case study for state crime

ReviseSociology

A level sociology revision – education, families, research methods, crime and deviance and more!

Category: state crime

Examples of state crimes 2020-2023.

Three examples of state crimes since 2020 include Russia targeting civilians during the Ukraine invasion, China’s genocide against the Uyghur’s and the Taliban’s denial of women’s rights.

This post provides several examples of Contemporary State Crimes and links to sources of information students can use to explore State Crimes further.

Before reading this post, you might like to read these two posts:

• What is State Crime ?
• Sociological Perspectives on State Crime

Studying State Crime is an explicit requirement for students studying A-level Sociology, as part of the compulsory Crime and Deviance Module .

Below I have highlighted five countries who are responsible for some of the worst state crimes in recent years….

I’ve tried to select examples of mainly developed countries committing state crimes, to demonstrate that it’s not all impoverished, war torn countries or ‘rogue states’ who are state-criminal actors.

It is, however, important to realise that I have been selective (so there is some selection bias here and these examples will lack representativeness) but I think it has to be this way to make this topic manageable. I have included links below where you can search for further examples of State Crimes.

NB – this post is a work in progress!

Countries Committing State Crimes in 2020-2023

Three prominent examples of governments committing crimes against humanity since 2020 include:

• Russia – the invasion of Ukraine
• China – the cultural genocide against the Uyghers.
• The Taliban’s increasing oppression of women.

Russia’s Crimes Against Humanity

Historically, there’s only one real contender for the the worst state criminal in all of all of human history – the USA.

The International Criminal Court is currently investigating Russia for potential crimes against humanity committed during its invasion of Ukraine . Russia is under investigation for the following crimes:

• deliberate targeting of civilian areas and the systematic mass killing civilians.
• Torture and rape of civilians in Ukraine and Ukrainian prisoners held in Russian territory.
• Forced deportation of over two million Ukrainian adults and children to Russia since the start of the invasion.

China’s Genocide Against the Uyghurs

The Human Right’s Watch Report 2021 report summarises a nearly 10 year history of human rights violations against Uyghur Muslims by the Chinese State. The Uyghurs live in Xinjiang province in the far North East of China, a relatively remote and underdeveloped region of China.

In 2014 the Chinese government commenced a “Strike Hard Campaign against Violent Terrorism” in the Xinjiang region has since involved pressuring Uyghur and other Turkic Muslims to abandon Islam and their culture.

Two examples of Chinese state crimes include:

• Since 2014 over one million ethnic minorities have been forcibly detained and subject to ‘re-education’ sometimes involved torture.
• The populations of the region are also subject to mass surveillance and there are reports of women having been forcibly sterilised.

These actions by the Chinese state are possibly characterised as a cultural genocide and are ongoing today.

The Chinese State has a history of violating human rights. For example the crushing of Hong Kong’s freedoms, ongoing repression in Tibet and Inner Mongolia, and the crackdown on independent voices throughout the country more generally.

The Taliban in Afghanistan

According to Human Rights Watch since the Taliban regained power in Afghanistan they have:

• forced women to wear headscalves in public
• Banned girls from secondary education
• Banned women from working and public office.
• Imposed mass censorchip on the media, undermining freedom of speach
• Murdered or disappeared numerous political opponents.

The United States and Israel as State Criminals

Despite the United States outing Russia as a perpetrator of State Crime in Ukraine, according to Noam Chomsky, the United States, along with Israel, are the two worst terrorist organisations/ rogue states of modern times, even if in the last couple of years their crimes against humanity may have been out of the spotlight!

The Crimes of the United States of America

Below is a useful summary video which takes a trip through some of the War Crimes committed by the United States of America since the end of World War Two.

The State of Israel

Israel has been committing crimes against Palestinians in the occupied territories for several decades now – there are presently almost 7 million Palestinian victims of Israeli apartheid policies which forbids Palestinians from having equal access to regions across Israel. This 2021 report from Human Rights watch explores this. A more accessible report might be this one from Amnesty international .

