is psychology an essay based a level

The 10 Most Respected A-Level Subjects – Ranked for 2024

In A-Level by Think Student Editor January 1, 2021 17 Comments

Figuring out which A-Level subjects to choose can be difficult as there are so many things you may need to consider. This includes what subjects you’re good at, what subjects you enjoy as well as what subjects can help with future applications. If you’re not quite sure what you want to do next, it can help to pick A-Level subjects that keep your options open. One way to do this is to choose from subjects that are perceived as being the most respected A-Levels.

Be advised.   The information that this ranking is based off is explained at the end of this article. Please understand that this list is not definitive. Perception of an A-Level subjects’ respectability is highly subjective. Your opinion may differ from the ranking displayed in this article. Please vote in our poll to have your say. We try our best to update these rankings as often as possible.

Most respected A-Levels: Student Perception

Below you can find the visualisation A-Level subject difficulty rankings (top – most respected, bottom – 13 th most respected).

(*) Perception of which A-Levels are most respected voted by students. You can learn more about how we collected this data at the end of this article.

Continue reading to learn more about which subjects students feel are the most respected. This article will outline the top 10 and give you some insight into why students may have chosen these subjects.

10. A-Level English Language

2.45% of the poll considered A-Level English Language as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 10th place.

In A-Level English Language, students learn about the linguistic side of the English language. This will be done through analysing and evaluating different texts, as well as studying how children develop language and the different varieties of English that are spoken.

Students may consider A-Level English Language as one of the most respected A-Levels due to it being a core subject and allowing you to develop many transferable skills. These include writing skills and critical thinking skills, both of which would likely be useful for any degree that you may want to study or a range of jobs.

To learn more about A-Level English Language and why students may consider it one of the most respected A-Levels, check out this Think Student article .

9. A-Level Foreign Languages

3.87% of the poll considered A-Level Foreign Languages as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 9th place.

A-Level Foreign Languages refers to a wide range of different language A-Levels that you can take. The most popular of these are in French, Spanish and German but you may also be able to take A-Levels in Italian, Mandarin and other languages. Unlike at GCSE, students don’t just study the grammar and vocabulary of a language but also the culture of where the language is spoken.

A-Level Foreign Languages may be considered one of the most respected A-Levels as language skills are a great skill to have. This is especially as the world is becoming increasingly globalised and more companies are operating on an international scale. This means that A-Level Foreign Languages can give your CV a great boost as people with language skills are increasingly being sought after.

To learn more about the benefits of studying languages, check out this Think Student article .

A-Level Foreign Languages may also be considered one of the most respected A-Levels as it is valued by universities. This is because both A-Level Modern Languages and A-Level Classical Languages are considered facilitating subjects. Facilitating subjects were subjects that the Russel Group universities considered to be good A-Level options, although this is no longer used, they show which subjects the top universities respect most.

To learn more about A-Level Foreign Languages, check out this article by CIFE.  For more on facilitating subjects, check out this guide by The Uni Guide.

8. A-Level Biology

4.9% of the poll considered A-Level Biology as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 8th place.

In A-Level Biology, students continue their learning of biology and how organisms function. This includes topics on cells, energy transfer in organisms, ecosystems, gene expression and more. To learn more about these, check out this page by AQA.

Students may consider it one of the most respected A-Level subjects as it is one of the main science subjects. Due to this, A-Level Biology is often a requirement for studying science subjects when continuing education, particularly for degree subjects such as Medicine or Biomedical Sciences.

Also, as a largely academic subject, A-Level Biology was also one of the facilitating subjects, as mentioned above, showing that universities respect it highly. To learn more about why students may consider A-Level Biology one of the most respected, check out this article by Online Learning College.

7. A-Level Psychology

5.16% of the poll considered A-Level Psychology as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 7th place.

In A-Level Psychology, students learn about the mind and behaviours. A-Level Psychology students will particularly study topics such as attachment, memory, social influences and research methods in psychology. To learn more about the A-Level Psychology course, check out this page by AQA.

It may be considered one of the most respected A-Level subjects as it is both one of the sciences and an essay-based subject. This means that the course will allow you to develop a wide range of skills that are favourable to university study and employment. These include critical thinking and analysis as well as strong research skills. To learn more about this, check out this article by Learn Direct.

Students may also consider A-Level Psychology as one of the most respected as the subject of psychology is largely on the rise in both popularity and status. In 2023, A-Level Psychology was the 2nd most popular A-Level course and the most popular degree subject. For more on these A-Level and degree popularity rankings, click here and here to see their respective Think Student articles.

6. A-Level English Literature

6.13% of the poll considered A-Level English Literature as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 6th place.

In A-Level English Literature, students study a range of texts such as poetry, plays and novels from different time periods. Similarly to GCSE, these texts will be analysed by looking at different themes, characters and features of the novels themselves.

A-Level English Literature may be considered one of the most respected A-Levels due to the skills you can gain from it. This is particularly as it can enable you to develop writing and debating skills, both of which can be absolutely crucial for various degree subjects.

Improving your written communication skills is also important for working environments. To learn more about why A-Level English Literature might be considered one of the most respected, check out this Think Student article.

Also, A-Level English Literature is highly regarded by the top universities for students taking a humanities course. To learn more about this, check out this page by Trinity College of the University of Cambridge.

5. A-Level Physics

6.51% of the poll considered A-Level Physics as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 5th place.

In A-Level Physics, students will advance their scientific study of physics, specifically covering areas such as electricity, waves, mechanics, nuclear physics, radiation and more. To learn more about this, check out this page by AQA.

It may be considered one of the most respected A-Level subjects as once again, it is one of the main scientific subjects. This means that it will often be a requirement for science-based degree programmes, particularly ones like Engineering and Astrophysics.

This may make students consider it one of the most respected as it is valued by universities and can be a useful A-Level to have. To learn more about this, check out this article by Online Learning College.

4. A-Level History

6.71% of the poll considered A-Level History as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 4th place.

In A-Level History, students study specific areas of history in-depth and develop their critical thinking and analysis skills in order to evaluate how reliable historical sources and interpretations are based on their context and wider information. The exact historical topics that are studied will depend on the exam board and what your school has chosen.

To learn more about what is studied in A-Level History, check out this Think Student article .

A-Level History may be considered one of the most respected A-Level subjects as it allows you to develop key analytical, evaluative and debating skills, which could prove to be useful in a range of humanities degrees and career paths. A-Level History is often regarded as a good basis for prestigious degree options, such as for studying a Law degree.

Similarly to A-Level Foreign Languages, as mentioned above, A-Level History was also on the list of facilitating subjects, showing that it is also highly respected by top universities. To learn more about all this, check out this guide by CIFE.

3. A-Level Chemistry

7.67% of the poll considered A-Level Chemistry as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 3rd place.

In A-Level Chemistry, students will advance their studies by learning about more in-depth and advanced chemistry concepts. Students will cover organic, inorganic and physical chemistry split up into topics such as spectroscopy, thermodynamics, isomerism and more.

To learn more about the A-Level Chemistry course, check out this Think Student article .

It is considered one of the most respected A-Level subjects as it is another one of the main science subjects. This means that it is often a compulsory subject in order to study degrees, such as Chemical Engineering and Pharmacology.

As one of the main sciences, it is also one of the facilitating subjects as mentioned above, meaning that it is highly respected by universities. To learn more about this, check out this article by Online Learning College.

2. A-Level Further Maths

22.37% of the poll considered A-Level Further Maths as the most respected A-Level. This puts it in 2nd place with substantially more of the poll considering it the most respected A-Level than for the previous ones.

A-Level Further Maths is one of the hardest A-Level subjects, in which students learn about much more advanced mathematical concepts. To learn more about this, check out this Think Student article .

Due to its difficulty, students may consider it one of the most respected A-Levels as doing well on it shows off exceptional academic and mathematical ability. As 39.7% of students got an A*, much more than the average across subjects, A-Level Further Maths may also be respected as it shows off dedication and commitment to the subject.

For scientific or mathematical degree paths or career options, this can be incredibly useful. To learn more about this, check out this Think Student article . For more on this statistic, check out this page on Ofqual’s website.

1. A-Level Maths

29.59% of the poll considered A-Level Maths as the most respected A-Level, putting it in 1st place.

In A-Level Maths, students will advance their mathematical studies, with particular focus on the main areas of pure maths, statistics and mechanics with each having their own topics. Some of these topics may include integration, kinematics, forces, statistical hypothesis testing, logarithms and differentiation. To learn more about A-Level Maths, check out this page by AQA.

A-Level Maths may be considered one of the most respected A-Levels due to it being so challenging. This is because it shows that students have advanced and specific mathematical knowledge. This can be useful for a range of degree options, particularly ones with a scientific basis, such as Physics, and even some social sciences, such as Economics.

To learn more about why students may consider it one of the most respected subjects, check out this article by Bright Young Things.

• Health and Social Care
• Physical Education
• Classical Subjects
• Media/Film/TV Studies
• Design and Technology
• Art and Design Subjects
• Further Maths
• English Language
• English Literature
• English Language & Literature
• Computer Science
• Foreign Languages
• Religious Studies
• Performing/Expressive Arts

How were these rankings decided?

Over the past few years, we’ve asked thousands of students what their opinion is on the most respected A-Level subject. When we refer to student polling, we are referencing the results of these polls. If you wish to add your vote to the list, please navigate to the questionnaire above.

How was the polling data collected?

Between January 2021 and January 2023, we displayed a poll on this page which prompted readers to vote on which A-Level subject was the most respected. Within this timeframe, we collect 1,551 votes, excluding submissions that were disregarded from the data set due to formatting issues or other errors.

Listed below are some key limitations of our polling methods that could’ve swayed results:

• Static ordering of subjects on voting form: A previous iteration of our survey form listed A-Level subjects in the same order each time. It could be argued that this would favour the subjects that were listed at the top. This issue has been fixed in our updated voting form below.
• Voting form displayed only a subset of A-Level subjects:  Previously, only a small selection of A-Level subjects was displayed on the survey. We have since expanded the size of this selection on the voting form.
• Potential bad actors:  Despite having anti-spam software in place, it is possible repeated entries were made by single individuals. With respect to privacy, we don’t ask for more information than we need and as a result, it is almost impossible to identify submission users to check if they are unique.

This article is a member of a series of A-Level ranking articles listed on this site. If you find our data and analysis within this article helpful, you may also wish to take a look at our other articles below:

• The 10 hardest A-Level subjects
• The 10 easiest A-Level subjects
• A-Level combinations that universities love

i thought there were supposed to be 10

You don’t learn a language at school, full stop!

Psychology over physics, yep this top 10’s a bunch of crap

IKRRRR. Physiology is easy as well. Physics is well…. You get it.

MAN SAID PSYCHOLOGY IS EASY LOOOOL – what exam board do you do

what about computer science?? Literally so many people graduating from ivys and russel groups major in computer science>

yeah but even for computer science degrees you dont really need the subject

geography is not on there but languages are bruh

Learning foreign languages is important.

