psychology paper research

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Psychology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Psychology is a scientific discipline that focuses on understanding mental functions and the behaviour of individuals and groups.

Local government actions can curb air pollution in India and Pakistan

Burning crop waste causes devastating pollution in South Asia. When local administrators have appropriate incentives to control burning, incidents go down — a finding that could guide future efforts to manage air pollution.

• Satchit Balsari
• Manoj Mohanan

Electric cars could save billions in health-care costs

Improving air quality by discontinuing combustion-engine vehicles would slash health-care costs in the United States, but the projected savings in rural areas depend on how the replacements are powered.

• Abigail Klopper

Honesty oaths for rule-following

Honesty oaths are commonly used to promote ethical behaviour, but their effectiveness is not well understood. A mega-study involving thousands of people shows that taking an oath to be honest can reduce tax evasion in an online economic game.

• Shaul Shalvi

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First-person thought is associated with body awareness in daily life

• Alexandra MacVittie
• Ewa Kochanowska
• Jolie B. Wormwood

Investigating the prevalence and associated factors of depression, anxiety, and loneliness among people with type-2 diabetes in Bangladesh: a community-based study

• Shahina Pardhan
• Abu Bakkar Siddique
• Md. Saiful Islam

Trusting robots: a relational trust definition based on human intentionality

• Arndt Schäfer
• Reinhold Esterbauer
• Bettina Kubicek

Behavioral and emotional co-modulation during dog–owner interaction measured by heart rate variability and activity

• Aija Koskela
• Heini Törnqvist
• Miiamaaria V. Kujala

Surfing into trouble? How internet use influences early adolescent behavior through diverse pathways?

• Xingchen Zhu
• Jinsheng Hu

Alexithymia and illness perceptions in persons with multiple sclerosis and their partners

• Antonina Luca
• Fiona Juliet Rosalind Eccles

News and Comment

Multidisciplinary chrono-approaches in psychology.

• Charlotte Gupta

Is the stereoisomer R-MDMA a safer version of MDMA?

• Gillinder Bedi

NPP Editorial: tides of progress

• Lisa M. Monteggia
• Tony P. George

The case for human–AI interaction as system 0 thinking

• Massimo Chiriatti
• Marianna Ganapini
• Giuseppe Riva

Risks and protective measures for synthetic relationships

As artificial intelligence tools become more sophisticated, humans build synthetic relationships with them. Synthetic relationships differ fundamentally from traditional human–machine interactions and present new risks, such as privacy breaches, psychological manipulation and the erosion of human autonomy. This necessitates proactive, human-centred policies.

• Christopher Starke
• Alfio Ventura

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Produced by Behavioral Measurement Database Services, this bibliographic database is abstracted from hundreds of leading journals in the health and social sciences. HaPI provides comprehensive information about behavioral measurement tools, including those related to medicine and nursing, as well as clinical, personality, social, and developmental psychology.

Produced by the Buros Center for Testing at the University of Nebraska, this database provides a comprehensive guide to contemporary testing instruments. Designed for an audience ranging from novice test consumers to experienced professionals, the series contains information for evaluating test products in psychology, education, business and leadership.

Produced by the Buros Center for Testing at the University of Nebraska, this resource is essential for evaluating contemporary testing instruments. Designed for novices and professionals alike, it contains full-text reviews for test products in psychology, education, business and leadership. In addition, it provides a bibliography to all known commercially available English-language tests currently in print.

Produced by the Buros Center for Testing at the University of Nebraska, this resource is essential for evaluating contemporary testing instruments. Designed for novices and professionals alike, it contains full-text reviews for test products in psychology, education, business and leadership. In addition, it provides a bibliography to English and Spanish-language tests.

PEP Archive (Psychoanalytic Electronic Publishing) is the largest digital collection of psychoanalytic journals and books, bringing together key works in the history of psychoanalysis and groundbreaking research from contemporary clinicians and academics.

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Significant in scope and depth, this database offers the most current and only comprehensive collection of full-text scholarly and professional books published by the American Psychological Association (APA). Providing a pathway through the evolution of psychological thought, it gives students, researchers and educators access to high-quality publications in psychology and related fields.

This high-quality database produced by the American Psychological Association allows behavioral science researchers to go beyond traditional peer-reviewed materials. It combines bibliographic records with unique full-text materials, offering conference presentations, newsletters, reports, fact sheets, magazines, monographs and more.

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This database offers unscripted streaming demonstration videos for teaching and learning psychotherapy techniques. Produced by the American Psychological Association, APA PsycTherapy covers authentic therapy sessions and is geared toward graduates and post-graduates.

This database is an authoritative source of structured information about tests of interest to a variety of fields. Produced by the American Psychological Association, it provides access to thousands of actual test instruments, most of which are available for immediate download and use in teaching and research.

Produced by the Leibniz Institute for Psychology, this database provides comprehensive bibliographic references from research and applied fields in psychology from the German-speaking countries. 

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How to Write a Psychology Research Paper

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

 James Lacy, MLS, is a fact-checker and researcher.

Are you working on a psychology research paper this semester? Whether or not this is your first research paper, the entire process can seem a bit overwhelming at first. But, knowing where to start the research process can make things easier and less stressful.

While it can feel very intimidating, a research paper can initially be very intimidating, but it is not quite as scary if you break it down into more manageable steps. The following tips will help you break down the process into steps so it is easier to research and write your paper.

Decide What Kind of Paper You Are Going to Write

Before you begin, you should find out the type of paper your instructor expects you to write. There are a few common types of psychology papers that you might encounter.

Original Research or Lab Report

A report or empirical paper details research you conducted on your own. This is the type of paper you would write if your instructor had you perform your own psychology experiment. This type of paper follows a format similar to an APA format lab report. It includes a title page, abstract , introduction, method section, results section, discussion section, and references.

Literature Review

The second type of paper is a literature review that summarizes research conducted by other people on a particular topic. If you are writing a psychology research paper in this form, your instructor might specify the length it needs to be or the number of studies you need to cite. Student are often required to cite between 5 and 20 studies in their literature reviews and they are usually between 8 and 20 pages in length.

The format and sections of a literature review usually include an introduction, body, and discussion/implications/conclusions.

Literature reviews often begin by introducing the research question before narrowing the focus to the specific studies cited in the paper. Each cited study should be described in considerable detail. You should evaluate and compare the studies you cite and then offer your discussion of the implications of the findings.

Select an Idea for Your Research Paper

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Once you have figured out the type of research paper you are going to write, it is time to choose a good topic . In many cases, your instructor may assign you a subject, or at least specify an overall theme on which to focus.