Some of the crimes the state of Israel commits against Palestinian civilians include:

• Unlawful killing
• Prevention of freedom of movement
• Forced displacement
• Discrimination

Syria and Turkey

War Crimes are still being committed by Syria and Turkey in Syria – including the arbitrary killing of civilians, forced detention, which can lead to the death penalty, looting of property and displacement of peoples – there are now 6 million refugees from the region.

Interestingly the report also labels neighbouring countries as committing crimes by blocking access to these refugees!

War Crimes in War Torn Countries (Special Note)

NB – you will find plenty of examples of many state crimes in war torn countries such as Yemen for example, but it seemed a little bit too easy to focus on those, I’m trying to be critical here!

Three organisations which monitor state crimes:

• Amnesty International has a useful hub page here which will allow you to explore contemporary case studies of States involved in various crimes – such as disappearances, political violence, torture and states denying citizens freedom of expression.
• Human Rights Watch – monitors all sorts of State crimes – they cover some of the same ground as Amnesty but also focus more extensively on issues such as women’s’ rights, and reproductive rights and lots more. Their reports page is well worth a browse!
• Transparency International – monitors global political corruption – they’ve developed an index based on surveys which asks people questions such as ‘have you paid a bribe to access a public service in the last year’ – they rank countries according to how corrupt they are and do research into corruption in several countries. You can access the latest world corruption report here .
• You might also be interested in this rare academic source – The State Crime Journal .

Sources and Signposting

This material is mainly relevant to the Crime and Deviance module.

To return to the homepage – revisesociology.com

Image Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Xinjiang_in_China_%28de-facto%29.svg

Share this:

• Share on Tumblr

The Deportation of Chevon Brown – A Breach of Human Rights?

It can be difficult to find easy to understand examples of the state breaching individual human rights, but the recent deportation of Chevon Brown might just be one such example.

This case study from February 2020 is relevant to the ‘state crime and human right’s topic within the A-level sociology Crime and Deviance module .

In February 2020 Chevon Brown was deported to Jamaica from the United Kingdom.

He had just been released from Prison having served 8 months of a 14 month sentence for danagerous driving and driving with no insurance.

He was 21 when he decided to take his car for a spin, despite being a learner driver with no insurance, and when he saw police, he says he panicked, and sped up, which led to a 5 minutes high speed chase, and he puts his actions down to stupidity, and he’s paid the ultimate price.

Britain has the right to deport foreign citizens who have been sentenced to 12 months or more in prison, under the UK Borders Act, which came into force in 2007, unless doing so would infringe their human rights, by sending them back to a country where their life would be at threat, for example.

Chevon was 14 when he moved to Britain with his father on a Jamaican Passport. Despite having ‘indefinite leave to remain’ in the UK, he is still technically a Jamaican national, and so the UK had the right to deport him. The problem is, he no longer has any friends or family in Jaimaica, and his father is remaining in the UK, with his other children.

Since returning to Jamaica, Chevon says he doesn’t feel safe. “I am nervous walking down the street,” he says. “Anything could happen – every day people die here.”

According to UN data, Jamaica had a murder rate of 47 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2016. In the UK, the rate was 1 per 100,000.

Chevon was deported along with 40 other criminals, many of whom had committed more serious offenses, such as murder, and he says the Jamaican media as labelled them all with the same brush, so it is difficult for him to make friends or find a job.

“I’m labelled a murderer, a drug trafficker and a rapist” Chevon Brown was deported from the UK to Jamaica last year, alongside other convicted criminals, after serving time in prison for dangerous driving He says his life has become a “complete mess” https://t.co/H8VdYbdbF5 pic.twitter.com/dK0WKs4amY — Victoria Derbyshire (@VictoriaLIVE) February 12, 2020

Sources – The BBC News May 2020.

Sociological Questions to consider about this case study

• Is deportation for ‘dangerous driving’ an appropriate punishment?
• Given his lack of friends and family in Jamaica, the alleged discrimination he’s facing (due to negative media labeling) and his increased chance of being murdered, did the UK government breach his human rights by deporting him?
• Is this deportation an example of institutional racism?
• Do you think the original decision to imprison him for 14 months was fair, or just another example of institutional racism?

