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Grammar Guide

How to Write a Summary (Examples Included)

By Ashley Shaw

Have you ever recommended a book to someone and given them a quick overview? Then you’ve created a summary before!

Summarizing is a common part of everyday communication. It feels easy when you’re recounting what happened on your favorite show, but what do you do when the information gets a little more complex?

Written summaries come with their own set of challenges. You might ask yourself:

What details are unnecessary?
How do you put this in your own words without changing the meaning?
How close can you get to the original without plagiarizing it?
How long should it be?

The answers to these questions depend on the type of summary you are doing and why you are doing it.

A summary in an academic setting is different to a professional summary—and both of those are very different to summarizing a funny story you want to tell your friends.

One thing they all have in common is that you need to relay information in the clearest way possible to help your reader understand. We’ll look at some different forms of summary, and give you some tips on each.

Let’s get started!

What Is a Summary?

How do you write a summary, how do you write an academic summary, what are the four types of academic summaries, how do i write a professional summary, writing or telling a summary in personal situations, summarizing summaries.

A summary is a shorter version of a larger work. Summaries are used at some level in almost every writing task, from formal documents to personal messages.

When you write a summary, you have an audience that doesn’t know every single thing you know.

When you want them to understand your argument, topic, or stance, you may need to explain some things to catch them up.

Instead of having them read the article or hear every single detail of the story or event, you instead give them a brief overview of what they need to know.

Academic, professional, and personal summaries each require you to consider different things, but there are some key rules they all have in common.

Let’s go over a few general guides to writing a summary first.

A summary should be shorter than the original

1. A summary should always be shorter than the original work, usually considerably.

Even if your summary is the length of a full paper, you are likely summarizing a book or other significantly longer work.

2. A summary should tell the reader the highlights of what they need to know without giving them unnecessary details.

3. It should also include enough details to give a clear and honest picture.

For example, if you summarize an article that says “ The Office is the greatest television show of all time,” but don’t mention that they are specifically referring to sitcoms, then you changed the meaning of the article. That’s a problem! Similarly, if you write a summary of your job history and say you volunteered at a hospital for the last three years, but you don’t add that you only went twice in that time, it becomes a little dishonest.

4. Summaries shouldn’t contain personal opinion.

While in the longer work you are creating you might use opinion, within the summary itself, you should avoid all personal opinion. A summary is different than a review. In this moment, you aren’t saying what you think of the work you are summarizing, you are just giving your audience enough information to know what the work says or did.

Now that we have a good idea of what summaries are in general, let’s talk about some specific types of summary you will likely have to do at some point in your writing life.

An academic summary is one you will create for a class or in other academic writing. The exact elements you will need to include depend on the assignment itself.

However, when you’re asked for an academic summary, this usually this means one of five things, all of which are pretty similar:

You need to do a presentation in which you talk about an article, book, or report.
You write a summary paper in which the entire paper is a summary of a specific work.
You summarize a class discussion, lesson, or reading in the form of personal notes or a discussion board post.
You do something like an annotated bibliography where you write short summaries of multiple works in preparation of a longer assignment.
You write quick summaries within the body of another assignment . For example, in an argumentative essay, you will likely need to have short summaries of the sources you use to explain their argument before getting into how the source helps you prove your point.

Regardless of what type of summary you are doing, though, there are a few steps you should always follow:

Skim the work you are summarizing before you read it. Notice what stands out to you.
Next, read it in depth . Do the same things stand out?
Put the full text away and write in a few sentences what the main idea or point was.
Go back and compare to make sure you didn’t forget anything.
Expand on this to write and then edit your summary.

Each type of academic summary requires slightly different things. Let’s get down to details.

How Do I Write a Summary Paper?

Sometimes teachers assign something called a summary paper . In this, the entire thing is a summary of one article, book, story, or report.

To understand how to write this paper, let’s talk a little bit about the purpose of such an assignment.

A summary paper is usually given to help a teacher see how well a student understands a reading assignment, but also to help the student digest the reading. Sometimes, it can be difficult to understand things we read right away.

However, a good way to process the information is to put it in our own words. That is the point of a summary paper.

A summary paper is:

A way to explain in our own words what happened in a paper, book, etc.
A time to think about what was important in the paper, etc.
A time to think about the meaning and purpose behind the paper, etc.

Here are some things that a summary paper is not:

A review. Your thoughts and opinions on the thing you are summarizing don’t need to be here unless otherwise specified.
A comparison. A comparison paper has a lot of summary in it, but it is different than a summary paper. In this, you are just saying what happened, but you aren’t saying places it could have been done differently.
A paraphrase (though you might have a little paraphrasing in there). In the section on using summary in longer papers, I talk more about the difference between summaries, paraphrases, and quotes.

Because a summary paper is usually longer than other forms of summary, you will be able to chose more detail. However, it still needs to focus on the important events. Summary papers are usually shorter papers.

Let’s say you are writing a 3–4 page summary. You are likely summarizing a full book or an article or short story, which will be much longer than 3–4 pages.

Imagine that you are the author of the work, and your editor comes to you and says they love what you wrote, but they need it to be 3–4 pages instead.

How would you tell that story (argument, idea, etc.) in that length without losing the heart or intent behind it? That is what belongs in a summary paper.

How Do I Write Useful Academic Notes?

Sometimes, you need to write a summary for yourself in the form of notes or for your classmates in the form of a discussion post.

You might not think you need a specific approach for this. After all, only you are going to see it.

However, summarizing for yourself can sometimes be the most difficult type of summary. If you try to write down everything your teacher says, your hand will cramp and you’ll likely miss a lot.

Yet, transcribing doesn’t work because studies show that writing things down (not typing them) actually helps you remember them better.

So how do you find the balance between summarizing the lessons without leaving out important points?

There are some tips for this:

If your professor writes it on the board, it is probably important.
What points do your textbooks include when summarizing information? Use these as a guide.
Write the highlight of every X amount of time, with X being the time you can go without missing anything or getting tired. This could be one point per minute, or three per five minutes, etc.

How Do I Create an Annotated Biography?

An annotated bibliography requires a very specific style of writing. Often, you will write these before a longer research paper . They will ask you to find a certain amount of articles and write a short annotation for each of them.

While an annotation is more than just a summary, it usually starts with a summary of the work. This will be about 2–3 sentences long. Because you don’t have a lot of room, you really have to think about what the most important thing the work says is.

This will basically ask you to explain the point of the article in these couple of sentences, so you should focus on the main point when expressing it.

Here is an example of a summary section within an annotation about this post:

“In this post, the author explains how to write a summary in different types of settings. She walks through academic, professional, and personal summaries. Ultimately, she claims that summaries should be short explanations that get the audience caught up on the topic without leaving out details that would change the meaning.”

Can I Write a Summary Within an Essay?

Perhaps the most common type of summary you will ever do is a short summary within a longer paper.

For example, if you have to write an argumentative essay, you will likely need to use sources to help support your argument.

However, there is a good chance that your readers won’t have read those same sources.

So, you need to give them enough detail to understand your topic without spending too much time explaining and not enough making your argument.

While this depends on exactly how you are using summary in your paper, often, a good amount of summary is the same amount you would put in an annotation.

Just a few sentences will allow the reader to get an idea of the work before moving on to specific parts of it that might help your argument.

What’s the Difference Between Summarizing, Paraphrasing, and Using Quotes?

One important thing to recognize when using summaries in academic settings is that summaries are different than paraphrases or quotes.

A summary is broader and more general. A paraphrase, on the other hand, puts specific parts into your own words. A quote uses the exact words of the original. All of them, however, need to be cited.

Let’s look at an example:

Take these words by Thomas J. Watson:

”Would you like me to give you a formula for success? It’s quite simple, really. Double your rate of failure. You are thinking of failure as the enemy of success. But it isn’t as all. You can be discouraged by failure—or you can learn from it. So go ahead and make mistakes. Make all you can. Because, remember, that’s where you will find success.”

Let’s say I was told to write a summary, a paraphrase, and a quote about this statement. This is what it might look like:

Summary: Thomas J. Watson said that the key to success is actually to fail more often. (This is broad and doesn’t go into details about what he says, but it still gives him credit.)

Paraphrase: Thomas J. Watson, on asking if people would like his formula for success, said that the secret was to fail twice as much. He claimed that when you decide to learn from your mistakes instead of being disappointed by them, and when you start making a lot of them, you will actually find more success. (This includes most of the details, but it is in my own words, while still crediting the source.)

Quote: Thomas J. Watson said, ”Would you like me to give you a formula for success? It’s quite simple, really. Double your rate of failure. You are thinking of failure as the enemy of success. But it isn’t at all. You can be discouraged by failure—or you can learn from it. So go ahead and make mistakes. Make all you can. Because, remember, that’s where you will find success.” (This is the exact words of the original with quotation marks and credit given.)

A summary versus a paraphrase versus a quote

Avoiding Plagiarism

One of the hardest parts about summarizing someone else’s writing is avoiding plagiarism .

That’s why I have a few rules/tips for you when summarizing anything:

1. Always cite.

If you are talking about someone else’s work in any means, cite your source. If you are summarizing the entire work, all you probably need to do (depending on style guidelines) is say the author’s name. However, if you are summarizing a specific chapter or section, you should state that specifically. Finally, you should make sure to include it in your Work Cited or Reference page.

2. Change the wording.

Sometimes when people are summarizing or paraphrasing a work, they get too close to the original, and actually use the exact words. Unless you use quotation marks, this is plagiarism. However, a good way to avoid this is to hide the article while you are summarizing it. If you don’t have it in front of you, you are less likely to accidentally use the exact words. (However, after you are done, double check that you didn’t miss anything important or give wrong details.)

3. Use a plagiarism checker.

Of course, when you are writing any summary, especially academic summaries, it can be easy to cross the line into plagiarism. If this is a place where you struggle, then ProWritingAid can help.

Just use our Plagiarism Report . It’ll highlight any unoriginal text in your document so you can make sure you are citing everything correctly and summarizing in your own words.

Find out more about ProWritingAid plagiarism bundles.

Along with academic summaries, you might sometimes need to write professional summaries. Often, this means writing a summary about yourself that shows why you are qualified for a position or organization.

In this section, let’s talk about two types of professional summaries: a LinkedIn summary and a summary section within a resume.

How Do I Write My LinkedIn Bio?

LinkedIn is all about professional networking. It offers you a chance to share a brief glimpse of your professional qualifications in a paragraph or two.

This can then be sent to professional connections, or even found by them without you having to reach out. This can help you get a job or build your network.

Your summary is one of the first things a future employer might see about you, and how you write yours can make you stand out from the competition.

Here are some tips on writing a LinkedIn summary :

Before you write it, think about what you want it to do . If you are looking for a job, what kind of job? What have you done in your past that would stand out to someone hiring for that position? That is what you will want to focus on in your summary.
Be professional . Unlike many social media platforms, LinkedIn has a reputation for being more formal. Your summary should reflect that to some extent.
Use keywords . Your summary is searchable, so using keywords that a recruiter might be searching for can help them find you.
Focus on the start . LinkedIn shows the first 300 characters automatically, and then offers the viewer a chance to read more. Make that start so good that everyone wants to keep reading.
Focus on accomplishments . Think of your life like a series of albums, and this is your speciality “Greatest Hits” album. What “songs” are you putting on it?

How Do I Summarize My Experience on a Resume?

Writing a professional summary for a resume is different than any other type of summary that you may have to do.

Recruiters go through a lot of resumes every day. They don’t have time to spend ages reading yours, which means you have to wow them quickly.

To do that, you might include a section at the top of your resume that acts almost as an elevator pitch: That one thing you might say to a recruiter to get them to want to talk to you if you only had a 30-second elevator ride.

Treat your resume summary as an elevator pitch

If you don’t have a lot of experience, though, you might want to skip this section entirely and focus on playing up the experience you do have.

Outside of academic and personal summaries, you use summary a lot in your day-to-day life.

Whether it is telling a good piece of trivia you just learned or a funny story that happened to you, or even setting the stage in creative writing, you summarize all the time.

How you use summary can be an important consideration in whether people want to read your work (or listen to you talk).

Here are some things to think about when telling a story:

Pick interesting details . Too many and your point will be lost. Not enough, and you didn’t paint the scene or give them a complete idea about what happened.
Play into the emotions . When telling a story, you want more information than the bare minimum. You want your reader to get the emotion of the story. That requires a little bit more work to accomplish.
Focus. A summary of one story can lead to another can lead to another. Think about storytellers that you know that go off on a tangent. They never seem to finish one story without telling 100 others!

To wrap up (and to demonstrate everything I just talked about), let’s summarize this post into its most essential parts:

A summary is a great way to quickly give your audience the information they need to understand the topic you are discussing without having to know every detail.

How you write a summary is different depending on what type of summary you are doing:

An academic summary usually gets to the heart of an article, book, or journal, and it should highlight the main points in your own words. How long it should be depends on the type of assignment it is.
A professional summary highlights you and your professional, academic, and volunteer history. It shows people in your professional network who you are and why they should hire you, work with you, use your talents, etc.

Being able to tell a good story is another form of summary. You want to tell engaging anecdotes and facts without boring your listeners. This is a skill that is developed over time.

Take your writing to the next level:

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Ashley Shaw

Ashley Shaw is a former editor and marketer/current PhD student and teacher. When she isn't studying con artists for her dissertation, she's thinking of new ways to help college students better understand and love the writing process. You can follow her on Twitter, or, if you prefer animal accounts, follow her rabbits, Audrey Hopbun and Fredra StaHare, on Instagram.

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How to Write a Summary

Proficient students understand that summarizing , identifying what is most important and restating the text (or other media) in your own words, is an important tool for college success.

After all, if you really know a subject, you will be able to summarize it. If you cannot summarize a subject, even if you have memorized all the facts about it, you can be absolutely sure that you have not learned it. And, if you truly learn the subject, you will still be able to summarize it months or years from now.

Proficient students may monitor their understanding of a text by summarizing as they read. They understand that if they can write a one- or two-sentence summary of each paragraph after reading it, then that is a good sign that they have correctly understood it. If they can not summarize the main idea of the paragraph, they know that comprehension has broken down and they need to use fix-up strategies to repair understanding.

