how do you write numbers in research paper

Using Numbers in Scientific Manuscripts

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When should you spell out a number in a scientific paper, and when do you use a numeral? Here's how to follow conventions and be consistent.

Updated on January 8, 2013

Writing a scholarly manuscript often requires the use of numbers to express important information, particularly in the sciences. Although the use of numbers is largely straightforward, there are a few things to keep in mind. In this article, numeral refers specifically to a number as it is written in mathematics (e.g., 4).

Do not start a sentence with a numeral

When writing for publication, try to use spelled-out numbers at the beginning of a sentence in place of numerals. This distinction is not based on grammar, but rather the conventions of academic writing in English.

• " 15 samples were collected " should be written as " Fifteen samples were collected "
• At times, writing out the numeral at the beginning of the sentence would be particularly unwieldy. In such cases, it is preferable to rearrange the sentence such that the numeral is not placed at the beginning. For example, " 6579 patient charts were collected for analysis " could be altered to " Charts from 6579 patients were collected for analysis "
• Note that some chemical compounds include numerals, and these should not be written out, even at the beginning of a sentence: " 5 -hydroxytryptamine is a neurotransmitter derived from tryptophan. "

Be consistent in the use of numerals or spelled-out numbers

Other tips for number usage involve consistency within your manuscript. As shown above, each number can be written as a numeral or a word. Many authors choose to use numerals for large numbers (say, those over 10) but words for small numbers. Either form is typically fine, but it is best to be consistent with your choice.

• If " We collected a total of eight samples " is written in your Methods section, avoid writing " Samples from all 8 lakes were nearly identical in pH " in your Results. Either correct the first sentence to include a numeral ('8') or change the second to the spelled-out word 'eight.'
• In addition, try to avoid mixing numerals and spelled-out words within a single sentence. For example, we suggest changing " The zoo has two pandas, eight elephants, and 15 orangutans " to " The zoo has two pandas, eight elephants, and fifteen orangutans ."

Other tips for consistency with numerals

Here are two other ways to make sure that your numerals are consistent within your manuscript. Consistency in your formatting choices is one way to demonstrate your attention to detail. Always consult your target journal's style sheet to see what they prefer.

• When using numbers larger than 1000, be sure to format them all in the same way. For example, 156000 , 156,000 , and 156 000 are all acceptable, but use only one format in your document.
• Be consistent with the inclusion or omission of a leading zero before decimals (i.e., 0.05 or .05 , but not both). Also, do not mix the use of a decimal point (0.12) with a decimal comma (0,12). In the vast majority of cases, journals prefer the use of the decimal point.

We hope that this article provides some guidance for the use of numbers in your writing. If you have specific questions about the numbers in your text, write to us by email at [email protected] . As always, AJE wishes you the best of luck with your research and publication!

Ben Mudrak, PhD

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Writing numbers When to use words and when to use numerals

It can be difficult to know how to write numbers in academic writing (e.g. five or 5 , 1 million or 1,000,000 ). This section gives some guidelines on when to use words to write numbers, and when to use numerals . There are also some exceptions to the rule which are considered, i.e. times when you might expect to use words but should instead use numerals. There is also a checklist at the end, that you can use to check the use of numbers in your own writing.

When to use words

In general, words should be used for zero to ten , and numerals used from 11 onwards. The same rule should be applied to ordinal numbers, i.e. use words for first, second up to tenth, and numbers plus 'th' (or 'st') from 11th onwards. However, it is always best to check what the accepted practice is at your university (or in your department/on your course), and remember that some common referencing systems have their own, different requirements, as follows.

• MLA . Use words if the number can be written using one or two words (e.g. three , twenty-seven ).
• APA . Use words for numbers zero to nine.
• Chicago . Use words for numbers zero to one hundred.

Before looking at when to use numerals (which is almost all other situations, see next), it is useful to look at important exceptions.

(1) When the number begins a sentence , you should use words , whatever the size of the number (though if possible, rewrite the sentence so the number is not at the beginning).

• Fifty respondents agreed with the statement.
• There were 50 respondents who agreed with the statement. [ rewritten sentence ]
• 50 respondents agreed with the statement.

(2) When expressing part of a very large round number , e.g. million, billion, you should use words for that large number part (it is common to use abbreviations m for million and bn billion ).

• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7 billion people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7bn people.
• The population of the earth is now in excess of 7,000,000,000 people.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70 million.
• The population of the UK is approximately 70,000,000.

Conversely, numerals should be used rather than words, whatever the size of the number, when large and small numbers are combined , since this makes comparisons easier.

• There were 2 respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.
• There were two respondents in the first category, and 22 in the second.

When to use numerals

Numerals are used for almost all other situations. These include the following.

• Measurements (e.g. 6 kg, 3 cm, 10 min, 2 hr, 3 days, 6 years, 5 decades )
• Currency (e.g. $10, £50, £60 billion )
• Statistical data , including survey data (e.g. A survey of participants revealed that 4 out of 5 students worked. )
• Mathematical functions (e.g. v 2 = u 2 + 2as )
• Decimals (e.g. 2.5, 4.54 )
• Percentages (e.g. 75% )
• Ratios (e.g. 3:1 )
• Percentiles/quartiles (e.g. the 95th percentile, the 1st quartile )
• Times (e.g. 12.30 a.m., 6 p.m., 16:00 )
• Dates (e.g. Wednesday 25 December 2019 )
• Scores/points on a scale (e.g. This item scored 5 on a 9-point scale )

Other important points

The following are a few other points to remember when using numbers.

• Consistency. You should be consistent in how you write numbers; for example, if write a figure like 7bn in one place, do not write a figure like 5 billion in another.
• Use of commas. When giving numerals of 1,000 or larger, use commas for each thousand, e.g. 5,500, 8,326,500 .
• Use of hyphens. When displaying a range, use a hyphen, with no space, e.g. 30%–50%
• Expressing fractions. Fractions can be written either as numerals e.g. 2/3 or words e.g. two-thirds . If using words, use a hyphen.

American Psychological Association (2019a) Numbers Expressed in Words . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/words (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

American Psychological Association (2019b) Numbers Expressed in Numerals . Available at: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/numbers/numerals (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

Harvard Wiki (2019) Numbers . Available at: https://wiki.harvard.edu/confluence/display/HSG/Numbers . (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Bristol (2015) Using numbers . Available at: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/arts/exercises/grammar/grammar_tutorial/page_33.htm (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of New England (nd) Numbers in academic writing . Available at: https://aso-resources.une.edu.au/academic-writing/miscellaneous/numbers/ (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

University of Oxford (2015) Style Guide . Available at: https://www.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/oxford/media_wysiwyg/University%20of%20Oxford%20Style%20Guide.pdf (Accessed: 26 December, 2019).