But geography is not that hard so it isn’t respected compared to maths or psychology

Oxbridge and RG would not like Psychology

Geography is missing here, it’s another Oxbridge and RG winning ticket. English Language is not

English language is hard and respected geography is not that difficult so it is not respected

Yes English Language is an RG wining ticket, geography is not unless you want to do geography at uni or should I say colouring in

neither of them are up there lmao. hardest a levels by far are maths and sciences (bio, chem, physics ONLY), then philosophy and history

Top tier: Further Maths, Maths, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Foreign Languages, with English Lit rounding it out — they’re the hardest, most useful, and most respected. — 2nd tier that are hard, useful, and respected to varying degrees: History, Computer Science, Economics, Music … Bottom tier: any of the other ones, although some folks would love to pretend Geography and Psychology are serious things 😂 belonging in the top 2 tiers.

A Level Psychology

Our extensive collection of resources is the perfect tool for students aiming to ace their exams and for teachers seeking reliable resources to support their students' learning journey. Here, you'll find an array of revision notes, topic questions, fully explained model answers, past exam papers and more, meticulously organised to simplify your search.

AQA A Level Psychology

Cambridge (cie) a level psychology, edexcel a level psychology, ocr a level psychology, wjec a level psychology, wjec eduqas a level psychology, articles and resources for a level psychology students.

A Level and AS Level Exam Dates 2024

Choosing A Level Subjects

Retaking Your A Levels - Everything You Need to Know

A Level Results Day 2024

A level equivalents & alternatives, got questions we've got answers, what is psychology a level.

Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour, that attempts to provide an understanding of why people do and think how they do: what makes people 'tick'? Psychologists do this through continuous research that generates theories for behaviour, then test those theories with more research, reviewing them each time a new set of results are published. Psychological theory is then used in the wider world to help diagnose and treat a range of mental health or psychological illnesses and to underpin social policy and legislation. This theory is used in various sectors, such as education, social care, healthcare, business, sports and law.

How to revise for A Level Psychology?

The best way to revise Psychology at A Level is to start early and stay consistent. There is a large number of studies and theories (with names!) to learn, so it's best to stay organised, create flashcards, and don't let the content pile up; revisit what you learn in class often and in short bursts. When it comes to evaluation, it's a good idea to study with your Psychology peers, so you can discuss and understand the criticisms on a deeper level, which will in turn give you a better chance of remembering them.

What do you learn in Psychology A Level?

In the AQA A Level Psychology course, you will learn a variety of topics from 'Social Influence', to 'Schizophrenia'. It will include other topics from Cognitive Psychology, Biopsychology and Psychology in the wider world (e.g., through 'Forensic Psychology,' 'Gender' and 'Addiction'.

What can you do with Psychology A Level?

Having an A Level in Psychology can set you up very well for a number of careers. Much like other subjects at this level, the A Level alone won't qualify you as a therapist or counsellor, but it will give you a good foundation for a degree and then post-graduate courses in psychology, which will result in a career in therapy. If that's not your thing, you can take psychology into working in almost any sector: IT, Sports, Law, Education, Policy Writing, Government work, Health & Social Care, Business & Entrepreneurship, or generally anything that involves working with, or producing a product for another person.

How hard is Psychology A Level?

Psychology ranks on the more difficult side of A Levels, because of the reading and studying it requires, and the balance of good English literacy skills, mathematical skills and scientific thinking. It is a science-based subject that requires some essay skills and the ability to think logically, but also outside of the box, and imagine concepts that you can't necessarily see or experience for yourself. Whilst not the most difficult, especially in comparison to pure sciences or completely English/humanities-based subjects, students do not often expect the amount of reading that is required, and tend to choose this subject for the pure fascination of it all - this will only get you so far! If you are wanting to take the subject but are worried about anything, speak to the person who is in charge of teaching the course and they can give you more reassurance on how it's taught and what support is on offer.

What GCSEs do you need for Psychology A Level?

Usually, entry requirements are a 6 in at least one science, English and/or Maths. Teachers are more confident that the student has the best set of foundational skills to study the course when they arrive with at least a 6 in all three. Some establishments will only require 5s, but this is dependent on the makeup of the sixth form or college delivering the course. If you want grades to aim for to set yourself up well, focus on gaining at least a 6 in your biology and English language grades, with at least a 5 in maths.

Save £500 when you enrol by 30th September!

• How to Write a Great Essay for Different A-Level Subjects

In previous articles, we’ve given you lots of advice on how to write the perfect essay.

However, the skills we’ve discussed up to now have been generic, and have not taken into account the fact that different subjects require different skills when it comes to writing excellent essays for them. In this article, we look at the particular skills needed to write great essays for individual A-level subjects, so that you can familiarise yourself with what you need to do to excel in whatever A-levels you happen to be studying.

Good English literature essays revolve around intelligent interpretation. The problem many students have with this is organising their interpretations into a tightly structured essay that flows well; many simply let their ideas run wild and flit aimlessly between one point and the next. To combat this problem, you need to consider the writer’s overall aims and then show how they have conveyed those aims, paragraph by paragraph, with each paragraph devoted to a particular technique or focus. A good structure to use is as follows:

• Point – make a statement, such as “Brontë uses the bleakness of the moorland setting to reflect Heathcliff’s temperament.”
• Explanation – elaborate on the statement in more detail. In this example, your explanation would involve explaining the parallels between Heathcliff and the moors – their unpredictability and wildness, for instance, and the violence of the weather mirroring Heathcliff’s violent personality.
• Evidence – now provide quotes from the text to back up what you mean. In the Heathcliff example, you could quote specific words and phrases that show similarities in the way Heathcliff is described and the way in which the moorland landscape and weather are described.
• Reiterate – close off the paragraph by reiterating the point, and perhaps developing it a little further or introducing the idea you’re going to carry into the next paragraph. For example, “This ties in with a wider theme running through the book as a whole, which is that nature parallels human emotions.”

Good English essays pay close attention to detail, noting specific words, phrases and literary devices a writer has used, and to what effect. They quote liberally from the text in order to support each point, deconstructing the writing and analysing the use of language; they look at different interpretations, seeing beyond the surface and picking up on possible deeper meanings and connotations. But they also consider the meaning of the piece as a whole, and the overall effect created by the specific details noted. All this should be considered within the framework of the genre and context of the piece of writing. For instance, a poem by William Wordsworth would be considered within the context of the Romantic poets, and might be compared with work by contemporary poets such as Shelley or Keats; the historical background might also be touched upon where relevant (such as the Industrial Revolution when discussing the poetry of William Blake).

Though it’s also a humanities subject, History requires its own very particular set of skills that differ to an appreciable degree from those expected of you in English. A history essay is unequivocal about its writer’s opinion, but this opinion must be based on a solid analysis of evidence that very often can’t be taken as fact. Evidence must be discussed in terms of its reliability, or lack thereof. The good historian considers what biases may be inherent in a source, what vested interest the source might have, and what viewpoint that source was written from. For instance, you might analyse a source by discussing whether or not the person was present at the events they are describing; how long after the events they were writing (and therefore whether they are remembering it accurately if they were there, or whether they are getting their information second or third hand from someone else; and if so, how reliable the original source is); whether they are trying to show evidence to support a particular political view; and so on. So, each time you make a point, back it up with evidence, and consider the strengths and weaknesses of that evidence. A good history essay makes connections between what’s been written about, considering how issues interrelate, so think about how what you’re writing about ties in with other things; what was the impact of the event you’re discussing, did it happen in isolation, and what were the events that led to it?

It’s vital to look at both sides of the argument – or, where many possible viewpoints exist, to acknowledge these nuances. It’s fine to contradict yourself, provided you do so consciously; that is, you can build up an argument and then turn it on its head, observing that you are doing so (for example, “So far, so compelling; but what about the less well-known evidence from such and such?”). You can use quotes from historians you’ve read, but use these in the context of discussing scholarly opinion. Don’t quote a historian’s words as evidence of something, because this is only someone’s opinion – it’s not proof. Finally, where possible, use specialist terms to show that you know your stuff (“proletariat” instead of “workers”, for example).

The primary task that lies ahead of you in writing a French essay is, of course, to demonstrate your superior language skills. Keep the content itself very even-handed, sitting on the fence rather than presenting a forceful opinion that could distract attention away from the quality of your use of French. Focus on using as wide a variety of vocabulary and tenses as you can. It will help your essay if you can learn how to say more sophisticated phrases in French, of the sort you would use if you were writing an essay in English. This useful document from RealFrench.net, Writing Essays in French, will give you numerous useful French phrases to help you put together an impressive essay, including the vocabulary you need to present a balanced argument.

Geography is a subject that crosses the divide between the sciences and the humanities, considering both physical processes and human activities (and their effects on the world around us). Essays for Geography may differ depending on which of these focuses the essay is discussing, and the evidence you might include in your essay could vary from phenomena observed and data gathered in the natural world to the results of population censuses. To write a good Geography essay, you’ll need to include both theory and detailed, real-world case studies to support your answer. Mention specific places by name, and communicate the facts accurately. Your teacher will be assessing not just your knowledge, but your ability to support what you say with relevant information that proves it. You shouldn’t just rattle off everything you know about a particular case study; you should deploy relevant facts from the case study to support a specific point you’re trying to make. Keep linking each point back to the question, so that you’re always working towards answering it; this also helps you ensure that everything you include is actually relevant to the question. Showing that you’ve thought about an issue from multiple perspectives, and that you appreciate how they interrelate, is important in Geography. You can do this by organising the content of your essay into categories, considering different factors in turn, such as the scale of the issue, and the timeframe and environment involved. Discuss the various factors involved logically, one by one, such as the environmental impact of climate change or a natural disaster (such as a tsunami or volcanic eruption), followed by its physical, economic, social and political implications. Acknowledging the numerous nuances of the situation will demonstrate your appreciation of its complexity and show that you are thinking at a high level.

Classical Civilisations

As the study of the ancient world (primarily ancient Rome and Greece), Classical Civilisations combines archaeology and history, looking both at what survives materially (from small finds, to art and sculpture, to temples) and what survives in the way of texts by ancient authors. A good essay for this subject analyses, evaluates and interprets. The historical elements of the subject will require the same set of skills we discussed for History earlier, while the archaeological components of this subject require slightly different skills. With your archaeologist hat on, your job becomes similar to that of a detective, piecing together clues. Archaeology crosses over into science, and with that comes scientific considerations such as how archaeological evidence has been gathered – the methods used, their reliability, whether or not they could have been tampered with, how accurately they were recorded, and so on. You’ll look at a variety of different types of evidence, too, from the finds themselves to maps of the local topography. As with Geography, for which you’re required to learn lots of detailed case studies and names, you’ll need to learn plenty of examples of sites and finds to use as sources of evidence in building up a picture of the ancient world. And, as with any subject, looking at both sides of any argument is crucial to good grades. If the evidence you’re discussing could show one thing, but it could also show another, don’t just present one possibility – show that you’ve thought in depth about it and consider all the possible interpretations.