As you are selecting your topic, try to avoid general or overly broad subjects. For example, instead of writing a research paper on the general subject of attachment , you might instead focus your research on how insecure attachment styles in early childhood impact romantic attachments later in life.

Narrowing your topic will make writing your paper easier because it allows you to focus your research, develop your thesis, and fully explore pertinent findings.

Develop an Effective Research Strategy

As you find references for your psychology paper, take careful notes on the information you use and start developing a bibliography. If you stay organized and cite your sources throughout the writing process, you will not be left searching for an important bit of information you cannot seem to track back to the source.

So, as you do your research, make careful notes about each reference including the article title, authors, journal source, and what the article was about. 

Write an Outline

You might be tempted to immediately dive into writing, but developing a strong framework can save a lot of time, hassle, and frustration. It can also help you spot potential problems with flow and structure.

If you outline the paper right off the bat, you will have a better idea of how one idea flows into the next and how your research supports your overall hypothesis .

You should start the outline with the three most fundamental sections: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Then, start creating subsections based on your literature review. The more detailed your outline, the easier it will be to write your paper.

Draft, Revise, and Edit

Once you are confident in your outline, it is time to begin writing. Remember to follow APA format as you write your paper and include in-text citations for any materials you reference. Make sure to cite any information in the body of your paper in your reference section at the end of your document.

Writing a psychology research paper can be intimidating at first, but breaking the process into a series of smaller steps makes it more manageable. Be sure to start early by deciding on a substantial topic, doing your research, and creating a good outline . Doing these supporting steps ahead of time make it much easier to actually write the paper when the time comes.

• Beins, BC & Beins, A. Effective Writing in Psychology: Papers, Posters, and Presentation. New York: Blackwell Publishing; 2011.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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Writing Research Papers

• Research Paper Structure

Whether you are writing a B.S. Degree Research Paper or completing a research report for a Psychology course, it is highly likely that you will need to organize your research paper in accordance with American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines.  Here we discuss the structure of research papers according to APA style.

Major Sections of a Research Paper in APA Style

A complete research paper in APA style that is reporting on experimental research will typically contain a Title page, Abstract, Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References sections. 1  Many will also contain Figures and Tables and some will have an Appendix or Appendices.  These sections are detailed as follows (for a more in-depth guide, please refer to " How to Write a Research Paper in APA Style ”, a comprehensive guide developed by Prof. Emma Geller). 2

What is this paper called and who wrote it? – the first page of the paper; this includes the name of the paper, a “running head”, authors, and institutional affiliation of the authors.  The institutional affiliation is usually listed in an Author Note that is placed towards the bottom of the title page.  In some cases, the Author Note also contains an acknowledgment of any funding support and of any individuals that assisted with the research project.

One-paragraph summary of the entire study – typically no more than 250 words in length (and in many cases it is well shorter than that), the Abstract provides an overview of the study.

Introduction

What is the topic and why is it worth studying? – the first major section of text in the paper, the Introduction commonly describes the topic under investigation, summarizes or discusses relevant prior research (for related details, please see the Writing Literature Reviews section of this website), identifies unresolved issues that the current research will address, and provides an overview of the research that is to be described in greater detail in the sections to follow.

What did you do? – a section which details how the research was performed.  It typically features a description of the participants/subjects that were involved, the study design, the materials that were used, and the study procedure.  If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Methods section.  A rule of thumb is that the Methods section should be sufficiently detailed for another researcher to duplicate your research.

What did you find? – a section which describes the data that was collected and the results of any statistical tests that were performed.  It may also be prefaced by a description of the analysis procedure that was used. If there were multiple experiments, then each experiment may require a separate Results section.

What is the significance of your results? – the final major section of text in the paper.  The Discussion commonly features a summary of the results that were obtained in the study, describes how those results address the topic under investigation and/or the issues that the research was designed to address, and may expand upon the implications of those findings.  Limitations and directions for future research are also commonly addressed.

List of articles and any books cited – an alphabetized list of the sources that are cited in the paper (by last name of the first author of each source).  Each reference should follow specific APA guidelines regarding author names, dates, article titles, journal titles, journal volume numbers, page numbers, book publishers, publisher locations, websites, and so on (for more information, please see the Citing References in APA Style page of this website).

Tables and Figures

Graphs and data (optional in some cases) – depending on the type of research being performed, there may be Tables and/or Figures (however, in some cases, there may be neither).  In APA style, each Table and each Figure is placed on a separate page and all Tables and Figures are included after the References.   Tables are included first, followed by Figures.   However, for some journals and undergraduate research papers (such as the B.S. Research Paper or Honors Thesis), Tables and Figures may be embedded in the text (depending on the instructor’s or editor’s policies; for more details, see "Deviations from APA Style" below).

Supplementary information (optional) – in some cases, additional information that is not critical to understanding the research paper, such as a list of experiment stimuli, details of a secondary analysis, or programming code, is provided.  This is often placed in an Appendix.

Variations of Research Papers in APA Style

Although the major sections described above are common to most research papers written in APA style, there are variations on that pattern.  These variations include: 

• Literature reviews – when a paper is reviewing prior published research and not presenting new empirical research itself (such as in a review article, and particularly a qualitative review), then the authors may forgo any Methods and Results sections. Instead, there is a different structure such as an Introduction section followed by sections for each of the different aspects of the body of research being reviewed, and then perhaps a Discussion section. 
• Multi-experiment papers – when there are multiple experiments, it is common to follow the Introduction with an Experiment 1 section, itself containing Methods, Results, and Discussion subsections. Then there is an Experiment 2 section with a similar structure, an Experiment 3 section with a similar structure, and so on until all experiments are covered.  Towards the end of the paper there is a General Discussion section followed by References.  Additionally, in multi-experiment papers, it is common for the Results and Discussion subsections for individual experiments to be combined into single “Results and Discussion” sections.

Departures from APA Style

In some cases, official APA style might not be followed (however, be sure to check with your editor, instructor, or other sources before deviating from standards of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association).  Such deviations may include:

• Placement of Tables and Figures  – in some cases, to make reading through the paper easier, Tables and/or Figures are embedded in the text (for example, having a bar graph placed in the relevant Results section). The embedding of Tables and/or Figures in the text is one of the most common deviations from APA style (and is commonly allowed in B.S. Degree Research Papers and Honors Theses; however you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first). 
• Incomplete research – sometimes a B.S. Degree Research Paper in this department is written about research that is currently being planned or is in progress. In those circumstances, sometimes only an Introduction and Methods section, followed by References, is included (that is, in cases where the research itself has not formally begun).  In other cases, preliminary results are presented and noted as such in the Results section (such as in cases where the study is underway but not complete), and the Discussion section includes caveats about the in-progress nature of the research.  Again, you should check with your instructor, supervisor, or editor first.
• Class assignments – in some classes in this department, an assignment must be written in APA style but is not exactly a traditional research paper (for instance, a student asked to write about an article that they read, and to write that report in APA style). In that case, the structure of the paper might approximate the typical sections of a research paper in APA style, but not entirely.  You should check with your instructor for further guidelines.

