nursing research article critique example apa

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Additional Help

• Purdue OWL: APA 7th Edition Style Guide This resource, revised according to the 7th edition, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page.
• Purdue OWL APA 7th Edition Overview This is an excellent place to start to learn about APA format.
• UMGC's APA 7th Edition Examples An easy to navigate guide with examples of what your APA citations should look like for many different types of sources.
• Sweetland Center for Writing Need help with writing? The Sweetland Center for Writing can help, with personal consultations & online resources.
• Citation Help Guide
• Ask a Librarian Message library staff, including after business hours & on weekends.

Official Manual (catalog link)

Examples below are taken from Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 7th edition, “Reference Examples.” 

Official Tutorial

• Academic Writer Tutorial: Basics of Seventh Edition APA Style A free tutorial about APA 7th edition from the American Psychological Association.

APA 7th ed. Examples

• Reference List
• Journals & periodicals
• Journal article with a DOI
• Journal article without a DOI
• Newspaper & magazine articles

Arrange entries in the Reference List in alphabetical order by surname of the first author. For more than one work by the same author, arrange in date order, earliest first. One-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname.

The general format for periodical articles (items published on a regular basis, like newspapers, magazines,and  journals):

Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (year). Title of article.  Title of Periodical, xx,  pp-pp. doi:xx.xxxxxxxxx

When there are up to twenty authors, spell out all authors’ names. After the nineteenth author, use ellipses before the last author’s name.

APA style requires the addition of a Digital Object Identifier (DOI) for journal articles if one is available. Most current journals articles and many historic articles found in PsycINFO will have a DOI.

If retrieving an article from a private database (examples of private databases include ProQuest or PsycInfo), it is not necessary to include the database information in your reference. However, if there is no DOI available for a journal article, you should look up the home page URL of the journal and include it in your reference.

Journal article with a DOI  ( Manual  section 10.1.1)

McCauley, S.M., & Christiansen, M.H. (2019). Language learning as language use: A cross-linguistic model of child language development.  Psychological Review, 126 (1), 1-51.  https://doi.org/10.1037/rev0000126

Journal article without a DOI, from a print journal or database  ( Manual  section 10.1.3)

Anderson, M. (2018). Getting consistent with consequences.  Educational Leadership ,  76 (1), 26-33.

Goldman, C. (2018, November 28). The complicated calibration of love, especially in adoption.  Chicago Tribune .

Journal article without a DOI, with a non-database URL  ( Manual  section 10.1.2)

 Ahmann, E., Tuttle, L.J., Saviet, M., & Wright, S.D. (2018). A descriptive review of ADHD coaching research: Implications for college students.  Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 31 (1), 17-39, https://www.ahead.org/professional-resources/publications/jped/archived-jped/jped-volume-31

Newspaper article  ( Manual  section 10.1.16)

Guarino, B. (2017, December 4). How will humanity react to alien life? Psychologists have some predictions.  The Washington Post.  https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speaking-of-science/wp/2017/12/04/how-will-humanity-react-to-alien-life-psychologists-have-some-predictions/

Magazine articles   ( Manual  section 10.1.15)

Bergeson, S. (2019, January 4). Really cool neutral plasmas.  Science , 363 (6422), 33-44. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau7988

Bustillos, M. (2013, March 19). On video games and storytelling: an interview with Tom Bissell.  The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/on-video-games-and-storytelling-an-interview-with-tom-bissell

Citing References in Text (Manual, section 8.10)

APA style uses an author-date format for in-text citations. Every reference cited in the text of your document should be included in the reference list. Generally speaking, the author’s last name and year of publication should be inserted into the text when appropriate. If the author’s name is part of the narrative, then the publication year alone is included in parentheses. If the author’s name is not part of the narrative, then both the author’s last name and the publication year is included in the parentheses.

One author  ( Manual  section 8.10)

Karaka (1884) describes the religious customs and traditions of the Parsis settled in Gujarat.

One of the most prominent men of the time had a close relationship with the British (Karaka, 1884).

Multiple authors  ( Manual  section 8.17 - 8.18)

If a work has two authors, then include both names every time the reference occurs in the text.

Forte and Hewitt (2006) propose the idea that

For a work with three or more authors, include the name of only the first author plus "et al." in every citation, including the first citation, unless doing so would create ambiguity. To avoid ambiguity, when the in-text citations of multiple works with three or more authors shorten to the same form, write out as many names as needed to distinguish the references.

Kapoor, Bloom, Montez, et al. (2017)

Kapoor, Bloom, Zucker, et al. (2017)

Book Citations

• Book with a DOI
• Book without a DOI
• Book chapter
• Reference book
• Entry from online reference work
• Government report

From Manual section 10.2.20

Brown, L.S. (2018). Feminist therapy (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000092-000

From Manual  section 10.2.21.

Burgess, R. (2019).  Rethinking global health: Frameworks of power.  Routledge.

From Manual section 10.2.22

Christian, B., & Griffiths, T. (2016). Algorithms to live by: The computer science of human decisions. Henry Holt & Co.

From Manual section 10.2.

For a chapter in an authored book, create a reference for the whole book (see "Book..." examples) and provide the chapter information with the in-text citation only.

From Manual section 10.2

Zalta, E.N. (Ed.). (2019). The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2019 ed.). Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/

From  Manual section 10.3.48

Graham, G. (2019). Behaviorism. In E. N. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Summer 2019 ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/behaviorism/

Entry in an online reference work, no individual author or editor ( Manual section 10.3.47)

Merriman-Webster (n.d.). Self-report. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary . Retrieved July 12, 2019, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/self-report

From Manual section 10.4.50. See also  Citing Gov Docs .

Australian Government Productivity Commission & New Zealand Productivity Commission. (2012). Strengthening trans-Tasman economic relations. https://www.pc.gov.au/inquiries/completed/australia-new-zealand/report/trans-tasman.pdf

Citations for Other Types of Resources

• Websites or Web article
• Web message/comment or Blog post
• Wikipedia or other wiki entry
• Video or Film

To mention a website in general, do not create a reference list entry or an in-text citation. Instead, include the name of the website in the text and provide the URL in parentheses ( Manuel  10.16). If you are citing multiple or specific documents on a website, however, follow the example(s) below.

Web article with author listed  ( Manual  10.16.112)

Martin Lillie, C.M. (2016, December 29). Be kind to yourself: How self-compassion can improve your resiliancy. Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/in-depth/self-compassion-can-improve-your-resiliency/art-20267193

Web article with no author listed  (http://www.apastyle.org/learn/faqs/web-page-no-author.aspx)

Justice Sotomayor:  A boon for business? (2009). Retrieved from http://www.ns.umich.edu/htdocs/releases/story.php?id=7449

Web message/post/comment with author listed  ( Manual  section 10.1.18)

KS in NJ. (2019, January 15). From this article, it sounds like men are figuring out something that women have known forever. I know of many [Comment on the article "How workout buddies can help stave off loneliness"]. The Washington Post. https://wapo.st/2HDToGJ

Provide the comment title or up to the first 20 words of the comment, then write "Comment on the article" and the title of the article on which the comment appeared.

Blog post  ( Manual  section 10.1.17)

Use the author’s name if known, otherwise use a screen name.

Klymkowsky, M. (2018, September 15). Can we talk scientifically about free will?  Sci-Ed.  https://blogs.plos.org/scied/2018/09/15/can-we-talk-scientifically-about-free-will/

From  Manual  10.3.49

List of oldest companies. (2019, January 13). In  Wikipedia . https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_oldest_companies&oldid=878158136

Cite the archived version of the page so that readers can retrieve the version you used. Access the archived version on Wikipedia by selecting "View history" and then the time and date of the version you used. If a wiki does not provide permanent links to archived versions of the page, include the URL for the entry and the retrieval date.

(Example from APA.org )

O'Donohue, W. (2017). Content analysis of undergraduate psychology textbooks (ICPSR 21600; Version V1) [Data set]. ICPSR. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR36966.v1

Video on website such as YouTube  ( Manual  section 10.12.90)

Fogarty, M. [Grammar Girl]. (2016, September 30).  How to diagram a sentence (absolute basics) . [Video]. Youtube. https://youtu.be/deiEY5Yq1qI

Film  ( Manual  section 10.12.84)

Jackson, P. (Director). (2001).  The lord of the rings: The fellowship of the ring  [Film; four-disc special extended ed. on DVD]. WingNut Films; The Saul Zaentz Company.

From Manual  Section 10.12.87

Korsh, A. (Writer & Director). (2019, September 25). One last con (Season 9, Episode 10) [TV series episode]. In D. Liman & D. Bartis (Executive Producers),  Suits . Untitled Korsh Company; Universal Content Productions; Open 4 Business Productions.

Reading and critiquing a research article

Nurses use research to answer questions about their practice, solve problems, improve the quality of patient care, generate new research questions, and shape health policy. Nurses who confront questions about practice and policy need strong, high-quality, evidence-based research. Research articles in peer-reviewed journals typically undergo a rigorous review process to ensure scholarly standards are met. Nonetheless, standards vary among reviewers and journals. This article presents a framework nurses can use to read and critique a research article.