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Below is a checklist for using numbers in academic writing. Use it to check your writing, or as a peer to help.

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Author: Sheldon Smith    ‖    Last modified: 16 January 2022.

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Compare & contrast essays examine the similarities of two or more objects, and the differences.

Cause & effect essays consider the reasons (or causes) for something, then discuss the results (or effects).

Discussion essays require you to examine both sides of a situation and to conclude by saying which side you favour.

Problem-solution essays are a sub-type of SPSE essays (Situation, Problem, Solution, Evaluation).

Transition signals are useful in achieving good cohesion and coherence in your writing.

Reporting verbs are used to link your in-text citations to the information cited.

Writing academically: Numbers

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When using numbers in academic writing you need to decide if it’s more appropriate to use a numeral (e.g. 9) or to write the number in words (e.g. nine). It’s worth checking to see if your department has specific advice on this matter, because individual approaches do vary. In the absence of specific advice, here is some general guidance on the matter:

Basic numbers

• Numbers  up to nine  should always be written in  words,  anything higher than nine can be written in numerals. Alternatively, some guides suggest that if you can write the number in two words or fewer then use words rather than numerals. If you are going to take this approach then you should include a hyphen when writing numbers with two words, e.g. twenty-seven.
• For larger numbers, it is acceptable to use either numerals or words depending on context (e.g. a thousand people/1,000 people), but you should always use numerals in technical writing, e.g. 200,000 km. For less precise larger numbers, the written form is better (e.g. several thousand).

Measurements and decimals/fractions

• Use numerals for units of measurement or time, e.g. 500 km, 10 minutes.
• Always use numerals for decimals and fractions (e.g. 0.5 cm) unless the figures are vague (e.g. around half of the population).
• Units of measurement that modify a noun should be hyphenated, e.g. a 3-year-old child.

Percentages

• If you have expressed the number in words then follow the number by the word 'percent'. e.g. six percent.
• If you have expressed the number as a numeral then follow the number with the symbol '%'. e.g. 24%.

Dates, money and time

• Always use numerals for dates, e.g Monday 4 April, 2016.
• Use numerals for money (e.g. His pocket money was exactly £1.00 per week) unless the amounts are vague (e.g. He earned well over a million last year).
• Use numerals for indicating the precise time (e.g. 08:00), or words if the times indicated are vague (e.g. around eight o’clock). 

Combining numbers

• If you need to combine two numbers that run together then use words for the shorter number and numerals for the longer number, e.g. a tower of 1000 ten-pence pieces. 

Starting sentences with numbers

• Avoid starting a sentence with a numeral. Either write the number in words or rearrange your sentence. For example, “Three hundred and sixty-five days make one year” could become “There are 365 days in a year”. If you start a sentence with a year, write “The year” first e.g. “The year 1066 saw one of the most famous battles in English history”.
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Numbers in Scientific Manuscripts: What Are the Rules?

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• Sep 16, 2019
• 11 min read

Guidelines and Rules for Presenting Numbers in Research Papers

Updated: May 7, 2020

Since numbers are at the heart of research, you should know common rules regarding presenting numbers representing quantitative data in research papers. Knowing these rules will be helpful for writing the material and method section as well as other sections of the paper. If you are aiming to publish in a scientific or scholarly journal, you should check the Guidelines for Authors page of the journal you are targeting for the specific style guide that they follow. Since there are some variations found in different style guides, this will be important to know which guide they adopt. If they do not give this sort of information, it can be helpful to follow some common guidelines prescribed from respected sources like the Council of Scientific Editors. For more detailed coverage of presenting numbers, statistics and mathematical equations in research papers check out: Scientific Style and Format: The CSE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, The Chicago Manual of Style, and How to Report Statistics in Medicine. My apologies for instances where certain math characters were lost in copying below, specifically those related to exponents and superscript in scientific notation.

1. In scientific and technical texts, with a focus on quantitative data, represent a number with its numeral form, not word form:

312 base pairs

2. Use the numeral form when comparing with numbers:

A total of 5 out of 24 of the respondents dropped out of the study.

NOT: A total of five out of twenty four of the respondents dropped out of the study.

3. Do not begin a sentence with a digit; instead use the word form for the number in question, even if it is above eleven:

Fifty-six rats were used.

NOT: 56 rats were used.

Or rewrite the sentence instead of beginning with a lengthy word:

A total of 4,589 moths were collected.

NOT: Four thousand five hundred eighty-nine moths were collected.

4. Separate every three digits with a comma, except with numbers after a decimal. Use a period as a decimal point, and not a comma:

3,000 participants completed the survey.

NOT: 3.000 participants completed the survey.

5. Be careful with compound nouns that report numbers. All words preceding the head noun must be singular since they function like adjectives. In English, adjectives are always singular:

A 36-day-old rat.

NOT: a 36 days old rat.

6. The terms twice vs. two times have essentially the same meaning, except that twice might be favored for being shorter.

The specimens were disrupted by sonication two times for 45 s at 5°C.

The specimens were disrupted by sonication twice for 45 s at 5°C.

7. The term circa is used with historical dates, but not typically with measurements. Likewise, the symbol, “” means approximately. Only use it in math applications, not in prose. Instead, use the word “approximately” in running text:

The temple was destroyed circa 1432 BCE.

Approximately 542 birds were sighted.

NOT: Circa 542 birds were sighted.

Approximately 2ml was added to the buffer.

NOT: Circa 2ml was added to the buffer.

The temperature was approximately 35C

NOT: The temperature was “” 35

8. Avoid imprecise expressions such as a 3-fold rise, 2-fold increase, two times as much , but instead use a more precise numerical percentage or decimal point when reporting precise quantities. This form can be used in a context where an approximation is acceptable, yet the number form should be used, not the word form:

3-fold increase NOT: threefold increase

9. When describing a decade use this form:

In the 1970s

During the 1980s

NOT: In the 70’s

NOT: In the Seventies

NOT: I n the 70s

10. Ordinals are commonly used in English to focus on rank, order or a sequence of certain quantitative data. They can be represented in numerical form or word form; for example, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, first, second third, and fourth. Do not confuse their form:

Eleventh, twelfth, thirteenth,…

NOT: eleventeen, twelveteen,…

As the CSE points out, “Ordinal numbers generally convey rank order, not quantity. Rather than being expressly enumerative (answering the question “How many?”), ordinals often describe “which”, “what”, or “in what sequence”. Because this function of ordinals is more prose-oriented than quantitative, distinctiveness within the text is less important for ordinal numbers, and undisrupted reading flow and comprehension take precedence”. Hence use the word form for ordinal numbers under 10:

The second wave toppled the wall.