Science subjects

The sciences – Biology, Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics – are generally less essay-focused, so we’re grouping them together here because the essay skills required for each of these subjects are very similar. While the fundamentals of scientific essay writing are the same as any other subject – having a logical structure, well-developed argument, and so on – there are a few subject-specific considerations to bear in mind, and some common pitfalls to watch out for. The first is that there is no room for opinion in a scientific essay; unless you’re specifically asked for it, leave your own thoughts out of it and focus instead on a completely objective discussion of the evidence gathered through scientific research, which will most probably be quantitative data. Avoid vague language such as “it is thought that…”; be as precise as possible. Start with a hypothesis, and then discuss the research that supports or disproves it. Back up every statement you make with solid data; it’s not enough simply to drop in the name of the research, so briefly describe what the findings were and why they prove the statement you’ve just made. Another mistake many students make is to confuse cause and effect; this arises because of the tendency to assume that correlation implies causation, which is a common logical fallacy. Just because two things appear to be related, it doesn’t mean that one caused the other, and committing this error in an essay is a major faux pas that will lose you marks. It’s also a good idea to ensure that you’ve included every piece of research that could be relevant; if you don’t, you could be leaving out a crucial piece of evidence. Finally, mention any limitations there may have been with the methodology used to gather the data you discuss.

Psychology essays are best approached with a scientific mindset, but it’s far more difficult to prove anything in this subject – and this should be acknowledged in your essay. The task becomes one of assessing which theory is the more probable one, based on an analysis of the data from various studies. Make liberal reference to named and dated psychological experiments and research, but acknowledge the fact that there may be more than one theory that could account for the same set of results. When these experiments are quoted as evidence, this should be done with reference to any possible limitations of how the experiment was conducted (such as a small sample size). If you’ve reached the end of this article, you’re now equipped with the knowledge to write fantastic essays guaranteed to impress your teachers. You’re also well on the way to thinking in the right way for university-level essays, so keep working on these skills now and you’ll find it much easier to make the leap from sixth former to undergraduate.

Image credits: banner ; Wuthering Heights ; Diet of Worms ; factory workers ; Charioteer ; Hubble Space Telescope ; Psychology . 

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• Revision notes >

A-Level Psychology Revision Notes

Explore the fascinating realm of psychology with our A-Level Psychology revision notes. Categorised by topic and exam board, you can use these notes to set you on the path to exam success.

AQA Psychology Revision Notes

Biopsychology, forensic psychology, issues and debates, psychopathology, relationships and schizophrenia, social influence, how can i effectively revise for the a-level psychology exam when there's so much content to cover.

By testing yourself on key terms, theories, and studies you will be able to recall the information better as you are actively engaging in the information rather than just reading a textbook. You can create concept maps or flowcharts to connect related ideas and concepts. Prioritize topics based on their weight in the exam and allocate more time to challenging areas.

What are some tips for writing high-scoring essays in A-Level Psychology?

Start with a clear introduction and thesis statement, followed by structured paragraphs presenting your arguments and evidence. Use the PEEEL method (Point, Evidence, Explain, Evaluate, Link) to analyze and critique theories or studies. For instance, when discussing the reliability of psychological research, evaluate the methods used, potential biases, and their impact on findings.

How can I remember the key psychologists and their contributions for the exam?

You can create mnemonic devices or acronyms. For instance, to remember Piaget's stages of cognitive development, use the acronym "SACOP" (Sensorimotor, Preoperational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational) as a memory aid. Alternatively, you can use a visualization technique by putting sticky notes around a room with key points. This will help you remember where each revision point is in relation to a place in the room.

What's the best approach to mastering research methods and statistics in A-Level Psychology?

Practice is key. Work through sample problems, analyze research papers, and engage in hands-on data collection and analysis.

How can I effectively apply psychological theories to real-life scenarios in the exam?

It is important to develop the skill of psychological application by regularly connecting theories to current events, personal experiences, or case studies. For example, when discussing the bystander effect, relate it to a real-life event like the Kitty Genovese case, showcasing your ability to apply psychological concepts to practical situations.

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How to Write a Great Psychology Essay

Categories Psychology Education

Writing a great psychology essay takes skill. You need good research skills to provide an adequate empirical background. You also need to put your analytical skills to work to evaluate the research and then build a coherent argument. If you are not used to writing psychology essays, it can be a little challenging at first (especially if you are also learning how to use APA format).

Remember, the skill of writing an exceptional psychology essay lies not only in presenting information, but also in synthesizing and explaining it effectively. If you need to write a psychology essay for a class, here are some tips to help you get started.

Table of Contents

Key Takeaways

• Craft a strong thesis statement highlighting the main points of your psychology essay.
• Incorporate research studies to support arguments and critically evaluate their validity and reliability.
• Structure the essay with a clear introduction, focused body paragraphs, and a compelling conclusion.
• Include critical analysis by evaluating research methodologies, strengths, weaknesses, and ethical considerations.

What to Include in an APA Format Essay

To craft a great psychology essay, it’s important to make sure you follow the right format. While your instructor may have specific instructions, the typical format for an essay includes the following sections:

• The title page
• The abstract
• The introduction
• The main body
• The reference section

Mastering the key components of a psychology essay is vital for crafting a compelling and academically sound piece of writing. To start, a good introduction sets the stage for your essay, providing a clear overview of what will be discussed.

Moving on to the main body, each paragraph should focus on a main theme, supported by evidence from research studies published in peer-reviewed journals. It’s pivotal to critically evaluate these studies, considering their validity, reliability, and limitations to strengthen your arguments.

Incorporating research studies not only adds credibility to your essay but also demonstrates a deep understanding of theoretical perspectives in psychology.

The Structure of a Psychology Essay

Each section of a psychology essay should also follow a specific format:

The Title Page

The title page is the first impression of your essay, and it should be formatted according to APA guidelines. It typically includes:

• The title of your essay : Make sure it’s concise, descriptive, and gives the reader an idea of its content.
• Your name : Place your full name below the title.
• Institutional affiliation : This usually refers to your university or college.
• Course number and name : Include the course for which the essay is being written.
• Instructor’s name : Write the name of your instructor.
• Due date : Indicate the date when the essay is due.

The Abstract

The abstract is a brief summary of your essay, typically around 150-250 words. It should provide a snapshot of the main points and findings. Key elements include:

• Research topic : Briefly describe what your essay is about.
• Research questions : Outline the main questions your essay addresses.
• Methodology : Summarize the methods used to gather information or conduct research.
• Results : Highlight the key findings.
• Conclusion : Provide a concise conclusion or the implications of your findings.

The Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for your essay, providing context and outlining the main points. It should include:

• Hook : Start with an interesting fact, quote, or anecdote to grab the reader’s attention.
• Background information : Provide necessary context or background information on your topic.
• Thesis statement : Clearly state the main argument or purpose of your essay.
• Overview of structure : Briefly outline the structure of your essay to give the reader a roadmap.

The Main Body

The main body is the core of your essay, where you present your arguments, evidence, and analysis. It should be well-organized and divided into sections with subheadings if necessary. Each section should include:

• Topic sentences : Start each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea.
• Evidence : Provide evidence to support your arguments, such as data, quotes, or studies.
• Analysis : Analyze the evidence and explain how it supports your thesis.
• Transitions : Use transitions to ensure a smooth flow between paragraphs and sections.

The Reference Section

The reference section is crucial for giving credit to the sources you used and for allowing readers to locate the sources themselves. It should follow APA format and include:

• Alphabetical order : List all sources alphabetically by the author’s last name.
• Proper citation format : Follow APA guidelines for formatting each type of source (books, articles, websites, etc.).
• Hanging indent : Ensure that each reference entry has a hanging indent.

By following these guidelines, you can ensure that your psychology essay is well-structured, informative, and adheres to APA format.

Using Research in Your Psychology Essay

To strengthen the arguments in your psychology essay, it’s essential to incorporate relevant research studies that provide credibility and depth to your analysis. Utilizing research studies not only enhances the validity of your points but also demonstrates a deeper understanding of the topic at hand.

When integrating research into your essay, remember to include citations for each study referenced to give proper credit and allow readers to explore the sources further.

It is also important to evaluate the research studies you include to assess their validity, reliability, and any ethical considerations involved. This helps you determine the trustworthiness of the findings and whether they align with your argument.

Be sure to discuss any ethical concerns, such as participant deception or potential harm, and showcase a thoughtful approach to utilizing research in your essay.

Analyzing the Research Critically

When writing a psychology essay, using high-quality research sources and analyzing them critically is crucial. This not only strengthens your arguments but also ensures the credibility and reliability of your work. Here are some guidelines to help you critically analyze sources and use them appropriately:

Evaluating the Credibility of Sources

• Authorship : Check the credentials of the author. Are they an expert in the field? Do they have relevant qualifications or affiliations with reputable institutions?
• Publication Source : Determine where the research was published. Peer-reviewed journals, academic books, and respected organizations are considered reliable sources.
• Date of Publication : Ensure the research is current and up-to-date. In psychology, recent studies are often more relevant as they reflect the latest findings and theories.
• Citations and References : Look at how often the source is cited by other scholars. A frequently cited source is generally more credible.

Assessing the Quality of the Research

• Research Design and Methodology : Evaluate the research design. Is it appropriate for the study’s aims? Consider the sample size, controls, and methods used.
• Data Analysis : Check how the data was analyzed. Are the statistical methods sound and appropriate? Were the results interpreted correctly?
• Bias and Limitations : Identify any potential biases or limitations in the study. Authors should acknowledge these in their discussion.

Synthesizing Information from Multiple Sources

• Comparing Findings : Compare findings from different sources to identify patterns, trends, or discrepancies. This can help you understand the broader context and the range of perspectives on your topic.
• Integrating Evidence : Integrate evidence from various sources to build a comprehensive argument. Use multiple pieces of evidence to support each point or counterpoint in your essay.

Citing Sources Appropriately

• In-Text Citations : Follow APA guidelines for in-text citations. Include the author’s last name and the year of publication (e.g., Smith, 2020).
• Direct Quotes and Paraphrasing : When directly quoting, use quotation marks and provide a page number. For paraphrasing, ensure you rephrase the original text significantly and still provide an in-text citation.
• Reference List : Include a complete reference list at the end of your essay, formatted according to APA guidelines.

Using Sources to Support Your Argument

• Relevance : Ensure each source directly relates to your thesis or the specific point you are discussing. Irrelevant information can distract from your argument.
• Strength of Evidence : Use the strongest and most persuasive evidence available. Prioritize high-quality, peer-reviewed studies over less reliable sources.
• Balance : Present a balanced view by including evidence that supports and opposes your thesis. Acknowledging counterarguments demonstrates thorough research and critical thinking.

By critically analyzing research sources and using them appropriately, you can enhance the quality and credibility of your psychology essay. This approach ensures that your arguments are well-supported, your analysis is thorough, and your work adheres to academic standards.

Putting the Finishing Touches on Your Psychology Essay

Once you have a basic grasp of the topic and have written a rough draft of your psychology essay, the next step is to polish it up and ensure it is ready to turn in. To perfect your essay structure, consider the following:

• Make sure your topic is well-defined: Make sure your essay topic is specific and focused to provide a clear direction for your writing.
• Check that you are highlighting a main point in each paragraph: Commence each paragraph with a topic sentence that encapsulates the main idea you’ll discuss.
• Revise and refine your first draft: Take the time to review and refine your initial draft, guaranteeing that each section flows logically into the next and that your arguments are well-supported. ( Tip: Ask a friend of classmate to read through it to catch any typos or errors you might have missed. )
• Check your APA format : Use the APA publication manual to double-check that all your sources are cited and referenced correctly.