Summary Writing Format

When writing a summary, remember that it should be in the form of a paragraph.
A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and main point of the text as you see it.
A summary is written in your own words.
A summary contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any of your own opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments into a summary.
Identify in order the significant sub-claims the author uses to defend the main point.
Copy word-for-word three separate passages from the essay that you think support and/or defend the main point of the essay as you see it.
Cite each passage by first signaling the work and the author, put “quotation marks” around the passage you chose, and put the number of the paragraph where the passages can be found immediately after the passage.
Using source material from the essay is important. Why? Because defending claims with source material is what you will be asked to do when writing papers for your college professors.
Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often a simple rephrasing of the main point.

Example Summary Writing Format

In the essay Santa Ana , author Joan Didion’s main point is ( state main point ). According to Didion “… passage 1 …” (para.3). Didion also writes “… passage 2 …” (para.8). Finally, she states “… passage 3 …” (para. 12) Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often a simple rephrasing of the main point.

Provided by : Lumen Learning. Located at : http://lumenlearning.com/ . License : CC BY: Attribution
Authored by : Paul Powell. Provided by : Central Community College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
Authored by : Elisabeth Ellington and Ronda Dorsey Neugebauer. Provided by : Chadron State College. Project : Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License : CC BY: Attribution
Table of Contents

Instructor Resources (Access Requires Login)

Overview of Instructor Resources

An Overview of the Writing Process

Introduction to the Writing Process
Introduction to Writing
Your Role as a Learner
What is an Essay?
Reading to Write
Defining the Writing Process
Videos: Prewriting Techniques
Thesis Statements
Organizing an Essay
Creating Paragraphs
Conclusions
Editing and Proofreading
Matters of Grammar, Mechanics, and Style
Peer Review Checklist
Comparative Chart of Writing Strategies

Using Sources

Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism
Formatting the Works Cited Page (MLA)
Citing Paraphrases and Summaries (APA)
APA Citation Style, 6th edition: General Style Guidelines

Definition Essay

Definitional Argument Essay
How to Write a Definition Essay
Critical Thinking
Video: Thesis Explained
Effective Thesis Statements
Student Sample: Definition Essay

Narrative Essay

Introduction to Narrative Essay
Student Sample: Narrative Essay
"Shooting an Elephant" by George Orwell
"Sixty-nine Cents" by Gary Shteyngart
Video: The Danger of a Single Story
How to Write an Annotation
Writing for Success: Narration

Illustration/Example Essay

Introduction to Illustration/Example Essay
"She's Your Basic L.O.L. in N.A.D" by Perri Klass
"April & Paris" by David Sedaris
Writing for Success: Illustration/Example
Student Sample: Illustration/Example Essay

Compare/Contrast Essay

Introduction to Compare/Contrast Essay
"Disability" by Nancy Mairs
"Friending, Ancient or Otherwise" by Alex Wright
"A South African Storm" by Allison Howard
Writing for Success: Compare/Contrast
Student Sample: Compare/Contrast Essay

Cause-and-Effect Essay

Introduction to Cause-and-Effect Essay
"Cultural Baggage" by Barbara Ehrenreich
"Women in Science" by K.C. Cole
Writing for Success: Cause and Effect
Student Sample: Cause-and-Effect Essay

Argument Essay

Introduction to Argument Essay
Rogerian Argument
"The Case Against Torture," by Alisa Soloman
"The Case for Torture" by Michael Levin
How to Write a Summary by Paraphrasing Source Material
Writing for Success: Argument
Student Sample: Argument Essay
Grammar/Mechanics Mini-lessons
Mini-lesson: Subjects and Verbs, Irregular Verbs, Subject Verb Agreement
Mini-lesson: Sentence Types
Mini-lesson: Fragments I
Mini-lesson: Run-ons and Comma Splices I
Mini-lesson: Comma Usage
Mini-lesson: Parallelism
Mini-lesson: The Apostrophe
Mini-lesson: Capital Letters
Grammar Practice - Interactive Quizzes
De Copia - Demonstration of the Variety of Language
Style Exercise: Voice

Home / Guides / Writing Guides / Parts of a Paper / How to Write a Summary

How to Write a Summary

Introduction.

In this lesson, you will learn how to summarize a text accurately.

Guide Overview

Summarizing.

Tips for summarizing: introducing the main idea
Tips for summarizing: transitions
The final summary

A summary is a much shorter version of a text, with only the most essential information.

Below, you can read the main points from each section of the Scholastic News article Running Into History :

Roberta “Bobbi” Gibb was the first woman to run in the Boston Marathon.
Gibb had to disguise herself as a man to participate in the race because people didn’t think women could run that far at the time.
Gibb helped open the race to other women.

To turn this information into a summary, you will need to add a few things!

Tips for Summarizing: Introducing the Main Idea

When you write your summary, it’s important to follow a few steps.

First, start your summary by identifying the title, author and type of text.

You should include the information above and a brief explanation of the author’s major point in the first sentence of your summary.

Example : The Scholastic News article, “Running Into History,” explains how Roberta “Bobbi” Gibb changed the Boston Marathon.

Tips for Summarizing: Transitions

Have you ever read a text that was robotic and choppy? When that happens, the information is hard to follow and not very interesting! To avoid this, use transitions between the main points of your summary.

Look at the list of Transitional Words and Phrases from the University of Wisconsin. These can help your writing flow! Every few sentences, use summarizing language that reminds the reader that they are reading a summary. Summarizing transitions include “ The author claims… ” or “ The article explains… ”

The Final Summary

After adding in an introductory sentence and transitions to the main points of the text, the next step is to complete the summary .

Read the summary of the Scholastic News article below. Notice how 8 paragraphs of text have been shortened into a one-paragraph summary!

The Scholastic News article, “Running Into History,” explains how Roberta “Bobbi” Gibb changed the Boston Marathon.Gibb was the first woman to run in the Boston Marathon. She had to disguise herself as a man to participate in the race because people didn’t think women could run that far at the time. According to the article, Gibb’s success in the marathon helped to open the race up to other women.

In this lesson, you learned how to:

summarize informational texts using main ideas and transitional words and phrases

EasyBib Writing Resources

Writing a paper.

Academic Essay
Argumentative Essay
College Admissions Essay
Expository Essay
Persuasive Essay
Research Paper
Thesis Statement
Writing a Conclusion
Writing an Introduction
Writing an Outline
Writing a Summary

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The Writing Center • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

Summary: Using it Wisely

What this handout is about.

Knowing how to summarize something you have read, seen, or heard is a valuable skill, one you have probably used in many writing assignments. It is important, though, to recognize when you must go beyond describing, explaining, and restating texts and offer a more complex analysis. This handout will help you distinguish between summary and analysis and avoid inappropriate summary in your academic writing.

Is summary a bad thing?

Not necessarily. But it’s important that your keep your assignment and your audience in mind as you write. If your assignment requires an argument with a thesis statement and supporting evidence—as many academic writing assignments do—then you should limit the amount of summary in your paper. You might use summary to provide background, set the stage, or illustrate supporting evidence, but keep it very brief: a few sentences should do the trick. Most of your paper should focus on your argument. (Our handout on argument will help you construct a good one.)

Writing a summary of what you know about your topic before you start drafting your actual paper can sometimes be helpful. If you are unfamiliar with the material you’re analyzing, you may need to summarize what you’ve read in order to understand your reading and get your thoughts in order. Once you figure out what you know about a subject, it’s easier to decide what you want to argue.

You may also want to try some other pre-writing activities that can help you develop your own analysis. Outlining, freewriting, and mapping make it easier to get your thoughts on the page. (Check out our handout on brainstorming for some suggested techniques.)

Why is it so tempting to stick with summary and skip analysis?

Many writers rely too heavily on summary because it is what they can most easily write. If you’re stalled by a difficult writing prompt, summarizing the plot of The Great Gatsby may be more appealing than staring at the computer for three hours and wondering what to say about F. Scott Fitzgerald’s use of color symbolism. After all, the plot is usually the easiest part of a work to understand. Something similar can happen even when what you are writing about has no plot: if you don’t really understand an author’s argument, it might seem easiest to just repeat what he or she said.

To write a more analytical paper, you may need to review the text or film you are writing about, with a focus on the elements that are relevant to your thesis. If possible, carefully consider your writing assignment before reading, viewing, or listening to the material about which you’ll be writing so that your encounter with the material will be more purposeful. (We offer a handout on reading towards writing .)

How do I know if I’m summarizing?

As you read through your essay, ask yourself the following questions:

Am I stating something that would be obvious to a reader or viewer?
Does my essay move through the plot, history, or author’s argument in chronological order, or in the exact same order the author used?
Am I simply describing what happens, where it happens, or whom it happens to?

A “yes” to any of these questions may be a sign that you are summarizing. If you answer yes to the questions below, though, it is a sign that your paper may have more analysis (which is usually a good thing):

Am I making an original argument about the text?
Have I arranged my evidence around my own points, rather than just following the author’s or plot’s order?
Am I explaining why or how an aspect of the text is significant?

Certain phrases are warning signs of summary. Keep an eye out for these:

“[This essay] is about…”
“[This book] is the story of…”
“[This author] writes about…”
“[This movie] is set in…”

Here’s an example of an introductory paragraph containing unnecessary summary. Sentences that summarize are in italics:

The Great Gatsby is the story of a mysterious millionaire, Jay Gatsby, who lives alone on an island in New York. F. Scott Fitzgerald wrote the book, but the narrator is Nick Carraway. Nick is Gatsby’s neighbor, and he chronicles the story of Gatsby and his circle of friends, beginning with his introduction to the strange man and ending with Gatsby’s tragic death. In the story, Nick describes his environment through various colors, including green, white, and grey. Whereas white and grey symbolize false purity and decay respectively, the color green offers a symbol of hope.

Here’s how you might change the paragraph to make it a more effective introduction:

In The Great Gatsby, F. Scott Fitzgerald provides readers with detailed descriptions of the area surrounding East Egg, New York. In fact, Nick Carraway’s narration describes the setting with as much detail as the characters in the book. Nick’s description of the colors in his environment presents the book’s themes, symbolizing significant aspects of the post-World War I era. Whereas white and grey symbolize the false purity and decay of the 1920s, the color green offers a symbol of hope.

This version of the paragraph mentions the book’s title, author, setting, and narrator so that the reader is reminded of the text. And that sounds a lot like summary—but the paragraph quickly moves on to the writer’s own main topic: the setting and its relationship to the main themes of the book. The paragraph then closes with the writer’s specific thesis about the symbolism of white, grey, and green.

How do I write more analytically?

Analysis requires breaking something—like a story, poem, play, theory, or argument—into parts so you can understand how those parts work together to make the whole. Ideally, you should begin to analyze a work as you read or view it instead of waiting until after you’re done—it may help you to jot down some notes as you read. Your notes can be about major themes or ideas you notice, as well as anything that intrigues, puzzles, excites, or irritates you. Remember, analytic writing goes beyond the obvious to discuss questions of how and why—so ask yourself those questions as you read.

The St. Martin’s Handbook (the bulleted material below is quoted from p. 38 of the fifth edition) encourages readers to take the following steps in order to analyze a text:

Identify evidence that supports or illustrates the main point or theme as well as anything that seems to contradict it.
Consider the relationship between the words and the visuals in the work. Are they well integrated, or are they sometimes at odds with one another? What functions do the visuals serve? To capture attention? To provide more detailed information or illustration? To appeal to readers’ emotions?
Decide whether the sources used are trustworthy.
Identify the work’s underlying assumptions about the subject, as well as any biases it reveals.

Once you have written a draft, some questions you might want to ask yourself about your writing are “What’s my point?” or “What am I arguing in this paper?” If you can’t answer these questions, then you haven’t gone beyond summarizing. You may also want to think about how much of your writing comes from your own ideas or arguments. If you’re only reporting someone else’s ideas, you probably aren’t offering an analysis.

What strategies can help me avoid excessive summary?

Read the assignment (the prompt) as soon as you get it. Make sure to reread it before you start writing. Go back to your assignment often while you write. (Check out our handout on reading assignments ).
Formulate an argument (including a good thesis) and be sure that your final draft is structured around it, including aspects of the plot, story, history, background, etc. only as evidence for your argument. (You can refer to our handout on constructing thesis statements ).
Read critically—imagine having a dialogue with the work you are discussing. What parts do you agree with? What parts do you disagree with? What questions do you have about the work? Does it remind you of other works you’ve seen?
Make sure you have clear topic sentences that make arguments in support of your thesis statement. (Read our handout on paragraph development if you want to work on writing strong paragraphs).
Use two different highlighters to mark your paper. With one color, highlight areas of summary or description. With the other, highlight areas of analysis. For many college papers, it’s a good idea to have lots of analysis and minimal summary/description.
Ask yourself: What part of the essay would be obvious to a reader/viewer of the work being discussed? What parts (words, sentences, paragraphs) of the essay could be deleted without loss? In most cases, your paper should focus on points that are essential and that will be interesting to people who have already read or seen the work you are writing about.

But I’m writing a review! Don’t I have to summarize?

That depends. If you’re writing a critique of a piece of literature, a film, or a dramatic performance, you don’t necessarily need to give away much of the plot. The point is to let readers decide whether they want to enjoy it for themselves. If you do summarize, keep your summary brief and to the point.

Instead of telling your readers that the play, book, or film was “boring,” “interesting,” or “really good,” tell them specifically what parts of the work you’re talking about. It’s also important that you go beyond adjectives and explain how the work achieved its effect (how was it interesting?) and why you think the author/director wanted the audience to react a certain way. (We have a special handout on writing reviews that offers more tips.)

If you’re writing a review of an academic book or article, it may be important for you to summarize the main ideas and give an overview of the organization so your readers can decide whether it is relevant to their specific research interests.

If you are unsure how much (if any) summary a particular assignment requires, ask your instructor for guidance.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Barnet, Sylvan. 2015. A Short Guide to Writing about Art , 11th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Corrigan, Timothy. 2014. A Short Guide to Writing About Film , 9th ed. New York: Pearson.

Lunsford, Andrea A. 2015. The St. Martin’s Handbook , 8th ed. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s.

Zinsser, William. 2001. On Writing Well: The Classic Guide to Writing Nonfiction , 6th ed. New York: Quill.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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Narrative Essay

How to write a summary.