When deciding to read an article, determine if it’s about a question you have an interest in or if it can be of use in your practice. You may want to have a research article available to read and critique as you consider the following questions.

Does the title accurately describe the article?

A good title will pique your interest but typically you will not know until you are done reading the article if the title is an accurate description. An informative title conveys the article’s key concepts, methods, and variables.

Is the abstract representative of the article?

The abstract provides a brief overview of the purpose of the study, research questions, methods, results, and conclusions. This helps you decide if it’s an article you want to read. Some people use the abstract to discuss a study and never read further. This is unwise because the abstract is just a preview of the article and may be misleading.

Does the introduction make the purpose of the article clear?

A good introduction provides the basis for the article. It includes a statement of the problem, a rationale for the study, and the research questions. When a hypothesis is being tested, it should be clearly stated and include the expected results.

Is a theoretical framework described?

When a theoretical framework is used, it should inform the study and provide a rationale. The concepts of the theoretical framework should relate to the topic and serve as a basis for interpreting the results. Some research doesn’t use a theoretical framework, such as health services research, which examines issues such as access to care, healthcare costs, and healthcare delivery. Clinical research such as comparing the effectiveness of two drugs won’t include a theoretical framework.

Is the literature review relevant to the study and comprehensive? Does it include recent research?

The literature review provides a context for the study. It establishes what is, and is not known about the research problem. Publication dates are important but there are caveats. Most literature reviews include articles published within the last 3 to 5 years. It can take more than a year for an article to be reviewed, revised, accepted, and published, causing some references to seem outdated.

Literature reviews may include older studies to demonstrate important changes in knowledge over time. In an area of study where little or no research has been conducted, there may be only a few relevant articles that are a decade or more old. In an emerging area of study there may be no published research, in which case related research should be referenced. If you are familiar with the area of research, review the references to determine if well-known and highly regarded studies are included.

Does the methods section explain how a research question was addressed?

The methods section provides enough information to allow the study to be replicated. Components of this section indicate if the design is appropriate to answer the research question(s).

• Did the researcher select the correct sample to answer the research questions and was the size sufficient to obtain valid results?
• If a data collection instrument was used, how was it created and validated?
• If any materials were used, such as written guides or equipment, were they described?
• How were data collected?
• Was reliability and validity accounted for?
• Were the procedures listed in a step-by-step manner?

Independent and dependent variables should be described and terms defined. For example, if patient falls in the hospital are considered the dependent variable, or outcome, what are the independent variables, or factors, being investigated that may influence the rate at which patient falls occur? In this example, independent variables might include nurse staffing, registered nurse composition (such as education and certification), and hospital Magnet &#174 status.

Is the analytical approach consistent with the study questions and research design?

The analytical approach relates to the study questions and research design. A quantitative study may use descriptive statistics to summarize the data and other tests, such as chi squares, t-tests, or regression analysis, to compare or evaluate the data. A qualitative study may use such approaches as coding, content analysis, or grounded theory analysis. A reader who is unfamiliar with the analytical approach may choose to rely on the expertise of the journal’s peer reviewers who assessed whether the analytical approach was correct.

Are the results presented clearly in the text and in tables and figures?

Results should be clearly summarized in the text, tables, and figures. Tables and figures are only a partial representation of the results and critical information may be only in the text. In a quantitative study, the significance of the statistical tests is important. The presentation of qualitative results should avoid interpretation, which is reserved for the discussion.

Are the limitations presented and their implications discussed?

It is essential that the limitations of the study be presented. These are the factors that explain why the results may need to be carefully interpreted, may only be generalized to certain situations, or may provide less robust results than anticipated. Examples of limitations include a low response rate to a survey, not being able to establish causality when a cross-sectional study design was used, and having key stakeholders refuse to be interviewed.

Does the discussion explain the results in relation to the theoretical framework, research questions, and significance of the study?

The discussion serves as an opportunity to explain the results in respect to the research questions and the theoretical framework. Authors use the discussion to interpret the results and explain the meaning and significance of the study. It’s also important to distinguish the study from others that preceded it and provide recommendations for future research.

Depending on the research, it may be equally important for the investigators to present the clinical and/or practical significance of the results. Relevant policy recommendations are also important. Evaluate if the recommendations are supported by the data or seem to be more of an opinion. A succinct conclusion typically completes the article.

Once you’re done reading the article, how do you decide if the research is something you want to use?

Determine the scientific merit of the study by evaluating the level and quality of the evidence. There are many scales to use, several of which can be found in the Research Toolkit on the American Nurses Association’s website http://www.nursingworld.org/research-toolkit.aspx . Consider what you learned and decide if the study is relevant to your practice or answered your question as well as whether you can implement the findings.

A new skill

A systematic approach to reading and critiquing a research article serves as a foundation for translating evidence into practice and policy. Every nurse can acquire this skill.

Louise Kaplan is director of the nursing program at Saint Martin’s University in Lacey, Washington. At the end of this article is a checklist for evaluating an article.

Selected references

Hudson-Barr D. How to read a research article. J Spec Pediatr Nurs . 2004;9(2):70-2.

King’s College D. Leonard Corgan Library. Reading a research article. http://www.lib.jmu.edu/ilworkshop08/materials/studyguide3.pdf . Accessed September 5, 2012.

Oliver D, Mahon SM. Reading a research article part I: Types of variables. Clin J Oncol Nurs . 2005;9(1):110-12.

Oliver D, Mahon SM. Reading a research article part II: Parametric and nonparametric statistics. Clin J Oncol Nurs . 2005;9(2):238-240.

Oliver D, Mahon SM. Reading a research article part III: The data collection instrument. Clin J Oncol Nurs . 2006;10(3):423-26.

Rumrill P, Fitzgerald S, Ware, M. Guidelines for evaluating research articles. Work . 2000;14(3):257-63.

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Archive: APA 6th Edition: Nursing Paper Example: APA Setup & Template

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• APA 7 This link opens in a new window

Sample APA Paper

This guide has has been put together by the State College of Florida BSN Faculty for the Nursing Department.  It can be used as a template. It does show appropriate APA set-up for a paper. Models the following:

• Running Head
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• SCFNursingPaperExampleGuide

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APA Handout - 7th Edition

• Clark Libraries APA 7 Quick Guide This 6-page handout lists lots of examples for citing sources in APA 7 format.

APA 7 Citation Resources

• For fonts, use one of the following: 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, 11-point Calibri, 11-point Arial, or 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode.
• Only one space after a period.
• Make a correct template for papers with title page and reuse.
• Use automatically generated citations from article databases, but don't trust them!  Correct as needed.
• To cite in a PowerPoint presentation , use in text citations on the slide(s) where your information is, and create a references slide to list your full references on at the end.

Handouts and Links

• Purdue OWL (Online Writing Lab) APA 7 Guide
• APA 7 Style Guide APA 7 style and grammar guide from the American Psychological Association
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• APA 7 Supplemental Resources Information on paper elements and format, bias-free language, and more.
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• Nursing Textbooks Reference List APA 7 Suggested citations for textbooks--double check against the edition and version you're using

Steps for creating an APA 7 title page

Example Student Title Page:

APA 7 DOI Guidelines

• It is not necessary to include the words “Retrieved from” or “Accessed from” before a DOI or URL in the Reference List.
• Although older works use previous DOI formats (e.g., “http:/dx.doi.org/” or “doi:” or “DOI:” before the DOI number), in your reference list, standardize DOIs into the current preferred format for all entries. For example, use https://doi.org/10.1037/a0040251 in your reference list even though that article, published in 2016, presented the number in an older format.
• Do I use a DOI or URL?

" For works without DOIs from most academic research databases , do not include a URL or database information... Provide the name [and URL] of the database or archive when it publishes original, proprietary works available only in that database or archive...."

Clark databases with proprietary works (provide name of database and URL for database home page):

• CultureGrams , https://online.culturegrams.com/
• CQ Researcher , https://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/
• Cite journal articles found in History Study Center as a print journal
• Lexicomp for Dentistry , https://online.lexi.com/lco/action/login
• WOIS , https://www.wois.org/
• Vocational Biographies , https://www.vocbio.com/
• shortDOI.org You may use shortDOIs or shortened URLs if desired. Use the shortDOI service provided by the International DOI Foundation to create shortDOIs. Some websites provide their own branded shortened URLs. Any shortened URL is acceptable in a reference as long as you check the link to ensure that it takes you to the correct location.

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Nursing: How to Write a Literature Review

• Traditional or Narrative Literature Review

Getting started

1. start with your research question, 2. search the literature, 3. read & evaluate, 4. finalize results, 5. write & revise, brainfuse online tutoring and writing review.

• RESEARCH HELP

The best way to approach your literature review is to break it down into steps.  Remember, research is an iterative process, not a linear one.  You will revisit steps and revise along the way.  Get started with the handout, information, and tips from various university Writing Centers below that provides an excellent overview.  Then move on to the specific steps recommended on this page.