Creating an amazing psychology essay requires a compelling introduction, evidence-based arguments, a strong thesis statement, critical analysis, and a well-structured essay.

By incorporating research from peer-reviewed journals, evaluating studies for validity and reliability, and considering differing viewpoints and ethical considerations, you can craft a powerful and insightful piece that showcases your understanding of the topic.

With attention to detail and logical flow, your psychology essay will captivate and inform your readers effectively.

Home › University › A Level Requirements For Popular University Degrees (An A-Z) › A Level Requirements For Psychology

A Level Requirements For Psychology

• Published October 31, 2022

Psychology is a popular choice for university students, but which A-Levels do you need to take? 

That’s why we ensure that our Psychology summer school students have access to personalised 1:1 tutorials with expert tutors. 

So they can receive the best advice on their next steps in education according to their future goals.

We’ve also created this guide to help students like yourself choose the right A-Levels for studying Psychology at the university. Our guide includes information on the A-Level requirements of the Top Psychology universities in the UK.

After reading this article, you’ll feel more confident in making an informed decision about your future.

What Subjects Do You Need For Psychology A-Level? 

University of cambridge.

You can study Psychology in-depth at Cambridge by applying for the Psychological and Behavioural Sciences Tripos. The typical Cambridge A-Level for this course is A*AA. 

However, it is worth noting that some Cambridge Colleges may require A*A*A. No required or preferred subjects were specified. 

• University of Oxford

There are two Psychology courses you can take at the University of Oxford, including:

• MSci Experimental Psychology – standalone Psychology
• BA or MSci in Psychology, Philosophy and Linguistics – students can choose to study two out of these 3 subjects

The Oxford A-Level entry requirement for either of these Psychology courses is A*AA. 

For those wanting to study Psychology, Oxford highly recommends studying any of the following subjects to A2 Level:

• Mathematics
• Science (i.e. Biology, Chemistry, Physics, or Psychology)

University College London (UCL)

The required A-Level grade to study Psychology at the University College London is A*AA. With a contextual A-Level offer of BBB. 

For aspiring UCL Psychology students, you’re required to take at least one A-Level subject from among the following:

• Psychology 

Although it’s preferred if you take two, rather than just one. 

• University of Bath

The University of Bath requires A*AA in three A levels for students who want to study Psychology. An alternative offer is AAA.

Bath requires an A-Level each in numeracy and essay-based subjects.

Numeracy subjects include:

• Any science

Essay-based subjects include:

• English Literature
• Religious Studies
• King’s College London

King’s College London requires A-Level grades of A*AA for prospective Psychology students. What is the contextual offer? It’s AAB. 

Applicants need to have at least an A in any one of the following required subjects:

It’s important to note that King’s doesn’t accept these subjects as one of your A-Levels:

• General Studies
• Critical Thinking
• Thinking Skills
• Global Perspectives 

University of St Andrews

The University of St Andrews requires an A-Level grade from ABB to A*A*A for Psychology applicants. Does it specify what subjects it prefers or requires? Nope. 

The A-Level requirement is the same for the two Psychology degrees you can choose from:

• Psychology BSc (Honours) – study Psychology alongside science subjects
• Psychology MA (Honours) – study Psychology alongside arts subjects

University of Bristol

The University of Bristol offers three undergraduate Psychology courses:

• BSc Psychology
• MSci Psychology with Innovation
• MSci Psychology and Neuroscience

All three have the same standard A-Level offer of A*AA and contextual offer of AAB.

Both BSc Psychology and MSci Psychology with Innovation require an A in a science-related subject, including:

• Computer Science
• Further Mathematics

What about for MSci Psychology and Neuroscience? Bristol requires an A in a core science/maths subject, including: 

• Biology (or Human Biology)
• Mathematics (or Further Mathematics)

University of Exeter

The University of Exeter’s standard A-Level offer for BSc Psychology is AAA with an A in a Science subject. 

Here are Exter’s accepted Science subjects:

• Biology/Human Biology
• Design and Technology
• Electronics
• Environmental Studies
• Life and Health Sciences (Double Award only)
• Marine Science
• Maths/Pure Maths/Further Maths
• Nutrition and Food Science
• Physical Education
• Science (applied)
• Sport Science

Durham University

Durham University offers the following Psychology courses:

• BSc Psychological and Behavioural Science

With these joint programmes:

• BA Philosophy and Psychology
• BA Education Studies – Psychology
• BSc Psychology and Anthropology

The standard A-Level offer for these courses (except BA Education Studies – Psychology) is AAA. What about for BA Education Studies – Psychology? The required A-Level grade is AAB. 

Durham doesn’t require specific A-Level subjects. However, for BA Education Studies – Psychology, a Grade 5/B (or above) in Mathematics GCSE is needed for the application.

Cardiff University

What A-Level does Cardiff University require for prospective psychology students? A*AA-AAB. There are no specific or preferred A-level subjects for Cardiff’s Psychology (BSc).

Do You Need Maths For A-Level Psychology?

Maths is not a requirement for A-level psychology, but it is useful to have a strong foundation in maths skills. This is because much of the coursework in psychology involves conducting and analysing research, which requires strong maths skills. 

Did you notice how most of the Top Psychology schools in the UK we’ve covered in the previous section require at least one or two maths/science subjects for A-Level? 

Universities that include maths as one of their preferred subjects include:

• University College London

The list of universities that prefer A-Level Mathematics speaks volumes on how beneficial maths is for Psychology. 

Is there a GCSE for Psychology?

Yes, there is a GCSE for Psychology. But do you need GCSE Psychology to take A-Level Psychology? Nope, it’s not a requirement for A-level, but it is recommended.

What is usually required for taking A-Level Psychology is a grade 4 or 5 in Maths/Science, English Language, and another subject. 

It’s worth noting that taking a GCSE in Psychology will give you a strong foundation in the basics of psychology, which will be useful when you move on to the A-level course.

It also serves as good preparation for university-level Psychology.

Graduate Destinations

The Association of Graduate Careers Advisory Services “ What Do Graduates Do ” Survey 2021/22 reports that: 

• 45.5% of Psychology graduates work full-time 
• 12.5% work part-time
• 15% work and study 
• and 11.9% proceeded to further study within 15 months after graduation. 

A majority of those employed work in:

• and education professions.

Check out Psychology graduate destinations from specific university graduates:

Most recent graduates work within three sectors:

• Social Work

Here are the specific percentages:

• 32% Assistant Psychologist
• 26% Health-Related Research
• 17% Clinical Doctorate Course
• 13% Continuing Education

Other professions Bristol Psychology graduates get into include:

• Wholesale & Retail
• Banking & Accountancy
• Journalism & Media
• Recruitment & Personnel

Discover Uni reports that 90% of Exeter Psychology graduates were employed or enrolled in further study within 15 months after graduation. Those employed earn an average entry-level salary of £26,000.

Here are some of the professions of Exeter Psychology graduates:

• Therapy professionals
• Project support officers
• Teaching professionals
• Data analysts
• Programmers and software development professionals
• Business and related research professionals
• Marketing associate professionals
• Financial accounts managers
• Police officers
• Taxation experts

Who are some of the employers of Exeter Psychology graduates?

• Avon and Somerset Police
• The Francis Crick Institute
• Victim Support

For those who are enrolled in further study, what are some of the courses Exeter Psychology graduates took? 

• MSc Cognitive Neuroscience
• MSc Developmental Psychology
• MSc Global Mental Health
• MSc Forensic Mental Health
• MSc Human Resource Management
• MSc Applied Data Science and Statistics
• MSc Psychological Research Methods
• MA Conflict, Security and Development
• PhD in Psychological Medicine
• PGCE Secondary Psychology

Many Durham Psychology graduates proceed to have successful careers, whether directly related to Psychology or not, such as:

• Clinical Psychology
• Human Resources
• Marketing Analysis
• Speech & Language Therapy (via conversion course) 
• Law (also via conversion course)
• Teaching (PGCE Primary or Secondary).

Others chose to study further to get a Master’s or PhD degree in Psychology.

Do you want to know more about the career opportunities available to Psychology graduates? Then, check out this article, “ What Can You Do With A Psychology Degree? ”

What’s the Difference Between Psychology and Psychiatry? 

Psychiatry is a branch of medicine that deals with mental illness. A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who specialises in diagnosing and treating mental illness.

Psychologists, on the other hand, are not medical doctors. They do not prescribe medication or conduct medical procedures. Instead, psychologists use techniques such as talk therapy to help people deal with their mental health issues.

While there is some overlap between the two fields, they are quite different. Psychology is a much broader field than psychiatry. It includes the study of human behaviour, emotions, and cognition. 

But Psychiatry focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.

If you’re interested in a career in psychology, you will need to complete a bachelor’s degree in psychology. Are you interested in a career in psychiatry? Then you will need to complete a medical degree.

So, if you’re looking to study Psychology at the University, it’s important that you take the relevant Maths and Science A-Level subjects. However, don’t forget that other degrees are available in this field, so do your research to find the right one for you .

To learn more about the subjects you can expect to learn from a university-level Psychology programme with Immerse, download a syllabus overview .

We hope this article has been helpful and wish you all the best with your future studies!

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Essay Analysis: AQA A Level Psychology (2018)

Last updated 21 Aug 2018

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Here are the national results for each type of essay in the 2018 AQA A Level Psychology exams.

• The number of essay questions that students had to answer in 2018 dropped to 8, in comparison to 12 in 2017. In the 2017 exams, students answered an essay in every section of the exam and it was good to see the number of essays drop.
• In 2017, essays made up 51% of the entire A-Level, while in 2018 they made up 42%.
• Students performed significantly better on standard 16-mark essays (AO1-6, AO3-10) and application 16-mark essays (AO1-6, AO2-4, AO3-6) in 2018, in comparison to 2017.
• However, students performed worse on the applied 8-mark questions, suggesting that students are struggling to meet the demands on the shorter, applied questions.
• There were no standard 8-mark questions in 2018 and there was no design a study question.

Here are the national results every essay in the 2018 AQA A Level Psychology exam.

• While performance across the essay questions varied slightly, there were no huge surprises like 2017.
• Students performed better on the applied 16-mark question, in comparison to the standard 16-mark questions and applied 8-mark questions.
• Interestingly, it was the applied 8-mark questions which caused the most problems, with these questions receiving the lowest average score. This is in stark contrast to 2017, where these questions received significantly higher marks (54% average).
• It is worth nothing that the weighting of the applied 8-mark questions appears to have changed and now includes all three assessment objectives. Therefore, it is important that teachers review the mark schemes and examiner reports and support their students when structuring these questions to ensure that the demonstrate, knowledge, application and evaluation.