Proficient students understand that summarizing , identifying what is most important and restating the text (or other media) in your own words, is an important tool for college success.

Summary Writing Format

When writing a summary, remember that it should be in the form of a paragraph.
A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and main point of the text as you see it.
A summary is written in your own words.
A summary contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any of your own opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments into a summary.
Identify in order the significant sub-claims the author uses to defend the main point.
Copy word-for-word three separate passages from the essay that you think support and/or defend the main point of the essay as you see it.
Cite each passage by first signaling the work and the author, put “quotation marks” around the passage you chose, and put the number of the paragraph where the passages can be found immediately after the passage.
Using source material from the essay is important. Why? Because defending claims with source material is what you will be asked to do when writing papers for your college professors.
Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often a simple rephrasing of the main point.

Example Summary Writing Format

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Introduction

Goals and Goal Setting

Goals Common to All RST Writers

Other Goals to Consider

Defining My Own Goals

Advice about Assignments

Getting Started: Listing Topics to Write about in the Tutorial

Narrative One: Personal Piece on a Significant Experience

Narrative Two: Academic Piece on a Significant Experience

Summary/Response One

Summary/Response Two

Tutorial Evaluation Postscript

On Using the Resources for Writers

Generating and Developing Ideas

Finding/Expressing Main Ideas

Showing v. Telling Sentences

Focusing Topic Sentences

Thesis Statements

Reading Strategies

Assessing Your Reading Strategies

Summarizing

Writing Effective Summary and Response Essays

Discourse Analysis Worksheet

Trade Magazines

Selecting Readings

A summary is a concise paraphrase of all the main ideas in an essay. It cites the author and the title (usually in the first sentence); it contains the essay's thesis and supporting ideas; it may use direct quotation of forceful or concise statements of the author's ideas; it will NOT usually cite the author's examples or supporting details unless they are central to the main idea. Most summaries present the major points in the order that the author made them and continually refer back to the article being summarized (i.e. "Damon argues that ..." or "Goodman also points out that ... "). The summary should take up no more than one-third the length of the work being summarized.

The Response:

A response is a critique or evaluation of the author's essay. Unlike the summary, it is composed of YOUR opinions in relation to the article being summarized. It examines ideas that you agree or disagree with and identifies the essay's strengths and weaknesses in reasoning and logic, in quality of supporting examples, and in organization and style. A good response is persuasive; therefore, it should cite facts, examples, and personal experience that either refutes or supports the article you're responding to, depending on your stance.

Two Typical Organizational Formats for Summary/Response Essays:

1. Present the summary in a block of paragraphs, followed by the response in a block:

Intro/thesis Summary (two to three paragraphs) Agreement (or disagreement) Disagreement (or agreement) Conclusion

Note: Some essays will incorporate both agreement and disagreement in a response, but this is not mandatory.

2. Introduce the essay with a short paragraph that includes your thesis. Then, each body paragraph summarizes one point and responds to it, and a conclusion wraps the essay up.

Intro/thesis Summary point one; agree/disagree Summary point two; agree/disagree Summary point three; agree/disagree Conclusion

How it works

Writing a Summary – Explanation & Examples

Published by Alvin Nicolas at October 17th, 2023 , Revised On October 17, 2023

In a world bombarded with vast amounts of information, condensing and presenting data in a digestible format becomes invaluable. Enter summaries.

A summary is a brief and concise account of the main points of a larger body of work. It distils complex ideas, narratives, or data into a version that is quicker to read and easier to understand yet still retains the essence of the original content.

Importance of Summaries

The importance of summarising extends far beyond just making reading more manageable. In academic settings, summaries aid students in understanding and retaining complex materials, from textbook chapters to research articles. They also serve as tools to showcase one’s grasp of the subject in essays and reports.

In professional arenas, summaries are pivotal in business reports, executive briefings, and even emails where key points need to be conveyed quickly to decision-makers. Meanwhile, summarising skills come into play in our personal lives when we relay news stories to friends, recap a movie plot, or even scroll through condensed news or app notifications on our smartphones.

Why Do We Write Summaries?

In our modern information age, the sheer volume of content available can be overwhelming. From detailed research papers to comprehensive news articles, the quest for knowledge is often met with lengthy and complex resources. This is where the power of a well-crafted summary comes into play. But what drives us to create or seek out summaries? Let’s discuss.

Makes Important Things Easy to Remember

At the heart of summarisation is the goal to understand. A well-written summary aids in digesting complex material. By distilling larger works into their core points, we reinforce the primary messages, making them easier to remember. This is especially crucial for students who need to retain knowledge for exams or professionals prepping for a meeting based on a lengthy report.

Simplification of Complex Topics

Not everyone is an expert in every field. Often, topics come laden with jargon, intricate details, and nuanced arguments. Summaries act as a bridge, translating this complexity into accessible and straightforward content. This is especially beneficial for individuals new to a topic or those who need just the highlights without the intricacies.

Aid in Researching and Understanding Diverse Sources

Researchers, writers, and academics often wade through many sources when working on a project. This involves finding sources of different types, such as primary or secondary sources , and then understanding their content. Sifting through each source in its entirety can be time-consuming. Summaries offer a streamlined way to understand each source’s main arguments or findings, making synthesising information from diverse materials more efficient.

Condensing Information for Presentation or Sharing

In professional settings, there is often a need to present findings, updates, or recommendations to stakeholders. An executive might not have the time to go through a 50-page report, but they would certainly appreciate a concise summary highlighting the key points. Similarly, in our personal lives, we often summarise movie plots, book stories, or news events when sharing with friends or family.

Characteristics of a Good Summary

Crafting an effective summary is an art. It’s more than just shortening a piece of content; it is about capturing the essence of the original work in a manner that is both accessible and true to its intent. Let’s explore the primary characteristics that distinguish a good summary from a mediocre one:

Conciseness

At the core of a summary is the concept of brevity. But being concise doesn’t mean leaving out vital information. A good summary will:

Eliminate superfluous details or repetitive points.
Focus on the primary arguments, events, or findings.
Use succinct language without compromising the message.

Objectivity

Summarising is not about infusing personal opinions or interpretations. A quality summary will:

Stick to the facts as presented in the original content.
Avoid introducing personal biases or perspectives.
Represent the original author’s intent faithfully.

A summary is meant to simplify and make content accessible. This is only possible if the summary itself is easy to understand. Ensuring clarity involves:

Avoiding jargon or technical terms unless they are essential to the content. If they are used, they should be clearly defined.
Structuring sentences in a straightforward manner.
Making sure ideas are presented in a way that even someone unfamiliar with the topic can grasp the primary points.

A jumble of ideas, no matter how concise, will not make for a good summary. Coherence ensures that there’s a logical flow to the summarised content. A coherent summary will:

Maintain a logical sequence, often following the structure of the original content.
Use transition words or phrases to connect ideas and ensure smooth progression.
Group related ideas together to provide structure and avoid confusion.

Steps of Writing a Summary

The process of creating a compelling summary is not merely about cutting down content. It involves understanding, discerning, and crafting. Here is a step-by-step guide to writing a summary that encapsulates the essence of the original work:

Reading Actively

Engage deeply with the content to ensure a thorough understanding.

Read the entire document or work first to grasp its overall intent and structure.
On the second read, underline or highlight the standout points or pivotal moments.
Make brief notes in the margins or on a separate sheet, capturing the core ideas in your own words.

Identifying the Main Idea

Determine the backbone of the content, around which all other details revolve.

Ask yourself: “What is the primary message or theme the author wants to convey?”
This can often be found in the title, introduction, or conclusion of a piece.
Frame the main idea in a clear and concise statement to guide your summary.

List Key Supporting Points

Understand the pillars that uphold the main idea, providing evidence or depth to the primary message.

Refer back to the points you underlined or highlighted during your active reading.
Note major arguments, evidence, or examples that the author uses to back up the main idea.
Prioritise these points based on their significance to the main idea.

Draft the Summary

Convert your understanding into a condensed, coherent version of the original.

Start with a statement of the main idea.
Follow with the key supporting points, maintaining logical order.
Avoid including trivial details or examples unless they’re crucial to the primary message.
Use your own words, ensuring you are not plagiarising the original content.

Fine-tune your draft to ensure clarity, accuracy, and brevity.

Read your draft aloud to check for flow and coherence.
Ensure that your summary remains objective, avoiding any personal interpretations or biases.
Check the length. See if any non-essential details can be removed without sacrificing understanding if it is too lengthy.
Ensure clarity by ensuring the language is straightforward, and the main ideas are easily grasped.

The research done by our experts have:

Precision and Clarity
Zero Plagiarism
Authentic Sources

Dos and Don’ts of Summarising Key Points

Summarising, while seemingly straightforward, comes with its nuances. Properly condensing content demands a balance between brevity and fidelity to the original work. To aid in crafting exemplary summaries, here is a guide on the essential dos and don’ts:

Use your Own Words

This ensures that you have truly understood the content and are not merely parroting it. It also prevents issues of plagiarism.

Tip: After reading the original content, take a moment to reflect on it. Then, without looking at the source, write down the main points in your own words.

Attribute Sources Properly

Giving credit is both ethical and provides context to readers, helping them trace back to the original work if needed. How to cite sources correctly is a skill every writer should master.

Tip: Use signal phrases like “According to [Author/Source]…” or “As [Author/Source] points out…” to seamlessly incorporate attributions.

Ensure Accuracy of the Summarised Content

A summary should be a reliable reflection of the original content. Distorting or misrepresenting the original ideas compromises the integrity of the summary.

Tip: After drafting your summary, cross-check with the original content to ensure all key points are represented accurately and ensure you are referencing credible sources .

Avoid Copy-Pasting Chunks of Original Content

This not only raises plagiarism concerns but also shows a lack of genuine engagement with the material.

Tip: If a particular phrase or sentence from the original is pivotal and cannot be reworded without losing its essence, use block quotes , quotation marks, and attribute the source.

Do not Inject your Personal Opinion

A summary should be an objective reflection of the source material. Introducing personal biases or interpretations can mislead readers.

Tip: Stick to the facts and arguments presented in the original content. If you find yourself writing “I think” or “In my opinion,” reevaluate the sentence.

Do not Omit Crucial Information

While a summary is meant to be concise, it shouldn’t be at the expense of vital details that are essential to understanding the original content’s core message.

Tip: Prioritise information. Always include the main idea and its primary supports. If you are unsure whether a detail is crucial, consider its impact on the overall message.

Examples of Summaries

Here are a few examples that will help you get a clearer view of how to write a summary.

Example 1: Summary of a News Article

Original Article: The article reports on the recent discovery of a rare species of frog in the Amazon rainforest. The frog, named the “Emerald Whisperer” due to its unique green hue and the soft chirping sounds it makes, was found by a team of researchers from the University of Texas. The discovery is significant as it offers insights into the biodiversity of the region, and the Emerald Whisperer might also play a pivotal role in understanding the ecosystem balance.

Summary: Researchers from the University of Texas have discovered a unique frog, termed the “Emerald Whisperer,” in the Amazon rainforest. This finding sheds light on the region’s biodiversity and underscores the importance of the frog in ecological studies.

Example 2: Summary of a Research Paper

Original Paper: In a study titled “The Impact of Urbanisation on Bee Populations,” researchers conducted a year-long observation on bee colonies in three urban areas and three rural areas. Using specific metrics like colony health, bee productivity, and population size, the study found that urban environments saw a 30% decline in bee populations compared to rural settings. The research attributes this decline to factors like pollution, reduced green spaces, and increased temperatures in urban areas.

Summary: A study analysing the effects of urbanisation on bee colonies found a significant 30% decrease in bee populations in urban settings compared to rural areas. The decline is linked to urban factors such as pollution, diminished greenery, and elevated temperatures.

Example 3: Summary of a Novel

Original Story: In the novel “Winds of Fate,” protagonist Clara is trapped in a timeless city where memories dictate reality. Throughout her journey, she encounters characters from her past, present, and imagined future. Battling her own perceptions and a menacing shadow figure, Clara seeks an elusive gateway to return to her real world. In the climax, she confronts the shadow, which turns out to be her own fear, and upon overcoming it, she finds her way back, realising that reality is subjective.

Summary: “Winds of Fate” follows Clara’s adventures in a surreal city shaped by memories. Confronting figures from various phases of her life and battling a symbolic shadow of her own fear, Clara eventually discovers that reality’s perception is malleable and subjective.

Frequently Asked Questions

How long is a summary.

A summary condenses a larger piece of content, capturing its main points and essence. It is usually one-fourth of the original content.

What is a summary?

A summary is a concise representation of a larger text or content, highlighting its main ideas and points. It distils complex information into a shorter form, allowing readers to quickly grasp the essence of the original material without delving into extensive details. Summaries prioritise clarity, brevity, and accuracy.

When should I write a summary?

Write a summary when you need to condense lengthy content for easier comprehension and recall. It’s useful in academic settings, professional reports, presentations, and research to highlight key points. Summaries aid in comparing multiple sources, preparing for discussions, and sharing essential details of extensive materials efficiently with others.

How can I summarise a source without plagiarising?

To summarise without plagiarising: Read the source thoroughly, understand its main ideas, and then write the summary in your own words. Avoid copying phrases verbatim. Attribute the source properly. Use paraphrasing techniques and cross-check your summary against the original to ensure distinctiveness while retaining accuracy. Always prioritise understanding over direct replication.

What is the difference between a summary and an abstract?

A summary condenses a text, capturing its main points from various content types like books, articles, or movies. An abstract, typically found in research papers and scientific articles, provides a brief overview of the study’s purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions. Both offer concise versions, but abstracts are more structured and specific.

Article Summaries, Reviews & Critiques

Writing an article summary.

Writing an article REVIEW
Writing an article CRITIQUE
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When writing a summary, the goal is to compose a concise and objective overview of the original article. The summary should focus only on the article's main ideas and important details that support those ideas.

Guidelines for summarizing an article:

State the main ideas.
Identify the most important details that support the main ideas.
Summarize in your own words.
Do not copy phrases or sentences unless they are being used as direct quotations.
Express the underlying meaning of the article, but do not critique or analyze.
The summary should be about one third the length of the original article.

