To identify and appraise current national and international clinical menopause guidance documents, and to extract and compare the recommendations of the most robust examples. Design Systematic review. Data sources Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Web of Science Eligibility criteria for selecting studies Practice guidance documents for menopause published from 2015 until 20 July 2023. Quality was assessed by the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II (AGREE II) instrument. Results Twenty-six guidance papers were identified. Of these, five clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) and one non-hormonal therapy position statement met AGREE II criteria of being at least of moderate quality. The five CPGs listed symptoms associated with the perimenopause and menopause to be vasomotor symptoms (VMS), disturbed sleep, musculoskeletal pain, decreased sexual function or desire, and mood disturbance (low mood, mood changes or depressive symptoms). Acknowledged potential long-term menopause consequences were urogenital atrophy, and increased risks of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. VMS and menopause-associated mood disturbance were the only consistent indications for systemic menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). Some CPGs supported MHT to prevent or treat osteoporosis, but specific guidance was lacking. None recommended MHT for cognitive symptoms or prevention of other chronic disease. Perimenopause-specific recommendations were scant. A neurokinin 3B antagonist, selective serotonin/norepinephrine (noradrenaline) reuptake inhibitors and gabapentin were recommended non-hormonal medications for VMS, and cognitive behavioural therapy and hypnosis were consistently considered as being of potential benefit. Discussion The highest quality CPGs consistently recommended MHT for VMS and menopause-associated mood disturbance, whereas clinical depression or cognitive symptoms, and cardiometabolic disease and dementia prevention were not treatment indications. Further research is needed to inform clinical recommendations for symptomatic perimenopausal women.

AB - Objective and rationale To identify and appraise current national and international clinical menopause guidance documents, and to extract and compare the recommendations of the most robust examples. Design Systematic review. Data sources Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO and Web of Science Eligibility criteria for selecting studies Practice guidance documents for menopause published from 2015 until 20 July 2023. Quality was assessed by the Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II (AGREE II) instrument. Results Twenty-six guidance papers were identified. Of these, five clinical practice guidelines (CPGs) and one non-hormonal therapy position statement met AGREE II criteria of being at least of moderate quality. The five CPGs listed symptoms associated with the perimenopause and menopause to be vasomotor symptoms (VMS), disturbed sleep, musculoskeletal pain, decreased sexual function or desire, and mood disturbance (low mood, mood changes or depressive symptoms). Acknowledged potential long-term menopause consequences were urogenital atrophy, and increased risks of cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. VMS and menopause-associated mood disturbance were the only consistent indications for systemic menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). Some CPGs supported MHT to prevent or treat osteoporosis, but specific guidance was lacking. None recommended MHT for cognitive symptoms or prevention of other chronic disease. Perimenopause-specific recommendations were scant. A neurokinin 3B antagonist, selective serotonin/norepinephrine (noradrenaline) reuptake inhibitors and gabapentin were recommended non-hormonal medications for VMS, and cognitive behavioural therapy and hypnosis were consistently considered as being of potential benefit. Discussion The highest quality CPGs consistently recommended MHT for VMS and menopause-associated mood disturbance, whereas clinical depression or cognitive symptoms, and cardiometabolic disease and dementia prevention were not treatment indications. Further research is needed to inform clinical recommendations for symptomatic perimenopausal women.

UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=85185176283&partnerID=8YFLogxK

U2 - 10.1136/bmjsrh-2023-202099

DO - 10.1136/bmjsrh-2023-202099

M3 - Review Article

C2 - 38336466

AN - SCOPUS:85185176283

SN - 2515-1991

JO - BMJ Sexual and Reproductive Health

JF - BMJ Sexual and Reproductive Health