More support for AQA A Level Psychology

Aqa a level psychology example answers (2018), aqa a level psychology mcq revision blasts, you might also like, essay writing skills - advanced a03 with "double whopper" burgers, model answer for question 10 paper 2: as psychology, june 2016 (aqa), example answer for question 6 paper 1: as psychology, june 2017 (aqa), example answer for question 9 paper 2: as psychology, june 2017 (aqa), example answer for question 19 paper 2: as psychology, june 2017 (aqa), example answer for question 17 paper 1: a level psychology, june 2017 (aqa), example answers for section b gender topic paper 3 june 2018 (aqa), ib diploma psychology ia | nailing the exploration, our subjects.

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Issues and Debates in Psychology (A-Level Revision)

Deb Gajic, CPsychol

Team Leader Examiner (A-Level Psychology)

B.A. (Hons), Social Sciences, Msc, Psychology

Deb Gajic is an experienced educational consultant with a robust history in the education and training field. She brings expertise in Psychology, Training, CPD Provision, Writing, Examining, Tutoring, Coaching, Lecturing, Educational Technology, and Curriculum Development. She holds a Master of Science (MSc) in Psychology from The Open University, a PGCE from Leicester University, and a BA (Hons) 2:1 from Warwick University. She is a Chartered Psychologist (CPsychol) and an Associate Fellow of the British Psychological Society (AFBPsS).

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

What do the examiners look for?

• Accurate and detailed knowledge
• Clear, coherent, and focused answers
• Effective use of terminology (use the “technical terms”)

In application questions, examiners look for “effective application to the scenario,” which means that you need to describe the theory and explain the scenario using the theory making the links between the two very clear.

If there is more than one individual in the scenario you must mention all of the characters to get to the top band.

Difference between AS and A level answers

The descriptions follow the same criteria; however, you have to use the issues and debates effectively in your answers. “Effectively” means that it needs to be clearly linked and explained in the context of the answer.

Read the model answers to get a clearer idea of what is needed.

Gender and Culture in Psychology

Gender bias.

Gender bias results when one gender is treated less favorably than the other, often referred to as sexism, and it has a range of consequences, including:

• Scientifically misleading
• Upholding stereotypical assumptions
• Validating sex discrimination

Avoiding gender bias does not mean pretending that men and women are the same.

There are three main types of gender bias:

Alpha bias – this occurs when the differences between men and women are exaggerated. Therefore, stereotypically male and female characteristics may be emphasized.

Beta bias -this occurs when the differences between men and women are minimized. This often happens when findings obtained from men are applied to women without additional validation.

Androcentrism – taking male thinking/behavior as normal, regarding female thinking/behavior as deviant, inferior, abnormal, or ‘other’ when it is different.

Positive Consequences of Gender Bias

Alpha Bias :

• This has led some theorists (Gilligan) to assert the worth and valuation of ‘feminine qualities.’
• This has led to healthy criticism of cultural values that praise certain ‘male’ qualities, such as aggression and individualism, as desirable, adaptive, and universal.

Beta Bias :

• Makes people see men and women as the same, which has led to equal treatment in legal terms and equal access to, for example, education and employment.

Negative Consequences of Gender Bias

• Focus on differences between genders leads to the implication of similarity WITHIN genders. Thus, this ignores the many ways women differ from each other.
• Can sustain prejudices and stereotypes.
• Draws attention away from the differences in power between men and women.
• Is considered an egalitarian approach, but it results in major misrepresentations of both genders.

Consequences of Gender Bias

Kitzinger (1998) argues that questions about sex differences aren’t just scientific questions – they’re also political (women have the same rights as men). So gender differences are distorted to maintain the status quo of male power.

• Women were kept out of male-dominant universities.
• Women were oppressed.
• Women stereotypes (Bowlby).

Feminists argue that although gender differences are minimal or non-existent, they are used against women to maintain male power.

Judgments about an individual women’s ability are made on the basis of average differences between the sexes or biased sex-role stereotypes, and this also had the effect of lowering women’s self-esteem; making them, rather than men, think they have to improve themselves (Tavris, 1993).

Examples of Gender Bias in Research AO3

Kohlberg & moral development.

Kohlberg based his stages of moral development around male moral reasoning and had an all-male sample. He then inappropriately generalized his findings to women ( beta bias ) and also claimed women generally reached the lower level of moral development ( androcentrism ).

Carol Gilligan highlighted the gender bias inherent in Kohlberg’s work and suggested women make moral decisions in a different way than men (care ethic vs. justice ethic).

However, her research is arguably, also (alpha) biased, as male and female moral reasoning is more similar than her work suggests.

Freud & Psychosexual Development

Freud’s ideas are seen as inherently gender biased, but it must be remembered that he was a product of his time. He saw ‘Biology as destiny’ and women’s roles as prescribed & predetermined.

All his theories are androcentric , most obviously: -‘Penis envy’ – women are defined psychologically by the fact that they aren’t men.

But Freud’s ideas had serious consequences/implications. They reinforced stereotypes, e.g., of women’s moral Inferiority, treated deviations from traditional sex-role behavior as pathological (career ambition = penis envy), and are clearly androcentric (phallocentric).

Biomedical Theories of Abnormality

In women, mental illness, especially depression, is much more likely to be explained in terms of neurochemical/hormonal processes rather than other possible explanations, such as social or environmental (e.g., domestic violence, unpaid labor, discrimination).

The old joke ‘Is it your hormones, love?’ is no joke for mentally ill women!

Gender Bias in the Research Process AO1

• Although female psychology students outnumber males, at a senior teaching and research level in universities, men dominate. Men predominate at the senior researcher level.
• The research agenda follows male concerns, female concerns may be marginalized or ignored.
• Most experimental methodologies are based on the standardized treatment of participants. This assumes that men and women respond in the same ways to the experimental situation.
• Women and men might respond differently to the research situation.
• Women and men might be treated differently by researchers.
• Could create artificial differences or mask real ones.
• Publishing bias towards positive results.
• Research that finds gender differences more likely to get published than that which doesn’t.
• Exaggerates the extent of gender differences.

Reducing Gender Bias in Psychology (AO3)

Equal opportunity legislation and feminist psychology have performed the valuable functions of reducing institutionalized gender bias and drawing attention to sources of bias and under-researched areas in psychology like childcare, sexual abuse, dual burden working, and prostitution.

The Feminist perspective

• Re-examining the ‘facts’ about gender.
• View women as normal humans, not deficient men.
• Skepticism towards biological determinism.
• Research agenda focusing on women’s concerns.
• A psychology for women, rather than a psychology of women.

Learning Check AO2

This activity will help you to:

• Identify gender biases in psychological theories
• Discuss the impact of biased research on society
• Critically assess gender-biased theories

Below are two examples of research that could be considered gender biased. Working in pairs or small groups, you need to do the following:

1. Identify aspects of the research that could be considered gender biased

2. Identify and explain the type of gender bias that is present

3. Suggest the impact that these research examples could have on society

You could look, for example, at how the research might uphold or reinforce gender stereotypes or be used to disempower women in society.

The Psychodynamic View of Personality and Moral Development

Freud and many of his followers believed that biological differences between men and women had major consequences for psychological development. In their view, ‘biology is destiny.’

Freud believed that gender divergence begins at the onset of the phallic stage, where the girl realizes that she has no penis, and starts to feel inferiour to boys (penis envy).

Penis envy becomes a major driving force in the girl’s mental life and needs to be successfully sublimated into a desire for a husband and children if it is not to become pathological.

This view of gender divergence in personality development has implications for other aspects of development. For example, Freud’s view of morality was that it was regulated by the superego, which is an internalization of the same-sex parent that regulates behavior through the threat of punishment.

In boys, immoral behavior is regulated through the mechanism of castration anxiety – men obey the rules because of an unconscious fear that their father will take away their penis.

In the Freudian view, the girl has already had to accept her castration as a fait accompli, which raises important questions about the relative moral strength of men and women.

The Biological View of Mental Illness

The biomedical view of mental illness, which approaches behavioral and psychological abnormality as a manifestation of underlying pathological processes on the biological level, dominates the discussion of mental illness.

In the biomedical view , illnesses such as depression can be explained in terms of chemical imbalances causing malfunction in the parts of the brain associated with emotion.

When explaining why twice as many women as men are diagnosed with depression, adherents of the biomedical view tend to suggest that this is due to hormonal differences and point to the existence of, for example, post-natal depression to show how fluctuations in female sex hormones can lead to abnormalities of mood.

Similarly, sex differences in hormonal processes can be used to explain the existence of disorders that are ‘gender bound,’ such as pre-menstrual syndrome.

Culture Bias

Culture can be described as all the knowledge and values shared by a society.

Cultures may differ from one another in many ways, so the findings of psychological research conducted in one culture may not apply directly to another.

General Background

In order to fulfill its aspiration of explaining human thinking and behavior, psychology must address the huge diversity in people around the globe. Each individual’s behavior is shaped by a huge number of factors, including their genes, upbringing, and individual experiences.

At the same time, people are affected by a range of factors that are specific to the cultural group in which they developed and within which they live. Psychologists should always attempt to account for the ways in which culture affects thinking and behavior.

However, this has not always been the case. Psychology is a discipline that evolved within a very specific cultural context.

Psychology is predominantly a white, Euro-American enterprise: – (i) 64% of psychological researchers are from the US; (ii) in some texts, 90% of studies have US Participants; (iii) samples are predominantly white middle class.

Consequently, it has incorporated a particular worldview (that of the industrialized West) into the ways it tries to understand people. This can have consequences. For example:

• Psychologists may overlook the importance of cultural diversity in understanding human behavior, resulting in theories that are scientifically inadequate.
• They may also privilege their own worldview over those that emerge from other cultures, leading to research that either intentionally or unintentionally supports racist and discriminatory practices in the real world.

We will be looking at how cultural bias can affect psychological theories and research studies and the sorts of things psychologists can do to avoid the worst effects of cultural bias.

Types of Theoretical Constructions for Understanding Cultural Bias AO1

An emic construct is one that is applied only to one cultural group, so they vary from place to place (differences between cultures).

An emic approach refers to the investigation of a culture from within the culture itself. This means that research of European society from a European perspective is emic, and African society by African researchers in Africa is also emic. An emic approach is more likely to have ecological validity as the findings are less likely to be distorted or caused by a mismatch between the cultures of the researchers and the culture being investigated.

Cultural bias can occur when a researcher assumes that an emic construct (behavior specific to a single culture) is actually etic (behavior universal to all cultures).

For example, emic constructs are likely to be ignored or misinterpreted as researchers from another culture may not be sensitive to local emics. Their own cultural ‘filters’ may prevent them from detecting them or appreciating their significance.

An etic construct is a theoretical idea that is assumed to apply in all cultural groups. Therefore, etic constructs are considered universal to all people and are factors that hold across all cultures (similarities between cultures).

Etic constructs assume that most human behavior is common to humans but that cultural factors influence the development or display of this behavior.

Cultural bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.

Making the assumption that behaviors are universal across cultures can lead to imposed etics , where a construct from one culture is applied inappropriately to another. For example, although basic human emotional facial expressions are universal, there can be subtle cultural variations in these.

Bias can occur when emics and etics get mistaken for each other.

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism occurs when a researcher assumes that their own culturally specific practices or ideas are ‘natural’ or ‘right’.