• UNC- Chapel Hill Writing Center Literature Review Handout, from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
• University of Wisconsin-Madison Writing Center Learn how to write a review of literature, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
• University of Toronto-- Writing Advice The Literature Review: A few tips on conducting it, from the University of Toronto.
• Begin with a topic.
• Understand the topic. 
• Familiarize yourself with the terminology.  Note what words are being used and keep track of these for use as database search keywords. 
• See what research has been done on this topic before you commit to the topic.  Review articles can be helpful to understand what research has been done .
• Develop your research question.  (see handout below)
• How comprehensive should it be? 
• Is it for a course assignment or a dissertation? 
• How many years should it cover?
• Developing a good nursing research question Handout. Reviews PICO method and provides search tips.

Your next step is to construct a search strategy and then locate & retrieve articles.

•  There are often 2-4 key concepts in a research question.
• Search for primary sources (original research articles.)
• These are based on the key concepts in your research question.
• Remember to consider synonyms and related terms.
• Which databases to search?
• What limiters should be applied (peer-reviewed, publication date, geographic location, etc.)?

Review articles (secondary sources)

Use to identify literature on your topic, the way you would use a bibliography.  Then locate and retrieve the original studies discussed in the review article. Review articles are considered secondary sources.

• Once you have some relevant articles, review reference lists to see if there are any useful articles.
• Which articles were written later and have cited some of your useful articles?  Are these, in turn, articles that will be useful to you? 
• Keep track of what terms you used and what databases you searched. 
• Use database tools such as save search history in EBSCO to help.
• Keep track of the citations for the articles you will be using in your literature review. 
• Use RefWorks or another method of tracking this information. 
• Database Search Strategy Worksheet Handout. How to construct a search.
• TUTORIAL: How to do a search based on your research question This is a self-paced, interactive tutorial that reviews how to construct and perform a database search in CINAHL.

The next step is to read, review, and understand the articles.

• Start by reviewing abstracts. 
• Make sure you are selecting primary sources (original research articles).
• Note any keywords authors report using when searching for prior studies.
• You will need to evaluate and critique them and write a synthesis related to your research question.
• Consider using a matrix to organize and compare and contrast the articles . 
• Which authors are conducting research in this area?  Search by author.  
• Are there certain authors’ whose work is cited in many of your articles?  Did they write an early, seminal article that is often cited?
• Searching is a cyclical process where you will run searches, review results, modify searches, run again, review again, etc. 
• Critique articles.  Keep or exclude based on whether they are relevant to your research question.
• When you have done a thorough search using several databases plus Google Scholar, using appropriate keywords or subject terms, plus author’s names, and you begin to find the same articles over and over.
• Remember to consider the scope of your project and the length of your paper.  A dissertation will have a more exhaustive literature review than an 8 page paper, for example.
• What are common findings among each group or where do they disagree? 
• Identify common themes. Identify controversial or problematic areas in the research. 
• Use your matrix to organize this.
• Once you have read and re-read your articles and organized your findings, you are ready to begin the process of writing the literature review.

2. Synthesize.  (see handout below)

• Include a synthesis of the articles you have chosen for your literature review.
• A literature review is NOT a list or a summary of what has been written on a particular topic. 
• It analyzes the articles in terms of how they relate to your research question. 
• While reading, look for similarities and differences (compare and contrast) among the articles.  You will create your synthesis from this.
• Synthesis Examples Handout. Sample excerpts that illustrate synthesis.

Regis Online students have access to Brainfuse. Brainfuse is an online tutoring service available through a link in Moodle. Meet with a tutor in a live session or submit your paper for review.

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• Volume 22, Issue 1
• How to appraise qualitative research
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• Calvin Moorley 1 ,
• Xabi Cathala 2
• 1 Nursing Research and Diversity in Care, School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• 2 Institute of Vocational Learning , School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Calvin Moorley, Nursing Research and Diversity in Care, School of Health and Social Care, London South Bank University, London SE1 0AA, UK; Moorleyc{at}lsbu.ac.uk

https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2018-103044

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Introduction

In order to make a decision about implementing evidence into practice, nurses need to be able to critically appraise research. Nurses also have a professional responsibility to maintain up-to-date practice. 1 This paper provides a guide on how to critically appraise a qualitative research paper.

What is qualitative research?

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Useful terms

Some of the qualitative approaches used in nursing research include grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, case study (can lend itself to mixed methods) and narrative analysis. The data collection methods used in qualitative research include in depth interviews, focus groups, observations and stories in the form of diaries or other documents. 3

Authenticity

Title, keywords, authors and abstract.

In a previous paper, we discussed how the title, keywords, authors’ positions and affiliations and abstract can influence the authenticity and readability of quantitative research papers, 4 the same applies to qualitative research. However, other areas such as the purpose of the study and the research question, theoretical and conceptual frameworks, sampling and methodology also need consideration when appraising a qualitative paper.

Purpose and question

The topic under investigation in the study should be guided by a clear research question or a statement of the problem or purpose. An example of a statement can be seen in table 2 . Unlike most quantitative studies, qualitative research does not seek to test a hypothesis. The research statement should be specific to the problem and should be reflected in the design. This will inform the reader of what will be studied and justify the purpose of the study. 5

Example of research question and problem statement

An appropriate literature review should have been conducted and summarised in the paper. It should be linked to the subject, using peer-reviewed primary research which is up to date. We suggest papers with a age limit of 5–8 years excluding original work. The literature review should give the reader a balanced view on what has been written on the subject. It is worth noting that for some qualitative approaches some literature reviews are conducted after the data collection to minimise bias, for example, in grounded theory studies. In phenomenological studies, the review sometimes occurs after the data analysis. If this is the case, the author(s) should make this clear.

Theoretical and conceptual frameworks

Most authors use the terms theoretical and conceptual frameworks interchangeably. Usually, a theoretical framework is used when research is underpinned by one theory that aims to help predict, explain and understand the topic investigated. A theoretical framework is the blueprint that can hold or scaffold a study’s theory. Conceptual frameworks are based on concepts from various theories and findings which help to guide the research. 6 It is the researcher’s understanding of how different variables are connected in the study, for example, the literature review and research question. Theoretical and conceptual frameworks connect the researcher to existing knowledge and these are used in a study to help to explain and understand what is being investigated. A framework is the design or map for a study. When you are appraising a qualitative paper, you should be able to see how the framework helped with (1) providing a rationale and (2) the development of research questions or statements. 7 You should be able to identify how the framework, research question, purpose and literature review all complement each other.

There remains an ongoing debate in relation to what an appropriate sample size should be for a qualitative study. We hold the view that qualitative research does not seek to power and a sample size can be as small as one (eg, a single case study) or any number above one (a grounded theory study) providing that it is appropriate and answers the research problem. Shorten and Moorley 8 explain that three main types of sampling exist in qualitative research: (1) convenience (2) judgement or (3) theoretical. In the paper , the sample size should be stated and a rationale for how it was decided should be clear.

Methodology

Qualitative research encompasses a variety of methods and designs. Based on the chosen method or design, the findings may be reported in a variety of different formats. Table 3 provides the main qualitative approaches used in nursing with a short description.

Different qualitative approaches

The authors should make it clear why they are using a qualitative methodology and the chosen theoretical approach or framework. The paper should provide details of participant inclusion and exclusion criteria as well as recruitment sites where the sample was drawn from, for example, urban, rural, hospital inpatient or community. Methods of data collection should be identified and be appropriate for the research statement/question.

Data collection

Overall there should be a clear trail of data collection. The paper should explain when and how the study was advertised, participants were recruited and consented. it should also state when and where the data collection took place. Data collection methods include interviews, this can be structured or unstructured and in depth one to one or group. 9 Group interviews are often referred to as focus group interviews these are often voice recorded and transcribed verbatim. It should be clear if these were conducted face to face, telephone or any other type of media used. Table 3 includes some data collection methods. Other collection methods not included in table 3 examples are observation, diaries, video recording, photographs, documents or objects (artefacts). The schedule of questions for interview or the protocol for non-interview data collection should be provided, available or discussed in the paper. Some authors may use the term ‘recruitment ended once data saturation was reached’. This simply mean that the researchers were not gaining any new information at subsequent interviews, so they stopped data collection.

The data collection section should include details of the ethical approval gained to carry out the study. For example, the strategies used to gain participants’ consent to take part in the study. The authors should make clear if any ethical issues arose and how these were resolved or managed.

The approach to data analysis (see ref  10 ) needs to be clearly articulated, for example, was there more than one person responsible for analysing the data? How were any discrepancies in findings resolved? An audit trail of how the data were analysed including its management should be documented. If member checking was used this should also be reported. This level of transparency contributes to the trustworthiness and credibility of qualitative research. Some researchers provide a diagram of how they approached data analysis to demonstrate the rigour applied ( figure 1 ).

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Example of data analysis diagram.

Validity and rigour

The study’s validity is reliant on the statement of the question/problem, theoretical/conceptual framework, design, method, sample and data analysis. When critiquing qualitative research, these elements will help you to determine the study’s reliability. Noble and Smith 11 explain that validity is the integrity of data methods applied and that findings should accurately reflect the data. Rigour should acknowledge the researcher’s role and involvement as well as any biases. Essentially it should focus on truth value, consistency and neutrality and applicability. 11 The authors should discuss if they used triangulation (see table 2 ) to develop the best possible understanding of the phenomena.