The third sample contained only sediment.

The ninth patient quit the study due to family issues.

Use the numeric form for larger numbers above 10 as the word forms can be lengthy and awkward:

The 15th attempt was successful.

The 25th test was incomplete.

We focused on the 19th century.

The 97th test run

NOT: The ninety-seventh test run

The 21st Century

NOT: twenty-first Century

The numeric form can be used for numbers under 10 if they referred to repeatedly:

We surveyed 8 subjects: the 1st was most coherent, the 3rd, 4th, and 6th were contradictory, while the 5th, 7th, and 8th were moderately coherent; yet t he 1st could not recall the incident, and the 6th and 8th provided highly specific details of certain events.

Do not use an ordinal when writing the complete date:

February 7, 2014.

NOT: February 7th, 2014.

Use the short numerical form rather than the longer word form when discussing centuries:

Then 19thCentury

NOT: The nineteenth Century

11. Use the percent symbol (%) whenever a numeral accompanies it. Also, use no space between the number and the percent symbol:

NOT: 0.053 percent

NOT: 0.053 %

12. When two numbers are adjacent, for the sake of readability, spell out one and leave the other as a numerical form:

As shown in Table 2, three were not recovered.

NOT: As shown in Table 2, 3 were not recovered.

13. In running text in general, fractions should be represented in word form, rather than numerals. All two-word fractions should be hyphenated, whether as a noun or adjective form.

Roughly one-tenth of the study subjects reported adverse effects.

Two-thirds of this species is found in Brazil.

Nearly three-quarters of the respondents were pleased with the outcome .

Yet, for fraction quantities greater than one, use mixed fractions when you do not intend to give a precise value:

The study site was approximately 3¾ kilometers from the river.

The study ran for about 2½ years.

When a more precise value is desired, use a percentage or decimal form of the number.For mixed numbers with built up fractions, place the whole number close to the fraction, but for solid fractions, place a space between the whole number and the fraction:

Built up fraction: 9

Solid fractions: 9 2/3

14. With numbers that are less than 1.0, use an initial zero to the left of the decimal point:

0.345 NOT: .345

NOT: P = .05

15. When reporting quantities, consider what unit of measurement and decimal place is most meaningful to report. Round numbers to the most relevant and meaningful digit. For example, while reporting the average length of a group of fish, reporting centimeters would be the most meaningful unit to report. For example, it would be meaningful to report an average length of fish as 12 cm, and it might even be meaningful to report the tenths of Cen termers as in 12.4 cm, yet it would not be necessary to report in hundreds 12.37 cm or thousands of centimeters as in 12.372 cm. Reporting too many decimal points can be distracting to the reader and have little scientific importance. For example, note how it is easy to grasp the general pattern of weight gain in the following two sentences:

We noticed an average weight gain of 14.4529 g for college students, 12.39815 g for retired couples and 2.99277 g for single parents.

We noticed an average weight gain of 14 g for college students, 12 g for retired couples and 3g for single parents.

16. When reporting percentages, if the sample you are considering is less than 100, then round to whole numbers. With samples larger than 100, it could be meaningful to report one decimal point. Yet, consider how it will improve the readability and importance of the number. Note this pattern in the sentences below:

Of the 23 students studied, 32% (7 students) reacted favorably, 49% (11 students) had a neutral response, and 19% (4 students) had an adverse reaction to the practice.

NOT: Of the 23 students studied, 32.432% (7 students) reacted favorably, 48.983% (11 students) had a neutral response, and 18.594% (4 students) had an adverse reaction to the practice.

17. In research papers, numbers typically combine with units of measure or symbols, as specified and defined by the International System of Units (Système International d’Unités). These symbols can be alphabetical ( e.g., kg, μg, K, mol, A, s, Hz, mm, mL, min, g, cm) or non-alphabetical (e.g., $, %, S, £, °, ¹). As a general rule, numerals should always accompany these symbols:

A 25.0 mL  aliquot of 0.25 M HCNO (weak acid) is titrated with 0.15 M NaOH.

Near lead smelters and battery plants, air levels typically ranged from 0.3 to 4.0 μg/m3

18. Separate symbols from numbers with a single space:

19. Close up the space between a non alphabetical symbol and a number:

Note, one exception to this rule: The Council of Scientific Editors recommend a space here, while the American Medical Association recommends no space:

CSE Style: 45 °C

AMA Style: 45°C

Ultimately, you will need to follow the style guide recommendations from the journal that you planning to submit your research paper to.

21. When representing numbers in a range, use the word “to” between numbers, and not a hyphen or a dash:

Regional unemployment rates ranged from 1.2% to 33.3%.

NOT: Regional unemployment rates ranged from 1.2% - 33.3%.

When using the preposition “between” to introduce a range, always accompany it with “and”, not a hyphen or a dash:

In a range between 4 and 10cm.

NOT: In a range between 4 - 10cm.

When the range includes numbers with several digits, do not leave out the leading numbers of the second number of the range:

1958 to 1962

NOT: 1958 to 62

1,724 to 1,736

NOT: 1,724 to 36

You can use a single unit symbol alone after second number in a range of numbers, except for when the symbol is non-alphabetical and must be closed up to the number (e.g., $,%).

30 to 45 mL

120 to 200 Hz

10 to 20 min

NOT: 40 to $60

NOT: 13 to 22%

Be careful when expressing a change in value in a range, especially when using terms like “increased”, “decreased” or “changed”. Use language that clarifies that the change is in the range or in the final amount.

Growth increased by a range of 1.5 g/d to 3.5 g/d.

Growth increased from an initial value a range of 1.5 g/d to a final value of 3.5 g/d.

NOT: Growth increased by 1.5 g/d to 3.5 g/d.

NOT: Growth increased from 1.5 g/d to 3.5 g/d.

22. When reporting dimensions, use a multiplication symbol and not the letter “x” or the word “by”, and leave a space between the multiplication symbol and the numbers:

NOT: 22 by 18 by 16

When the focus is on expressing one range changing to a new range, place a hyphen between numbers to improve readability:

increased from 25–34 mm to 28–42 mm 

NOT:  increased from 25 to 34 mm to 28 to 42 mm

23. For a series of numbers, place the symbol after the last number, except in cases where the symbol must be close to a number:

14, 15, 18, and 54 Hz

$21, $37, and $41

10%, 14% and 34%

24. Express large numbers or very small number in powers of 10, scientific notation.

NOT: 38,000

NOT: 735,000,000

NOT: 0.000,003,51

25. For large numbers that are not expressing high precision, a combination of numbers and words are acceptable:

The population is around 25 million.

NOT: The population is around 25, 000, 000.