Workshops and Downloadable Resources

• For in-person discussion of the process of writing research papers, please consider attending this department’s “Writing Research Papers” workshop (for dates and times, please check the undergraduate workshops calendar).

Downloadable Resources

• How to Write APA Style Research Papers (a comprehensive guide) [ PDF ]
• Tips for Writing APA Style Research Papers (a brief summary) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – empirical research) [ PDF ]
• Example APA Style Research Paper (for B.S. Degree – literature review) [ PDF ]

Further Resources

How-To Videos     

• Writing Research Paper Videos

APA Journal Article Reporting Guidelines

• Appelbaum, M., Cooper, H., Kline, R. B., Mayo-Wilson, E., Nezu, A. M., & Rao, S. M. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for quantitative research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 3.
• Levitt, H. M., Bamberg, M., Creswell, J. W., Frost, D. M., Josselson, R., & Suárez-Orozco, C. (2018). Journal article reporting standards for qualitative primary, qualitative meta-analytic, and mixed methods research in psychology: The APA Publications and Communications Board task force report . American Psychologist , 73 (1), 26.  

External Resources

• Formatting APA Style Papers in Microsoft Word
• How to Write an APA Style Research Paper from Hamilton University
• WikiHow Guide to Writing APA Research Papers
• Sample APA Formatted Paper with Comments
• Sample APA Formatted Paper
• Tips for Writing a Paper in APA Style

1 VandenBos, G. R. (Ed). (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed.) (pp. 41-60).  Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

2 geller, e. (2018).  how to write an apa-style research report . [instructional materials]. , prepared by s. c. pan for ucsd psychology.

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• Formatting Research Papers
• Using Databases and Finding References
• What Types of References Are Appropriate?
• Evaluating References and Taking Notes
• Citing References
• Writing a Literature Review
• Writing Process and Revising
• Improving Scientific Writing
• Academic Integrity and Avoiding Plagiarism
• Writing Research Papers Videos

61 intriguing psychology research topics to explore

Last updated

11 January 2024

Reviewed by

Brittany Ferri, PhD, OTR/L

Short on time? Get an AI generated summary of this article instead

Psychology is an incredibly diverse, critical, and ever-changing area of study in the medical and health industries. Because of this, it’s a common area of study for students and healthcare professionals.

We’re walking you through picking the perfect topic for your upcoming paper or study. Keep reading for plenty of example topics to pique your interest and curiosity.

• How to choose a psychology research topic

Exploring a psychology-based topic for your research project? You need to pick a specific area of interest to collect compelling data. 

Use these tips to help you narrow down which psychology topics to research:

Focus on a particular area of psychology

The most effective psychological research focuses on a smaller, niche concept or disorder within the scope of a study. 

Psychology is a broad and fascinating area of science, including everything from diagnosed mental health disorders to sports performance mindset assessments. 

This gives you plenty of different avenues to explore. Having a hard time choosing? Check out our list of 61 ideas further down in this article to get started.

Read the latest clinical studies

Once you’ve picked a more niche topic to explore, you need to do your due diligence and explore other research projects on the same topic. 

This practice will help you learn more about your chosen topic, ask more specific questions, and avoid covering existing projects. 

For the best results, we recommend creating a research folder of associated published papers to reference throughout your project. This makes it much easier to cite direct references and find inspiration down the line.

Find a topic you enjoy and ask questions

Once you’ve spent time researching and collecting references for your study, you finally get to explore. 

Whether this research project is for work, school, or just for fun, having a passion for your research will make the project much more enjoyable. (Trust us, there will be times when that is the only thing that keeps you going.) 

Now you’ve decided on the topic, ask more nuanced questions you might want to explore. 

If you can, pick the direction that interests you the most to make the research process much more enjoyable.

• 61 psychology topics to research in 2024

Need some extra help starting your psychology research project on the right foot? Explore our list of 61 cutting-edge, in-demand psychology research topics to use as a starting point for your research journey.

• Psychology research topics for university students

As a university student, it can be hard to pick a research topic that fits the scope of your classes and is still compelling and unique. 

Here are a few exciting topics we recommend exploring for your next assigned research project:

Mental health in post-secondary students

Seeking post-secondary education is a stressful and overwhelming experience for most students, making this topic a great choice to explore for your in-class research paper. 

Examples of post-secondary mental health research topics include:

Student mental health status during exam season

Mental health disorder prevalence based on study major

The impact of chronic school stress on overall quality of life

The impacts of cyberbullying

Cyberbullying can occur at all ages, starting as early as elementary school and carrying through into professional workplaces. 

Examples of cyberbullying-based research topics you can study include:

The impact of cyberbullying on self-esteem

Common reasons people engage in cyberbullying 

Cyberbullying themes and commonly used terms

Cyberbullying habits in children vs. adults

The long-term effects of cyberbullying

• Clinical psychology research topics

If you’re looking to take a more clinical approach to your next project, here are a few topics that involve direct patient assessment for you to consider:

Chronic pain and mental health

Living with chronic pain dramatically impacts every aspect of a person’s life, including their mental and emotional health. 

Here are a few examples of in-demand pain-related psychology research topics:

The connection between diabetic neuropathy and depression

Neurological pain and its connection to mental health disorders

Efficacy of meditation and mindfulness for pain management

The long-term effects of insomnia

Insomnia is where you have difficulty falling or staying asleep. It’s a common health concern that impacts millions of people worldwide. 

This is an excellent topic because insomnia can have a variety of causes, offering many research possibilities. 

Here are a few compelling psychology research topics about insomnia you could investigate:

The prevalence of insomnia based on age, gender, and ethnicity

Insomnia and its impact on workplace productivity

The connection between insomnia and mental health disorders

Efficacy and use of melatonin supplements for insomnia

The risks and benefits of prescription insomnia medications

Lifestyle options for managing insomnia symptoms

The efficacy of mental health treatment options

Management and treatment of mental health conditions is an ever-changing area of study. If you can witness or participate in mental health therapies, this can make a great research project. 