Themes and interpretations and implications for practice

In qualitative research no hypothesis is tested, therefore, there is no specific result. Instead, qualitative findings are often reported in themes based on the data analysed. The findings should be clearly linked to, and reflect, the data. This contributes to the soundness of the research. 11 The researchers should make it clear how they arrived at the interpretations of the findings. The theoretical or conceptual framework used should be discussed aiding the rigour of the study. The implications of the findings need to be made clear and where appropriate their applicability or transferability should be identified. 12

Discussions, recommendations and conclusions

The discussion should relate to the research findings as the authors seek to make connections with the literature reviewed earlier in the paper to contextualise their work. A strong discussion will connect the research aims and objectives to the findings and will be supported with literature if possible. A paper that seeks to influence nursing practice will have a recommendations section for clinical practice and research. A good conclusion will focus on the findings and discussion of the phenomena investigated.

Qualitative research has much to offer nursing and healthcare, in terms of understanding patients’ experience of illness, treatment and recovery, it can also help to understand better areas of healthcare practice. However, it must be done with rigour and this paper provides some guidance for appraising such research. To help you critique a qualitative research paper some guidance is provided in table 4 .

Some guidance for critiquing qualitative research

• ↵ Nursing and Midwifery Council . The code: Standard of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives . 2015 https://www.nmc.org.uk/globalassets/sitedocuments/nmc-publications/nmc-code.pdf ( accessed 21 Aug 18 ).
• Barrett D ,
• Cathala X ,
• Shorten A ,

Patient consent for publication Not required.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

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Article Critique

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In the realm of academia and intellectual discourse, the art of critiquing articles holds significant importance. It not only refines one’s skills but also contributes to the growth of knowledge. A well-executed article critique showcases your ability to analyze, evaluate, and engage with scholarly work. This article delves into the concept of article critiques, offering insights into their purpose and benefits, along with a step-by-step guide on how to craft one effectively.

What is an Article Critique?

An article critique is a detailed evaluation and analysis of a scholarly article or research paper . It involves an objective assessment of the author’s arguments, evidence, methodology, and conclusions. An effective critique goes beyond summarizing the content; it delves into the strengths, weaknesses, and implications of the article. Developing this skill allows you to identify the characteristics that contribute to a compelling scholarly work, while also honing your ability to engage critically with academic literature.

Article Critique Format

1. introduction.

• Article Information : Mention the title of the article, the author’s name, the source ( journal , magazine , etc.), and the publication date.
• Thesis Statement : Summarize the main argument or purpose of the article.
• Scope of the Critique : Briefly outline the main points you will discuss in your critique.

2. Summary of the Article

• Main Points : Summarize the key points and arguments presented by the author.
• Purpose and Scope : Explain the purpose of the article and the main topics covered.
• Findings and Conclusions : Highlight the primary findings and conclusions drawn by the author.

3. Critical Analysis

A. structure and organization.

• Introduction : Evaluate the effectiveness of the introduction. Does it set the stage for the article?
• Body : Assess the organization of the main sections. Are the arguments and evidence presented logically?
• Conclusion : Examine the conclusion. Does it effectively summarize the article and provide closure?

b. Content and Arguments

• Clarity : Determine if the article is clear and easy to understand.
• Evidence : Analyze the evidence used to support the arguments. Is it relevant and convincing?
• Consistency : Check for logical consistency in the arguments.

c. Research Methodology

• Approach : Evaluate the research methods used in the article. Are they appropriate for the research question ?
• Data Collection : Assess the reliability and validity of the data collection methods.
• Analysis : Examine the thoroughness and accuracy of the data analysis .

d. Writing Style

• Tone : Assess the appropriateness of the tone for the target audience.
• Language : Evaluate the use of language. Is it precise and concise?
• Grammar and Syntax : Check for grammatical correctness and syntactical clarity.

e. Contribution to the Field

• Originality : Determine the originality of the article. Does it offer new insights?
• Impact : Assess the potential impact of the article on the field. Does it advance knowledge or understanding?

4. Personal Response

• Strengths : Identify the strengths of the article. What did the author do well?
• Weaknesses : Point out the weaknesses or areas for improvement.
• Overall Impression : Provide your overall impression of the article.

5. Conclusion

• Summary : Summarize your main points of critique.
• Recommendation : Offer any recommendations for future research or improvements to the article.

6. References

• Citation : Provide a full citation of the article in the appropriate format (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
• Additional Sources : Include citations for any additional sources referenced in your critique.

Examples of Article Critique For Students

Psychology article critique.

Reference: Smith, J. A., & Brown, R. L. (2022). The impact of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance. Journal of Psychological Research , 34(2), 123-135. https://doi.org/10.1001/jpsychres.2022.01.001 Introduction In their article “The Impact of Sleep Deprivation on Cognitive Performance,” Smith and Brown (2022) examine the effects of sleep deprivation on various cognitive functions. The authors aim to highlight the importance of adequate sleep for maintaining cognitive health and performance. Summary Smith and Brown (2022) conducted a series of cognitive tests on participants who were sleep-deprived for 24 hours. The results indicated significant declines in memory retention, attention span, and problem-solving skills among the sleep-deprived group. The article also discusses potential long-term consequences of chronic sleep deprivation on brain health. Critique Smith and Brown (2022) provide compelling evidence linking sleep deprivation to cognitive decline. Their methodology is robust, featuring a well-defined participant group and controlled variables. However, the study’s sample size is relatively small, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the article does not sufficiently explore potential confounding factors, such as stress and caffeine intake, which could influence cognitive performance. Conclusion Overall, Smith and Brown (2022) effectively underscore the critical role of sleep in cognitive health. Despite some methodological limitations, their findings contribute valuable insights to the field of sleep research. Future studies should aim to address the identified limitations to strengthen the generalizability and applicability of the results.

Education Article Critique

Reference: Johnson, L. M., & White, P. D. (2023). The impact of technology integration on student learning outcomes. Journal of Educational Technology , 29(1), 45-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeduc.2023.01.002 Introduction In the article “The Impact of Technology Integration on Student Learning Outcomes,” Johnson and White (2023) explore how incorporating digital tools and resources in the classroom affects students’ academic performance. The authors aim to identify both the benefits and challenges of technology integration in education. Summary Johnson and White (2023) evaluate various forms of technology integration, including interactive whiteboards, educational software, and online resources. They analyze the effects of these tools on student engagement, motivation, and achievement across different subjects and grade levels. The study presents data from several schools that have implemented these technologies, showing improvements in test scores and classroom participation. Critique The article by Johnson and White (2023) provides a comprehensive analysis of the positive impacts of technology on student learning. The use of multiple case studies strengthens the validity of their conclusions. However, the study’s focus on urban schools may not reflect the experiences of students in rural or underfunded schools, limiting the generalizability of the findings. Additionally, the reliance on short-term data does not capture the long-term effects of technology integration on student learning. Conclusion Johnson and White (2023) make a compelling case for the positive impact of technology on student learning outcomes. While the article effectively demonstrates the benefits of digital tools, addressing the identified limitations would provide a more comprehensive understanding of technology integration in education. Future research should focus on long-term effects, diverse educational settings, and the challenges of teacher training and equitable access to technology.

Business Article Critique

Reference: Davis, K. L., & Roberts, J. H. (2021). Corporate social responsibility and business success: A review of recent research. Journal of Business Ethics , 38(4), 220-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbuseth.2021.02.003 Introduction In their article “Corporate Social Responsibility and Business Success: A Review of Recent Research,” Davis and Roberts (2021) explore how corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives impact business performance. The authors aim to demonstrate the benefits of CSR in enhancing corporate reputation and customer loyalty. Summary Davis and Roberts (2021) review several studies that analyze the outcomes of CSR initiatives across different industries. The article highlights positive correlations between CSR activities and financial performance, as well as improvements in brand reputation and customer satisfaction. The authors also discuss the potential challenges businesses face when implementing CSR programs. Critique Davis and Roberts (2021) provide a thorough review of the literature on CSR and its impact on business success. The article effectively synthesizes findings from various studies, supporting their argument that CSR can be beneficial for companies. However, the article could be improved by including more critical perspectives on CSR, such as potential drawbacks or instances where CSR initiatives have failed. Additionally, the authors do not provide detailed guidelines on how companies can measure the effectiveness of their CSR efforts. Conclusion Overall, Davis and Roberts (2021) make a strong case for the positive impact of CSR on business success. Their review underscores the importance of socially responsible practices in building a positive corporate image and achieving long-term profitability. Future research should address the limitations noted, particularly by exploring the challenges and failures of CSR initiatives and providing actionable metrics for evaluating their success.