26. With common symbols of math operations ( separate the symbol and number with a space or thin space. Use the math symbol and not the letter x to represent multiplication. Do not use these sybmols in running text:

The averages equaled the total of all samples from plot A plus plot B.

NOT: The averages = the total of all samples from plot A + plot B.

When these symbols are used as modifiers of words, then close up the space between them and the term they modify. Also, do not place two or more operator symbols side by side.

Also, do not place two or more operator symbols side by side.

The total was greater than

NOT: The total was

27. For symbols used in calculus, refer to the Association of American Publishers for extensive details directions on their markup in manuscripts. For details on how to present vectors, scalars, tensors, matrices and determinants, see Scientific Style & Format: The Council of Scientific Editors, Chapter 12.

28. Brackets, parentheses, and braces in mathematics are referred to as enclosures or “fences”. In math, their order of use is parentheses within brackets within braces, and the reverse is order follows in non-mathematical prose: braces within brackets within parentheses.

mathematics: { [ ( ) ] }

prose or non-mathematics: ( [ {} ] )

29. In the following math expressions no space (closed up to the number) is required:

When expressing multiplication without the multiplication symbol:

Between fences and enclosures and the variables on either side of them:

(2p − 6bc)(1 − a)

 Between terms and their subscripts as in the following terms:

With the symbols plus and minus when used to indicate positive or negative value for numbers:

When expressing a ratio using a colon, close up the space:

Place a space between all common math operators: +, =, -,

30. Ratios, percentages, and proportions are commonly used to simplify and report research findings. Whenever using them, be sure to report a numerator and denominator of that accompanies them; otherwise it will be difficult to interpret them in a meaningful way. For instance 50% could be 2 of 4 samples had a positive result or 6,000 of 12,000 had a positive result. While both are examples of 50%, they would have a very different meaning in research. Separate the two numbers of a ratio by a colon, with the first typically being the numerator and the second the denominator:

The ratio of negative results was 3 to1 (946:329).

NOT: The ratio of negative results was 3 to1.

Proportions are the result of dividing the numerator by the denominator, with the numerator typically a subset of the items in the denominator:

The proportion of subjects experiencing adverse effects was 0.032 (21/651).

NOT: The proportion of subjects experiencing adverse effects was 0.032 .

To express a proportion as a percentage, multiply it by 100.

The percentage of subjects experiencing adverse effects 3.2% (21/651).

NOT: The percentage of subjects experiencing adverse effects 3.2% (21/651).

After studying the points made above about presenting numbers, correct the sentences below with errors related to numbers.

1. 4 assays were performed.

2. Measurements were made for just about one hundred and fifty snakes.

3. Since 80ies’ it has been shown that X plays a role in Y.

4. The 2th and 3th samples were negative.

5. This accounted for most of the total biomass.

6. Many informations can be found in the literature.

7. A lot of water was needed.

8. The deprotonated ion increased by about 2-fold.

9. For this case, the factor was just about 0.90, i.e. very close to one.

10. Three of percent of the samples were positive.

11. Each stock was valued at ten thousands of dollars.

12. Circa 10 mM was used.

13. 17x4=68

15. The total was

16. The population is around 25, 000, 000.

17. We found 15 % similarity.

18. The range increased from 25 to 34 mm to 28 to 42 mm.

19. As shown in table 3, 2 there was a significant increase.

20. The average cost per sample was 40 to $60

21. As many as 13 to 22% of the participants expreienced no adverse effect.

22. One tenth of the subjects reported improved vision.

23. We detected a difference of 0.000,003,51.

24. Statistical significance was set at .05

25. Rates ranged from 1.2% to 33.3%.

Check Answers Below:

Four assays were performed. Begin a sentence with the word form (four), not a digit (4). Measurements were taken for approximately 150 snakes. Since the 1980sit has been shown that X causes Y. The 2nd and 3rd were negative for… …Accounted for the majority of the biomass.a great deal of informationcan be found in the literature.A great deal of water was needed. Give a precise numerical percentage rather than something vague like “about 2-fold”.Avoid vague and informal term such as “just about” and “very close to”. Instead substitute “approximately” and “nearly”. Three percent of the samples were positive. Each stock was valued at ten-thousand dollars Approximately10 mM was used. (Use space between common math operators) 94 (use no space between numeral and exponent)The total was greater than (Avoid presenting two math operator symbols side by side).The population is around 25 million. (Use the word form when giving large imprecise numbers).We found 15% similarity. (No space between numerals and non-alphabetical symbols).The range increased from 25–34 mm to 28–42 mm. (When reporting a change of ranges, use a hyphen between numbers to improve readability).As shown in Table 3, three subjects dropped out. (When two numbers are adjacent, for the sake of readability, spell out one and leave the other as a numerical form).

20. The average cost per sample was $40 to $60 (When presenting a range, both numbers must be accompanied by the non-alphabetical symbol).

21. As many as 13% to 22% of the participants experienced no adverse effect. (When presenting a range, both numbers must be accompanied by the non-alphabetical symbol).

22. One-tenth of the subjects reported improved vision (hyphenate two-word fractions).

23. We detected a difference of 3.51 ´ 10-6 (write out very large or very small numbers in scientific notation)

24. Statistical significance was set at 0.05 (Place a zero before a decimal place.

25. Rates ranged from 1.2% to 33.3%. (Use the preposition “to” between numbers in a range, not a hyphen).

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How to Use Bullet Lists and Number Lists in a Research Paper

Academic articles often include lists, which organize the material and provide the reader with a quick overview of a section. There are different ways to format lists, but some general principles apply to all of them: they should be constructed in a parallel fashion, and they should be consistent. Numbers, letters, and bullet points are not required in all cases. Academic writers who use The Chicago Manual of Style will find various formats there, but four common list formats are presented here.

Types of List Formats

Run-in lists.

A run-in list, as the name suggests, is included as part of the general text. Elements can be separated in different ways, as shown in the examples below.

Separated with a Colon:   When a complete sentence is followed by a list of items, separate the sentence from the list with a colon.

E.g. “ Do not venture into the wilderness without these items: a knife, a book of matches, a flashlight, and a map. ”

Separated with Numbers:  When the list is part of the sentence, you can separate the items by numbering them.

E.g. “ The Housing Committee passed resolutions on (1) annual salaries, (2) fundraising efforts, and (3) community building. ”

Related: Need instant academic writing tips on your cell phone? Download the FREE Enago Academy mobile app now!