Examples of mental health treatment-related psychology research topics include:

The efficacy of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for patients with severe anxiety

The benefits and drawbacks of group vs. individual therapy sessions

Music therapy for mental health disorders

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) for patients with depression 

• Controversial psychology research paper topics

If you are looking to explore a more cutting-edge or modern psychology topic, you can delve into a variety of controversial and topical options:

The impact of social media and digital platforms

Ever since access to internet forums and video games became more commonplace, there’s been growing concern about the impact these digital platforms have on mental health. 

Examples of social media and video game-related psychology research topics include:

The effect of edited images on self-confidence

How social media platforms impact social behavior

Video games and their impact on teenage anger and violence

Digital communication and the rapid spread of misinformation

The development of digital friendships

Psychotropic medications for mental health

In recent years, the interest in using psychoactive medications to treat and manage health conditions has increased despite their inherently controversial nature. 

Examples of psychotropic medication-related research topics include:

The risks and benefits of using psilocybin mushrooms for managing anxiety

The impact of marijuana on early-onset psychosis

Childhood marijuana use and related prevalence of mental health conditions

Ketamine and its use for complex PTSD (C-PTSD) symptom management

The effect of long-term psychedelic use and mental health conditions

• Mental health disorder research topics

As one of the most popular subsections of psychology, studying mental health disorders and how they impact quality of life is an essential and impactful area of research. 

While studies in these areas are common, there’s always room for additional exploration, including the following hot-button topics:

Anxiety and depression disorders

Anxiety and depression are well-known and heavily researched mental health disorders. 

Despite this, we still don’t know many things about these conditions, making them great candidates for psychology research projects:

Social anxiety and its connection to chronic loneliness

C-PTSD symptoms and causes

The development of phobias

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) behaviors and symptoms

Depression triggers and causes

Self-care tools and resources for depression

The prevalence of anxiety and depression in particular age groups or geographic areas

Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorder is a complex and multi-faceted area of psychology research. 

Use your research skills to learn more about this condition and its impact by choosing any of the following topics:

Early signs of bipolar disorder

The incidence of bipolar disorder in young adults

The efficacy of existing bipolar treatment options

Bipolar medication side effects

Cognitive behavioral therapy for people with bipolar 

Schizoaffective disorder

Schizoaffective disorder is often stigmatized, and less common mental health disorders are a hotbed for new and exciting research. 

Here are a few examples of interesting research topics related to this mental health disorder:

The prevalence of schizoaffective disorder by certain age groups or geographic locations

Risk factors for developing schizoaffective disorder

The prevalence and content of auditory and visual hallucinations

Alternative therapies for schizoaffective disorder

• Societal and systematic psychology research topics

Modern society’s impact is deeply enmeshed in our mental and emotional health on a personal and community level. 

Here are a few examples of societal and systemic psychology research topics to explore in more detail:

Access to mental health services

While mental health awareness has risen over the past few decades, access to quality mental health treatment and resources is still not equitable. 

This can significantly impact the severity of a person’s mental health symptoms, which can result in worse health outcomes if left untreated. 

Explore this crucial issue and provide information about the need for improved mental health resource access by studying any of the following topics:

Rural vs. urban access to mental health resources

Access to crisis lines by location

Wait times for emergency mental health services

Inequities in mental health access based on income and location

Insurance coverage for mental health services

Systemic racism and mental health

Societal systems and the prevalence of systemic racism heavily impact every aspect of a person’s overall health.

Researching these topics draws attention to existing problems and contributes valuable insights into ways to improve access to care moving forward.

Examples of systemic racism-related psychology research topics include: 

Access to mental health resources based on race

The prevalence of BIPOC mental health therapists in a chosen area

The impact of systemic racism on mental health and self-worth

Racism training for mental health workers

The prevalence of mental health disorders in discriminated groups

LGBTQIA+ mental health concerns

Research about LGBTQIA+ people and their mental health needs is a unique area of study to explore for your next research project. It’s a commonly overlooked and underserved community.

Examples of LGBTQIA+ psychology research topics to consider include:

Mental health supports for queer teens and children

The impact of queer safe spaces on mental health

The prevalence of mental health disorders in the LGBTQIA+ community

The benefits of queer mentorship and found family

Substance misuse in LQBTQIA+ youth and adults

• Collect data and identify trends with Dovetail

Psychology research is an exciting and competitive study area, making it the perfect choice for projects or papers.

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50+ Topics for Psychology Research Papers

If you have ever had to write a paper for one of your psychology classes, then you probably know that choosing psychology paper topics can sometimes be tricky. Fortunately, there are plenty of great topics for psychology research papers to help you finish your assignment. Keep reading to learn more about how to find topics…

In this article

If you have ever had to write a paper for one of your psychology classes, then you probably know that choosing psychology paper topics can sometimes be tricky. Fortunately, there are plenty of great topics for psychology research papers to help you finish your assignment.

Keep reading to learn more about how to find topics for psychology research papers and find inspiration to help you get started.

How to Choose Topics for Psychology Research Papers

If you are going to write a psychology paper, the first thing you need to do is pick a good topic. This is often easier said than done.

In some cases, your instructor might assign you topics for psychology research papers, or at least narrow your range of options by providing a general subject area on which to focus your paper.

But in many cases, choosing the topic of your psychology paper is entirely up to you—and that’s where things can get tricky. How do you choose a great topic? What if you pick something too specific and struggle to find sources? Or what if you go too broad and end up biting off more than you can chew?

Following a few simple steps can make the topic selection process a lot easier.

Choose a General Subject

Part of what makes picking a topic for a psychology paper so difficult is how overwhelmed you are by the information you feel. Make it easier on yourself by restricting your options to at least a general topic area.

Narrow Down to a More Specific Topic

Once you’ve chosen a general area, you can then narrow topics for psychology research papers down to something much more specific and manageable.

For example, you might start by deciding that you want to write your paper on a topic within a specific branch of psychology . From there you might further narrow your focus down to a much narrower subject area within that branch

So, imagine that you’re writing a psychology research paper in your general psychology course. Your instructor has given you free rein to select any topic you please, so you begin by deciding to write your paper on a social psychology topic.

Now that you have a general idea, you drill down further and decide to research and write your paper on how prejudice forms and ways to minimize it.

General Topics for Psychology Research Papers

Because general psychology classes cover such a wide range of topics, you have a very large selection of subject ideas to choose from. Start by choosing a general topic, and then narrow your focus down so that you can fully cover the subject.

Some ideas include:

• An issue paper:  Tackle one of the current issues in psychology, such as parity in mental health care or involving psychologists in military interrogations.
• Profile a famous psychologist:  Select a well-known  psychologist  and then write a profile exploring his or her life, theories, and career.
• Explore a well-known psychology experiment:  Write a paper on a classic psychology study, such as the Milgram Obedience Experiment or the Stanford Prison Experiment.
• Write about a topic within personality psychology:   Personality psychology focuses on the traits and dispositions that contribute to overall personality. This is one of the largest topics within psychology so there are plenty of fascinating research topics from which to choose. Some specific topics that might interest you include whether personality can change, different theories of personality development and the  Big Five theory of personality.