Your summary should include:

Give an overview of the article, including the title and the name of the author.
Provide a thesis statement that states the main idea of the article.
Use the body paragraphs to explain the supporting ideas of your thesis statement.
One-paragraph summary - one sentence per supporting detail, providing 1-2 examples for each.
Multi-paragraph summary - one paragraph per supporting detail, providing 2-3 examples for each.
Start each paragraph with a topic sentence.
Use transitional words and phrases to connect ideas.
Summarize your thesis statement and the underlying meaning of the article.

Adapted from "Guidelines for Using In-Text Citations in a Summary (or Research Paper)" by Christine Bauer-Ramazani, 2020

Additional Resources

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How to Write a Summary - Guide & Examples (from Scribbr.com)

Writing a Summary (from The University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center)

Next: Writing an article REVIEW >>
Last Updated: Mar 15, 2024 9:32 AM
URL: https://libguides.randolph.edu/summaries

Summarizing

by jleemcga | Aug 18, 2023 | Resources for Students , Writing Resources

What is summarizing?

A summary of a text is a short overview of the main ideas written in your own words. While paraphrasing involves expressing specific ideas or details from a larger text in your own words, we generally summarize whole texts (whether it is an essay, article, chapter, book, et cetera). So, in order to ensure our summaries are not too wordy or confusing, we only cover the main ideas or argument presented within a whole text.

It’s best to summarize when you’re contextualizing a topic by letting your readers know about the current, ongoing conversation. By summarizing relevant sources, you’re providing your audience with an overview of what has already been said about this topic to help them understand how you’ll be adding to it. Summarizing material within your paper allows you to:

Condense key ideas or arguments relevant to your paper
Simplify the connection between a source and your own writing

How do I summarize?

To approach summarizing a source, try the following steps:

First make sure you carefully read the original source material to understand it. Like paraphrasing, summarizing effectively requires an accurate understanding of the source material
Identify all the main ideas from the text. It helps to look for the thesis or overall claim the author is presenting, as well as any important reasons they give to back their claim. Basically, you’re looking for why their argument is what it is
When you begin your summary, you might use a TAG line. This stands for Title, Author, Genre and allows you to formally introduce the text before you summarize its ideas. An example of a TAG line is: In the article “Stuck on the Streets of San Francisco in a Driverless Car”, Cade Metz reports … TAG lines add a helpful framework for the summary
Be sure not to include any specific examples, details, or evidence from the text. In summaries, we don’t describe the author’s examples (this would be like rewriting the entire text). Instead, we offer a map of the main idea and major points
Once you finish writing your summary, check to make sure your summary concisely and accurately captures the author’s main ideas
Remember to cite!

Examples of summarizing

Here is an example of a writer summarizing a main idea from the source Social Death: Racialized Rightlessness and the Criminalization of the Unprotected by Lisa Marie Cacho in their essay about a Salvadoran poet and her poetry’s relationship to reclaiming identity:

The ambiguity that is scored onto the bodies of Salvadoran migrants creates an impoverished sense of time and freedom by keeping these individuals indefinitely “temporary,” an ephemera that imposes a constant threat against safety and belonging for Salvadorans in the US. This weaponization of time also contributes to the condition of social death that Cacho describes as being prevalent for people of color, and particularly immigrants, in the US. According to Cacho, part of the criminalization of people of color within the US— not based on one’s behavior, but by their appearance— is heightened further by the notion of documentation. The rhetoric surrounding immigration in the US ultimately aims to invalidate those without documentation by using slurs like “illegal” (Cacho).

Note: The writer quotes some key terms, like “temporary” or “illegal” that the author emphasizes in the original source but describes the main ideas of the source in their own words. Note, too, that the summary focuses on the big-picture ideas of the source without mentioning examples that are too specific.

Things to keep in mind when summarizing

Some important things to remain mindful of while summarizing in your assignments are:

There is no specified length for writing summaries; they may be a few sentences or a few paragraphs depending on your writing project. For most academic essays, a summary of a few sentences to a short paragraph is appropriate. Concision is key
Do not include your opinions on the topic or the author’s ideas in your summary; your ideas are important, but summary is a genre of writing that requires objectivity
Do not include specific details or examples from the text—just focus on the big picture ideas

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What Is a Summary In Writing? (Explained + 40 Examples)

In my 20+ years of writing essays, research articles, short stories, blog posts, and books, I’ve summarized thousands of times.

Here is my summary answer about “What is a summary in writing?”

A summary in writing is the craft of distilling vast oceans of text into droplets of essence, a skill as crucial as it is challenging . At the core, summary writing is the distillation of essential points from a larger text, preserving the original message and intent. It balances brevity and clarity.

As contradictory as it might sound, there is a lot more to say about summary in writing.

The Essence of Summarization

Dense forest clearing into a path, symbolizing summary writing's clarity -- What Is a Summary in Writing?

Table of Contents

Over the years, I’ve learned that a successful summary does two things well—it provides clarity to the reader and respects the original work’s integrity.

Brevity and clarity are the twin pillars of a good summary.

My mantra, “As short as possible and as long as necessary,” and a favorite quote I align with—attributed to Einstein—”Things should be as simple as possible, but no simpler,” encapsulate my approach to summaries.

Achieving this balance is more an art than a science, a dance between being concise and being clear.

My guideline—keeping things as short as necessary but as long as needed—is a testament to this balancing act.

It’s about not just shrinking text size but ensuring every word counts, every sentence conveys meaning, and the essence of the text is untouched.

Types of Summaries

Below are some common types of summaries you need to know:

Descriptive Summaries: These provide an overview of the main points of a text, without offering analysis or interpretation. Descriptive summaries focus on summarizing the content in a clear and concise manner, making them useful for providing an overview or introduction to a topic.
Analytical Summaries: Analytical summaries go beyond simply recounting the main points of a text; they also analyze and evaluate the content. These summaries often delve into the author’s arguments, evidence, and conclusions, offering insights into the text’s significance and implications.
Informative Summaries: Informative summaries aim to convey the most important information from a text, often condensing complex ideas into simpler language. These summaries are commonly used in academic writing, where the goal is to provide readers with a clear understanding of the text’s main points.
Critical Summaries: Critical summaries involve not only summarizing the content of a text but also critiquing it. Writers may highlight strengths and weaknesses, identify biases or gaps in the argument, and offer their own perspective on the text’s merits or limitations.
Abstracts: Abstracts are concise summaries of longer documents, such as research papers or articles. They typically include a brief overview of the purpose, methodology, results, and conclusions of the study, allowing readers to quickly grasp the key findings and significance of the research.

Crafting the Perfect Summary

Summarizing is not a random act but a structured process.

It starts with a thorough reading, understanding the text’s main arguments, themes, and nuances.

Then, identifying the core elements that are indispensable to the message.

The challenge is to weave these elements into a cohesive, shorter narrative that stands on its own while reflecting the original text’s spirit.

Personal Insights and Techniques

Through trial and error, I’ve honed specific techniques that aid in summarization:

Highlighting Key Points: As I read, I highlight or note down crucial information and standout ideas.
Structuring the Summary: I create a rough outline, deciding the order of points based on their relevance and the original work’s flow.
Rewriting with Precision: This step involves rewriting the highlighted points in my own words, ensuring clarity and conciseness without diluting the message.

Template for Writing a Summary

Crafting a summary can be simplified by following a structured template.

While each summary may vary in complexity and content, this general template provides a framework to guide your summarization process:

Introduction: Begin by introducing the text and its author, providing necessary context for the summary. Identify the main topic or thesis of the text and briefly outline its purpose and significance.
Main Points: Summarize the main points or arguments presented in the text, focusing on the most essential information. Use concise language and avoid unnecessary details or tangents.
Supporting Details: Provide supporting evidence or examples to reinforce the main points of the text. Select key quotations, statistics, or anecdotes that best illustrate the author’s ideas.
Analysis: Analyze the text’s content, identifying any underlying themes, patterns, or implications. Consider the author’s purpose, audience, and rhetorical strategies, and evaluate the effectiveness of their argument or message.
Conclusion: Conclude the summary by summarizing the overall message or takeaway of the text. Reflect on the significance of the text’s content and its relevance to the broader context or field of study.

Here is a great video on how to summarize in writing:

The Role of Experience in Writing Summaries

Experience plays a critical role in mastering summarization.

In my life, I’ve learned that every word in a summary must earn its place. This discernment comes from practice and familiarity with a wide range of texts.

It comes down to what words and ideas to leave in and what to leave out.

Experience has taught me when to cut deeper and when to allow a bit more space for explanation or narrative, always guided by the principle of making things as simple as possible but no simpler.

Original Research and Testing

My curiosity led me to conduct a series of experiments comparing different summarization techniques across various text types.

I assessed the outcomes based on reader comprehension, retention, and feedback.

The Impact of Testing Different Techniques

My research involved comparing various summarization strategies to identify the most effective approaches for different text types.

This hands-on testing revealed that the audience’s needs significantly influence the summary’s structure and content.

For instance, summaries intended for academic audiences prioritized accuracy and conciseness, while those for a general audience often leaned towards engaging narratives and essential takeaways.

Findings and Insights

One key insight from this research was the importance of adaptability.

A one-size-fits-all approach to summarization doesn’t work.

Tailoring the summary to the text type and intended audience increases effectiveness and satisfaction. Additionally, iterative testing highlighted the value of feedback in refining summaries.

Incorporating reader feedback into the summarization process can significantly enhance clarity and relevance.

40 Examples of Summaries

In the spirit of showing rather than telling, let’s dissect examples of summaries from various genres.

For brevity’s sake, I’ll categorize these examples and provide insights into what makes each effective.

Research Articles/Essays

The Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Ecosystems: Summarizes key findings on the degradation of coastal ecosystems due to rising temperatures, including potential long-term effects and mitigation strategies.
Technological Advancements in Renewable Energy: Details the latest advancements in solar and wind energy technologies, highlighting efficiency improvements and the path toward sustainable energy solutions.
Behavioral Economics and Consumer Decision Making: Explores how psychological factors influence economic decisions, offering insights into improving marketing strategies and consumer education.
The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare: Discusses the integration of AI in diagnostics and patient care, emphasizing potential benefits and ethical considerations.
Educational Reforms and Student Outcomes: Analyzes the impact of recent educational reforms on student performance and equity, suggesting further research directions and policy implications.
Microplastics in Marine Environments: Examines the sources, distribution, and ecological impacts of microplastics, proposing methods for reduction and cleanup.
Mental Health in the Workplace: Investigates the correlation between workplace environment and employee mental health, recommending strategies for creating supportive work cultures.
Sustainable Agriculture Practices: Reviews sustainable farming techniques and their effectiveness in promoting biodiversity, soil health, and food security.
The Influence of Social Media on Political Discourse: Evaluates how social media platforms have transformed political communication, voter behavior, and public opinion formation.
Advances in Alzheimer’s Research: Presents recent breakthroughs in understanding the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease, with a focus on potential therapeutic targets and preventive measures.

Work Reports

Annual Marketing Strategy Review: Summarizes the performance of last year’s marketing campaigns, key metrics achieved, lessons learned, and strategies for the upcoming year.
Quarterly Sales Report: Details sales performance by region and product line, comparing results against targets, analyzing trends, and suggesting actionable insights for improvement.
Customer Satisfaction Survey Analysis: Compiles findings from recent customer surveys, highlighting areas of strength and opportunities for service enhancement.
IT Infrastructure Upgrade Project Summary: Outlines the objectives, progress, challenges, and next steps in the company’s IT infrastructure overhaul, including budget and timeline updates.
Employee Training Program Evaluation: Reviews the outcomes of the latest employee training initiatives, assessing effectiveness in skill development and impact on performance.
Competitor Analysis Report: Provides an overview of key competitors’ strategies, market positioning, product offerings, and potential threats or opportunities.
Supply Chain Optimization Study: Summarizes findings from a study on supply chain efficiencies, identifying bottlenecks and recommending solutions for cost reduction and speed.
Risk Management Assessment: Evaluates the company’s exposure to various risks, including financial, operational, and reputational risks, proposing mitigation strategies.
Sustainability Initiatives Progress Report: Tracks the progress of corporate sustainability efforts, including environmental impact reductions, community engagement, and sustainability goals.
New Product Development Update: Offers a snapshot of the development stages, challenges encountered, market research findings, and estimated launch timeline for a new product.
The Echo of the Ocean : A novel about a marine biologist uncovering a groundbreaking discovery about sea life communication, while navigating personal challenges and ethical dilemmas.
Futures Past : A science fiction saga exploring the consequences of time travel on human history, ethics, and personal identity through intertwined narratives.
Mind Over Matter : A non-fiction exploration of the power of the human mind to overcome physical limitations, featuring real-life stories of resilience and scientific insights.
The Last Emperor’s Secret – Historical fiction set in ancient China, revolving around a palace conspiracy, hidden treasures, and the quest for truth.
Green Horizons : An environmental science book discussing innovative solutions to climate change, from renewable energy to conservation strategies, aimed at a general audience.
Heartstrings : A collection of short stories delving into the complexities of human relationships, love, loss, and redemption, across diverse cultures and situations.
Digital Frontiers : Examines the digital revolution’s impact on society, economy, and individual lives, offering insights into future trends and ethical considerations.
Culinary Journeys : A travelogue that takes readers on a gastronomical tour around the world, exploring the history and stories behind iconic dishes and ingredients.
The Art of Innovation : A guide to fostering creativity and innovation in the workplace, with case studies from leading companies and practical tips for teams.
Voices of the Forest : A fantasy novel featuring a young hero’s adventure in a mystical forest, battling dark forces to save their homeland with the help of enchanted creatures.