By contrast you might want to consider this in relation to the case of Anne Sacoolas , the American Diplomat’s Wife who actually killed a British Teenager by driving on the wrong side of the road, fled back to America and is now being protected by the US Government, rather than being deported back to the UK to stand trial.

China’s Persecution of the Uighurs – A Horrible Example of a State Crime

The Chinese government is currently engaged in an ongoing act of cultural genocide against the Uighur Muslims, a minority population within North Western China.

As part of this cultural genocide, 15000 mosques have already been bulldozed and thousands of Uighur Muslims have been rounded up and forced into ‘re-education’ camps (which the Chinese government calls ‘job training’ centers.

In these camps they are forced to renounce their faith and their traditions, and to speak Mandarin Chinese.

The Chinese state has used surveillance technology including facial recognition, mandatory fingerprinting, Iris scans, and routine checks on phones, combined with AI based predictive software to flag up suspects who ‘refuse alcohol’ or who ‘discuss the Koran’.

The camps were constructed following a series of terror attacks in the region, leaked government documents have President Xi dictating his officials to show ‘no mercy’ in the battled against extremists, and that anyone ‘infected’ by extremism requires a painful ‘interventionary treatment’ where their ‘erroneous thinking’ can be eradicated.

Relevance of this to A-level sociology

Firstly, it’s a horrific example of a contemporary state crime – this is a flagrant abuse of the human rights (as ‘protected’ by the United Nations) by the Chinese State.

Secondly, it’s a good example of both the power of the Nation State (China) to abuse people, and the powerlessness other Nation States to do anything about it – pretty much every country on Earth is ignoring this, including Muslim majority countries.

Thirdly, it’s an interesting (and again horrific) example of how surveillance can be used to control people.

Source: The Week, 30 September 2019.

Find out More

This Al Jazeera news article is a useful starting point.

Britain’s recent involvement in torture – a good example of a ‘state crime’

Parliament’s Intelligence and Security Committee It’s been 15 years since allegations first emerged of Britain’s involvement in the torture of those suspected of the 9/11 terror attacks, and earlier this month (July 2018) an official report has finally been released which reveals the ‘true’ extent of Britain’s compliance with the USA’s programme of torture.

According to Parliament’s Intelligence and Security Committee (ISC), Britain’s involvement amounted to at least 13 occasions of British agents witnessing suspects being mistreated and having been informed (but done nothing about) of mistreatment by their foreign counterparts or detainees more than 150 times.

The report found that British agents weren’t directly involved in torture themselves, but the strategy of British intelligence was to ‘outsource’ the interrogation process to those who they knew used ‘enhanced techniques such as stress positions, sleep deprivation and beatings.

The British effectively turned a blind eye to the fact that the USA was in breach of the Geneva Convention on Human Rights. They were so ‘blind’ in fact that they ignored the fact that at one detention centre detainees were kept in containers so small that they could neither stand or lie down, getting around this particular breach of human rights by simply building interrogation portacabins which were large enough to comfortably accommodate the prisoners.

So why did this happen?

Following 9/11 the security and intelligent services were under intense pressure to find and prosecute those responsible, but also to find information which might prevent future terrorist attacks. The problem with using such techniques, however, is that they might well just serve to increase recruitment to the same terrorist networks the authorities are trying to quash.

Relevance to A-level sociology

This seems to be a good example of Britain being involved in a ‘state crime’ , also a good example of the extent of barriers to researching powerful actors: it’s taken 15 years for this official report to be conducted, and even this doesn’t tell us the whole story: Theresa May refused permission for four key officers to give evidence on national security grounds, so the true extent of Britain’s complicity in state crime may not surface for many years to come!

• The Week, 7 July 2018
• Independent Article

Library Dissertation Showcase

A critical exploration of the formation of state crime: examining the application of definitional frameworks and criminological theory on different presentations of state crime through the use of case studies.