The individual uses their own ethnic group to evaluate and make judgments about other individuals from other ethnic groups. Research that is ‘centered’ around one cultural group is called ‘ethnocentric.’

When other cultures are observed to differ from the researcher’s own, they may be regarded in a negative light, e.g., ‘primitive,’ ‘degenerate,’ ‘unsophisticated,’ ‘undeveloped,’ etc.

This becomes racism when other cultures are denigrated, or their traditions are regarded as irrelevant, etc.

The antidote to ethnocentrism is cultural relativism, which is an approach to treating each culture as unique and worthy of study.

Cultural Relativism

Cultural relativism is the principle of regarding the beliefs, values, and practices of a culture from the viewpoint of that culture itself.

The principle is sometimes practiced to avoid cultural bias in research, as well as to avoid judging another culture by the standards of one’s own culture. For this reason, cultural relativism has been considered an attempt to avoid ethnocentrism.

Culturally Biased Research AO3

Ainsworth’s strange situation for attachment.

The strange situation procedure is not appropriate for assessing children from non-US or UK populations as it is based on Western childrearing ideals (i.e., ethnocentric).

The original study only used American, middle-class, white, home-reared infants and mothers; therefore, the generalisability of the findings could be questioned, as well as whether this procedure would be valid for other cultures too.

Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make results liable to misinterpretation, e.g., German or Japanese samples.

Takashi (1990) aimed to see whether the strange situation is a valid procedure for cultures other than the original. Takashi found no children in the avoidant-insecure stage.

This could be explained in cultural terms as Japanese children are taught that such behavior is impolite, and they would be actively discouraged from displaying it. Also, because Japanese children experience much less separation, the SSC was more than mildly stressful.

IQ testing and Research (e.g., Eysenck)

An example of an etic approach that produces bias might be the imposition of IQ tests designed within one culture on another culture. If a test is designed to measure a European person’s understanding of what intelligence is , it may not be a valid measurement of the intelligence of people from other continents.

IQ tests developed in the West contain embedded assumptions about intelligence, but what counts as ‘intelligent’ behavior varies from culture to culture.

Non-Westerners may be disadvantaged by such tests – and then viewed as ‘inferior’ when they don’t perform as Westerners do.

Task: Try the Chittling IQ Test

Consequences of Culture Bias AO3

Nobles (1976) argues that western psychology has been a tool of oppression and dominance. Cultural bias has also made it difficult for psychologists to separate the behavior they have observed from the context in which they observed it.

Reducing Culture Bias AO3

Equal opportunity legislation aims to rid psychology of cultural bias and racism, but we must be aware that merely swapping old, overt racism for new, more subtle forms of racism (Howitt and Owusu-Bempah, 1994).

Free Will & Determinism

The free will/determinism debate revolves around the extent to which our behavior is the result of forces over which we have no control or whether people are able to decide for themselves whether to act or behave in a certain way.

Free Will suggests that we all have a choice and can control and choose our own behavior. This approach is all about personal responsibility and plays a central role in Humanist Psychology.

By arguing that humans can make free choices, the free will approach is quite the opposite of the deterministic one. Psychologists who take the free will view suggest that determinism removes freedom and dignity and devalues human behavior.

To a lesser degree, Cognitive Psychology also supports the idea of free will and choice. In reality, although we do have free will, it is constrained by our circumstances and other people. For example, when you go shopping, your choices are constrained by how much money you have.

• It emphasizes the importance of the individual and studying individual differences.
• It fits society’s view of personal responsibility, e.g., if you break the law, you should be punished.
• The idea of self-efficacy is useful in therapies as it makes them more effective.
• Free will is subjective, and some argue it doesn’t exist.
• It is impossible to scientifically test the concept of free will.
• Few people would agree that behavior is always completely under the control of the individual.

Determinism

The determinist approach proposes that all behavior is determined and thus predictable. Some approaches in psychology see the source of this determinism as being outside the individual, a position known as environmental determinism.

Others see it from coming inside, i.e., in the form of unconscious motivation or genetic determinism – biological determinism.

• Environmental (External) Determinism : This is the idea that our behavior is caused by some sort of outside influence, e.g., parental influence.

Skinner (1971) argued that freedom is an illusion. We may think we have free will, but the probability of any behavior occurring is determined by past experiences.

Skinner claimed that free will was an illusion – we think we are free, but this is because we are not aware of how our behavior is determined by reinforcement.

• Biological (Internal) Determinism : Our biological systems, such as the nervous system, govern our behavior.

For example, a high IQ may be related to the IGF2R gene (Chorney et al. 1998).

• Psychic (Internal) Determinism : Freud believed childhood experiences and unconscious motivations governed behavior.

Freud thought that free will was an illusion because he felt that the causes of our behavior are unconscious and still predictable.

There are different levels of determinism.

Hard Determinism

Hard Determinism sees free will as an illusion and believes that every event and action has a cause.

Soft Determinism

Soft Determinism represents a middle ground. People do have a choice, but that choice is constrained by external factors, e.g., Being poor doesn’t make you steal, but it may make you more likely to take that route through desperation.

• Determinism is scientific and allows cause-and-effect relationships to be established.
• It gives plausible explanations for behavior backed up by evidence.
• Determinism is reductionist.
• Does not account for individual differences. By creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.
• Hard determinism suggests criminals cannot be held accountable for their actions. Deterministic explanations for behavior reduce individual responsibility. A person arrested for a violent attack, for example, might plead that they were not responsible for their behavior – it was due to their upbringing, a bang on the head they received earlier in life, recent relationship stresses, or a psychiatric problem. In other words, their behavior was determined.

Essay Question : – Discuss free will & determinism in psychology (16 marks)

Nature & Nurture

The central question is the extent to which our behavior is determined by our biology (nature) and the genes we inherit from our parents versus the influence of environmental factors (nurture) such as home school and friends.

Nature is the view that all our behavior is determined by our biology and our genes. This is not the same as the characteristics you are born with because these may have been determined by your prenatal environment.

In addition, some genetic characteristics only appear later in development as a result of the process of maturation. Supporters of the nature view have been called ‘nativists.’

Evolutionary explanations of human behavior exemplify the nature approach in psychology. The main assumption underlying this approach is that any particular behavior has evolved because of its survival value.

E.g., Bowlby suggested that attachment behaviors are displayed because they ensure the survival of an infant and the perpetuation of the parents’ genes. This survival value is further increased because attachment has implications for later relationship formation, which will ultimately promote successful reproduction.

Evolutionary psychologists assume that behavior is a product of natural selection. Interpersonal attraction can, for example, be explained as a consequence of sexual selection.

Men and women select partners who enhance their productive success, judging this in terms of traits that ‘advertise’ reproductive fitness, such as signs of healthiness (white teeth) or resources.

Physiological psychology is also based on the assumption that behavior can be explained in terms of genetically programmed systems.

• Bowlby’s explanation of attachment does not ignore environmental influences, as is generally true for evolutionary explanations. In the case of attachment theory, Bowlby proposed that infants become most strongly attached to the caregiver who responds most sensitively to the infant’s needs.
• The experience of sensitive caregiving leads a child to develop expectations that others will be equally sensitive so that they tend to form adult relationships that are enduring and trusting.
• The problem of the transgenerational effect. Behavior that appears to be determined by nature (and therefore is used to support this nativist view) may, in fact, be determined by nurture! e.g., if a woman has a poor diet during her pregnancy, her unborn child will suffer.
• This means that the eggs with which each female child is born will also have these negative effects. This can then affect the development of her children a whole generation later.
• This means that a child’s development may, in fact, be determined by their grandmother’s environment (transgenerational effect). This suggests that what may appear to be inherited and inborn is, in fact, caused by the environment and nurture.

Nurture is the opposite view that all behavior is learned and influenced by external factors such as the environment etc. Supports of the nurture view are ‘empiricists’ holding the view that all knowledge is gained through experience.

The behaviorist approach is the clearest example of the nurture position in psychology, which assumes that all behavior is learned through the environment. The best-known example is the social learning explanation of aggression using the Bobo doll.

SLT proposes that much of what we learn is through observation and vicarious reinforcement. E.g., Bandura demonstrated this in his Bobo doll experiments. He found that children who watched an adult role model being rewarded for aggression toward an inflatable doll tended to imitate that behavior when later on their own with a Bobo doll.

This supports the idea that personality is determined by nurture rather than nature. This provides us with a model of how to behave. However, such behavior becomes part of an individual’s behavioral repertoire through direct reinforcement – when behavior is imitated, it receives direct reinforcement (or not).

Another assumption of the nurture approach is that there is a double bind hypothesis that explains schizophrenia. They suggest that schizophrenia develops because children receive contradictory messages from their parents.

• Empirical evidence shows that behavior is learned and can be modified through conditioning.
• Behaviorist accounts are all in terms of learning, but even learning itself has a genetic basis. For example, research has found that mutant flies missing a crucial gene cannot be conditioned (Quinn et al., 1979).

Conclusion (AO3)

Instead of defending extreme nature or nurture views , most psychological researchers are now interested in investigating the ways in which nature and nurture interact. It is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either nature or nurture and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior.

For example, in psychopathology, this means that both a genetic predisposition and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a mental disorder to develop. Therefore, it makes more sense to say that the difference between two people’s behavior is mostly due to hereditary factors or mostly due to environmental factors.

The Diathesis-stress model of Schizophrenia suggests that although people may inherit a predisposition to Schizophrenia, some sort of environmental stressor is required in order to develop the disease.

This explains why Schizophrenia happens in the late teens or early adulthood, times of considerable upheaval and stress in people’s lives, e.g., leaving home, starting work, forging new relationships, etc.

Essay Question : – Describe & evaluate the nature-nurture debate in psychology (16 marks)

Reductionism & Holism

Holism is often referred to as Gestalt psychology . It argues that behavior cannot be understood in terms of the components that make them up. This is commonly described as ‘the whole being greater than the sum of its parts.’

Psychologists study the whole person to gain an understanding of all the factors that might influence behavior. Holism uses several levels of explanation, including biological, environmental, and social factors.

Holistic approaches include Humanism, Social, and Gestalt psychology and make use of the case study method. Jahoda’s six elements of Optimal Living are an example of a holistic approach to defining abnormality.

Imagine you were asked to make a cake .

If I simply told you that you needed 3 eggs, 75 grams of sugar, and 75 grams of self-raising. Would that be enough information for you to make a sponge cake? What else would you need to know?

In this way, a cake is more than the sum of its parts. Simply putting all the ingredients into a tin and sticking them in the oven would not result in a sponge cake!

• Looks at everything that may impact behavior.
• Does not ignore the complexity of behavior.
• Integrates different components of behavior in order to understand the person as a whole.
• It can be higher in ecological validity.
• Over-complicate behaviors that may have simpler explanations (Occam’s Razor).
• Does not lend itself to the scientific method and empirical testing.
• Makes it hard to determine cause and effect.
• Neglects the importance of biological explanations.
• Almost impossible to study all the factors that influence complex human behaviors

Reductionism

Reductionism is the belief that human behavior can be explained by breaking it down into smaller component parts. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work.