Short Stories

The Last Light : A poignant tale about a lighthouse keeper’s final night before the automation of his lighthouse, reflecting on the changes and constants in life.
Crossroads : Explores the moment a young man stands at a crossroad, literal and metaphorical, contemplating the diverging paths of his future.
Echoes of War : Follows a veteran’s struggle with returning to civilian life, haunted by memories of the battlefield, and his journey towards healing.
A Stitch in Time : A whimsical story about a seamstress who discovers her sewing machine can repair more than just clothes, mending broken hearts and dreams.
The Glass Forest : Details an explorer’s discovery of a mysterious forest where trees are made of glass, symbolizing beauty and fragility.
Shadows on the Moon : A science fiction piece about a colony on the moon dealing with the psychological effects of living in perpetual darkness and light.
Invisible Ties : Explores the unseen connections between strangers on a crowded subway, each carrying their own stories and struggles.
The Color of Autumn : Captures a painter’s attempt to paint the perfect autumn scene, reflecting on the impermanence of life and the enduring beauty of nature.
Whispers in the Wind : Tells the story of a small village where the wind carries voices from the past, and a young girl learns the history of her ancestors.
Ripples : A narrative about the impact of a single act of kindness, following its ripple effects through the lives of various people in a community.

The 5 Biggest Mistakes Writers Make When Summarizing

Summarizing is an art, but like any craft, it’s prone to pitfalls.

Here are the five most common mistakes writers make when summarizing, along with tips on how to avoid them.

Summarizing may seem straightforward, but it’s deceptively complex.

One of the biggest mistakes writers make is oversimplifying or overcomplicating the summary, leading to confusion or loss of crucial information.

Another common error is failing to capture the essence of the original text, resulting in a summary that misses the mark.

Additionally, inadequate understanding of the audience can lead to summaries that are either too technical or too simplistic for the intended readership. Lastly, neglecting to cite sources or provide proper attribution in summaries can result in accusations of plagiarism or intellectual dishonesty.

The 5 Biggest Mistakes

Oversimplifying or Overcomplicating: Striking the right balance between brevity and clarity is key.
Missing the Essence: Ensure the summary captures the core message and key points of the original text.
Audience Misalignment: Tailor the summary to the audience’s knowledge level and interests.
Lack of Attribution: Always cite sources and provide proper credit for ideas and information.
Ignoring Structure and Flow: A well-structured summary enhances readability and comprehension.

Final Thoughts: What Is a Summary In Writing?

Summarization is more than a writing skill—it’s a critical thinking exercise that challenges you to understand deeply, analyze critically, and communicate effectively.

In my two decades of writing, I’ve seen firsthand how a well-crafted summary can open doors to understanding, make knowledge more accessible, and bridge the gap between complex ideas and a broader audience.

How to Write a Summary

Last Updated: July 26, 2024 Approved

Reviewing the Piece

Writing the summary in your own words, revising your draft into a coherent summary, sample summaries, expert q&a.

This article was co-authored by Richard Perkins . Richard Perkins is a Writing Coach, Academic English Coordinator, and the Founder of PLC Learning Center. With over 24 years of education experience, he gives teachers tools to teach writing to students and works with elementary to university level students to become proficient, confident writers. Richard is a fellow at the National Writing Project. As a teacher leader and consultant at California State University Long Beach's Global Education Project, Mr. Perkins creates and presents teacher workshops that integrate the U.N.'s 17 Sustainable Development Goals in the K-12 curriculum. He holds a BA in Communications and TV from The University of Southern California and an MEd from California State University Dominguez Hills. wikiHow marks an article as reader-approved once it receives enough positive feedback. This article received 26 testimonials and 89% of readers who voted found it helpful, earning it our reader-approved status. This article has been viewed 1,834,941 times.

Writing a summary is a great way to process the information you read, whether it’s an article or a book. If you’re assigned a summary in school, the best way to approach it is by reviewing the piece you’re summarizing. Read it thoroughly and take notes on the major points you want to include in your summary. When you get to writing your summary, rely on your memory first to make sure the summary is in your own words. Then, revise it to ensure that your writing is clear and the grammar, punctuation, and spelling are all perfect.

How do you write a good summary?

Start by reviewing the piece and identifying what the major points of it are. Highlight the author and the name of their work first, and then try to recall all of the major plot points from memory. Tighten up your draft by ensuring that your content is in chronological order, and by checking for errors or repetition.

The author might also state their thesis more plainly by saying something like "my argument is...." or I believe...
In a fiction piece, the author will more likely emphasize themes. So if you notice that love - discussions or descriptions of it, for example - come up a lot, one of the main points of the piece is probably love.

Step 3 Reread the piece, taking notes on the major points of it.

To put something in your own words, write it down as if you were explaining or describing it to a friend. In that case, you wouldn't just read what the author wrote. Do the same when you're writing down the major points in your own words.

Step 4 Don't focus on the evidence that the author uses to support those points.

For fiction pieces, this means avoiding rewriting every single thing that happens in the piece. Focus instead on the major plot points and the main motivator for those points. Don't include everything that happens to the character along the way.

Step 1 Start with the source’s information.

For example, you can start with something like “George Shaw’s '‘Pygmalion’' is a play that addresses issues of class and culture in early twentieth-century England.”

Step 2 Work from memory to write the main point of each section.

If you absolutely must use the original author’s words, put them in quotation marks. This tells your reader those words aren’t yours. Not doing this is academic plagiarism, and it can get you in a lot of trouble.
Make sure you format the quote correctly!

Step 3 Present the material using the author’s point of view.

For example, you might think that Hamlet spends a lot of time thinking and not a lot of time acting. You can say something like, "Hamlet is a man of thought, rather than action," instead of saying, "Why doesn't Hamlet do something once in a while?"

Step 4 Use language appropriate to a summary.

In fiction pieces, you can say something like "Shakespeare's Hamlet then spends a lot of time brooding on the castle ramparts." This tells your reader you're talking about Shakespeare's play, not inventing your own story.

Step 1 Reread the draft you wrote from memory against your notes.

For example, in a summary of an article about the cause of the American Revolution, you might have a paragraph that summarizes the author's arguments about taxes, and another about religious freedom. You can say something like, "Although some colonists believed that taxes should entitle them to representation in Parliament, the author also argues that other colonists supported the Revolution because they believed they were entitled to representation in heaven on their own terms."

Step 5 Check for grammatical and spelling errors.

Don't use spell-checker for spelling errors. It will catch if you spell something wrong, but not if you use the wrong spelling of a word. For example, it won't catch that you used "there" when you meant "their."

Generally, a summary should be around one quarter the length of the original piece. So if the original piece is 4 pages long, your summary should be no more than 1 page. [13] X Research source

Step 7 Ask someone else to read your work.

Not only should they be comparing your work for accuracy, ask them to read it for flow and summation. They should be able understand what happened in the article or story by reading your summary alone. Don't hesitate to ask for criticism; then weigh those criticisms and make valid changes.

If you notice an author has made the same point multiple times, though, it’s a good indicator that this is an important point, and it should definitely be in your summary. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

Tips from our Readers

Start your summary out with where the story takes place, or something that is on the first page or in the first chapter.
Look at the chapter title of the book.This might help summarize the chapter as you start working on your summary.

↑ http://teacher.scholastic.com/reading/bestpractices/comprehension/authorsmainidea.pdf
↑ Richard Perkins. Writing Coach & Academic English Coordinator. Expert Interview. 1 September 2021.
↑ http://utminers.utep.edu/omwilliamson/engl0310/summaryhints.htm
↑ https://public.wsu.edu/~mejia/Summary.htm
↑ http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/rwc/handouts/the-writing-process-1/invention/Guidelines-for-Writing-a-Summary

About This Article

Before you write a summary, read the piece you’re summarizing, then make notes on what you think the main point and major supporting arguments are. When you’re ready to draft your summary, start with the author and title, then use your own words to write what you think the author’s main point is in each section. Be sure to focus on what the author thinks and feels rather than what you do! Finally, reread your summary and check it for good spelling, punctuation, and grammar. For more suggestions from our reviewer about polishing your summary and improving transitions, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples

How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples

Published on 25 September 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 12 May 2023.

Summarising , or writing a summary, means giving a concise overview of a text’s main points in your own words. A summary is always much shorter than the original text.

There are five key steps that can help you to write a summary:

Read the text
Break it down into sections
Identify the key points in each section
Write the summary
Check the summary against the article

Writing a summary does not involve critiquing or analysing the source. You should simply provide an accurate account of the most important information and ideas (without copying any text from the original).

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When to write a summary, step 1: read the text, step 2: break the text down into sections, step 3: identify the key points in each section, step 4: write the summary, step 5: check the summary against the article, frequently asked questions.

There are many situations in which you might have to summarise an article or other source:

As a stand-alone assignment to show you’ve understood the material
To keep notes that will help you remember what you’ve read
To give an overview of other researchers’ work in a literature review

When you’re writing an academic text like an essay , research paper , or dissertation , you’ll integrate sources in a variety of ways. You might use a brief quote to support your point, or paraphrase a few sentences or paragraphs.

But it’s often appropriate to summarize a whole article or chapter if it is especially relevant to your own research, or to provide an overview of a source before you analyse or critique it.

In any case, the goal of summarising is to give your reader a clear understanding of the original source. Follow the five steps outlined below to write a good summary.

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You should read the article more than once to make sure you’ve thoroughly understood it. It’s often effective to read in three stages:

Scan the article quickly to get a sense of its topic and overall shape.
Read the article carefully, highlighting important points and taking notes as you read.
Skim the article again to confirm you’ve understood the key points, and reread any particularly important or difficult passages.

There are some tricks you can use to identify the key points as you read:

Start by reading the abstract . This already contains the author’s own summary of their work, and it tells you what to expect from the article.
Pay attention to headings and subheadings . These should give you a good sense of what each part is about.
Read the introduction and the conclusion together and compare them: What did the author set out to do, and what was the outcome?

To make the text more manageable and understand its sub-points, break it down into smaller sections.

If the text is a scientific paper that follows a standard empirical structure, it is probably already organised into clearly marked sections, usually including an introduction, methods, results, and discussion.

Other types of articles may not be explicitly divided into sections. But most articles and essays will be structured around a series of sub-points or themes.

Now it’s time go through each section and pick out its most important points. What does your reader need to know to understand the overall argument or conclusion of the article?

Keep in mind that a summary does not involve paraphrasing every single paragraph of the article. Your goal is to extract the essential points, leaving out anything that can be considered background information or supplementary detail.

In a scientific article, there are some easy questions you can ask to identify the key points in each part.

Key points of a scientific article
Introduction	or problem was addressed? formulated?
Methods
Results
Discussion/conclusion

If the article takes a different form, you might have to think more carefully about what points are most important for the reader to understand its argument.

In that case, pay particular attention to the thesis statement —the central claim that the author wants us to accept, which usually appears in the introduction—and the topic sentences that signal the main idea of each paragraph.

Now that you know the key points that the article aims to communicate, you need to put them in your own words.

To avoid plagiarism and show you’ve understood the article, it’s essential to properly paraphrase the author’s ideas. Do not copy and paste parts of the article, not even just a sentence or two.

The best way to do this is to put the article aside and write out your own understanding of the author’s key points.

Examples of article summaries

Let’s take a look at an example. Below, we summarise this article , which scientifically investigates the old saying ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor away’.

An article summary like the above would be appropriate for a stand-alone summary assignment. However, you’ll often want to give an even more concise summary of an article.

For example, in a literature review or research paper, you may want to briefly summarize this study as part of a wider discussion of various sources. In this case, we can boil our summary down even further to include only the most relevant information.

Citing the source you’re summarizing

When including a summary as part of a larger text, it’s essential to properly cite the source you’re summarizing. The exact format depends on your citation style , but it usually includes an in-text citation and a full reference at the end of your paper.

You can easily create your citations and references in APA or MLA using our free citation generators.

APA Citation Generator MLA Citation Generator

Finally, read through the article once more to ensure that:

You’ve accurately represented the author’s work
You haven’t missed any essential information
The phrasing is not too similar to any sentences in the original.

If you’re summarising many articles as part of your own work, it may be a good idea to use a plagiarism checker to double-check that your text is completely original and properly cited. Just be sure to use one that’s safe and reliable.

A summary is a short overview of the main points of an article or other source, written entirely in your own words.

Save yourself some time with the free summariser.

A summary is always much shorter than the original text. The length of a summary can range from just a few sentences to several paragraphs; it depends on the length of the article you’re summarising, and on the purpose of the summary.

With the summariser tool you can easily adjust the length of your summary.

You might have to write a summary of a source:

As a stand-alone assignment to prove you understand the material
For your own use, to keep notes on your reading
To provide an overview of other researchers’ work in a literature review
In a paper , to summarise or introduce a relevant study

To avoid plagiarism when summarising an article or other source, follow these two rules:

Write the summary entirely in your own words by paraphrasing the author’s ideas.
Reference the source with an in-text citation and a full reference so your reader can easily find the original text.

An abstract concisely explains all the key points of an academic text such as a thesis , dissertation or journal article. It should summarise the whole text, not just introduce it.

An abstract is a type of summary , but summaries are also written elsewhere in academic writing . For example, you might summarise a source in a paper , in a literature review , or as a standalone assignment.

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McCombes, S. (2023, May 12). How to Write a Summary | Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 16 September 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/working-sources/how-to-write-a-summary/

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How to write an essay outline | Guidelines & examples

How to Write an Essay Outline | Guidelines & Examples

Published on August 14, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

An essay outline is a way of planning the structure of your essay before you start writing. It involves writing quick summary sentences or phrases for every point you will cover in each paragraph , giving you a picture of how your argument will unfold.

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Organizing your material, presentation of the outline, examples of essay outlines, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay outlines.

At the stage where you’re writing an essay outline, your ideas are probably still not fully formed. You should know your topic and have already done some preliminary research to find relevant sources , but now you need to shape your ideas into a structured argument.

Creating categories

Look over any information, quotes and ideas you’ve noted down from your research and consider the central point you want to make in the essay—this will be the basis of your thesis statement . Once you have an idea of your overall argument, you can begin to organize your material in a way that serves that argument.

Try to arrange your material into categories related to different aspects of your argument. If you’re writing about a literary text, you might group your ideas into themes; in a history essay, it might be several key trends or turning points from the period you’re discussing.

Three main themes or subjects is a common structure for essays. Depending on the length of the essay, you could split the themes into three body paragraphs, or three longer sections with several paragraphs covering each theme.

As you create the outline, look critically at your categories and points: Are any of them irrelevant or redundant? Make sure every topic you cover is clearly related to your thesis statement.

Order of information

When you have your material organized into several categories, consider what order they should appear in.

Your essay will always begin and end with an introduction and conclusion , but the organization of the body is up to you.