Vertical Lists

A vertical list should be preceded by a complete sentence that gives an overview of the points being listed. The list does not need to have a bullet point format and a punctuation mark is not at the end of the entries. For example:

Your admissions packet should include these items:

The three-page statement of purpose

The financial questionnaire

Your contact information

If the lead-in sentence is a complete one and all entries in the list are complete sentences, a punctuation mark should follow each entry. For example (using bullet points):

Make perfect banana bread every time by following these easy steps:

• Preheat the oven to 325 degrees.
• Grease an 8 x 8 baking dish.
• Combine all the dry ingredients (listed above).
• Gently fold in the wet ingredients (listed above).
• Pour the batter into the dish and bake for 45 minutes.

Again, note that because each entry in the list is a complete sentence, a final period is used.

Vertical Lists Punctuated as a Sentence

When a list is too long or convoluted to be presented as one sentence, you can use a vertical list that is punctuated like a sentence. This format is especially useful when the phrases include internal punctuations or the reader might find it difficult to follow the meaning. An example follows below.

Biology instructors have made significant changes to their curricula and classrooms, and today it is common to find

• innovative research techniques, especially those requiring knowledge of anatomy, in labs;
• greater focus on teamwork;
• in-class lectures customized for learning styles; and
• bilingual lesson plans.

Vertical Lists with Subdivided Items

A complex vertical list may be formatted in a way that resembles an outline, using numbers and letters to provide a logical structure. The lead-in (introductory) line should be a complete sentence, as seen in the example below.

Students should be prepared to discuss the following topics:

• Regional History
• Geography and landmarks
• Erosion in mountainous areas
• Notable Figures
• The first tribal chieftains
• The emergence of political divisions and leaders
• The role of women
• Cultural Developments
• The spread of language
• Music used to bind communities

The next time you read a research paper , look for lists and examine how they were constructed. Do the entries use a consistent format? Are the numbers and/or letters correctly placed and in the proper order? Is the lead-in line a complete sentence? If you find that these steps are all present, chances are that the author took the time to research the structure of lists and present them accurately. Now you can do the same.

References:

• Get It Write. Handling Vertical Lists.  Retrieved from http://www.getitwriteonline.com/archive/101406VerticalLists.htm

Very helpful and precise

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Daily Writing Tips

10 rules for writing numbers and numerals.

How do you express numbers in your writing? When do you use figures (digits) and when do you write out the number in words (letters)? That is, when do you write 9 and when do you write nine ?

1. Number versus numeral . First things first, what is the difference between a number and a numeral? A number is an abstract concept while a numeral is a symbol used to express that number. “Three,” “3” and “III” are all symbols used to express the same number (or the concept of “threeness”). One could say that the difference between a number and its numerals is like the difference between a person and her name.

2. Spell small numbers out . The small numbers, such as whole numbers smaller than ten, should be spelled out. That’s one rule you can count on. If you don’t spell numbers out it will look like you’re sending an instant message, and you want to be more formal than that in your writing.

3. No other standard rule : Experts don’t always agree on other rules. Some experts say that any one-word number should be written out. Two-word numbers should be expressed in figures. That is, they say you should write out twelve or twenty . But not 24 .

4. Using the comma . In English, the comma is used as a thousands separator (and the period as a decimal separator), to make large numbers easier to read. So write the size of Alaska as 571,951 square miles instead of 571951 square miles. In Continental Europe the opposite is true, periods are used to separate large numbers and the comma is used for decimals. Finally, the International Systems of Units (SI) recommends that a space should be used to separate groups of three digits, and both the comma and the period should be used only to denote decimals, like $13 200,50 (the comma part is a mess… I know).

5. Don’t start a sentence with a numeral . Make it “Fourscore and seven years ago,” not “4 score and 7 years ago.” That means you might have to rewrite some sentences: “Fans bought 400,000 copies the first day” instead of “400,000 copies were sold the first day.”

6. Centuries and decades should be spelled out . Use the Eighties or nineteenth century .

7. Percentages and recipes . With everyday writing and recipes you can use digits, like “4% of the children” or “Add 2 cups of brown rice.” In formal writing, however, you should spell the percentage out like “12 percent of the players” (or “twelve percent of the players,” depending on your preference as explained in point three).

8. If the number is rounded or estimated, spell it out . Rounded numbers over a million are written as a numeral plus a word. Use “About 400 million people speak Spanish natively,” instead of “About 400,000,000 people speak Spanish natively .” If you’re using the exact number, you’d write it out, of course.

9. Two numbers next to each other . It can be confusing if you write “7 13-year-olds”, so write one of them as a numeral, like “seven 13-year-olds”. Pick the number that has the fewest letters.

10. Ordinal numbers and consistency . Don’t say “He was my 1st true love,” but rather “He was my first true love.” Be consistent within the same sentence. If my teacher has 23 beginning students, she also has 18 advanced students, not eighteen advanced students.

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210 thoughts on “10 Rules for Writing Numbers and Numerals”

Most of these are correct. But, concerning 7, the percentage symbol should not be used in everyday writing. The percentage symbol is for business use, such as visual presentation. In other forms the word “percent” should be used. Also, your example in 10, concerning the students, is correct because the numbers are related. But, if the numbers aren’t related, then the “rule of ten” applies. Here’s an example: Sadly, there were only eight computers available to the 23 students.

As always, the tips provided here are valuable for many. That’s why I keep coming back “daily.”

Jay, good point on number seven. I think you should use digits for everyday writing and spell the percentage out in formal writing (like a newspaper article). I added this remark.

I believe there is a rule on using numbers with age as well, right? As in “always use figures to represent the age of a person.”

I was not aware of those of these rules, cool.

Is the comma used as a thousand separator everywhere English is spoken, or is that just an American rule?

Berto, that is the English standard, so it should apply both to UK and US.

Notice, however, that some places around the world use the dot as a separator and the comma to denote decimals.

To add confusion, the International System of Units recommends to use spaces to the sets of three digits, and use the comma or period just for the decimal.

I just added this info to the post, thanks for asking.

#2 is one that I always have a dilemma with. I know with AP style writing you’re suppose to write numbers you’ve stated in #2. In MLA style, you write one, five, twenty-one, one hundred, eighteen hundred, but write 5½, 101, 3,810. I actually like the AP style better with writing out one through nine and ten on, writing it as 10, 11, 12, etc.

I am curious though, your #2 you said “The small numbers, such as whole numbers smaller than ten, should be spelled out.” Why have you not wrote 10 as “10” since only numbers smaller than 10 should be spelled out?

Oops, that would make sense. But see rule #3!

Deron, point two says that all whole numbers smaller than ten should be spelled out. It does not say anything about number equal or greater than ten. In fact, if you then read point 3 you will see that there is no standard rule for those numbers, some authors like to write them in digits, others still prefer to spell them out.

Heh, now I feel bad for naming my blog 60 in 3. Oh well, thank you as always for the great tips.