Health Sciences Article Critique

Reference: Nguyen, M. T., & Kim, H. S. (2020). The effects of a plant-based diet on cardiovascular health: A systematic review. Journal of Nutritional Science , 17(3), 95-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnutrsci.2020.03.005 Introduction In the article “The Effects of a Plant-Based Diet on Cardiovascular Health: A Systematic Review,” Nguyen and Kim (2020) investigate the impact of plant-based diets on heart disease prevention and management. The authors aim to provide evidence supporting dietary recommendations for cardiovascular health. Summary Nguyen and Kim (2020) review multiple studies comparing the cardiovascular outcomes of individuals on plant-based diets versus those on omnivorous diets. Their findings suggest that plant-based diets are associated with lower cholesterol levels, reduced blood pressure, and decreased incidence of heart disease. The authors discuss potential mechanisms, such as reduced intake of saturated fats and increased consumption of fiber and antioxidants. Critique Nguyen and Kim (2020) present a comprehensive review of the cardiovascular benefits of plant-based diets. The inclusion of various studies strengthens the validity of their conclusions. However, the review would benefit from a more balanced discussion of potential challenges, such as the risk of nutrient deficiencies and the social and cultural barriers to adopting a plant-based diet. Additionally, the article focuses primarily on short-term studies, and more research on the long-term sustainability of these diets is needed. Conclusion Overall, Nguyen and Kim (2020) provide strong evidence supporting the cardiovascular benefits of plant-based diets. Their systematic review contributes valuable insights to the field of nutritional science. Future research should address the limitations identified, particularly regarding long-term sustainability and potential challenges in adhering to plant-based diets.

Social Sciences Article Critique

Reference: Lopez, G. R., & Thompson, S. L. (2021). Urban poverty and social policy: Examining the effectiveness of welfare programs. Journal of Social Policy , 43(2), 180-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2021.04.007 Introduction In the article “Urban Poverty and Social Policy: Examining the Effectiveness of Welfare Programs,” Lopez and Thompson (2021) analyze the impact of various welfare programs on reducing urban poverty. The authors aim to assess the effectiveness of these programs in improving the socioeconomic conditions of urban populations. Summary Lopez and Thompson (2021) evaluate several welfare programs, including food assistance, housing subsidies, and employment training initiatives. Their analysis reveals mixed outcomes, with some programs showing significant positive effects on poverty reduction, while others have minimal impact. The authors discuss factors contributing to these varied results, such as program design, implementation quality, and participant engagement. Critique Lopez and Thompson (2021) provide a detailed analysis of the effectiveness of welfare programs in addressing urban poverty. The article’s strength lies in its comprehensive evaluation of multiple programs and consideration of various influencing factors. However, the study relies on data from a limited number of cities, which may not be representative of broader urban contexts. Additionally, the authors could have included more qualitative data to provide deeper insights into the lived experiences of program participants. Conclusion Overall, Lopez and Thompson (2021) offer valuable insights into the effectiveness of welfare programs in reducing urban poverty. Their findings highlight the need for well-designed and effectively implemented programs to achieve meaningful poverty reduction. Future research should aim to include a more diverse range of urban settings and incorporate qualitative data to enrich the understanding of program impacts.

Examples of Thesis Statements for Article Critiques

Psychology article critique thesis statements.

• “The article successfully links mindfulness practices to reduced anxiety levels, yet it overlooks the potential variability in individual responses, which could affect the generalizability of the results.”
• “While the study provides significant insights into the effects of social media on adolescent self-esteem, its cross-sectional design limits the ability to infer causality.”

Literature Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article provides a nuanced analysis of the themes of isolation in ‘Frankenstein,’ but its limited engagement with contemporary critical perspectives reduces its impact.”
• “Although the article offers a compelling interpretation of symbolism in ‘Moby Dick,’ its narrow focus on literary devices neglects the broader socio-political context of the novel.”

Business Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article effectively highlights the benefits of agile project management in tech startups, but it fails to consider the potential downsides, such as the risk of scope creep and resource strain.”
• “Despite presenting a well-researched argument for the advantages of remote work, the article’s lack of empirical data on long-term productivity effects weakens its conclusions.”

Health Sciences Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article convincingly argues for the role of gut microbiota in mental health, though it would benefit from a more thorough exploration of the mechanisms underlying this relationship.”
• “While the study provides strong evidence for the benefits of intermittent fasting on metabolic health, its reliance on short-term studies limits the understanding of long-term effects.”

Education Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article makes a strong case for the use of gamification in education to enhance student motivation, yet it neglects to address potential challenges related to accessibility and equity.”
• “Despite effectively demonstrating the positive impacts of project-based learning on student engagement, the article lacks consideration of the additional resources and training required for successful implementation.”

Environmental Science Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article offers a comprehensive review of the impacts of deforestation on climate change, but it would be strengthened by incorporating more case studies from diverse geographic regions.”
• “While the article effectively discusses the potential of urban green spaces to mitigate air pollution, it underestimates the complexities of urban planning and maintenance costs.”

Social Sciences Article Critique Thesis Statements

• “The article provides valuable insights into the influence of cultural norms on gender roles, but its limited geographic focus restricts the applicability of its findings to a global context.”
• “Although the study sheds light on the relationship between economic inequality and crime rates, its reliance on correlational data makes it difficult to draw definitive causal conclusions.”

Example of Article Critique About Education

Article Title : The Impact of Technology Integration on Student Learning Outcomes Introduction The article “The Impact of Technology Integration on Student Learning Outcomes” investigates how the use of digital tools and resources in the classroom influences students’ academic performance. The research aims to identify the benefits and potential drawbacks of incorporating technology into educational settings. Summary The study evaluates various forms of technology integration, including interactive whiteboards, educational software, and online resources. It examines their effects on student engagement, motivation, and achievement across different subjects and grade levels. The article presents data from several schools that have implemented these technologies, showcasing improvements in test scores and classroom participation. Critique The article provides a comprehensive analysis of the positive impacts of technology on student learning. The use of multiple case studies strengthens the validity of its conclusions. However, the article could improve by addressing some critical aspects: Sample Size and Diversity : The study primarily focuses on schools in urban areas, which may not reflect the experiences of students in rural or underfunded schools. Expanding the sample size to include a more diverse range of schools would enhance the generalizability of the findings. Longitudinal Data : The research relies heavily on short-term data, which may not capture the long-term effects of technology integration on student learning. Longitudinal studies are necessary to understand the sustained impact of these tools. Teacher Training and Support : While the article highlights the benefits of technology, it overlooks the challenges teachers face in integrating these tools effectively. Providing adequate training and ongoing support is crucial for the successful implementation of technology in the classroom. Equity and Access : The article briefly mentions the digital divide but does not delve into how disparities in access to technology can affect educational outcomes. A more thorough examination of equity issues would provide a balanced perspective on the advantages and limitations of technology integration. Conclusion Overall, the article makes a compelling case for the positive impact of technology on student learning outcomes. It effectively demonstrates how digital tools can enhance engagement and academic performance. However, to provide a more comprehensive understanding, future research should address the limitations identified, particularly regarding sample diversity, long-term effects, teacher support, and equity issues. By doing so, the research could offer more actionable insights for policymakers and educators striving to harness the full potential of technology in education.

More Examples & Samples Article Critique in PDF

1. quantitative article critique.

2. Article Critique Guidelines

4. Critiquing Research Articles

4. Article Review & Critiques

5. Instructions for Article Critiques

6. Critique of an Academic Article

7. Critique and Review of Research Articles

8. Article Critique Assignment

9. Book Review or Article Critique

10. Press Article Critique

Purpose of Article Critique

An article critique serves multiple essential purposes in both academic and professional contexts. Below, we delve into the primary objectives of conducting an article critique, which are vital for developing critical thinking, analytical skills, and subject-specific knowledge.

1. Developing Critical Thinking Skills

Critical Evaluation:

• Encourages students and professionals to go beyond surface-level reading.
• Promotes a deeper understanding of the material by questioning the validity and reliability of the arguments presented.

Analytical Reasoning:

• Helps in identifying logical fallacies, biases, and unsupported claims.
• Facilitates the assessment of evidence and methodologies used in the article.

2. Enhancing Understanding of Subject Matter

In-Depth Analysis:

• Requires a thorough examination of the article’s content, including the main arguments, evidence, and conclusions.
• Enhances comprehension of complex concepts and theories within a specific field.

Contextual Awareness:

• Places the article within the broader context of existing literature.
• Identifies gaps in the research and suggests areas for further investigation.

3. Improving Academic Writing Skills

Structured Writing:

• Teaches students how to organize their thoughts coherently.
• Develops skills in writing clear, concise, and structured critiques.

Evidence-Based Arguments:

• Encourages the use of evidence to support evaluations and opinions.
• Helps in the practice of citing sources correctly and ethically.

4. Facilitating Peer Review and Feedback

Constructive Criticism:

• Provides a framework for giving and receiving constructive feedback.
• Enhances collaborative learning by engaging in discussions about the strengths and weaknesses of an article.

Quality Assurance:

• Plays a crucial role in academic publishing and professional fields by ensuring the quality and credibility of published work.
• Helps maintain high standards in research and scholarship.

5. Encouraging Lifelong Learning

Continual Improvement:

• Fosters a habit of continuous learning and improvement.
• Keeps individuals updated with the latest research, trends, and advancements in their field.

Adaptability:

• Prepares students and professionals to adapt to new information and changing paradigms.
• Cultivates a mindset that is open to questioning and re-evaluating established knowledge.