Specific Topics for Psychology Research Papers

You might also want to choose topics for psychology research papers that are related to a specific branch of psychology. Some options that you might consider include:

Clinical Psychology

• How effective is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) for treating specific phobias?
• What is the relationship between childhood trauma and borderline personality disorder?
• How do medication and psychotherapy compare in the treatment of depression?
• How does social media affect teen mental health?

Developmental Psychology

• How do parenting styles influence child development?
• What are the long-term effects of early childhood education?
• What role does play have in cognitive development?
• What effect does having siblings have on developmental outcomes?

Cognitive Psychology

• How does sleep deprivation influence the memory consolidation process?
• What impact does aging have on cognitive functioning?
• How does exercise impact working memory?
• Does learning a second language have cognitive benefits?

Social Psychology

• What effect does discrimination have on self-esteem?
• How does self-presentation online differ from self-presentation in real-world settings?
• How do leadership styles influence productivity in groups?

Okay, let’s just imagine that you’re having a bad case of writer’s block. You understand the basic approach for picking a good topic, but nothing seems to be catching your interest. You’re looking for some more inspiration to get you started.

Here are just a few great topics for psychology papers that you might want to consider:

Controversial Topics for Psychology Research Papers

The history of psychology is not always positive, and if you enjoy writing about controversial topics, psychology’s history is rich with material.

• The use of lobotomies to treat mental illness
• The history of mental asylums in the United States
• The use and effects of electroconvulsive therapy
• Conversion therapy and its damaging effects
• Attachment therapy
• Controversial experiments such as Milgram’s obedience experiment or Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison experiment
• The debate over the nature of intelligence
• The impact of the eugenics movement on psychology
• Controversies surrounding the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Disorder Topics for Psychology Research Papers

Writing about the history, prevalence, and treatment of a specific mental condition can be an interesting topic for a psychology paper. Some options you might consider include:

• Eating disorders
• Anxiety disorders
• Borderline personality disorder
• Schizophrenia
• Substance abuse and addictions
• Developmental disorders

Other Great Topics for Psychology Research Papers

Here is a sampling of topics that you might consider:

• How attitudes form
• How bullying affects children
• How people use nonverbal communication
• Factors that can affect prenatal development
• How media violence influences children’s behavior
• How parenting styles influence child development
• How does intrinsic motivation influence learning
• How does mindset impact academic achievement
• What factors influence IQ and is it possible to increase IQ
• Factors that influence self-actualization
• Is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs still relevant today
• How does perfectionism impact mental well-being
• Different theories of personality
• How different leadership styles influence the success of groups
• Profile a specific career in psychology

As you can see, your options for psychology paper topics are really only limited by your own imagination (and the specific guidelines issued by your instructor, of course). Spend some time thinking about topics that really interest you, then narrow your focus to hone in on a specific idea.

Finally, always be sure to run your chosen topic by your instructor. He or she may be able to offer suggestions that can help you during your research and make it much easier to write an outstanding psychology paper.

Editor-in-Chief

Kendra Cherry, MS.Ed., is a writer, editor, psychosocial therapist, and founder of Explore Psychology, an online psychology resource. She is a Senior Writer for Verywell Mind and is the author of the Everything Psychology Book (Adams Media).

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Home » 500+ Psychology Research Paper Topics

500+ Psychology Research Paper Topics

Psychology is a fascinating field that encompasses the study of the human mind, behavior, and mental processes. It is a multifaceted discipline that has evolved significantly over the years, with new research shedding light on various aspects of human behavior and cognition. As a result, there are numerous research topics within the field of psychology that can be explored, providing a wealth of opportunities for students and scholars alike to investigate and learn. Whether you are interested in the workings of the brain, social dynamics, mental health, or other related areas, there is sure to be a psychology research topic that will pique your interest. In this article we will highlight some of the most interesting and relevant topics in the field of psychology today for Students and Researchers.

Psychology Research Paper Topics

Psychology Research Paper Topics are as follows:

• The effects of social media on mental health and well-being.
• The role of childhood trauma in the development of personality disorders.
• The relationship between sleep deprivation and cognitive performance.
• The impact of mindfulness practices on reducing anxiety and depression.
• The psychology of addiction and its treatment approaches.
• The influence of culture on the perception and expression of emotions.
• The psychology of motivation and goal-setting.
• The impact of bullying on mental health and social development.
• The psychology of decision-making and risk-taking behaviors.
• The effects of nature exposure on mental health and well-being.
• The psychological factors contributing to substance abuse and addiction relapse.
• The role of personality traits in predicting job satisfaction and success.
• The psychology of creativity and innovation.
• The impact of early attachment styles on adult relationships.
• The psychology of prejudice and discrimination.
• The relationship between stress and physical health.
• The role of emotions in decision-making and problem-solving.
• The psychology of learning and memory.
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety and depression.
• The influence of parenting styles on child development and mental health.
• The psychology of humor: why we find things funny and how it affects our mental health.
• The effects of childhood neglect on social and emotional development.
• The psychology of procrastination and strategies for overcoming it.
• The impact of digital technology on attention span and concentration.
• The role of self-esteem in mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of forgiveness and its effects on mental health and relationships.
• The relationship between personality traits and political beliefs.
• The effects of trauma on brain development and function.
• The psychology of group dynamics and teamwork.
• The role of exercise in mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of attraction and romantic relationships.
• The effects of technology addiction on mental health and well-being.
• The relationship between diet and mental health.
• The psychology of workplace diversity and inclusion.
• The effects of music on mood and cognitive function.
• The impact of childhood bullying on adult mental health and relationships.
• The psychology of optimism and its effects on mental health and well-being.
• The relationship between personality traits and leadership effectiveness.
• The effects of social isolation on mental health.
• The psychology of decision-making in group contexts.
• The impact of social support on mental health and well-being.
• The role of emotion regulation in mental health and well-being.
• The effects of chronic stress on physical and mental health.
• The psychology of risk perception and behavior.
• The impact of exercise on cognitive function and brain health.
• The psychology of altruism and prosocial behavior.
• The relationship between spirituality and mental health.
• The effects of childhood abuse on adult mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of power and its effects on decision-making and behavior.
• The impact of mindfulness on physical health and well-being.
• The psychology of parenting and its effects on child development.
• The effects of gratitude on mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of grief and bereavement.
• The impact of social media on social comparison and self-esteem.
• The psychology of resilience and coping.
• The effects of sleep on physical and mental health.
• The psychology of happiness and well-being.
• The relationship between personality traits and romantic relationship satisfaction.
• The impact of social norms on behavior.
• The psychology of cognitive biases and decision-making errors.
• The effects of nature exposure on cognitive function and well-being.
• The psychology of body image and its effects on mental health.
• The impact of work-life balance on mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of shame and guilt.
• The effects of trauma on memory and cognition.
• The role of empathy in mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of cyberbullying and its effects on mental health.
• The impact of aging on cognitive function and well-being.
• The psychology of human sexuality.
• The effects of mindfulness on social and emotional functioning.
• The effects of social comparison on mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of addiction and relapse prevention strategies.
• The impact of social support on addiction recovery.
• The psychology of motivation and self-determination.
• The effects of trauma on attachment and relationship formation.
• The psychology of bystander intervention in emergencies.
• The impact of exercise on mood and anxiety.
• The role of cultural values in mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of moral decision-making.
• The effects of video games on cognitive function and social development.
• The psychology of burnout and work-related stress.
• The relationship between personality traits and academic performance.
• The impact of social identity on self-esteem and mental health.
• The psychology of attachment in adult romantic relationships.
• The effects of mindfulness on emotion regulation and impulse control.
• The psychology of stress and coping strategies.
• The impact of social media on self-esteem and body image.
• The psychology of decision-making in romantic relationships.
• The effects of childhood trauma on substance use and addiction.
• The psychology of resilience and post-traumatic growth.
• The impact of cultural stereotypes on cognitive function and performance.
• The psychology of identity formation and its effects on mental health.
• The effects of social support on academic success and well-being.
• The psychology of change and behavior modification.
• The impact of self-compassion on mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of deception and lying behavior.
• The effects of sleep on mood and emotion regulation.
• The psychology of intergroup relations and prejudice reduction.
• The impact of meditation on cognitive function and well-being.
• The psychology of procrastination and time management.
• The effects of cultural assimilation on mental health and well-being.
• The psychology of body language and nonverbal communication.
• The impact of nature exposure on stress reduction and well-being.
• The psychology of forgiveness and its effects on relationship satisfaction.
• The effects of social comparison on body image and eating disorders.
• The psychology of motivation and goal-setting in academic settings.
• The impact of cultural diversity on team dynamics and performance.
• The psychology of self-disclosure in romantic relationships.
• The effects of social support on health outcomes in chronic illness.
• The psychology of human memory and its fallibility.
• The impact of cultural values on mental health stigma.
• The psychology of resilience and coping strategies in chronic illness.
• The effects of social support on job satisfaction and performance.
• The psychology of negotiation and conflict resolution.
• The impact of social identity on health behaviors and outcomes.
• The psychology of aggression and its effects on mental health.
• The effects of mindfulness on cognitive aging and dementia prevention.
• The psychology of attachment in parent-child relationships.
• The impact of cultural diversity on intergroup relations.
• The psychology of decision-making in medical settings.
• The effects of social comparison on consumer behavior.
• The psychology of success and achievement motivation.
• The impact of technology on social skills and emotional intelligence.
• The psychology of deception detection and its implications for criminal justice.
• The effects of music on mood and well-being.
• The psychology of gender identity and its effects on mental health.
• The impact of social media on political attitudes and polarization.
• The psychology of flow and optimal experience in work and leisure activities.
• The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive function and decision-making.
• The psychology of leadership and its effects on organizational outcomes.
• The impact of cultural values on body image and eating disorders.
• The psychology of self-compassion and its effects on relationship satisfaction.
• The effects of social support on postpartum depression and anxiety.
• The psychology of attachment in foster care and adoption.
• The impact of cultural values on parenting styles and child development.
• The psychology of resilience and post-disaster recovery.
• The effects of social support on mental health in LGBTQ+ individuals.
• The psychology of motivation and performance in sports.
• The impact of cultural values on coping with illness and disability.
• The psychology of creativity and its relationship with mental health.
• The effects of mindfulness on pain management and chronic illness.
• The impact of social identity on job satisfaction and turnover.
• The psychology of substance use disorders in older adults.
• The effects of social comparison on academic motivation and achievement.
• The psychology of decision-making in financial investments.
• The impact of cultural values on mental health treatment-seeking behaviors.
• The psychology of attachment in sibling relationships.
• The effects of social support on post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• The psychology of cognitive biases and decision-making.
• The impact of cultural values on aging and end-of-life care.
• The psychology of motivation and goal-setting in weight loss.
• The effects of social comparison on social anxiety.
• The psychology of group dynamics and its implications for teamwork.
• The impact of cultural values on sexual identity and expression.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in high-stress occupations.
• The effects of social support on recovery from traumatic brain injury.
• The psychology of memory reconsolidation and its potential for trauma therapy.
• The impact of cultural values on mental health in immigrant populations.
• The psychology of gender stereotypes and their effects on behavior and attitudes.
• The effects of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and cosmetic procedures.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in military veterans.
• The impact of cultural values on mental health outcomes in refugees.
• The psychology of goal-setting and its relationship with happiness.
• The effects of social support on depression and anxiety in cancer patients.
• The psychology of self-esteem and its relationship with social media use.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health treatment.
• The psychology of attachment in teacher-student relationships.
• The effects of social comparison on substance use and addiction.
• The psychology of decision-making in environmental conservation.
• The impact of cultural values on romantic relationships and marital satisfaction.
• The impact of cultural values on mental health and illness stigma.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in exercise and physical activity.
• The psychology of mindfulness and its effects on stress reduction and well-being.
• The impact of technology on social comparison and body dissatisfaction in young adults.
• The psychology of moral decision-making and its relationship with personality.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and motivation in graduate students.
• The psychology of sleep disorders and their effects on mental and physical health.
• The impact of cultural values on parenting practices and child development.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in rehabilitation and physical therapy.
• The effects of social support on mental health in refugees and immigrants.
• The psychology of cognitive biases and their effects on decision-making.
• The impact of technology on mental health treatment and therapy outcomes.
• The psychology of motivation and performance in sports and athletic competition.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in high school students.
• The psychology of grief and its effects on mental and physical health.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward aging and age-related stereotypes.
• The psychology of memory and its relationship with sleep quality and quantity.
• The effects of social support on mental health in military veterans.
• The psychology of addiction and its effects on relationships and social functioning.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in older adults.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in diabetes management.
• The effects of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and eating disorders in non-binary individuals.
• The psychology of child development and its relationship with parenting practices.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health treatment seeking.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in cancer treatment.