Firstly: 1. Number versus numeral. First things first, what is the difference between a number and a numeral? A number is an abstract concept while a numeral is a symbol used to express that number.

Then: 5. Don’t start a sentence with a number. Make it “Fourscore and seven years ago,” not “4 score and 7 years ago.”

Shouldn’t that be: 5. Don’t start a sentence with a NUMERAL.

Last time I checked, “four” and “4” where both numbers…

van, number 5 is fixed, thanks for the heads up.

Then, “four” and “4” are both numerals used to express the concept of “fourness,” they are not numbers themselves, they are symbols.

It is quite confusing I know, and probably not useful for the average writer. The other rules do apply though.

I suppose it depends what grammar book you want to fall back on, but it would easy to argue that you’re flat-out wrong about when to spell out numbers.

Use numerals before anything that can be measured: 3 decades, 3 years, 3 GB but not 3 children.

Use numerals when using a single digit number and a number composed of two or more digits in the same sentence. “Bob ate 3 cows and 12 pigs,” not “Bob are three cows and 12 pigs.”

One more for your list: Spell out any number used in a quote: “…four score..” and not “…4 score..”

Michael, 3 years you say? Well, here is a quote from the NY Times:

“Dobbs’s correspondents said there had been 7,000 cases of leprosy in this country over the previous three years, far more than in the past.”

“the difference between a number and its numerals is like the difference between a person and its name”

..a person and his name or ..a person and her name but never ..a person and its name

Bill, fixed that. I was thinking about an object and its name 🙂 , like the words that define it.

What I think it boils down to is: try writing the numerals in words; chances are that’s the right way. If words are obviously more confusing than digits, use digits. For example: “the second chapter”; “she’ll be eleven years old in two days”; “it’s the third road down the right”. These are all correct. But “seventeen point twelve percent of the data applies to all of our six hundred and forty two units and the rest only concerns the items that are stored in area three seven two” is confusing, and the numbers here should be written in digits. It’s more flexible than the rules above, but it follows the same spirit.

The comma is an English rule, so it must apply in the US as well. (NOT the other way about)

#4: The UK is in Europe. We do not use a comma as you describe. Thanks anyway.

Also whilst we’re talking about international numbering, isn’t it about time that the USA moved on from imperial measurements to metric like the rest of the world?

Good point Emmanuel, common sense should help here as usual.

I didn’t know about all the rules. I visited this for the first time but I liked it. I will visit it regularly. Keep it up. Thanks

Hey Daniel, thanks for pointing that out. My mistake on misreading what was there. 🙂

With that said, since there is not standard rule, what is your own personal preference?

I’ve been reading quite a bit about typography lately, which has impressed on me another rule that you should add to your list:

In the flow of a typical sentence (i.e. for ‘inline’ numbers), you should use “lower case” numbers.

Yes, you can have lower case numbers!

@James And about time the UK used kg instead of stone to denote body weight

James, enjoy 2.5 dl of tea

You can write it out when it is two words or less. Twenty is acceptable. Twenty-four is acceptable. If it requires more than two words, you should use the numbers.

So you say to spell out twelve, but then you say “12 percent”? Shouldn’t it be “twelve percent”?

Nitro, we are not saying you should spell out twelve. The only standard rule, as stated in point one, is to spell out whole numbers smaller than ten.

Other than that it is up to the author and his preference for the specific situation.

Personally I like use digits above the number te because it makes the text more clear, like “15 percent.” For smaller numbers you can spell them out though, like “five percent” or “two percent.”

These standards are good for English, but why not broaden the standard to multiple languages?

Why not just remove spelling out of numerals completely and standardize on using Arabic numbers? Then the numbers would never have to be translated except to traditional less used numbering systems. Then people who read the articles in foreign languages like French, Spanish, Hindi, Chinese, Russian, and a plethora more could understand without mentally having to translating from the English naming convention into their own numerical naming convention.

gr commenent Pascal-its g 2 c read comments from ppl with g sense of humours. ur a *!

Out of interest how would write operators?

PS you need a subscribe to comments option

Everton, it is on the “to do” list 🙂 .

Thank you very much for providing this very valuable lesson in writing skills I’ve always wanted to acquire.

Good tips. I’m enjoying this website quite a bit. 🙂

One more point I’d add, though, is using numerals for lists. It helps one remember the number itself more easily than if you had spelt it out, and aids quick comparison. E.g.,

3 eggs 4 cartons of milk 1 roast duck 2 oranges

Don’t you think the title should have been Ten Rules for… instead of 10 Rules for … considering your own guidelines?

Mike, usually titles have different rules, as far as typography goes at least (we should have covered that perhaps).

Like titles usually have all the words starting with capital letters, you don’t write that way normally.

That said, even if you consider our guidelines the “10 Rules” is congruent with points two and three. They state that numbers smaller than ten should be spelled out, and after that it is preference of the author.

Thanks Daniel. As you mentioned that titles have different rules. I feel the title should start with a word. It looks more aesthetically pleasing. Not sure whether anyone agrees with me.

Mike, I agree with you 🙂 . Maybe starting the title with a word is more pleasant, I will research about it and even experiment with it in the future.

You shouldn’t write “percent” ever. It’s wrong like “etcetera” is wrong. Put the space between the words: “per cent”.

Very well written list. Now if we could teach all newscasters and advertisers how to SAY numbers I would be in heaven. Seems they all got stupid in the year two thousand AND one.

It is funny when people come and say: “hey, you should not say that, ever!” or “you are dead wrong here!”

Just make a quick search on the net before posting such strong statements.

Per cent is the preferred British form, and percent is the American usage. Open the NY Times or the Wall Street Journal and you will find “percent” everywhere.

Thanks for the comment though, it served the purpose of clarifying this point.

Good post! There were many points, which I havent known until I read this article. But seems some of these rules are not practicable special ‘dot’ and ‘comma’ rule. -Nish

I never really new there was a difference. Thanks for the post. Very informative!

What is correct: “It’s my 13th birthday” or “It’s my thirteenth birthday”?

I like to know how to write the number seven hundred two thousand, three

as i am the first visitor of this web site so i have no comment writs now .

what about: 24-7 (VS) twenty-four seven ??

How would you write 1.5 to 2 acre lots?

Sir My Need IELTS book and DVD

Send my Address

Abdullah Al Masud C/O Md.Azizur Rahman Block # C , Road # 37 House # 33 Uposhohar , Sylhet Bangladesh

Which is correct?

We celebrated our ninth birthday party together. We celebrated our ninth birthday partys together.

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Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Writing Numbers

Welcome to the Purdue OWL

This page is brought to you by the OWL at Purdue University. When printing this page, you must include the entire legal notice.

Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Although usage varies, most people spell out numbers that can be expressed in one or two words and use figures for numbers that are three or more words long. Note: If you are using a specific citation style, such as MLA or APA , consult the style manual for specific formatting instructions.

Here are some examples of specific situations:

Days and Years

Time of Day

Identification Numbers

Page and Division of Books and Plays

Decimals and Percentages

Large Round Numbers

Notes on Usage

Repeat numbers in commercial writing.

Use numerals in legal writing.

Numbers in series and statistics should be consistent.

Write out numbers beginning sentences.

Use a combination of figures and words for numbers when such a combination will keep your writing clear.

Generate accurate APA citations for free

• Knowledge Base
• APA Style 7th edition
• How to write an APA results section

Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples

Published on December 21, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on January 17, 2024.

The results section of a quantitative research paper is where you summarize your data and report the findings of any relevant statistical analyses.

The APA manual provides rigorous guidelines for what to report in quantitative research papers in the fields of psychology, education, and other social sciences.

Use these standards to answer your research questions and report your data analyses in a complete and transparent way.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

What goes in your results section, introduce your data, summarize your data, report statistical results, presenting numbers effectively, what doesn’t belong in your results section, frequently asked questions about results in apa.

In APA style, the results section includes preliminary information about the participants and data, descriptive and inferential statistics, and the results of any exploratory analyses.

Include these in your results section:

• Participant flow and recruitment period. Report the number of participants at every stage of the study, as well as the dates when recruitment took place.
• Missing data . Identify the proportion of data that wasn’t included in your final analysis and state the reasons.
• Any adverse events. Make sure to report any unexpected events or side effects (for clinical studies).
• Descriptive statistics . Summarize the primary and secondary outcomes of the study.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes. Address the primary and secondary research questions by reporting the detailed results of your main analyses.
• Results of subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable. Place detailed results in supplementary materials.

Write up the results in the past tense because you’re describing the outcomes of a completed research study.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Before diving into your research findings, first describe the flow of participants at every stage of your study and whether any data were excluded from the final analysis.

Participant flow and recruitment period

It’s necessary to report any attrition, which is the decline in participants at every sequential stage of a study. That’s because an uneven number of participants across groups sometimes threatens internal validity and makes it difficult to compare groups. Be sure to also state all reasons for attrition.

If your study has multiple stages (e.g., pre-test, intervention, and post-test) and groups (e.g., experimental and control groups), a flow chart is the best way to report the number of participants in each group per stage and reasons for attrition.

Also report the dates for when you recruited participants or performed follow-up sessions.

Missing data

Another key issue is the completeness of your dataset. It’s necessary to report both the amount and reasons for data that was missing or excluded.

Data can become unusable due to equipment malfunctions, improper storage, unexpected events, participant ineligibility, and so on. For each case, state the reason why the data were unusable.

Some data points may be removed from the final analysis because they are outliers—but you must be able to justify how you decided what to exclude.

If you applied any techniques for overcoming or compensating for lost data, report those as well.

Adverse events

For clinical studies, report all events with serious consequences or any side effects that occured.

Descriptive statistics summarize your data for the reader. Present descriptive statistics for each primary, secondary, and subgroup analysis.

Don’t provide formulas or citations for commonly used statistics (e.g., standard deviation) – but do provide them for new or rare equations.

Descriptive statistics

The exact descriptive statistics that you report depends on the types of data in your study. Categorical variables can be reported using proportions, while quantitative data can be reported using means and standard deviations . For a large set of numbers, a table is the most effective presentation format.

Include sample sizes (overall and for each group) as well as appropriate measures of central tendency and variability for the outcomes in your results section. For every point estimate , add a clearly labelled measure of variability as well.

Be sure to note how you combined data to come up with variables of interest. For every variable of interest, explain how you operationalized it.

According to APA journal standards, it’s necessary to report all relevant hypothesis tests performed, estimates of effect sizes, and confidence intervals.

When reporting statistical results, you should first address primary research questions before moving onto secondary research questions and any exploratory or subgroup analyses.

Present the results of tests in the order that you performed them—report the outcomes of main tests before post-hoc tests, for example. Don’t leave out any relevant results, even if they don’t support your hypothesis.

Inferential statistics

For each statistical test performed, first restate the hypothesis , then state whether your hypothesis was supported and provide the outcomes that led you to that conclusion.

Report the following for each hypothesis test:

• the test statistic value,
• the degrees of freedom ,
• the exact p- value (unless it is less than 0.001),
• the magnitude and direction of the effect.

When reporting complex data analyses, such as factor analysis or multivariate analysis, present the models estimated in detail, and state the statistical software used. Make sure to report any violations of statistical assumptions or problems with estimation.

Effect sizes and confidence intervals

For each hypothesis test performed, you should present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes .

Confidence intervals are useful for showing the variability around point estimates. They should be included whenever you report population parameter estimates.

Effect sizes indicate how impactful the outcomes of a study are. But since they are estimates, it’s recommended that you also provide confidence intervals of effect sizes.

Subgroup or exploratory analyses

Briefly report the results of any other planned or exploratory analyses you performed. These may include subgroup analyses as well.

Subgroup analyses come with a high chance of false positive results, because performing a large number of comparison or correlation tests increases the chances of finding significant results.

If you find significant results in these analyses, make sure to appropriately report them as exploratory (rather than confirmatory) results to avoid overstating their importance.

While these analyses can be reported in less detail in the main text, you can provide the full analyses in supplementary materials.

To effectively present numbers, use a mix of text, tables , and figures where appropriate:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence ,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table ,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure .

Since these are general guidelines, use your own judgment and feedback from others for effective presentation of numbers.

Tables and figures should be numbered and have titles, along with relevant notes. Make sure to present data only once throughout the paper and refer to any tables and figures in the text.

Formatting statistics and numbers

It’s important to follow capitalization , italicization, and abbreviation rules when referring to statistics in your paper. There are specific format guidelines for reporting statistics in APA , as well as general rules about writing numbers .

If you are unsure of how to present specific symbols, look up the detailed APA guidelines or other papers in your field.

It’s important to provide a complete picture of your data analyses and outcomes in a concise way. For that reason, raw data and any interpretations of your results are not included in the results section.

It’s rarely appropriate to include raw data in your results section. Instead, you should always save the raw data securely and make them available and accessible to any other researchers who request them.

Making scientific research available to others is a key part of academic integrity and open science.

Interpretation or discussion of results

This belongs in your discussion section. Your results section is where you objectively report all relevant findings and leave them open for interpretation by readers.

While you should state whether the findings of statistical tests lend support to your hypotheses, refrain from forming conclusions to your research questions in the results section.

Explanation of how statistics tests work

For the sake of concise writing, you can safely assume that readers of your paper have professional knowledge of how statistical inferences work.