Components of an Article Critique

An effective article critique includes several key components to ensure a thorough evaluation and analysis. Below are the main components:

• Provide an overview of the article.
• Introduce the main thesis and key points.

Components:

• Title and Author: State the article’s title and author.
• Publication Details: Include publication name, date, etc.
• Thesis Statement: Summarize the article’s main argument.
• Purpose of the Critique: Explain your objective.
• Summarize the article’s content.
• Main Points: Highlight key arguments.
• Methodology: Describe research methods briefly.
• Findings and Conclusions: Outline main findings and conclusions.

3. Analysis

• Critically examine the article’s structure, content, and logic.
• Structure and Organization: Evaluate clarity and coherence.
• Content Evaluation: Assess relevance and depth.
• Argumentation: Analyze logical flow and evidence strength.
• Methodology: Critique research methods and identify biases.
• Sources and References: Evaluate quality and relevance of cited sources.

4. Evaluation

• Assess the article’s overall contribution.
• Strengths: Highlight strengths such as originality and depth.
• Weaknesses: Identify weaknesses like gaps and biases.
• Contribution to the Field: Discuss the article’s impact.
• Summarize the critique and provide final thoughts.
• Summary of Evaluation: Recap key points.
• Overall Assessment: Provide a final judgment.
• Recommendations: Suggest future research or improvements.
• List sources cited in your critique.
• Citations: Format according to the appropriate style (e.g., APA, MLA).

How to Write an Article Critique

Mastering the art of crafting an effective article critique requires a systematic approach. Here is a step-by-step guide to help you navigate this process with finesse.

Step 1: Reading and Observation

Before diving into the critique, thoroughly read the article. Take notes on the main points, observation ,  objectives , and tone of the article. Identify the author’s goals and the case study , if applicable. This step is crucial for grasping the nuances of the work.

Step 2: Analyzing Structure and Content

Evaluate the structure of the article. Identify the introduction, main arguments, supporting evidence, and conclusion. Examine the use of verbs and analogies , as well as the cause-and-effect relationships presented. Analyze how effectively the author communicates their ideas.

Step 3: Assessing Methodology and Evidence

Scrutinize the methodology used by the author. Is it appropriate for the objectives of the article? Evaluate the quality and relevance of the evidence presented. Consider whether the evidence supports the author’s claims adequately.

Step 4: Critical Evaluation

Engage in a critical evaluation of the article. Identify its strengths and weaknesses. Does the author effectively address counterarguments? Are there any gaps in the logic? Assess the overall coherence and effectiveness of the article’s presentation.

Why is article critique important?

It develops critical thinking, enhances understanding of the subject, improves academic writing skills, and provides constructive feedback.

What are the main components of an article critique?

Introduction, Summary, Analysis, Evaluation, Conclusion, and References.

How do I start an article critique?

Begin with an introduction that provides the article’s title, author, publication details, and a brief summary of its thesis and purpose.

What should be included in the summary?

Key points, research methods, findings, and conclusions of the article.

How do I analyze an article?

Examine the structure, content, logic, argumentation, methodology, and sources for clarity, relevance, and evidence strength.

What makes a good evaluation?

Balanced assessment of the article’s strengths and weaknesses, and its contribution to the field.

How should I conclude an article critique?

Summarize your findings, provide an overall assessment, and offer suggestions for improvement or future research.

How do I cite sources in an article critique?

Follow the appropriate citation style (e.g., APA, MLA) and ensure all references are correctly formatted.

What are common pitfalls to avoid in an article critique?

Avoid biased or overly negative reviews, lack of evidence for claims, and failure to provide a balanced perspective.

How can I ensure my critique is objective?

Use evidence to support your points, acknowledge both strengths and weaknesses, and avoid personal biases.

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Research Critique of Qualitative Research on Registered Nurses

Info: 5461 words (22 pages) Nursing Essay Published: 8th Feb 2021

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• Published: 19 August 2024

The relationship between moral reasoning and nurses’ professional values in undergraduate nursing students: a descriptive-correlational study

• Amir Mohamad Nazari 1 ,
• Fariba Borhani   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8937-2649 1 ,
• Akbar Zare-Kaseb   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0014-7104 1 ,
• Vahid Yousofvand 2 &
• Abbas Abbaszadeh 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  889 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Moral reasoning in nursing is crucial in delivering high-quality patient care and fostering increased job satisfaction among nurses. Adhering to professional values is vital to this profession, and nurses must modify their actions to align with these values.

This study aimed to examine the correlation between moral reasoning and professional values among undergraduate nursing students.

Research design

A descriptive correlational design was recruited.

Participants and research context

The research was conducted at three nursing schools located in Tehran, Iran. The sample was recruited through random stratified sampling, specifically targeting undergraduate nursing students. The data collection tool comprised a three-part questionnaire, including a demographic information form, the Nursing Dilemma Test, and the Nurses Professional Values Scale Revised Questionnaire. The distribution of questionnaires encompassed both face-to-face and electronic methods. The analysis of data was conducted using SPSS 16 software. The data was analyzed using the independent samples t-test, Pearson’s correlation coefficient, and linear regression analysis. The P value of 0.05 was considered significant.

Ethical considerations

The Ethics Research Center of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences approved the study.

Data analysis showed that moral reasoning was directly correlated to professional values ( r  = 0.528, p  < 0.001). The mean scores of Principled Thinking (P.T.), Practical Consideration (P.C.), and Familiarity with similar moral dilemmas of the NDT scale were 42.55 (SD = 12.95), 15.72 (SD = 6.85), 16.08 (SD = 6.67), respectively. Also, the total score of professional values of students was 90.63 (SD = 28.80).

The findings indicated that moral reasoning and interest in nursing predict students’ professional identity. Thus, any effort to enhance interest in the profession can contribute to developing students’ professional identity. This can involve incentivizing, enhancing the professional reputation at the community and university levels, and valuing student preferences and necessities.

Peer Review reports

The medical environment of nursing practice has been constantly evolving and becoming more complex. The continuous renewal of science and technology, the change in the disease spectrum, and the aging population have specifically impacted traditional nursing work [ 1 ]. On the other hand, the shortage of nursing human resources and the different disease cognition between nurses and patients have often led nurses into an ethical dilemma due to the confusion of roles, moral conflicts, and value conflicts [ 2 , 3 , 4 ].

Research findings in various nursing schools suggest a growing disregard among nursing students for ethical considerations in their everyday nursing practices. The nursing curriculum has recently been exposed to its lack of emphasis on ethics. Nursing schools do not explicitly cover the concept of professional ethics in any of their theoretical or clinical courses [ 5 ]. So, it seems that compared to professional nurses, nursing students are inexperienced and possess inadequate aptitude and the courage to confront and manage ethical dilemmas in clinical settings [ 6 ].

Nursing students face ethical problems in clinical settings, ranging from violating patient’s rights and dignity to insecure care delivery [ 7 ]. Despite learning about different moral theories and principles during their education, nursing students may find it daunting to apply those principles due to minimal support and guidance in clinical settings [ 8 , 9 ]. Encountering dilemmas in clinical settings can lead to student emotional distress, affecting their clinical learning and professional development [ 6 , 10 ]. Thus, strategies are needed to improve nurses’ and nursing students’ moral reasoning abilities to minimize the likelihood of these problems [ 7 ].

Moral reasoning refers to the cognitive process of recognizing an ethical dilemma and selecting the suitable course of action, enabling nurses to make informed decisions [ 11 ]. Moral reasoning in nursing necessitates nurses to evaluate and make appropriate decisions to tackle the daily challenges they face in the clinical environment [ 12 ].

Kohlberg’s research serves as the foundation for most studies on moral reasoning [ 13 ]. A classification of ethical development into six stages was suggested to assess advancement in attaining absolute universal justice. Some suggest that individuals’ moral reasoning aligns with their advancement in each stage [ 14 ].

Kohlberg’s model classifies moral reasoning into three levels: pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional, each comprising two stages. During the pre-conventional phase, individuals prioritize their interests and engage in actions focused on self-gratification or avoiding unfavorable outcomes. Within the conventional stage, individuals frequently use accepted social rules and principles to make decisions. At the post-conventional stage, individuals consciously align their actions with established ethical principles and prioritize ethical and compassionate decision-making [ 15 ].

Professional values are the performance standards accepted by the professional and specialist groups [ 16 ]. These values are the basis of nursing performance, the director of the nurses’ interaction with the patients, colleagues, other professionals, and the public, and as a guideline for ethical behavior to provide secure and humanitarian care [ 17 , 18 ]. Values are goals and beliefs that create behaviors and are a basis for decision-making and practice [ 19 , 20 ]. The acquisition and internalization of professional values are necessary in care settings for professional development, and they provide a common framework for meeting professional expectations and standards [ 21 , 22 ].

Considering that nursing involves scientific knowledge in addition to human and professional values, students must thoroughly understand these values to provide ethical care and engage in moral reasoning across various scenarios [ 23 ]. Professional nursing values play an essential role in shaping nursing professionals’ competence. They encompass human dignity, integrity, altruism, and justice and guide nursing standards, practice, and evaluation [ 24 , 25 ]. Therefore, developing nursing professional values can promote care quality, increase patient understanding, and increase job satisfaction and retention of nursing staff; it also helps the professional socialization process [ 21 , 26 ].