• Haajir Booley
• Criminology
• Year of Publication:
• BA (Hons) Criminology

The focus of this dissertation is to examine different definitional frameworks of state crime and the relevance of criminological theory to different forms of state crime. Using a library-based approach, the applicability of these concepts is investigated in case studies that fall within different categorisations of state crime. The case studies that are used within this dissertation are: Nazi Germany’s implementation of human experimentation; the use of chemical weapons and targeting of healthcare systems by the Syrian government during the civil war; and state failures in regulating the healthcare and pharmaceutical industry in the USA. Each will be determined to fall within the purview of either legal or deviance-based definitions of state crime, as each is commonly framed differently within normative perspectives of what constitutes ‘crime’. Despite these variations in classifications, each will be shown to be worthy of criminological enquiry regardless of whether it fits within a normative legal framework as each can be seen to produce mass harm or injury which is preventable on account of state action. Criminological theories of Control Balance Theory, Techniques of Neutralisation, and Differential Association which are commonly used to explain the causation of ‘street crime’, will be applied to and compared between the case studies to develop a better understanding of the causes of such acts. It will be demonstrated that such theories can be similarly applied to different forms of state crime as they are to street crime and that they can be beneficial in gaining a greater insight into state crime, where prior research regarding state crime has long been limited. Thus, more research regarding the topic should be conducted to progress current criminological understanding of the area.

PLEASE NOTE: You must be a member of the University of Lincoln to be able to view this dissertation. Please log in here.

We use cookies to understand how visitors use our website and to improve the user experience. To find out more, see our Cookies Policy .

Advertisement

That Was Then, This Is Now, What About Tomorrow? Future Directions in State Crime Studies

• Published: 05 February 2009
• Volume 17 , pages 3–13, ( 2009 )

Cite this article

• Dawn L. Rothe 1 ,
• Jeffrey Ian Ross 2 ,
• Christopher W. Mullins 3 ,
• David Friedrichs 4 ,
• Raymond Michalowski 5 ,
• Gregg Barak 6 ,
• David Kauzlarich 7 &
• Ronald C. Kramer 8  

2556 Accesses

20 Citations

Explore all metrics

Research and theorizing on state crime has come to play an important role in the fields of criminology and criminal justice for understanding the worst of crimes: those of powerful state agencies and agents. Since William Chambliss’ ( 1989 ) ASC presidential address, scholars of state crime have made advances in theoretical modeling and analyzing core enactment and etiological factors of crimes of the state (e.g., Barak 1991 ; Friedrichs 1998 ; Grabosky 1989 ; Kauzlarich and Kramer 1998 ; Kramer and Michalowski 2005 ; Kramer et al. 2005 ; Michalowski and Kramer 2006 ; Mullins and Rothe 2008a , b ; Pearce 1976 ; Ross 1995 , 2000 ; Rothe 2009 ; Rothe and Mullins 2006 , 2008 ). Nonetheless, the study of state crime still has a long way to go before it ever reaches the magnitude or legitimacy afforded to the study of traditional street crime. It is with this in mind that several leading scholars of state criminality have come together and reevaluated the state of state crime and the ways in which the field must move forward. This kind of inventory, where scholars examine the past, present and future of the field, is not without precedent. For example, almost a decade ago (Ross et al. 1999 ) explored the difficulty of conducting state crime research and made a series of recommendations on how it could be improved. Nearly 7 years later (Rothe and Friedrichs 2006 ) re-evaluated the state of state crime and called for more attention to those beyond US crimes of the state and include crimes of globalization and also international controls such as the International Criminal Court (Friedrichs and Friedrichs 2007 ; Rothe and Mullins 2006 ; Rothe et al. 2006 , 2008 ). Since that time, there has been substantial movement by scholars of state crime in these other areas, yet, as we note, there still remains key issues that need to be addressed and overcome: it is with this that we again revisit the field of state crime.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Subscribe and save.

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Price includes VAT (Russian Federation)

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Rent this article via DeepDyve

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

Law, the State, and the Dialectics of State Crime

Criminogenic policy as a crime of the powerful: a case study on nafta’s negotiation process.