Consider these questions to order your material:

Is there an obvious starting point for your argument?
Is there one subject that provides an easy transition into another?
Do some points need to be set up by discussing other points first?

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Within each paragraph, you’ll discuss a single idea related to your overall topic or argument, using several points of evidence or analysis to do so.

In your outline, you present these points as a few short numbered sentences or phrases.They can be split into sub-points when more detail is needed.

The template below shows how you might structure an outline for a five-paragraph essay.

Thesis statement
First piece of evidence
Second piece of evidence
Summary/synthesis
Importance of topic
Strong closing statement

You can choose whether to write your outline in full sentences or short phrases. Be consistent in your choice; don’t randomly write some points as full sentences and others as short phrases.

Examples of outlines for different types of essays are presented below: an argumentative, expository, and literary analysis essay.

Argumentative essay outline

This outline is for a short argumentative essay evaluating the internet’s impact on education. It uses short phrases to summarize each point.

Its body is split into three paragraphs, each presenting arguments about a different aspect of the internet’s effects on education.

Importance of the internet
Concerns about internet use
Thesis statement: Internet use a net positive
Data exploring this effect
Analysis indicating it is overstated
Students’ reading levels over time
Why this data is questionable
Video media
Interactive media
Speed and simplicity of online research
Questions about reliability (transitioning into next topic)
Evidence indicating its ubiquity
Claims that it discourages engagement with academic writing
Evidence that Wikipedia warns students not to cite it
Argument that it introduces students to citation
Summary of key points
Value of digital education for students
Need for optimism to embrace advantages of the internet

Expository essay outline

This is the outline for an expository essay describing how the invention of the printing press affected life and politics in Europe.

The paragraphs are still summarized in short phrases here, but individual points are described with full sentences.

Claim that the printing press marks the end of the Middle Ages.
Provide background on the low levels of literacy before the printing press.
Present the thesis statement: The invention of the printing press increased circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.
Discuss the very high levels of illiteracy in medieval Europe.
Describe how literacy and thus knowledge and education were mainly the domain of religious and political elites.
Indicate how this discouraged political and religious change.
Describe the invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg.
Show the implications of the new technology for book production.
Describe the rapid spread of the technology and the printing of the Gutenberg Bible.
Link to the Reformation.
Discuss the trend for translating the Bible into vernacular languages during the years following the printing press’s invention.
Describe Luther’s own translation of the Bible during the Reformation.
Sketch out the large-scale effects the Reformation would have on religion and politics.
Summarize the history described.
Stress the significance of the printing press to the events of this period.

Literary analysis essay outline

The literary analysis essay outlined below discusses the role of theater in Jane Austen’s novel Mansfield Park .

The body of the essay is divided into three different themes, each of which is explored through examples from the book.

Describe the theatricality of Austen’s works
Outline the role theater plays in Mansfield Park
Introduce the research question : How does Austen use theater to express the characters’ morality in Mansfield Park ?
Discuss Austen’s depiction of the performance at the end of the first volume
Discuss how Sir Bertram reacts to the acting scheme
Introduce Austen’s use of stage direction–like details during dialogue
Explore how these are deployed to show the characters’ self-absorption
Discuss Austen’s description of Maria and Julia’s relationship as polite but affectionless
Compare Mrs. Norris’s self-conceit as charitable despite her idleness
Summarize the three themes: The acting scheme, stage directions, and the performance of morals
Answer the research question
Indicate areas for further study

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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You will sometimes be asked to hand in an essay outline before you start writing your essay . Your supervisor wants to see that you have a clear idea of your structure so that writing will go smoothly.

Even when you do not have to hand it in, writing an essay outline is an important part of the writing process . It’s a good idea to write one (as informally as you like) to clarify your structure for yourself whenever you are working on an essay.

If you have to hand in your essay outline , you may be given specific guidelines stating whether you have to use full sentences. If you’re not sure, ask your supervisor.

When writing an essay outline for yourself, the choice is yours. Some students find it helpful to write out their ideas in full sentences, while others prefer to summarize them in short phrases.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

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If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, July 23). How to Write an Essay Outline | Guidelines & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 16, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-essay/essay-outline/

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How to Write a Summary (With Examples)

An Introduction to Punctuation

Example Summaries of Famous Works

How to compose a summary, characteristics of a summary, a checklist for evaluating summaries, the lighter side of summaries.

Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
B.A., English, State University of New York

A summary is a shortened version of a text that highlights its key points and serves as a concise representation of the original content. Writing a good summary enables readers to grasp a piece's main ideas without reading the entire material, as the examples below demonstrate.

Summaries are commonly used in academic and professional settings to help communicate and examine material. They may also refer to an abstract, precis , or synopsis , though they each have slightly varying meanings and applications. The word "summary" comes from the Latin, " sum ."

A Summary of the Short Story 'Miss Brill' by Katherine Mansfield

"' Miss Brill ' is the story of an old woman told brilliantly and realistically, balancing thoughts and emotions that sustain her late solitary life amidst all the bustle of modern life. Miss Brill is a regular visitor on Sundays to the Jardins Publiques (the Public Gardens) of a small French suburb where she sits and watches all sorts of people come and go. She listens to the band playing, loves to watch people and guess what keeps them going, and enjoys contemplating the world as a great stage upon which actors perform. She finds herself to be another actor among the so many she sees, or at least herself as 'part of the performance after all.' One Sunday Miss Brill puts on her fur and goes to the Public Gardens as usual. The evening ends with her sudden realization that she is old and lonely, a realization brought to her by a conversation she overhears between a boy and a girl, presumably lovers, who comment on her unwelcome presence in their vicinity. Miss Brill is sad and depressed as she returns home, not stopping by as usual to buy her Sunday delicacy, a slice of honey-cake. She retires to her dark room, puts the fur back into the box and imagines that she has heard something cry." –K. Narayana Chandran

A Summary of Shakespeare's 'Hamlet'

According to the co-authors of "Rhetoric: Discovery and Change," the act of summarizing is much like stating the plot of a play.

Here is their summary of Shakespeare's " Hamlet ":

It's the story of a young prince of Denmark who discovers that his uncle and his mother have killed his father, the former king. He plots to get revenge, but in his obsession with revenge he drives his sweetheart to madness and suicide, kills her innocent father, and in the final scene poisons and is poisoned by her brother in a duel, causes his mother's death, and kills the guilty king, his uncle.

Note how this summary contains several dramatic elements: a variety of characters , a scene, instruments, and actions.

The primary purpose of a summary is to give an accurate, objective representation of what a work says. As a general rule, you should refrain from including your own beliefs or interpretations, according to Paul Clee and Violeta Clee, who co-authored "American Dream."

"Summarizing condenses in your own words the main points in a passage:

Reread the passage, jotting down a few keywords.
State the main point in your own words and be objective. Don't mix your reactions with the summary.
Check your summary against the original, making sure that you use quotation marks around any exact phrases that you borrow."

–Randall VanderMey, et al., "The College Writer"

"Here... is a general procedure you can use [for composing a summary]:

Step 1: Read the text for its main points. Step 2: Reread carefully and make a descriptive outline . Step 3: Write out the text's thesis or main point. Step 4: Identify the text's major divisions or chunks. Each division develops one of the stages needed to make the whole main point. Step 5: Try summarizing each part in one or two sentences. Step 6: Now combine your summaries of the parts into a coherent whole, creating a condensed version of the text's main ideas in your own words."

–John C. Bean, Virginia Chappell, and Alice M. Gillam, "Reading Rhetorically"

"The purpose of a summary is to give a reader a condensed and objective account of the main ideas and features of a text. Usually, a summary has between one and three paragraphs or 100 to 300 words, depending on the length and complexity of the original essay and the intended audience and purpose. Typically, a summary will do the following:

Cite the author and title of the text. In some cases, the place of publication or the context for the essay may also be included.
Indicate the main ideas of the text. Accurately representing the main ideas (while omitting the less important details) is the major goal of the summary.
Use direct quotations of keywords, phrases, or sentences. Quote the text directly for a few key ideas; paraphrase the other important ideas (that is, express the ideas in your own words).
Include author tags. ('According to Ehrenreich' or 'as Ehrenreich explains') to remind the reader that you are summarizing the author and the text, not giving your own ideas.
Avoid summarizing specific examples or data unless they help illustrate the thesis or main idea of the text.
Report the main ideas as objectively as possible. Do not include your reactions; save them for your response."

–Stephen Reid, "The Prentice Hall Guide for Writers"

"Good summaries must be fair, balanced, accurate, and complete. This checklist of questions will help you evaluate drafts of a summary:

Is the summary economical and precise?
Is the summary neutral in its representation of the original author's ideas, omitting the writer's own opinions?
Does the summary reflect the proportionate coverage given various points in the original text?
Are the original author's ideas expressed in the summary writer's own words?
Does the summary use attributive tags (such as 'Weston argues') to remind readers whose ideas are being presented?
Does the summary quote sparingly (usually only key ideas or phrases that cannot be said precisely except in the original author's own words)?
Will the summary stand alone as a unified and coherent piece of writing?
Is the original source cited so that readers can locate it?"

–John C. Bean

"Here are some... famous works of literature that could easily have been summarized in a few words:

'Moby-Dick': Don't mess around with large whales, because they symbolize nature and will kill you.
'A Tale of Two Cities': French people are crazy.
Every poem ever written: Poets are extremely sensitive.

Think of all the valuable hours we would save if authors got right to the point this way. We'd all have more time for more important activities, such as reading newspaper columns."

–Dave Barry, "Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book"

"To summarize: It is a well-known fact that those people who must want to rule people are, ipso facto, those least suited to do it. To summarize the summary: Anyone who is capable of getting themselves made President should on no account be allowed to do the job. To summarize the summary of the summary: people are a problem."

–Douglas Adams, "The Restaurant at the End of the Universe"

K. Narayana Chandran, Texts and Their Worlds II. Foundation Books, 2005

Richard E. Young, Alton L. Becker, and Kenneth L. Pike, Rhetoric: Discovery and Change. Harcourt, 1970

Paul Clee and Violeta Clee, American Dreams, 1999

Randall VanderMey, et al., The College Writer, Houghton, 2007

John C. Bean, Virginia Chappell, and Alice M. Gillam Reading Rhetorically. Pearson Education, 2004

Stephen Reid, The Prentice Hall Guide for Writers, 2003

Dave Barry, Bad Habits: A 100% Fact-Free Book. Doubleday, 1985

Douglas Adams, The Restaurant at the End of the Universe. Pan Books, 1980

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Video Transcripts: Summarizing Sources: Definition and Examples of Summary

Academic Paragraphs: Examples of the MEAL Plan
Academic Paragraphs: Appropriate Use of Explicit Transitions
Academic Paragraphs: Types of Transitions Part 1: Transitions Between Paragraphs
Academic Paragraphs: Types of Transitions Part 2: Transitions Within Paragraphs
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Using a Grammar Revision Journal
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Write in a Linear Structure
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Cite All Ideas That Come From Other Sources
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Developing Your Arguments With Evidence and Your Own Analysis
Academic Writing for Multilingual Students: Follow Faculty Expectations
Accessing Modules: Registered or Returning Users
Accessing Modules: Saving a Module Certificate
Analyzing & Synthesizing Sources: Analysis in Paragraphs
Analyzing & Synthesizing Sources: Synthesis: Definition and Examples
Analyzing & Synthesizing Sources: Synthesis in Paragraphs
APA Formatting & Style: Latin Abbreviations
APA Formatting & Style: Shortening Citations With et al.
APA Formatting & Style: Capitalization
APA Formatting & Style: Numbers
APA Formatting & Style: Pronouns (Point of View)
APA Formatting & Style: Serial Comma
APA Formatting & Style: Lists
APA Formatting & Style: Verb Tense
Commonly Cited Sources: Finding DOIs for Journal Article Reference Entries
Commonly Cited Sources: Journal Article With URL
Commonly Cited Sources: Book Reference Entries
Commonly Cited Sources: Webpage Reference Entry
Course Paper Template: A Tour of the Template
Crash Course in Scholarly Writing
Crash Course in the Writing Process
Crash Course in Punctuation for Scholarly Writing
Engaging Writing: Overview of Tools for Engaging Readers
Engaging Writing: Tool 1--Syntax
Engaging Writing: Tool 2--Sentence Structure
Engaging Writing: Tool 3--Punctuation
Engaging Writing: Avoiding Wordiness and Redundancy
Engaging Writing: Avoiding Casual Language
Engaging Writing: Incorporating Transitions
Engaging Writing: Examples of Incorporating Transitions
Grammar for Academic Writers: Advanced Subject–Verb Agreement
Grammar for Academic Writers: Verb Tense Consistency
Mastering the Mechanics: Pronoun Tips #1 and #2
Mastering the Mechanics: Pronoun Tip #3
Mastering the Mechanics: Pronoun Tip #4
Mastering the Mechanics: Nouns
Mastering the Mechanics: Introduction to Verbs
Mastering the Mechanics: Articles
Mastering the Mechanics: Modifiers
Mastering the Mechanics: Proofreading for Grammar
Mastering the Mechanics: Punctuation as Symbols
Mastering the Mechanics: Semicolons
Mastering the Mechanics: Common Verb Errors
Mastering the Mechanics: Helping Verbs
Mastering the Mechanics: Past Tense
Mastering the Mechanics: Present Tense
Mastering the Mechanics: Future Tense
Mastering the Mechanics: Apostrophes
Mastering the Mechanics: Colons
Mastering the Mechanics: Commas
Mastering the Mechanics: Periods
Methods to the Madness: Authors in a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Publication Date in a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Title in a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Publication Information in a Reference List Entry
Methods to the Madness: Creating a Citation From a Reference Entry
Methods to the Madness: Why Do Writers Use Citation Styles?
Methods to the Madness: Why Does Walden Use APA Style?
Module Preview: Avoiding Passive Plagiarism
Module Preview: Basic Citation Formatting
Module Preview: Book Reference Entries
Module Preview: Essential Components and Purpose of APA Reference Entries
Module Preview: Basic Citation Frequency
Module Preview: Journal Article Reference Entries
Module Preview: Web Page Reference Entries
Module Preview: Introduction to APA Style
Module Preview: Avoiding Bias
Module Preview: Clarifying the Actor
Module Preview: Emphasis and Specification
Module Preview: Using and Formatting APA Headings
Module Preview: Listing the Facts
Module Preview: Introduction to Paragraph Development
Module Preview: Transitions Within and Between Paragraphs
Module Preview: Introduction to Scholarly Writing
myPASS: Navigating myPASS
myPASS: Making a Paper Review Appointment
OLD myPASS: Making an Appointment
myPASS: Joining a Waiting List
myPASS: Attaching a File
myPASS: Attaching a File at a Later Time
myPASS: Updating an Appointment Form
myPASS: Download Your Reviewed Paper From the Writing Center
myPASS: Canceling an Appointment
Nontraditional Sources: Course Videos
Nontraditional Sources: Textual Course Materials
Nontraditional Sources: Citing Yourself
Nontraditional Sources: Works With the Same Author and Year
Nontraditional Sources: Secondary Sources
Nontraditional Sources: Ebooks
Nontraditional Sources: Chapter in an Edited Book
Nontraditional Sources: Discussion Board Posts
Nontraditional Sources: Dissertations or Theses
Nontraditional Sources: Citing Sources With the Same Author and Year
Nontraditional Sources: Personal Communications
Nontraditional Sources: Basic Entry for Nontraditional Sources
Paper Reviews: Insider Tips for Writing Center Paper Review Appointments
Paraphrasing Strategies: Comparing Paraphrasing and Quoting
Paraphrasing Strategies: Paraphrasing Strategies
Paraphrasing Strategies: Paraphrasing Example
Paraphrasing Strategies: Paraphrasing Process Demonstration
Structuring Sentences: Misplaced Modifiers
Structuring Sentences: Dangling Modifiers
Structuring Sentences: Types of Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Simple Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Compound Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Complex Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Combining Sentences
Common Error: Unclear Subjects
Structuring Sentences: Common Error--Run-On Sentences
Structuring Sentences: Common Error--Fragments
Structuring Sentences: Common Error--Subject–Verb Agreement
Common Error: Parallel Structure