Prior research has been conducted in this specific domain, and it is worth noting that these studies possess certain limitations. The investigation conducted by Hajilo et al. [ 27 ] explored the association between ethical reasoning and professional values in nursing students. The results of their study revealed no significant correlation between the two factors. The researchers highlighted certain limitations in their research conducted amidst the coronavirus pandemic. Hence, they propose that the study be replicated in clinical settings with a larger sample size and random sampling to ensure better generalizability. Our study seeks to fill the gaps in this research by utilizing a larger sample size and examining and comparing these variables in nursing students from various semesters.

Moral reasoning and professional identity have been the subjects of only a limited number of Iranian studies, which have not fully addressed this topic’s various dimensions. Considering the importance placed on moral reasoning and the professional values of nursing students, building upon the hypothesis, if there is a relationship between these variables, promoting moral reasoning can be considered a significant factor in cultivating nursing students’ professional values. Thus, this study examined the relationship between moral reasoning and professional identity among nursing students.

Study design

The present study employed a descriptive-correlational design.

Sample and setting

The research was conducted at three nursing schools located in Tehran, Iran. The sample was recruited through random stratified sampling, specifically targeting undergraduate nursing students. The G*power software was utilized to determine the minimum sample size. The criteria for determining sample size were alpha = 0.05, power = 0.80, and a correlation coefficient of 0.2 with a 10% drop-out rate. The number of samples allocated to each faculty was computed based on the student population at the time of data collection [ 28 , 29 ].

C = 0.5*ln[(1 + r)/(1-r)]

N=[(z α +z β )/C] 2 +3.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria were: (1) undergraduate nursing students who were studying in all semesters and (2) willingness and consent to participate in the study, and the exclusion criteria were: (1) returning incomplete questionnaires and (2) being students of other universities which was not in our inclusion criteria for setting and was transferred to this school.

Measurements

The research methodology involved the utilization of a demographic questionnaire, the Nursing Dilemma Test (NDT) [ 30 ], and the Nurses Professional Values Scale-Revised (NPVS-R) [ 31 ] as assessment tools. The demographic factors under investigation were determined through a comprehensive review of related studies and by consulting experts in the field.

Nursing dilemma test (NDT)

The NDT was established in 1981 at the University of Minnesota by Patricia Crisham [ 14 ]. NDT further examines nurses’ moral reasoning, decision-making capabilities, practical considerations, and familiarity with moral dilemmas. The NDT comprises six scenarios that specifically address ethical dilemmas in healthcare. These scenarios cover a range of situations, including (1) dealing with a newborn who has anomalies, (2) the issue of administering medication forcefully, (3) handling an adult’s request for assisted death, (4) orienting new nurses, (5) addressing medication errors, and (6) managing the treatment of an uninformed terminally ill adult [ 32 ].

Part A of the NDT focuses on the assessment of moral decision-making. In each of the six scenarios, participants are tasked with envisioning themselves as the nurse, and it is recommended that they respond to the question: “What actions should the nurse undertake? The choices for the participants include “Should act,” “Cannot decide,” or “Should not act.” The nurse who acts has made a moral decision. The ethical decision-making of the nurses is shown by the percentage of their chosen actions in each scenario.

The second section provides six statements for consideration when approaching the scenarios, encompassing the ethical dilemma. The participants must select the most significant statement from these six and arrange them according to personal importance. The aim of the responses given in this section of the test is to evaluate the levels of “Principled Thinking” (P.T.) and “Practical Consideration” (P.C.). The possible minimum P.T. score on the test is 18, while the maximum P.T. score is 66. The minimum possible P.C. score achievable on the test is 6, while the maximum P.C. score is 36. The P.T. demonstrates the significance of including moral principles in making ethical decisions within the nursing field. When making ethical decisions, the P.C. considers environmental factors like patient load, resource availability, institutional policies, nurses’ perception of administrative support, and doctors’ decision-making authority [ 33 ].

The assessment tool NDT - Part C measures nurses’ Familiarity (F) level with comparable moral dilemmas in each scenario, employing a 5-point scale. Items include: “I have decided in a similar dilemma” (score = 1), “I know someone else in a similar dilemma” (score = 2), “I do not know anyone in a similar dilemma, but the dilemma is conceivable” (score = 3), “It is difficult to imagine the dilemma as it seems remote” (score = 4), and “It is difficult to take the dilemma seriously as it seems unreal” (score = 5). The scoring system for moral dilemmas in NDT categorizes familiarity as a total score between 6 and 17 and unfamiliarity as a score between 18 and 30 (Table  1 ).

The reliability and validity of the questionnaire have been verified by its author, and it has been widely used by researchers [ 14 , 34 , 35 , 36 ]. Borhani et al. [ 37 ] and Mogadasian et al. [ 38 ] reported Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.82 and 0.95, respectively, for the Persian version of the NDT.

Nurses professional values scale-revised (NPVS-R)

Weiss and Shank formulated the questionnaire utilized in this study in 2009 [ 39 ]. It comprises 26 elements from established nursing professional ethics codes, encompassing caring, trust, professionalism, justice, and activism.

The dimension of caring consists of 9 items, specifically items 16, 17, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25. In the context of trust, there are five items to consider: 1, 2, 9, 14, and 15. The dimension of professionalism comprises four items, namely 5, 6, 7, and 8. The dimension of justice consists of three items, specifically items 3, 12, and 13. Finally, the dimension of activism encompasses items 4, 10, 11, 19, and 26.

The scoring is established on a five-point Likert scale, encompassing the spectrum from “unimportant” to “most important.” The scoring system assigns a score of 1 to the option “unimportant,” a score of 2 to “slightly important,” a score of 3 to “moderately important,” a score of 4 to “important,” and a score of 5 to “most important.” The range of scores for this questionnaire spans from 26 to 130, and a higher score signifies a higher level of familiarity among nurses with professional values. When scoring, a score below 43 signifies low-level professional values, between 43 and 86 indicates medium-level professional values, and above 86 represents high-level professional values.

By employing Cronbach’s alpha method, Weiss and Shank evaluated the tool’s total reliability, revealing a favorable coefficient of 0.92 for the tool [ 40 ]. In a study conducted by Parvan et al. 2012, the Persian version of the questionnaire was evaluated for its validity. The validity of the Persian version of the questionnaire was examined by Parvan et al. after its translation, with the results indicating good face and content validity. Moreover, the Persian adaptation of the questionnaire displayed a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of 0.91 [ 41 ].

Data gathering

Data gathering lasted from June 1 to November 30, 2023. After securing ethical approval, the researchers presented in three nursing faculties of medical sciences universities. Participants were briefed about the research objectives face-to-face and online and filled out an informed written consent form. Then, participants were asked to complete the paper-based questionnaires. Once filled, researchers collected the questionnaires. Also, to increase the students’ participation, an electronic link to the questionnaires was provided to them. Students did not feel coerced into completing the questionnaires because the researchers were not among their teachers.

Statistical analysis

Data analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistics 16.0. We used descriptive statistics (frequency distribution, mean, and standard deviation) and analytical statistics, including the analysis of variance (ANOVA), independent t-test, Pearson’s correlation coefficient, and linear regression analysis. After screening the data for the assumptions of various parametric tests, correlations between moral reasoning and professional values were explored. Also, Multiple regression analysis was conducted to examine the best explanatory variables of professional values. The maximum alpha bias level for testing the hypotheses was fixed at 0.05.

Participants

Two hundred (83.3%) of the 240 distributed questionnaires were returned from study subjects. The Tehran University of Medical Sciences accounted for 40% of the total sample size, while Shahid Beheshti and Iran universities each held a 30% share.

Sample profile

The mean age of participants in this study was 21.34 (SD = 2.01). Most of the participants (55.5%) were male, were single (93.0%), and were interested in nursing (71.5%). Regarding the academic semester, the fourth semester had the highest percentage of participants, at 18.5%, whereas the seventh semester had the lowest rate, at 8% (Table  2 ).

Moral reasoning and professional values

The study’s findings showed that the mean scores of Principled Thinking (P.T.), Practical Consideration (P.C.), and Familiarity with similar moral dilemmas of the NDT scale were 42.55 (SD = 12.95), 15.72 (SD = 6.85), 16.08 (SD = 6.67), respectively. Also, the total score of professional values of students was 90.63 (SD = 28.80). The scores of professional values dimensions are presented in detail in Table  3 .

According to nursing students’ answers to the ethical scenarios of the NDT test, difficulty in decision-making regarding the resuscitation of a child with an anomaly was observed in 18.5% of cases among nursing students. In terms of mandatory drug prescription and providing honest answers to people’s questions at the end of life, the corresponding figures were 18% and 19%. The issue with the least amount of uncertainty pertains to the request of an adult to end their life, a situation which students overwhelmingly oppose, with a rate of 86%. In this particular scenario, a mere 9.5% of individuals remained undecided. The details are presented in Table  4 .