Fear of Crime as a Punitive Project—The Swedish Case

We use the term data point as a single typed measurement.

Agger, B. (2000). Public sociology: From social facts to literary acts . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

Google Scholar  

Appelbaum, R. (1988). Karl Marx . Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.

Barak, G. (1991). Crimes by the capitalist state: An introduction to state criminality . Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Barak, G. (2001). Crime and crime control in an age of globalization: A theoretical dissection. Critical Criminology, 10 (1), 57–72.

Article   Google Scholar  

Bourdieu, P. (2003). Firing back: Against the tyranny of the market 2 . New York: The New Press.

Chambliss, W. (1989). State organized crime. Criminology, 27 (2), 183–208.

Collins, J., & Glover, R. (2002). Collateral language . New York: NYU Press.

Day, E. L., Vandiver, M., & Janikowski, W. R. (2003). Teaching the ultimate crime: Genocide and internal law in the criminal justice. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 14 , 1.

Enloe, C. (2007). Globalization and militarism: Feminists make the connection . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Farmer, P. (2005). Pathologies of power: Health, human rights and the new war on the poor . Berkeley: California University Press.

Faust, K., & Kauzlarich, D. (2008). Hurricane Katrina victimization as a state crime of omission . Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American society of criminology, November, Atlanta.

Finlayson, J. (2005). Habermas . New York: Oxford University Press.

Friedrichs, D. (1998). State crime (Vols. 1 and 2). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Ltd.

Friedrichs, D. O., & Friedrichs, J. (2002). The world bank and crimes of globalization: A case study. Social Justice, 29 (1–2), 1–12.

Friedrichs, D., & Friedrichs, J. (2007). White-collar crime in a postmodern, globalized world. In H. N. Pontell & G. Geis (Eds.), International handbook of white-collar and corporate crime (pp. 163–184). New York: Springer.

Grabosky, P. (1989). Wayward governance: Illegality and its control in the public sector . Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.

Green, P., & Ward, T. (2004). State crime: Governments, violence and corruption . London: Pluto Press.

Hathoway, O. (2004). The promise and limits of the international law of torture. In S. Levinson (Ed.), Torture: A collection (pp. 199–212). New York: Oxford University Press.

Hiinton, A., & Lifton, R. J. (2004). Why did they kill? Cambodia in the shadow of genocide . Berkeley, CA: California University Press.

Hillyard, P., Pantazis, C., Gordon, D., & Tombs, S. (Eds.). (2004). Beyond criminology: Taking harm seriously . London: Pluto.

Kauzlarich, D. (2007). Seeing war as criminal: Peace activist views and critical criminology. Contemporary Justice Review, 10 (1), 67–85.

Kauzlarich, D., & Kramer, R. (1998). Crimes of the American nuclear state: At home and abroad . Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.

Kramer, R., & Michalowski, R. (2005). War, aggression, and state crime: A criminological analysis of the invasion and occupation of Iraq. British Journal of Criminology, 45 , 446–469.

Kramer, R., Michalowski, R., & Rothe, D. (2005). The supreme international crime: How the U.S. war in Iraq threatens the rule of law. Social Justice, 32 , 52–81.

Kressel, N. J. (2002). Mass hate: The global rise of genocide and terror . Boulder: Westview.

Michalowski, R. (2007). Border militarization and migrant suffering: A case of transnational social injury. Social Justice, 34 (2), 62–77.

Michalowski, R., & Kramer, R. (2006). State-corporate crime: Wrongdoing at the intersection of business and government . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Mullins, C. W., & Rothe, D. L. (2007). The forgotten ones. Critical Criminology, 15 (2), 135–158.

Mullins, C. W., & Rothe, D. L. (2008a). Blood, power and bedlam: Violations of international criminal law in post-colonial Africa . New York: Peter Lang.

Mullins, C. W., & Rothe, D. L. (2008b). Gold, diamonds and blood: International state-corporate crime in the democratic Republic of the Congo. Contemporary Justice Review, 11 (2), 81–99.