In psychology, the term is most appropriately applied to biological explanations (e.g., genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones) of complex human behaviors such as schizophrenia, gender, and aggression.

Such reductionist explanations can be legitimately criticized as ignoring psychological, social, and cultural factors.

Cognitive psychology, with its use of the computer analogy, reduces behavior to the level of a machine, mechanistic reductionism.

Behaviorist psychology sees behavior in terms of simple stimulus/response relationships. And finally, the psychodynamic perspective reduces behavior to unconscious motivation and early childhood experiences.

• The use of a reductionist approach to behavior can be a useful one in allowing scientific study to be carried out. The scientific study requires the isolation of variables to make it possible to identify the causes of behavior.
• For example, research into the genetic basis of mental disorders has enabled researchers to identify specific genes believed to be responsible for schizophrenia. This way, a reductionist approach enables the scientific causes of behavior to be identified and advances the possibility of scientific study.
• A reductionist approach to studying mental disorders has led to the development of effective chemical treatments
• The disadvantage is that it can be over-simplistic. Humans and their environments are so complex that the reductionist explanation falls short of giving the whole explanation of the behavior. Thus, it lacks ecological validity
• Does not address larger societal issues e.g., poverty.

Reductionism in psychology is useful, as sometimes the simplest explanation is the best. Physiological approaches do tend to be reductionist, but as long as we bare these limitations in mind.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to take a completely holistic approach to psychology, as human behavior is so complex. Case studies come closest to taking a holistic approach.

Explaining behavior in a reductionist manner is seen as a low-level explanation, whereas more holistic explanations are high-level explanations.

Essay Question : – Discuss holism and reductionism in psychology (16 marks)

Idiographic & Nomothetic Approaches

Nomothetic approach.

The Nomothetic approach looks at how our behaviors are similar to each other as human beings. The term “nomothetic” comes from the Greek word “nomos,” meaning “law.”

Psychologists who adopt this approach are mainly concerned with studying what we share with others. That is to say, in establishing laws or generalizations. Tend to use quantitative methods.

Personality: – A Nomothetic Approach

The psychometric approach to the study of personality compares individuals in terms of traits or dimensions common to everyone. This is a nomothetic approach, and two examples are Hans Eysenck’s type and Raymond Cattell’s 16PF trait theories.

The details of their work need not concern us here. Suffice it to say they both assume that there are a small number of traits that account for the basic structure of all personalities and that individual differences can be measured along these dimensions.

• The nomothetic approach is seen as far more scientific than the idiographic approach, as it takes an evidence-based, objective approach to formulate causal laws.
• This enables us to make predictions about how people are likely to react in certain circumstances, which can be very useful, e.g., Zimbardo’s findings about how prisoners and guards react in a prison environment.
• Predictions can be made about groups, but these may not apply to individuals.
• The approach has been accused of losing sight of the ‘whole person.’

Idiographic Approach

The Idiographic or individual differences approach looks at how our behaviors are different from each other. The term “idiographic” comes from the Greek word “idios” meaning “own” or “private.” Psychologists interested in this aspect of experience want to discover what makes each of us unique. Tend to use qualitative methods.

Personality: – An Idiographic Approach

At the other extreme, Gordon Allport found over 18,000 separate terms describing personal characteristics. Whilst some of these are common traits (that could be investigated nomothetically), the majority, in Allport’s view, referred to more or less unique dispositions based on life experiences peculiar to ourselves.

He argues that they cannot be effectively studied using standardized tests. What is needed is a way of investigating them ideographically.

Carl Rogers, a Humanist psychologist, has developed a method of doing this, a procedure called the “Q-sort.” First, the subject is given a large set of cards with a self-evaluative statement written on each one. For example, “I am friendly” or “I am ambitious,” etc.

The subject is then asked to sort the cards into piles. One pile contains statements that are “most like me,” one statement that is “least like me,” and one or more piles for statements that are in-between.

In a Q-sort, the number of cards can be varied, as can the number of piles and the type of question (e.g., How I am now? How I used to be? How my partner sees me? How I would like to be?) So there are a potentially infinite number of variations.

That, of course, is exactly as it should be for an idiographic psychologist because, in his/her view, there are ultimately as many different personalities as there are people.

• A major strength of the idiographic approach is its focus on the individual. Gordon Allport argues that it is only by knowing the person as a person that we can predict what the person will do in any given situation.
• The idiographic approach is very time-consuming. It takes a lot of time and money to study individuals in depth. If a researcher is using the nomothetic approach, once a questionnaire, psychometric test, or experiment has been designed, data can be collected relatively quickly.

From these examples, we can see that the difference between a nomothetic and an idiographic approach is not just a question of what the psychologist wants to discover but also of the methods used.

Experiments, correlation, psychometric testing, and other quantitative methods are favored from a nomothetic point of view. Case studies, informal interviews, unstructured observation, and other qualitative methods are idiographic.

There are also broad differences between theoretical perspectives. Behaviorist, cognitive and biological psychologists tend to focus on discovering laws or establishing generalizations: – Nomothetic. The humanists are interested in the individual: – Idiographic.

As always, it is best to take a combined approach. Millon & Davis (1996) suggest research should start with a nomothetic approach and once general ‘laws’ have been established, research can then move to a more idiographic approach. Thus, getting the best of both worlds!

Essay Question : – Discuss idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation (16 marks)

Ethical Issues in Psychology & Socially Sensitive Research

There has been an assumption over the years by many psychologists that provided they follow the BPS guidelines when using human participants and that all leave in a similar state of mind to how they turned up, not having been deceived or humiliated, given a debrief, and not having had their confidentiality breached, that there are no ethical concerns with their research.

But consider the following examples :

a) Caughy et al. 1994 found that middle-class children put in daycare at an early age generally score less on cognitive tests than children from similar families reared in the home.

Assuming all guidelines were followed, neither the parents nor the children that participated would have been unduly affected by this research. Nobody would have been deceived, consent would have been obtained, and no harm would have been caused.

However, think of the wider implications of this study when the results are published, particularly for parents of middle-class infants who are considering placing their young charges in daycare or those who recently have!

b)  IQ tests administered to black Americans show that they typically score 15 points below the average white score.

When black Americans are given these tests, they presumably complete them willingly and are in no way harmed as individuals. However, when published, findings of this sort seek to reinforce racial stereotypes and are used to discriminate against the black population in the job market, etc.

Sieber & Stanley (1988) (the main names for Socially Sensitive Research (SSR) outline 4 groups that may be affected by psychological research: It is the first group of people that we are most concerned with!

1) Members of the social group being studied, such as racial or ethnic group. For example, early research on IQ was used to discriminate against US Blacks.

2) Friends and relatives of those taking part in the study, particularly in case studies, where individuals may become famous or infamous. Cases that spring to mind would include Genie’s mother.

3) The research team. There are examples of researchers being intimidated because of the line of research they are in.

4) The institution in which the research is conducted.

Sieber & Stanley (1988) also suggest there are 4 main ethical concerns when conducting SSR:

• The research question or hypothesis.
• The treatment of individual participants.
• The institutional context.
• The way in which the findings of the research are interpreted and applied.

Ethical Guidelines For Carrying Out SSR

Sieber and Stanley suggest the following ethical guidelines for carrying out SSR. There is some overlap between these and research on human participants in general.

Privacy : This refers to people rather than data. Asking people questions of a personal nature (e.g., about sexuality) could offend.

Confidentiality: This refers to data. Information (e.g., about H.I.V. status) leaked to others may affect the participant’s life.

Sound & valid methodology : This is even more vital when the research topic is socially sensitive. Academics are able to detect flaws in methods, but the lay public and the media often don’t. When research findings are publicized, people are likely to take them as fact, and policies may be based on them. Examples are Bowlby’s maternal deprivation studies and intelligence testing.

Deception : Causing the wider public to believe something, which isn’t true by the findings, you report (e.g., that parents are totally responsible for how their children turn out).

Informed consent : Participants should be made aware of how taking part in the research may affect them.

Justice & equitable treatment : Examples of unjust treatment are (i) publicizing an idea, which creates a prejudice against a group, & (ii) withholding a treatment, which you believe is beneficial, from some participants so that you can use them as controls. E.g., The Tuskergee Study which withheld treatment for STIs from black men to investigate the effects of syphilis on the body.

Scientific freedom : Science should not be censored, but there should be some monitoring of sensitive research. The researcher should weigh their responsibilities against their rights to do the research.

Ownership of data : When research findings could be used to make social policies, which affect people’s lives, should they be publicly accessible? Sometimes, a party commissions research with their own interests in mind (e.g., an industry, an advertising agency, a political party, or the military).

Some people argue that scientists should be compelled to disclose their results so that other scientists can re-analyze them. If this had happened in Burt’s day, there might not have been such widespread belief in the genetic transmission of intelligence. George Miller (Miller’s Magic 7) famously argued that we should give psychology away.

The values of social scientists : Psychologists can be divided into two main groups: those who advocate a humanistic approach (individuals are important and worthy of study, quality of life is important, intuition is useful) and those advocating a scientific approach (rigorous methodology, objective data).

The researcher’s values may conflict with those of the participant/institution. For example, if someone with a scientific approach was evaluating a counseling technique based on a humanistic approach, they would judge it on criteria that those giving & receiving the therapy may not consider important.

Cost/benefit analysis : If the costs outweigh the potential/actual benefits, it is unethical. However, it is difficult to assess costs & benefits accurately & the participants themselves rarely benefit from research.

Sieber & Stanley advise: Researchers should not avoid researching socially sensitive issues. Scientists have a responsibility to society to find useful knowledge.

• They need to take more care over consent, debriefing, etc. when the issue is sensitive.
• They should be aware of how their findings may be interpreted & used by others.
• They should make explicit the assumptions underlying their research so that the public can consider whether they agree with these.
• They should make the limitations of their research explicit (e.g., ‘the study was only carried out on white middle-class American male students,’ ‘the study is based on questionnaire data, which may be inaccurate,’ etc.
• They should be careful how they communicate with the media and policymakers.
• They should be aware of the balance between their obligations to participants and those to society (e.g. if the participant tells them something which they feel they should tell the police/social services).
• They should be aware of their own values and biases and those of the participants.
• Psychologists have devised methods to resolve the issues raised.
• SSR is the most scrutinized research in psychology. Ethical committees reject more SSR than any other form of research.
• By gaining a better understanding of issues such as gender, race, and sexuality, we are able to gain greater acceptance and reduce prejudice.
• SSR has been of benefit to society, for example, EWT. This has made us aware that EWT can be flawed and should not be used without corroboration. It has also made us aware that the EWT of children is every bit as reliable as that of adults.
• Most research is still carried out on white middle-class Americans (about 90% of research is quoted in texts!). SSR is helping to redress the balance and make us more aware of other cultures and outlooks.
• Flawed research has been used to dictate social policy and put certain groups at a disadvantage.
• Research has been used to discriminate against groups in society, such as the sterilization of people in the USA between 1910 and 1920 because they were of low intelligence, criminal, or suffered from psychological illness.
• The guidelines used by psychologists to control SSR lack power and, as a result, are unable to prevent indefensible research from being carried out.