Correlation between major study variables

Principled thinking (P.C.) was directly correlated to professional value’s total ( r  = 0.528), caring ( r  = 0.504), activism ( r  = 0.531), trust ( r  = 0.515), professionalism ( r  = 0.496), and justice ( r  = 0.452), scores. This correlation was all significant ( p  < 0.01) and moderate (0.4 <  r  < 0.59).

Practical consideration (P.C.) had significant, negative, and moderate correlation with professional value’s total ( r  = − 0.539), caring ( r  = − 0.521), activism ( r  = − 0.527), trust ( r  = − 0.546), professionalism ( r  = − 0.490), and justice ( r  = − 0.450) scores.

Familiarity (F) with moral dilemmas didn’t correlate with the total score of professional value or any other subscales of NPVS-R (Table  5 ).

Factors influencing professional identity

Multivariate regression (enter method) determined that the practical consideration (P.C.) of the NDT scale is the most effective dimension in predicting the level of professional value of nursing students (β = -0.356, p  < 0.001). The overall predictive value of the P.T., P.C., and F scales to professional identity was 33.9% (R2 = 0.339, Adjusted R2 = 0.329) (Table  6 ).

Among the socio-demographic variables, multivariate regression showed that being interested in nursing (β = -0.120, p  = 0.045), marital Status (β = 0.090, p  = 0.139), and sex (β = 0.035, p  = 0.564) respectively, have had the most significant effect on the professional value of nursing students. Of the abovementioned factors, only being interested in nursing significantly impacted professional values. This relationship was indirect, as higher interest was associated with weaker professional values. Together, these factors (P.T., P.C., F, marital Status, interest in nursing, and sex) explained about 36.2% of the variance in the professional value of nursing students (Table  7 ).

Moral decision-making

The initial component of each scenario in the NDT questionnaire assesses students’ moral decision-making capacity. Based on our study, it is evident that students demonstrated indecisiveness in fewer than 20% of cases for all six scenarios. The greatest challenge arose in determining the appropriate and truthful approach towards end-of-life patients, with the least complexity encountered when addressing the request for euthanasia by an adult patient. This implies that student nurses can readily decide about euthanasia. As per our results, nursing students rejected the patient’s request in 86% of cases. This may pertain to the cultural aspects of euthanasia within the society under examination.

The primary factors linked to positivity and supportiveness stemmed from (a) the patient’s experience of extreme and uncontrollable pain, unbearable suffering, or other distressing situations, (b) the legal aspects of euthanasia, and (c) the patient’s right to choose their death. The negative and unsupportive attitude of nurses was influenced by various factors, such as religion, moral dilemmas, the role of gender in healthcare, and poor palliative care [ 42 ]. The findings of our study in this field have been validated by a recent study conducted in Iran. Additionally, the researchers discovered that nurses with elevated ethical reasoning exhibit a more unfavorable stance on euthanasia [ 43 ].

• Moral reasoning

Moreover, the outcomes of our study demonstrated that the students possess a remarkable level of moral reasoning, enabling them to effectively navigate and resolve moral difficulties frequently encountered in clinical settings. These findings align with the results of a comparable study in this particular domain. The study revealed that the students’ moral reasoning skills exceeded the average level [ 44 ]. Similar results were observed in another study on nurses [ 45 ].

Our study indicates a significant connection between students’ moral reasoning and professional values. Higher professional values were linked to a more favorable level of professional reasoning. This is entirely consistent with the outcomes of comparable research [ 46 , 47 ]. Nursing students who possess elevated professional values exhibit higher confidence when faced with ethical decision-making [ 48 ]. Considering the positive relationship between these two constructs, nursing education can help improve the other by strengthening each. The study’s findings prove that moral reasoning can be a significant stimulus for enhancing professional values. Ethical reasoning exercises, such as simulating scenarios in a simulated environment, can help improve professional values. Conversely, there was a study that did not observe any substantial link between moral reasoning and the professional values ​​of students [ 27 ].

The average score of practical considerations was at the average level, which indicates the importance of environmental factors and organizational climate for students’ ethical decision-making and clinical activities. One of the factors that can contribute to the influence of the work environment on the ethical decision-making and clinical performance of students is their limited exposure and incomplete familiarity with the work environment’s rules. This aligns with the findings of the study conducted by Sari et al. According to their statement, students exhibit less susceptibility to environmental regulations when making ethical decisions than nurses or students of higher semesters [ 44 ]. However, it is worth noting that in two separate studies, students’ practical considerations were higher than average, presenting a slight disparity with the results obtained in the present study [ 27 , 49 ].

The current study revealed a significant inverse correlation between practical considerations and students’ professional values. Thus, students who can decide and engage in moral thinking independently of the influence of environmental rules and organizational atmosphere uphold higher professional values. This is consistent with the results of a similar study [ 27 ].

Familiarity with moral dilemmas

The mean score of students’ familiarity with situations shows that students are slightly familiar with different moral challenges. Students’ lack of clinical experience and inadequate preparation for ethical dilemmas contribute to this issue. Findings from related research in this field yielded similar outcomes [ 27 ]. The findings indicated that students require extensive work experience to comprehensively understand ethical issues in clinical settings, which were inadequately addressed during academic semesters [ 44 ].

• Professional values

The results obtained from the present study show that the average score of students’ professional values was significantly high. Students show a heightened focus on the dimension of patient care and assign considerable importance to it, as per the reported priorities of professional values. This issue highlights the significance of cautiousness in nursing education programs within college and clinical settings. The results of similar studies have been the same [ 50 , 51 , 52 ]. Concerning the dimensions, the research conducted by Poorchangizi et al. emphasized the significance of the caring dimension, aligning with our study. However, their study also highlighted the importance of the justice dimension, which contradicts our findings [ 51 ]. Moreover, this study also revealed that students exhibited a notably more positive perception of the significance of professional values than nurses [ 51 ].

Predictors of professional values

The main variables, P.C. and P.T., demonstrated acceptable predictive efficacy in predicting the professional value. However, demographic variables make a modest contribution to the prediction. When considering the demographic variables, it is evident that only interest in nursing plays a significant role in predicting professional values. The order of effect is as follows: P.C., P.T., interest in nursing, F, marital status, and sex. This means that the professional values ​​of students are more influenced by the rules of the environment and organizational climate than by their decision-making and moral thinking. One of the notable points in this study is the negative relationship between interest in nursing and professional values. This could be because students who entered this field with interest had more expectations from this field. They wavered about professional values while entering the clinical environment and distancing themselves from the ideals. The findings of previous studies exploring the correlation between main variables and demographics have aligned with the findings of our research [ 51 , 53 , 54 ]. Among all the studies conducted, only Pourchengizi et al.‘s research shows a notable association between age and the professional values of students [ 51 ].

A limitation in correlational studies like this is the inability to demonstrate causation. Future research should be conducted with a larger sample size of nursing students from various faculties and a design that investigates cause-and-effect relationships.

A further restriction of this study concerns the scenarios posed in the NDT questionnaire. The responses and associated interpretations can be subjected to the impact of the cultural context. Generalizing the results of these scenarios to other communities can be challenging. A blended approach was adopted to collect students’ data to optimize time and minimize time wastage. This can contribute to the potential response differences between these modes and impact the results.

Despite an in-depth examination of the current literature and consultation with experts in the field, no specific confounding factors could be determined due to the limited number of relevant studies. Consequently, we analyzed the correlation between demographic characteristics and the main variables of the study. In the regression model, we included only those cases that demonstrated a substantial relationship with the primary variable below the level of 0.02. It is recommended that future researchers strive to identify confounding factors and mitigate their impact on the relationship between the main variables, thereby enhancing the generalizability of the results.

Implications for nursing education

Limited research has been conducted on the influence of educational factors, particularly curriculum, on students’ professional identity and moral reasoning. It appears that, given the unique circumstances of the nursing profession, particularly in light of the COVID-19 pandemic, modifying the student curriculum would enhance their circumstances. Nursing educators must be qualified to successfully guide students in cultivating a suitable professional identity.

The findings from our study suggest that nurses showed a high level of moral reasoning and uphold professional values. Also, results revealed a noteworthy correlation between students’ moral reasoning and professional values. The predictive value of moral reasoning in determining professional value was satisfactory. When considering socio-demographic variables, an interest in nursing was found to have a significant effect on professional values. Our research findings indicate that enhancing professional identity and moral reasoning can improve students’ circumstances. Furthermore, generating interest in the nursing profession can impact the professional identity of these students.

Data availability

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Medical Ethics and Law Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

Amir Mohamad Nazari, Fariba Borhani, Akbar Zare-Kaseb & Abbas Abbaszadeh

PhD Candidate in Nursing, Student Research Committee, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran

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A.N. and A.Z. wrote the main manuscript text and A.Z. prepared Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Statistical analysis was done by V.Y. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Fariba Borhani or Akbar Zare-Kaseb .

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Nazari, A.M., Borhani, F., Zare-Kaseb, A. et al. The relationship between moral reasoning and nurses’ professional values in undergraduate nursing students: a descriptive-correlational study. BMC Med Educ 24 , 889 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05888-z

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How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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