Pearce, F. (1976). Crimes of the powerful . London: Pluto Press.

Ragin, C. (1987). The comparative method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitative strategies . Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Ross, J. I. (Ed.). (1995/2000). Controlling state crime: An introduction (2nd ed.). New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Ross, J. I. (2000). Varieties of state crime and its control . Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.

Ross, J. I., Barak, G., Ferrell, J., Kauzlarich, D., Hamm, M., Friedrichs, D., Matthews, R., Pickering, S., Presdee, M., Kraska, P., & Kappeler, V. (1999). The state of state crime research. Humanity and Society, 23 (3), 273–281.

Ross, J. I., & Rothe, D. L. (2007). Swimming upstream: Teaching state crime to students at American universities. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 18 (3), 460–475.

Rothe, D. (2006). War profiteering and the pernicious beltway bandits: Halliburton and the war on terror. In R. Kramer & R. J. Michalowski (Eds.), State-corporate crime: Wrongdoing at the intersection of business and government . Piscataway, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Rothe, D. (2009). The crime of all crimes: An introduction to state criminality. Lexington/Roman and Littlefield (in press).

Rothe, D., & Friedrichs, D. (2006). The state of the criminology of state crime. Social Justice, 33 (1), 147–161.

Rothe, D., & Mullins, C. W. (2006). The international criminal court: Symbolic gestures and the generation of global social control . Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.

Rothe, D., & Mullins, C. W. (2008). Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity in Central Africa: A criminological exploration. In R. Haveman & A. Smeulers (Eds.), Towards a criminology of international crimes . Antwerp: Intersentia.

Rothe, D. L., Mullins, C. W., & Sandstrom, K. (2008). The Rwandan genocide: International finance policies and human rights. Social Justice , 35(3) (in press).

Rothe, D., Muzzatti, S., & Mullins, C. W. (2006). Crime on the high seas: Crimes of globalization and the sinking of the Senegalese Ferry Le Joola. Critical Criminology, 14 (2), 159–180.

Rothe, D. L., & Ross, J. I. (2007). Lights, camera, state crime. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 14 (4), 330–343.

Rothe, D., & Ross, J. I. (2008). The marginalization of state crime. Journal of Critical Sociology, 34 (5), 731–742.

Roy, A. (2001). Power politics . Cambridge, MA: South End Press.

Sellin, T. (1936). Culture, conflict and crime . New York: Social Science Research Council.

Slapper, G., & Tombs, S. (1999). Corporate crime . Essex, UK: Longman.

Sutherland, E. (1939). White collar criminality. Presidential address to the American society of sociology. Reprinted 1940. American Sociological Review, 5 , 1–12.

Tombs, S., & Whyte, D. (2003). Unmasking the crimes of the powerful: Scrutinizing states and corporations . New York: Peter Lang.

Yin, R. (1984). Case study research: Design and methods (1st ed.). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, USA

Dawn L. Rothe

Division of Criminology, Criminal Justice & Forensic Studies, University of Baltimore, 1420 N. Charles St., Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA

Jeffrey Ian Ross

Southern Illinois University Carbondale, Carbondale, IL, USA

Christopher W. Mullins

Scranton University, Scranton, PA, USA

David Friedrichs

Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

Raymond Michalowski

Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, IL, USA

Gregg Barak

Southern Illinois University Edwardsville, Edwardsville, IL, USA

David Kauzlarich

Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA

Ronald C. Kramer

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Jeffrey Ian Ross .

Additional information

We wish to thank all of those that contributed to our discussions and thoughts during the American Society of Criminology Roundtable on State Crime I and II, November 2007.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Rothe, D.L., Ross, J.I., Mullins, C.W. et al. That Was Then, This Is Now, What About Tomorrow? Future Directions in State Crime Studies. Crit Crim 17 , 3–13 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-008-9066-4

Download citation

Published : 05 February 2009

Issue Date : March 2009

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-008-9066-4

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• International Criminal Court
• State Crime
• Transnational Corporation
• Public Sociology
• Street Crime
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research