In an APA results section , you should generally report the following:

• Participant flow and recruitment period.
• Missing data and any adverse events.
• Descriptive statistics about your samples.
• Inferential statistics , including confidence intervals and effect sizes.
• Results of any subgroup or exploratory analyses, if applicable.

According to the APA guidelines, you should report enough detail on inferential statistics so that your readers understand your analyses.

• the test statistic value
• the degrees of freedom
• the exact p value (unless it is less than 0.001)
• the magnitude and direction of the effect

You should also present confidence intervals and estimates of effect sizes where relevant.

In APA style, statistics can be presented in the main text or as tables or figures . To decide how to present numbers, you can follow APA guidelines:

• To present three or fewer numbers, try a sentence,
• To present between 4 and 20 numbers, try a table,
• To present more than 20 numbers, try a figure.

Results are usually written in the past tense , because they are describing the outcome of completed actions.

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

Cite this Scribbr article

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Bhandari, P. (2024, January 17). Reporting Research Results in APA Style | Tips & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 18, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/results-section/

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When to Spell Out Numbers in Writing: Guide and Examples

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The Rules for Writing Numbers in English 

You may have noticed a theme when it comes to the English language: most rules are not standardized. This (somewhat frustrating) fact is especially true when it comes to spelling out numbers. Should you write them out in words or leave them as numerals? To write numbers properly, you will also need to identify potential differences between major style guides (such as MLA , APA , and Chicago , to name a few) because these guides often outline different rules for using numbers in writing.

To make it easier, let's use an example. Say you're working on a paper evaluating the importance of the local public library in your community. The document will make use of small numbers, large numbers, decades, and statistics. Each type of number may follow a different rule.

Thankfully, when using numbers in writing, you can count on a few conventions that apply to most situations; just be sure to consult your specific style guide if one has been assigned. If you don't have time to review each number yourself, a professional editor or proofreader can ensure that your numbers are written correctly.

Writing Small and Large Numbers

A simple rule for using numbers in writing is that small numbers ranging from one to ten (or one to nine, depending on the style guide) should generally be spelled out. Larger numbers (i.e., above ten) are written as numerals.

For example, instead of writing "It cost ten-thousand four-hundred and sixteen dollars to renovate the local library," you would write, "It cost $10,416 to renovate the local library."

The reason for this is relatively intuitive. Writing out large numbers not only wastes space but could also be a major distraction to your readers.

Beginning a Sentence with a Number

Here is a rule that you can truly rely on: always spell out numbers when they begin a sentence, no matter how large or small they may be.

Incorrect: 15 new fiction novels were on display.

Correct: Fifteen new fiction novels were on display.

If the number is large and you want to avoid writing it all out, rearrange the sentence so that the number no longer comes first.

Revised: There were 15 new fiction novels on display.

Whole Numbers vs. Decimals

Another important factor to consider is whether you are working with a whole number or a decimal. Decimals are always written as numerals for clarity and accuracy.

To revisit our library example, perhaps circulation statistics improved in 2015. If a number falls in the range of one to ten and is not a whole number, it should be written as a numeral.

Incorrect: The circulation of library materials increased by four point five percent in 2015.

Correct: The circulation of library materials increased by 4.5% in 2015.

Paired Numbers (Two Numbers in a Row)

When two numbers come next to each other in a sentence, be sure to spell out one of these numbers. The main purpose of this rule is to avoid confusing the reader.

Incorrect: There were 12 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were 12 four-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Correct: There were twelve 4-year-old children waiting for the librarian to begin story time.

Decades and Centuries

Decades or centuries are usually spelled out, especially if the writing is formal.

Incorrect: The library was built in the '50s.

Correct: The library was built in the fifties.

If you are referring to a specific year (e.g., 1955), use the numeral.

Consistency Is Key When Using Numbers in Your Writing

Always strive for consistency, even if it overrides a previous rule. For example, if your document uses numbers frequently, it is more appropriate for all numbers to remain as numerals to ensure that usage is uniform throughout. Similarly, if a single sentence combines small and large numbers, make sure that all the numbers are either spelled out or written as numerals.

Incorrect: The library acquired five new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Correct: The library acquired 5 new mystery novels, 12 new desktop computers, and 17 new periodicals.

Style Guides May Have Slightly Different Rules for Writing Numbers in Words

Let's complicate things a bit, shall we?

If your work must follow the rules of a specific style guide, understand that various guides all have rules for spelling out numbers that may differ slightly from the rules listed above. For example, MLA style indicates that writers may spell out numbers if they are not used too frequently in the document and can be represented with one or two words (e.g., twenty-four, one hundred, three thousand ). APA style advises that common fractions (e.g., two-thirds ) be expressed as words. A number of specific rules for spelling out numbers are outlined in Section 9.1 of the Chicago Manual of Style.

Your ultimate authority will always be a style guide, but in the absence of one, following the rules outlined above will help you stay consistent in your use of numbers in writing.

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MLA (Ninth Edition)

• How to: Numbers and Pronouns
• Get Started
• Formatting Your Research Project
• MLA - How To Videos
• Understanding MLA Containers
• In-Text Citations / Quoting in MLA
• MLA Standards
• MLA Ninth Citations - the general pattern
• MLA 9 - Various Examples
• MLA Ninth Edition: Citing a Book
• MLA Ninth Edition: Citing a Newspaper, Magazine Or Journal (Print and Online)
• MLA Ninth Edition: Online Sources
• MLA Ninth Edition: Checklist, Sample Papers and Template
• Changes from MLA 7 to MLA 8th and 9th edition

Numbers in MLA 9th edition

In MLA format, the best practice is to spell numbers that can be written in one of two words.  Examples are: one million, or one-half.  For more complicated numbers, or numbers that require more than two words, type them.  Examples could be: 365, 5.76, or 2 1/2.  

In terms of number ranges: always type them in as Arabic numbers.  Examples include: 395-401, 222 BCE-180 BCE,  1952 to 1965.  

All attempts should be made to avoid pronouns that exclude people based on gender.  To do this you could choose both masculine and feminine pronouns or use the plural nouns and pronouns (their).  

Example: When a student attends community college, he or she is giving one's self a chance at a better life.  

Example: When students attend community college, they give themselves a chance at a better life. 

MLA guidelines encourage the use of the "their" pronoun with person who do not identify by a male/female binary.  Writers can also use the plural "their" pronoun if they are writing about a person whose gender is unknown.  

Although, it may be considered undesirable to match a singular noun with a plural pronoun, you may want to check with your professor about whether this is acceptable in cases where more specific language would be less inclusive and make certain unfair assumptions about one's gender or identity.  

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