• The effects of social support on mental health in incarcerated individuals.
• The psychology of personality traits and their effects on romantic relationships.
• The impact of technology on social connectedness and loneliness.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in cardiac rehabilitation.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in elementary school students.
• The psychology of gender identity and its effects on mental health and well-being.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward substance use and addiction.
• The psychology of self-esteem and its relationship with interpersonal communication.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome.
• The psychology of emotion regulation and its relationship with substance use.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in children and adolescents.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in HIV/AIDS treatment.
• The effects of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and eating disorders in individuals with physical disabilities.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic pain.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward suicide and suicide prevention.
• The psychology of attachment and its effects on emotion regulation and well-being.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with eating disorders.
• The psychology of positive psychology interventions and their effects on well-being.
• The impact of technology on social skills and social anxiety in adolescents.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in organ transplant recipients.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in international students.
• The psychology of depression and its effects on cognitive function and memory.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in religious communities.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with traumatic brain injury.
• The psychology of motivation and performance in the workplace.
• The effects of social comparison on body image and self-esteem in adolescence.
• The psychology of forgiveness and its effects on mental health and well-being.
• The impact of technology on attention and distraction.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in physical therapy.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with chronic illness.
• The psychology of decision-making in healthcare and medical treatments.
• The impact of cultural values on adolescent identity development.
• The psychology of self-efficacy and its relationship with academic achievement.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and self-esteem.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in survivors of sexual assault and harassment.
• The impact of cultural values on parental involvement in education.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in mental health treatment.
• The effects of social comparison on body dissatisfaction and disordered eating.
• The psychology of trauma and its effects on memory and emotional processing.
• The impact of technology on sleep quality and quantity.
• The psychology of motivation and performance in online learning.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with chronic pain.
• The psychology of personality and its relationship with career choice and success.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health stigma.
• The psychology of attachment in peer relationships.
• The effects of social comparison on academic achievement and motivation in college students.
• The psychology of emotional intelligence and its relationship with workplace success.
• The impact of technology on social skills and interpersonal communication.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in smoking cessation.
• The effects of social support on mental health in older adults.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in survivors of natural disasters.
• The impact of cultural values on sexual health and behavior.
• The psychology of personality disorders and their effects on relationships.
• The effects of social comparison on body image and eating behaviors in men.
• The psychology of cognitive development in infants and young children.
• The impact of technology on stress and anxiety.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in weight management.
• The effects of social support on mental health in caregivers.
• The psychology of emotion regulation and its effects on mental health.
• The impact of cultural values on aging and cognitive decline.
• The psychology of attachment in romantic relationships.
• The effects of social comparison on academic performance and self-concept in middle school students.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic illness.
• The impact of technology on identity formation and self-esteem.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in addiction recovery.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with disabilities.
• The psychology of creativity and its effects on mental health and well-being.
• The impact of cultural values on social support networks.
• The effects of social comparison on social anxiety and self-esteem in individuals with social anxiety disorder.
• The psychology of parenting styles and their effects on child development.
• The impact of technology on mental health and well-being in children and adolescents.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals experiencing homelessness.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with chronic illnesses.
• The psychology of attachment and its effects on social support seeking.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in marginalized communities.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in bariatric surgery patients.
• The effects of social comparison on body image dissatisfaction in pregnant women.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic kidney disease.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in older adults with dementia.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with educational pedagogy.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in pulmonary rehabilitation.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in Asian communities.
• The psychology of decision-making and its relationship with impulsivity.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in individuals with autism spectrum disorder.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
• The psychology of emotional intelligence and its effects on workplace performance.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with fibromyalgia.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with language acquisition.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in African American communities.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in dialysis patients.
• The effects of social comparison on body image dissatisfaction in individuals with eating disorders.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic heart failure.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with anxiety disorders.
• The psychology of cognitive biases and their effects on problem-solving.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with multiple sclerosis.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in amputees.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in Hispanic/Latino communities.
• The psychology of decision-making and its relationship with risk-taking behavior.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in individuals with dyslexia.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic liver disease.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with schizophrenia.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with visual perception.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with bipolar disorder.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in spinal cord injury patients.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in Native American communities.
• The psychology of cognitive biases and their effects on creativity.
• The effects of social comparison on body image dissatisfaction in individuals with body dysmorphic disorder.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic gastrointestinal disorders.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with substance use disorders.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with attention span.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in organ donation recipients.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in Middle Eastern communities.
• The psychology of personality and its effects on team dynamics.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic autoimmune diseases.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with depression.
• The psychology of stress and its effects on workplace burnout.
• The impact of social media on body image dissatisfaction in adolescents.
• The effects of meditation on anxiety and depression in older adults.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in cancer patients.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in the LGBTQ+ community.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with memory.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with traumatic brain injuries.
• The psychology of addiction and its effects on family relationships.
• The impact of music on cognitive function and attention in individuals with dementia.
• The psychology of attachment and its effects on romantic relationships.
• The effects of social comparison on body image dissatisfaction in individuals with physical disabilities.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with rare diseases.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in individuals with HIV/AIDS.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in South Asian communities.
• The psychology of personality and its effects on leadership effectiveness.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in individuals with learning disabilities.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with postpartum depression.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with spatial reasoning.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with Parkinson’s disease.
• The psychology of addiction and its effects on mental health.
• The impact of mindfulness on cognitive function and attention in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.
• The psychology of attachment and its effects on child development.
• The effects of social comparison on body image dissatisfaction in individuals with gender dysphoria.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in Eastern European communities.
• The psychology of cognitive biases and their effects on interpersonal relationships.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with intellectual disabilities.
• The psychology of motivation and adherence in individuals with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with borderline personality disorder.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with executive function.
• The effects of social comparison on academic self-concept and achievement in individuals with anxiety disorders.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander communities.
• The psychology of personality and its effects on romantic relationships.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with spinal cord injuries.
• The psychology of addiction and its effects on criminal behavior.
• The impact of technology on cognitive function and attention in individuals with bipolar disorder.
• The psychology of attachment and its effects on social development.
• The effects of social comparison on body image dissatisfaction in individuals with acne.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with chronic respiratory diseases.
• The impact of cultural values on attitudes toward mental health in Middle Eastern and North African communities.
• The psychology of cognitive biases and their effects on emotional regulation.
• The effects of social support on mental health in caregivers of individuals with chronic illnesses.
• The impact of trauma on attachment styles and romantic relationships.
• The psychology of procrastination and its effects on academic performance.
• The effects of mindfulness on stress and burnout in healthcare professionals.
• The psychology of cognitive development and its relationship with theory of mind.
• The effects of social support on mental health in individuals with autoimmune diseases.
• The psychology of addiction and its effects on family dynamics in Asian American communities.
• The impact of social media on self-esteem and body image in adult women.
• The psychology of resilience and coping in individuals with traumatic brain injuries.
• The effects of cognitive behavioral therapy on anxiety and depression in individuals with chronic pain.
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Current Directions in Stress and Human Immune Function