Summarizing Sources: Definition and Examples of Summary

Summarizing Sources: Incorporating Citations Into Summaries
Template Demonstration: Correcting Common Errors in the Template Table of Contents
Template Demonstration: Updating the Template List of Tables
Using & Crediting Sources: Why We Cite: Examples
Using & Crediting Sources: How We Cite
Using & Crediting Sources: What We Cite
Using & Crediting Sources: How Often We Cite Sources
Using & Crediting Sources: How Often We Cite Sources: Examples
Using & Crediting Sources: Citing Paraphrases
Using & Crediting Sources: Citing Quotations
Using & Crediting Sources: Publication Year Quick Tip
Using Quotations: Integrating Quotations in the Middle of a Sentence
Using Quotations: When to Use a Quotation
Using Quotations: Shortening Quotations With Ellipses
Using Quotations: How to Cite a Quotation
Welcome to the Writing Center, Undergraduate Students!
Writing Center Website Tour
Website Tour: For Multilingual Students
Welcome to the Writing Center, Master’s Students!
Welcome to the Writing Center: Coursework to Capstone: Writing Center Support for Doctoral Students
Writing Tools: Using a Dictionary for Grammatical Accuracy: Countability, Transitivity, and Collocations
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Grammar Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Applying Feedback Principles
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Paragraph Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Thesis Statement Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Transition Feedback
Applying Feedback to Your Paper: Word Choice Feedback
Prewriting Demonstrations: Mindmapping
Prewriting Demonstrations: Outlining
Form and Style: Welcome, Doctoral Capstone Students!
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Darci Harland
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Catherine Kelly
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Laurel Walsh
Faculty Voices: Faculty Introduction: Dr. Kim Critchlow
Faculty Voices: What Is Academic Integrity?
Faculty Voices: Why Is Academic Integrity Important?
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Inexperience Parapharsing
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Using Resources
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Time Management
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Critical Reading Strategies
Faculty Voices: What Causes and Can Prevent Plagiarism? Insufficient Understanding
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Kim Critchlow
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Gregory Campbell
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Catherine Kelly, Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee, and Dr. Kim Critchlow
Faculty Voices: How Does Academic Integrity Relate to Students' Professional Lives? With Dr. Darci Harland
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Plagiarism Examples: Insufficient Citation Frequency
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Plagiarism Examples: Insufficient Paraphrasing
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Types of Plagiarism: Overt Plagiarism
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Types of Plagiarism: Passive Plagiarism
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: Types of Plagiarism: Self-Plagiarism
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: What Is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism Detection & Revision Skills: A Writing Process for Avoiding Plagiarism
Writing Process: Writing Motivation:
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Catherine Kelly
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Gregory Campbell
Writing for Social Change: How Are Writing and Social Change Connected?
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Laurel Walsh
Writing for Social Change: With Dr. Allyson Wattley Gee
Transitioning Rrom APA 6 to APA 7 With the Walden Writing Center
Previous Page: Summarizing Sources: The Process of Summarizing
Next Page: Summarizing Sources: Incorporating Citations Into Summaries

Last updated 1/5/2017

Visual: The screen shows the Walden University Writing Center logo along with a pencil and notebook. “Walden University Writing Center.” “Your writing, grammar, and APA experts” appears in center of screen. The background changes to the title of the video with books in the background.

Audio: Guitar music plays.

Visual: Slide changes to the title “Summarizing Sources” and the following:

Central thesis, argument, or purpose
Main ideas, findings, or conclusions

Definition : An articulation of a source’s basic argument and main points.

Audio: Summary, in its simplest form, is an articulation of a source’s basic argument and main points. What this means is that it’s broad in nature. A summary doesn’t focus on one idea or fact from a source. Instead, it gives an overview of the entire source. This overview should include the source’s central thesis, argument, or purpose, as well as the source’s main ideas, findings, or conclusions. Think of this as a high-level overview of the source. Finally, you may also include the context in which the article was written. For example, you might note if an article was written in response to a government policy or refuting another study.

Visual: The slide changes to the following: What makes a strong summary?

Balancing accuracy with concision
High-level overview of main points
Ensuring your voice as the author

Audio: There are a few things you can do to write a strong summary. First, your summary should be accurate. You need to make sure you are accurately representing the source and the author’s ideas in your summary. Doing so can often be a balancing act; you don’t want to include too many details, but you do need to include enough information so that you can accurately convey what the source said to your reader. Think about your summary in this way: If you were giving a colleague the gist of the article, what main points would you include to ensure he or she understood the overall points of the source?

Next, your summary should be concise. Because a summary is a high-level overview and broad in scope, a summary will be longer than a paraphrase. A paraphrase is a concise rephrasing of a particular idea or piece of information in one or at most two sentences. As a result, even a concise summary will be longer than a paraphrase, at least a couple of sentences long. However, your summary shouldn’t be too long either; most of the time you should be able to summarize a source in one paragraph. However, the length of your summary will always depend on the length of the original source and the level of detail you need based on your assignment’s guidelines.

Finally, your summary should use paraphrases, not quotes. Because summaries are a high-level overview, put the source’s information into your own words, rather than quoting the original source. Doing so will help increase the flow of your summary and ensure your voice as the author comes through. Paraphrasing rather than quoting will also help you keep your summary concise. There could be scenarios where you might want to partially quote a key phrase, but even that should be done sparingly.

Visual: The slide changes to the following:

In their research, DeBruin-Parecki and Slutzky’s (2016) studied current U.S. pre-K standards, which are meant to set up students for success in kindergarten and beyond. The authors collected quantitative and qualitative data from diverse survey respondents about pre-K learning standards. The key finding from this study was the positive viewpoint most pre-K teachers have of the national learning standards.

Audio: Let’s take a look at this sample summary. As you can see, this summary is a high-level overview of this source. It starts by introducing the source’s authors with a full citation and introducing the topic or focus of the source. It then transitions to discussing the data the authors collected, ending with the authors’ key finding.

This sample summary is accurate, concise, and includes paraphrased main ideas, the three things that make a strong summary. It accurately represents the source authors’ original ideas, while still being concise. The summary’s author also put all of these ideas into their own words.

Visual: The following are overlayed on the paragraph: “the authors” or “this study”

Audio: The final note I want to make here is about citations. It’s important to cite the source in the first sentence of the summary. In subsequent sentences, the citation isn’t necessarily required, although it is important to ensure the reader knows you’re continuing to discuss the same source. This might mean using phrases like “the authors” or “this study”, but you may also include citations in each of these sentences too.

If you’re not sure whether you should cite the source in each sentence in a summary, be sure to ask your instructor.

Annotated bibliographies
Compare/contrast essays
Explicit requests
Part of note taking
Synthesizing or paraphrasing sources
Literature reviews
Graduate writing

Audio: Alright, so now that you know what a summary is and how to write a strong summary, when should you use a summary? Students most commonly summarize sources in annotated bibliographies and compare/contrast essays. However, you may also find that an assignment prompt or course instructor asks you to summarize as part of another assignment. You may also use summarizing as one of your note-taking and reading strategies; summarizing a source is a great way to ensure you understand and can re-articulate what a source is saying.

It is important to note that summarizing usually isn’t appropriate if you’re being asked to synthesize or paraphrase a source; this is particularly true in a literature review and generally in graduate writing. While summarizing particularly important sources initially or in the note taking stage may make sense in these cases, you don’t want to rely on summarizing extensively.

Visual: Slide changes to display the following: Questions? E-mail [email protected] .

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A typical assignment has an introduction, a main body and a conclusion. The purpose of the introduction is to signpost everything that a reader can expect from the assignment. The main body is where this will be delivered, and the conclusion provides a summary of the main points, perhaps guiding us to further reading or investigation. It might be useful to visualise the final draft of your assignment using the diagram below.

The main body is framed by an introduction that sets out your argument and a conclusion that recaps your argument and restates your thesis. The paragraphs in the main body each take a step forward in order to progress the argument.

For more in-depth information on structuring each section, click on the tabs below.

a diagram showing how information gets more specific as your introduction progresses. Start with General or contextual information, then move on to definitions of key words and the introduction of key concepts, then make your thesis statement.

Writing an introduction can be the most difficult part of your assignment because it is where you lay out everything you will cover in what follows. The purpose of an introduction is to clearly tell the reader about the main themes and concepts in your assignment, as well as how you are going to approach them. Key to academic writing are clarity and predictability so the introduction should act as a signpost, or an essay map; after reading the introduction, the reader should understand what your essay will be about, what you are going to say, and what conclusion you will reach. The structure we suggest below will help you include and organise the key information.

The 'funnel' introduction has three distinct sections, moving from general to specific information, and guides the reader through your main argument:

General or Contextual Information:

This is where you give the background information that relates to your assignment question. You can concentrate on the broad themes that you will establish, perhaps by giving some key facts (statistics, for example) that will act as a 'hook' to interest the reader. This section is about contextualising the information you are going to discuss in the next part of your introduction.

Definitions and Key Concepts:

This part of your introduction will orientate your reader. You will need to introduce the key concepts that form the basis of your argument and let the reader know how these are related to the themes you introduce in the first part of the introduction. It might be useful to think about this section of the introduction as signalling to the reader what steps you will take to discuss those themes.

Thesis Statement:

This section will form the end of your introduction and will provide the detailed 'essay map' for your reader. You will make the main claim of your essay in the thesis statement (that is, what is the main conclusion you will reach), and you will outline the steps you are going to take to reach that conclusion (that is, what is the development of your main argument).

A common question about introductions is 'how long should they be?'. There is not a simple answer; it will depend on the length of your assignment. As a guide, lots of departments suggest that you should aim for an introduction of around 10% of your overall word count. Similarly, although the funnel structure is comprised of three parts, this does not mean that your introduction will be split into three paragraphs. How you organise it will depend on the flow of your ideas and the length of your assignment.

The paragraphs in the main body of your assignment act as building blocks for your argument. This means that their structure is crucial for enabling your reader to follow that argument. Just as the overall structure of your assignment has a clear beginning, middle, and end, so does each paragraph. You will usually see this structure referred to as the 'topic sentence', the 'supporting sentences', and the 'summary sentence'.

Topic Sentences

The topic sentence (sometimes called the 'paragraph header') outlines what the reader can expect from the rest of the paragraph; that is, it introduces the argument you will be making and gives some indication of how you will make it. Another way to think about this is that the topic sentence tells the reader what the theme of the paragraph will be (the main idea that underpins the paragraph) and outlines the lens through which you are going to explore that theme (what you are going to say about your main idea).

It is useful for you to check that each of your topic sentences is linked in some way to the thesis statement contained in your introduction. Are you following the ideas you laid out in your thesis statement? By referring back to the thesis statement, you can make sure that your argument remains focused on answering the question (rather than drifting) and that you are covering the information you introduced at the beginning of the assignment. In some cases, the topic sentence may not introduce an argument. This occurs when the purpose of the paragraph is to provide background information or describe something. This is okay too, as long as the content of the paragraph is needed to support your thesis statement in some way.

Tip : The topic sentence may not be the first sentence in the paragraph if you include a linking sentence to your previous paragraph, but it should definitely be placed close to the start of the paragraph.

Supporting Sentences

The supporting sentences are where you put together your main argument. They develop the idea outlined in the topic sentence and contain your analysis of that idea. Your supporting sentences will usually contain your references to the literature in your discipline which you will use to build your own argument. You may also include facts and figures, counter arguments, and your judgements on how useful the literature is for your topic. The key to using supporting sentences to form a good paragraph lies in the 'Four Rs':

Are the supporting sentences relevant ? Each of them should explore and develop the idea you have introduced in your topic sentence.
Are they related ? Although you should not repeat the same idea throughout a paragraph, you do need to make sure that each of your supporting sentences is linked. This will help you provide multiple examples, counter arguments, and analysis of the theme of the paragraph. Think of each supporting sentence as a link in the chain of your argument.
Are the supporting sentences in the right order ? You will need to make an active decision about the way you present the argument in the paragraph; for example, you might present your research chronologically, or perhaps you prefer to discuss the argument and then the counter argument (so grouping together the relevant pieces of information).
And, of course, any ideas that are not your own need to be clearly referenced . Good referencing, according to the referencing style used by your department, is essential to academic integrity.