A-Level Psychology Revision Notes

A-Level Psychology Attachment

Psychology Memory Revision Notes

Social Influence Revision Notes

Psychopathology Revision Notes

Psychology Approaches Revision for A-level

Research Methods: Definition, Types, & Examples

Arts Sciences

• Preferred A Levels

Preferred UK GCE A Levels for Arts and Sciences

• Subjects marked with an asterisk (*) will only be counted as an essay-based subject if there is a minimum 50% essay-based or written response assessment as part of the overall award. This may vary by exam board so please contact us if you have any queries about this.
• Mathematics and Further Mathematics can be considered as two separate A Levels.
• If a student takes an A Level in their native language, it is at the discretion of UCL as to whether this will be considered as a 'humanities' A Level for the purposes of Arts and Sciences (BASc). Please contact us if you have a specific query.

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Secondary education

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A Level subjects - too essay based?

Dancergirl · 28/09/2016 09:12

Dd is in Year 11 and has to choose her A Level Choices by February. We had a very informative meeting at school recently where pupils and parents attended talks on the subjects they are interested in. Dd is thinking of English Literature, History, Government and Politics and Psychology. I'm just a bit worried about the amount of essay writing involved in these subjects but there isn't really anything else she wants to do. She did consider Spanish briefly but isn't really a natural linguist and not too keen.

They are essay based, but if she chooses to go on to University anything she goes for will have a large written component so its good to get used to it. Those are an extremely good fit as each will look for her to construct and present coherent arguments and analyse evidence. There will be a number of overlaps in contextual materials and theories.

Does she need to do 4 or would she be ok with dropping to 3? a lot of colleges now strongly discourage 4.

She would do 4 in Year 12, then choose to one AS at the end of that year, then continue with the other 3 for A Level.

Is that normal, they really HAVE to choose by Feb of yr11?

One of DD's friends is in year 12 and doing those subjects, and is massively struggling with the workload.

That's LATE to be choosing ime! Mine had to choose when they submitted their sixth form applications at the end of year 10! Obviously there is a bit of wiggle room to change the choices should GCSEs go pear shaped.

YeOldeTrout - yes, that's normal to have chosen their preferences by then. There is some movement after GCSE reults come out, but schools need to know which courses they can run, who they have to teach which subjects etc. Dancergirl - it's a pretty normal combination for ASs (not that all schools will choose to do ASs under the new spec). If they are leaning towards humanities subjects then there will be lots of essays. However, they won't need lab time or practicals time like some other subjects. People should always choose subjects they enjoy for A-level. They are a big jump from GCSE and the pupils need to want to be there.

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"That's LATE to be choosing ime! Mine had to choose when they submitted their sixth form applications at the end of year 10!" That's way too early. It is usual to apply for 6th form in year 11. The 6th form open evenings are held in November round here and applications have to be in by around February, but I can't remember exactly when.

Same here Nick

Oh FFS :(. You guys aren't crazy. Although I know plenty of local kids apply quite late, Our local 6th form likes applications from 1 Sept of yr11, so it's not too early for me to get yr10 DD looking. Problem is she's currently full of angst about it all, so I hope she doesn't implode at having to make decisions. Argh. Still, I guess there are opportunities in this.

I think your DD should do Maths rather than Psychology.

There's NO WAY she will consider Maths! She can't wait to drop it.

Psychology isn't essay based.

I think your DD should do Maths rather than Psychology. Entirely different aptitude! Like saying do Art instead of PE..... Don't worry too much about selections now anyway - that's mainly for the school to forward plan. She can change her mind when she gets her results.

It really depends on your teachers- how many essays they decide to give you- and also of course how long it generally takes you to do an essay! We do History and English Literature, with French and Mathematic and for me I know I would struggle with another essay subject! I suppose you could count French as an essay subject but they're only small essay! (In you case it's Spanish) For English Literature advice good article essmart.org/art-essay/ For History you really have to be commited so if you'd be prepared to switch it with Government and Politics then maybe it doesn't mean that much to you. If you're interested enough in the history then you should be fine.

Does she have any idea what she might want to study at university? If it there's any chance it might be psychology, she might want to think about studying another science subject instead of Government & Politics, as some universities have this as an admissions requirement. It also depends on where she might be aiming but Cambridge has both Government & Politics and Psychology on a B list of subjects that they consider less suitable university preparation,( www.trin.cam.ac.uk/undergraduate/applying/a-level-subject-combinations/ ) and some Russell Group unis also look slightly less favourably on them.

Dancergirl what does she want to do post A level? Choosing A levels should be an iterative process: she may need to go a few times round the loop looking at post A level, revising possible A level choices and back round the loop again. This should be a fun activity, visualising the future, imagining being at this or that uni. Do I like the look of the course/location? Can I imagine myself doing this? DD now in Y12 does this a lot with her sixth form friends - they call it 'the future game'. Do encourage her to read the A level specifications in detail. These are easily googleable. This is important. One of my DCs dropped plans for History A level when she found out the major theme was the Russian Revolution. All three of my DCs reported that their friends were finding psychology both different from and harder than their expectations. History and Eng Lit are facilitating subjects. RG unis will be looking for these. The other 2 will be hard work but some unis may not want them.

Pyschology is a Science subject (the new specification is more Science based) but there are essays. If your dd really doesn't like Maths, your dd may need to rethink this one - there is quite a lot of maths (mostly statistics) in Pyschology. My dd (now Y12) considered this A level subject and had a "taster" session where the teacher confirmed this. Provided your dd takes both English Lit and History in Y13 she should be OK even for RG unis (2 out of 3 facilitating subjects is fine).

If she were a better linguist taking a language along with humanities is not a bad idea. In general there is less competition for English or history plus a language at good Universities , than there is for the single honours. Plus having a language does no harm when subsequently looking for a job.

I totally agreed, needmoresleep. Languages are a facilitating subject and can result in a lower offer from a university if continued with a highly popular subject to degree level. However, History and English Lit are facilitating and together with Government and Politics will be essay intensive. However, all are good preparation for university and if two out of three A levels are fascilitating, that is just fine. Therefore definitely do English Lit and History. One thing I would say though, is that two of these subjects are, presumably, new for her. Mostly schools do not study Psychology or Govt and Politics at GCSE. Sometimes there is a steep learning curve to get up to speed in new subjects. Is she ok with this? Would continuing a subject be easier?

I'm a natural essay writer and did three of those subjects plus another essay based one, and loved it. Helped me out during my degree too. If she likes writing essays I'm sure that's fine. Psychology isn't particularly essay based anyway. If you're naturally good at writing based subjects, English is a breeze and history is equally easy once you've figured out how to write an essay for it, plus a bit of fact learning.

I think these looks like a pretty good set to me, and although there will be lots of essays, if she prefers essay-based subjects to maths, sciences and languages, she'll still find that easier I expect. IME government and politics is fairly easy if she likes and is good at history. Psychology might be a bit different though, it's worth checking out how scientific the curriculum is as it's technically a science I think. If she wants to do an essay-based subject at a competitive university they will look favourably on a strong set of essay-based subjects and the skills she develops will work well across the whole set.

It's pretty much what my DD does (Art instead of Psychology for AS). She finds them a good fit in that lots of the skills, and even some of the content, are transferrable; for example she has used some of her history knowledge when writing about a novel's context in English Lit. Lots of degree options too.

I think it very much depends on what History syllabus you have studied at GCSE as to whether you get on with Govt and Politics and find it easy. G and P tends to be sold as a very up to date subject where pupils can debate the politics of the day - sadly it is not really like this and it is quite formulaic regarding content and not particularly exciting for young people with lively political views. You do need to learn quite a lot of political processes - DD found it surprisingly boring with no room for putting forward your views, however well argued.

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In defence of A-Level Psychology

Chartered member Dr Sheila Thomas highlights the merits of studying A-Level Psychology after the subject recently received criticism from media commentators.

20 August 2024

By BPS Communications

There has been much discussion recently in the press regarding the choice of Psychology as an A level subject.   According to certain commentators ( most notably the Daily Mail ) sixth form students are turning away from the "ologies" and towards STEM subjects.   Others have pointed out the trend for students to choose an increasingly narrow range of subjects, restricted either to the sciences or the arts, with few choosing to maintain a broader range of skills.   It is perhaps time to remind ourselves and the wider public of the valuable benefits which the study of Psychology can bring.

Psychology requires the development of data analytical skills and scientific principles, alongside the understanding of philosophical concepts and the marshalling of factual information and evaluative commentary to produce well-constructed essays.   As a Head of Department of almost 30 years´ standing, I have seen so many students flourish in Psychology and then go on to have highly successful careers in related fields.   Indeed, many of my medical students have commented to me on how Psychology proved to be an excellent choice of A level to complement their Biology, Chemistry and Maths.   In some cases, their university entrance interview was based largely on the work they had done in Psychology and was a test of their cognitive flexibility.   My own daughter studied Psychology at degree level, found her niche in Neuroscience and, following a PhD, now works in relapse prevention in drug addiction.   None of these valuable contributions to society would have been possible without studying Psychology at A-level.

In my experience, many of the people who take pleasure in portraying Psychology as inferior to the pure sciences have never actually studied it.   My retort has generally been to point out that pure science has told us everything we can know about the carcinogenic effects of cigarette smoking, but it takes Psychology to tackle the more difficult question of how to change people´s attitudes towards smoking.   It should also be pointed out to critics of our subject that the knowledge which we have today in areas such as Autism Spectrum Conditions (ASC) is the product of both biological and psychological research and in fact, diagnosis and treatment of ASC is carried out at the psychological and not biological level.   There is no blood test for ASC.

It is also easy to forget the contributions which Psychology has made to society.   Concepts such as self-esteem, well-being, gender identity, how to conduct healthy relationships, the avoidance of prejudice and discrimination etc are all now part of the fabric of society and it is easy to overlook the fact that this is due in no small part to students choosing to study Psychology.   Similarly, in education fifty years ago, children with special educational needs were simply written off and placed in the lower sets.   There was no opportunity for a pupil to speak to someone confidentially if they had a problem – they just had to "get on with it."   How far have we come in both these areas with SENCOs and educational psychologists being employed as a standard school provision.

I, like many others, am growing increasingly annoyed by the critics of our subject in academia who, quite frankly should know better.   Their comments appear to reflect their own lack of cognitive flexibility.   Surely, we should be aiming for increased collaboration across academic disciplines rather than disrespecting subjects we know little about?   Perhaps it is time for us to learn the lesson from the example of smoking behaviour which I referred to above – true progress comes when we look at issues from all  perspectives and do not persist in a narrow, entrenched view.

Why should Psychology have to constantly defend itself against being seen as a "soft subject"?   This myth needs to be firmly and categorically dispelled.

Dr Sheila Thomas 

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Biopsychology Essays AQA Psychology A-Level Bundle

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Role of Exogenous Zeitgebers Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

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Infradian Rhythms Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

Circadian Rhythms Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

Ways of Studying the Brain Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

Plasticity and Functional Recovery Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

Split Brain Research into Hemispheric Lateralisation Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA

Localisation of Brain Function Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

Fight or Flight Biopsychology Essay 16 Mark Model Answer AQA Psychology New Spec

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Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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