Summary Sentences

The summary sentence is important because it helps you tie together the arguments made in your supporting statements and comment on the point made in your topic sentence. This will be where you provide your reader with your judgement on the information contained in the paragraph. In that sense, the summary sentence is your conclusion for the particular point made in the paragraph – you will tell the reader why the point is important and perhaps give an indication of how it is linked to your overall thesis.

Tip : At the end of each paragraph, try asking yourself 'So What?': 'So what is the point of what I've said?'; 'so what is the conclusion I've reached based on the information included in the paragraph?'. This question will help you see whether you have been critical rather than simply descriptive.

The flow within and between paragraphs is important for a coherent structure. You can strengthen the flow by ensuring your argument proceeds logically and by using language that signals to the reader how your argument is progressing, and how you want them to interpret what you are saying:

Logical Order

Broadly following the structures outlined above will help you put together a logical paragraph structure. However, you also need to think about the flow of information in your assignment as a whole. Remember that each paragraph should make a point, discuss that point, and conclude the point before moving on to make a new point. This means that your assignment will be made up of chunks of information and it makes sense to organise those chunks in relation to each other.

Signalling Language

There are many words and phrases you can use to help your reader interpret information. If you focus on using effective transitions in your paragraphs, you will be able to better demonstrate your understanding of the relationship between the ideas you are discussing, and your writing will flow more easily. This is because your reader will be guided between points rather than having to make the links themselves. Below are some of the most common examples of transition words and phrases, though you can find many websites with further examples (university writing centres such as this one are usually reliable sources, though remember to use your judgement):

Tip : There are other techniques you can use to improve the flow of both your argument and style. Cohesive devices like pronouns, word families, and recap words help the reader. In addition, structured reasoning can support your argument. You can find a range of courses which explore these devices in detail by going to the website for the Centre for Academic Success .

A diagram showing the ideal structure of a conclusion. The first section is Restate. The second section is Recap. The third section is Suggest.

The conclusion should be easy to write because you do not have to discuss any new information (in fact, you should not introduce any new points in this part of your assignment). In reality, though, it can be a struggle to decide what to include in your conclusion. Using the framework in the diagram can help you effectively bring your argument to a close. This is an inverse structure of your introduction: in the conclusion you are moving from specific information to broader information.

In the 'Restate' section of a conclusion, it is a good idea to remind the reader of your thesis statement. You can paraphrase your thesis statement in order to remind the reader of the central claim of the assignment and how you set out to demonstrate this claim.

You can then broaden the discussion to provide a 'Recap' of your main argument. This does not mean repeating yourself; rather, you will give a brief synopsis of each part of your main argument, with a reminder of how it links to your main claim. This will help consolidate your argument in the reader's mind and confirm that you have answered your own thesis.

Finally, the 'Suggest' section can help you place your work within the wider scholarship of your discipline. You might, for example, make suggestions for further research based on gaps you have identified.

The Young Housewife by Williams Summary

How it works

William Carlos Williams’s poem “The Young Housewife” paints a vivid picture of a simple, everyday moment, showing us the deeper layers hidden in ordinary life. Written way back in 1916, it’s a short and striking piece that’s often praised for its clear and colorful imagery. Let’s take a closer look at what this poem is all about and what makes it tick.

1 Context and Setting
2 Imagery and Symbolism
3 Themes and Interpretations
4 Conclusion

Context and Setting

“The Young Housewife” takes place in a quiet neighborhood, and it zooms in on a young woman doing her daily chores.

The narrator, who seems to be just passing by in a car, notices her and captures this little moment with great detail. The poem uses this glimpse to touch on bigger themes like loneliness, the roles society expects us to play, and how time moves on.

The setting is super important here. The street represents a place where private and public worlds meet. The housewife stands at her gate, a spot that shows she’s caught between her home and the outside world. This setting helps ground the poem in reality while also setting the stage for exploring deeper themes.

Imagery and Symbolism

One thing that stands out in “The Young Housewife” is its strong imagery. Williams uses vivid pictures and sounds to bring the scene to life. The housewife is described as wearing a “negligee,” which makes her seem vulnerable and intimate. It suggests she’s not quite ready to face the outside world, highlighting her isolation.

The poem also uses contrasting images to show the housewife’s situation. For example, the “wooden walls of her husband’s house” feel confining, while the “crisp leaves” that are “delicately gathered” symbolize nature’s ongoing renewal. This contrast shows the tension between her static home life and the lively world outside.

Symbols add depth to the poem, too. The housewife picking up leaves can be seen as her trying to bring order to her life despite the chaos around her. The “broken ice” suggests fragility and the temporary nature of life, hinting at how nothing lasts forever.

Themes and Interpretations

“The Young Housewife” touches on themes like loneliness, societal expectations, and the passage of time. The housewife’s loneliness is clear throughout the poem. She’s described as “shy” and “uncertain,” showing she’s disconnected from the world outside her home. Standing at the gate, she’s physically and emotionally caught between two worlds.

The poem also highlights societal expectations. The housewife’s role is defined by her chores, confining her to her home. This is symbolized by the “wooden walls” around her, suggesting her identity is shaped by her husband’s house. The poem quietly critiques these norms, showing how traditional gender roles can be restrictive.

Time passing is another big theme. The poem captures just one moment in the housewife’s life, but this moment feels temporary. The “crisp leaves” and “broken ice” remind us of changing seasons, acting as metaphors for time’s inevitable march. The narrator’s perspective, passing by in a car, adds to this sense of movement and change, contrasting with the housewife’s still life.

In “The Young Housewife,” William Carlos Williams captures the depth of an ordinary moment. Through clear imagery and rich symbols, the poem explores themes like loneliness, societal roles, and time passing. The housewife’s situation comments on the limits traditional gender roles place on people, while the fleeting moment highlights life’s transience. By focusing on a simple scene, Williams invites us to look deeper into everyday life.

All in all, “The Young Housewife” shows Williams’s knack for finding meaning in the mundane. Through his sharp observations and poetic skill, he turns a simple moment into a deep look at human experience.

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Sampling to Protect the Food Supply

Summary Report: FY 22/23 Sample Collection and Analysis of Retail Dairy-Free Dark Chocolate and Chocolate-Containing Products for Milk Allergen

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Methodology

Regulatory approach, follow-up actions.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) conducted an initiative to collect and test retail dark chocolate products and chocolate-containing products labeled as “dairy free” (or with similar free-of-milk claims) [1] for milk in cooperation with the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture (PDA) and the Michigan State Department of Agriculture and Rural Development (MDARD) in 2022 and 2023. The FDA designed the assignment, and the state agencies performed the sample collection and testing.

This initiative was part of the FDA’s continued efforts to protect consumers with food allergies and is a continuation of a similar initiative implemented by the FDA in FY2018-2019 . The latest initiative included additional chocolate-containing products, such as chocolate chip cookies, chocolate syrups, and chocolate baking powders, which were not part of the previous data collections. The FY22-23 initiative also sought to gain insights into the extent to which retail chocolate and chocolate-containing products that bear dairy-free or similar claims contain unintended milk at levels that may be potentially hazardous to people with a milk allergy.

The sample collection and testing were conducted under the FDA’s Laboratory Flexible Funding Model Cooperative Agreement Program ( LFFM ), with PDA and MDARD participating. The LFFM is a comprehensive emergency response and surveillance cooperative agreement between the FDA and Food Emergency Response Network (FERN) state partner laboratories and supports a wide range of analytical activities in the disciplines of microbiology, chemistry, and radiochemistry. The LFFM aims to enhance the capacity and capabilities of state human and animal feed testing laboratories in support of an integrated food safety system. Surveillance testing is a major focus of the LFFM; state partners collect and analyze human and animal food products for chemical and microbiological hazards.

The FY22-23 initiative examined retail dark chocolate products and chocolate-containing products that were labeled as dairy-free or with similar free-of-milk claims. The state personnel only collected samples of products that did not list milk as an ingredient on the product label. Milk detected in the samples could have been present due to a variety of factors, including labeling error or allergen cross-contact. Allergen cross-contact refers to unintentional incorporation of an allergen into food; it may occur during manufacturing or at a firm that supplied a product ingredient.

PDA and MDARD collected all samples at retail in their respective states. When possible, PDA and MDARD collected samples from multiple lots of each product to gain a greater understanding of the occurrence of milk in different lots of the same product.

PDA and MDARD used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test kits to determine the milk levels in the samples. This report provides the test results in parts per million (ppm) of milk. [2] The quantities of milk detected and reported among the findings represent the results of a Morinaga Institute of Biological Science Casein ELISA test kit following screening testing from a Neogen Veratox for Total Milk Allergen ELISA test kit. PDA and MDARD confirmed all Veratox kit findings above the limit of quantitation using Morinaga Institute of Biological Science Casein ELISA test kits.

The analytical results of the 210 samples collected and tested under this effort are provided in the table that accompanies this report. These samples represent multiple products from approximately 50 firms.

Of the 210 samples, 13 tested positive for milk (i.e., with levels above the limit of quantification of the Neogen Veratox for Total Milk Allergen ELISA test kit). Twelve of these 13 samples contained less than 80 ppm, with one sample testing at 1,083 ppm milk. These 13 samples were produced by three different firms: one cookie product from Firm A (out of one sample tested), eight chocolate bar products from Firm B (out of 17 samples tested), and four chocolate bar products from Firm C (out of 34 samples tested), as shown in the results table. The sample with 1,083 ppm milk was a chocolate bar by firm B.

Each of the 13 products with positive milk findings were found to have not only a “dairy-free” type of statement but also allergen advisory statements intending to indicate the possible presence of milk to consumers. Their labeling stated that the products were “…made in a facility that also processes milk,” or featured similar wording.

In addressing each of the 13 samples that tested positive for milk, the FDA evaluated the facts and circumstances specific to each situation.

As background, firms may use voluntary statements to provide information to consumers that specific allergens are absent from the product. Other than the term “gluten-free” [3] there are no regulations defining specific conditions (e.g., allergen levels) for a product to make a “free” claim from a major food allergen source. If voluntary allergen-free claims are used, they must be truthful and not misleading. For example, if a product label or labeling were to have a “milk-free” or similar claim, the FDA would expect there to be no milk in the product from any source. Therefore, evidence (e.g., label statements and test results) that indicates the presence of milk in such product will lead the agency to investigate and consider enforcement action, depending on the investigational findings. The agency may also pursue additional follow up actions, including discussing the findings with the firms, conducting follow-up inspections, or issuing warning letters.

In certain instances, firms may choose to voluntarily place allergen advisory statements on products to alert consumers to the possible presence of major food allergens due to cross-contact. When used, allergen advisory statements are not a substitute for adherence to current good manufacturing practices and food allergen preventive controls. These statements must also be truthful and not misleading. The use of the allergen-free claim together with the allergen advisory statements for the same allergen on a product label may provide inconsistent information to consumers and should therefore be avoided.

The FDA conducted case-by-case evaluation of the samples that tested positive for milk and consulted with its state partners. The FDA’s review included an evaluation of the health hazard posed by each product, considering the factors applicable in each case, which included the level of milk in the product, estimated amount of product consumed per eating occasion, likelihood of consumption by allergic consumers and other relevant information, such as possible consumer adverse reactions. The FDA and its state partners are not aware of any consumer adverse reactions associated with the 13 products that tested positive for milk. The FDA, along with its state partners, met with each of the three firms (A, B, C) to review the findings and to discuss the firms’ next steps to ensure their products are safe and in compliance with applicable regulations.

Preliminary investigations completed by the firms and state agencies have implicated the suppliers of dark chocolate ingredients used by the firms as a possible source of the unintended allergen presence. Firm A agreed to remove “dairy-free” claims from its products when the root cause analysis is complete and if the cause of the presence of milk could not be determined and eliminated. Firms B and C removed the “dairy-free claim” from their chocolate products and provided updated labels to the FDA and its state partners as confirmation. The FDA and state agencies will follow-up with these manufacturers to ensure their ongoing compliance.

The FDA’s FY 2018-2019 dairy-free dark chocolate assignment found that four out of 52 products tested had potentially hazardous levels of milk, with levels ranging from 600 ppm to 3,100 ppm.

The FY 2022-2023 initiative was slightly different in scope in that it included both dark chocolate products and chocolate-containing products. However, among this more recent initiative’s 104 dark chocolate products (bars and chips), only one product tested at 1,083 ppm milk, with the remaining 11 positive dark chocolate product samples at levels below 80 ppm milk. [4] The recent findings suggest that firms producing dairy-free products may be improving their allergen cross-contact controls, this producing a downward trend in the percent of dairy-free dark chocolate products with potentially hazardous levels of milk, compared to the FY 2018-2019 sampling. However, these two initiatives were not designed to support statistical comparison; [5] they were intended as surveillance efforts to examine dairy-free labeled products for undeclared milk.

In the FY 2022-2023 initiative, all samples found to contain milk had milk allergen advisory statements. The FDA advises that firms that use a voluntary allergen-free statement ensure that the product doesn’t contain the allergen and that there is no inconsistent allergen information on the product label. Consumers with milk allergies who choose to eat dairy-free labeled products may contact firms to ask them questions about how their products are made, including whether they are made on dairy-free dedicated equipment, whether the ingredients used are dairy-free, and whether they test their products with dairy-free claims to confirm the accuracy of the claims.

The presence of milk in dairy-free labeled products on the market remains a concern for the FDA, given the potential for a health hazard for consumers with milk allergies. The FDA will continue to monitor the U.S. food supply to protect consumers with food allergies.

[1] Claims similar to “dairy-free” include, “milk free,” “100% milk free,” and “contains no milk.”

[2] Specifically, nonfat dry milk. The results from this analysis are reported as nonfat dry milk (NFDM) after conversion by calculation from ppm protein from the original analysis.

[3] 21 CFR 101.91 sets forth conditions for use of the “gluten-free” claim.

[4] One of the 13 positive samples was from a chocolate chip cookie (sample No. 56), and thus it is not included in the count of 12 positive dark chocolate products.

[5] Additionally, the study from FY 2018/2019 reported results from Neogen Veratox for Total Milk Allergen ELISA test kits ppm while the current results were from Morinaga Institute of Biological Science Casein ELISA test kits.

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