Jennifer n morey, ian a boggero, april b scott, suzanne c segerstrom.

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Psychological stress has been linked empirically with dysregulation of facets of the human immune system, yet these effects are not the same in every situation or population. Recent research has made strides towards understanding risk factors for immune dysregulation as well as why these risks occur. This review discusses mechanisms and mediators underlying the stress-immune relation, the role of context in determining whether an immunologic responses to stress is adaptive versus maladaptive, and the stress-immune relation in populations including children exposed to early adversity, older adults, and individuals with clinical diagnoses. The reviewed work holds great promise for further elucidating the circumstances under which psychological stress has immunological consequences, and provides new directions for work in this field.

Introduction

Stress is a broad concept that comprises challenging or difficult circumstances (stressors) or the physiological or psychological response to such circumstances (stress responses). In humans, among other species, one of the systems that responds to challenging circumstances is the immune system. Broadly, the immune system comprises cells, proteins, organs, and tissues that work together to provide protection against bodily disease and damage (see Box for explanations of relevant immunological parameters). Several facets of the human immune system have been empirically associated with stress. During acute stress lasting a matter of minutes, certain kinds of cells are mobilized into the bloodstream, potentially preparing the body for injury or infection during “fight or flight” [ 1 ]. Acute stress also increases blood levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines [ 2 ]. Chronic stress lasting from days to years, like acute stress, is associated with higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, but with potentially different health consequences [ 3 ]. Inflammation is a necessary short-term response for eliminating pathogens and initiating healing, but chronic, systemic inflammation represents dysregulation of the immune system and increases risk for chronic diseases, including atherosclerosis and frailty [ 4 ]. Another consequence of chronic stress is activation of latent viruses. Latent virus activation can reflect the loss of immunological control over the virus, and frequent activation can cause wear-and-tear on the immune system [ 5 ].

Interestingly, these responses may not be the same for everyone. Those who have experienced early adversity, for example, may be more likely to exhibit exaggerated immune reactions to stress [ 6 , 7 ]. Currently, the field is moving toward a greater understanding of who might be most at risk for chronic inflammation and other forms of immunological dysregulation, and why. This question is important not only for health, but also for longevity, as evidence suggests that the immunological effects of chronic stress can advance cellular aging and shorten telomere length [ 8 ].

Meta-analyses provide a look backward at this research and summarize what has been learned about the relationship between stress and human immunity since it was first studied in the 1960s [ 1 , 2 , 9 ]. This review describes recent, groundbreaking work on the stress-immune relation in humans, including the immunological consequences of stress in early and late life, mediators of the stress-immunity link, ecological perspectives, and how the relationship between stress and immunity is manifest in clinical populations (see Figure ).

Stress, immunity, and disease can affect each other in reciprocal ways, but these relationships can be moderated by life stage, other ecological pressures and goals, stressor duration, and protective factors such as good sleep.

Early life stress

Stress that occurs early in development (e.g., maltreatment, poverty, and other adverse experiences) has immunological consequences that can be observed both in the near and long term after the stressor occurs. Early life stress (ELS) in children associates with immunological dysregulation, including low basal levels of cytokines that control immune responses [ 10 ]. When immune cells were stimulated in vitro (e.g., with tetanus toxoid), those cells from children who experienced ELS produced more pro-inflammatory cytokines [ 10 ]. Whereas much of the extant research focuses on maltreatment or poverty, a recent study into the effects of a less-studied adversity, bullying, also suggests that chronic peer victimization predicts a steeper increase in CRP from childhood into young adulthood [ 11 ]. EBV antibody levels in a younger adult sample were also found to differ based on the type, timing, and frequency of exposure to ELS. Individuals exposed to sexual abuse more than 10 times, as well as those physically abused starting between ages 3 and 5, had elevated levels of antibodies against EBV as adults, a signal of viral reactivation [ 12 ]. In adults, a meta-analysis of ELS and inflammation found a positive association between maltreatment and several inflammatory markers, with the most robust association for circulating CRP [ 13 ]. Recent work has investigated mechanisms linking ELS to immune alterations over time (e.g., self-control, adiposity, smoking, and stress; 14, 15] as well as examining inflammatory dysregulation as a pathway through which ELS affects adult disease prevalence and outcomes [ 16 ]. Finally, empirically based interventions to target immunological consequences of ELS are a necessary next step; recent evidence suggests the plausibility of such interventions to improve inflammatory profiles for youth raised in low-income families [ 17 ].

Stress, immunity, and aging

As people age, they are less able to mount appropriate immune responses to stressors. These could be physical stressors, such as injury, or psychological stressors such as caregiving. In addition, psychological stress affects organisms in a manner similar to the effects of chronological age, and chronological aging coupled with chronic stress accelerates immunological aging [ 18 ]. Research has suggested that older adults are unable to terminate cortisol production in response to stress. Cortisol is ordinarily anti-inflammatory and contains the immune response, but chronic elevations can lead to the immune system becoming “resistant,” an accumulation of stress hormones, and increased production of inflammatory cytokines that further compromise the immune response [ 18 ]. Older adults often have to provide long term care for an ailing spouse or partner. Caregiving has been implicated in significantly lower antibody and cell-mediated immune responses after vaccination [ 19 , 20 ]. Caregivers also experience longer wound healing times, lower lymphocyte proliferation, increased proinflammatory cytokine levels, and more reactivation of latent viruses [ 21 ].

An important direction in aging research involves an examination of telomeres. Telomere length has been used as a measure of biological aging and is associated with psychological, physiological, and social factors. Chronic stress is linked to shortened telomere length along with increased disease in older adults [ 22 ]. Socioeconomic factors such as marital status and income have been linked with telomere length: those married for longer periods of time and who make more money are biologically younger than others in their cohort [ 22 , 23 ]. However, studies thus far have found this link only in Caucasians and Hispanics, but not African Americans. This suggests that low socioeconomic status (SES) may accelerate aging in some populations [ 23 ]. Interestingly, health behaviors can moderate this effect by protecting individuals from accelerated aging during stress exposure [ 24 ]. It is unclear how this moderation occurs, and more work is needed.

Collectively, recent work points to new discoveries into how biological aging and stress interact to influence the immune response. This will lead to a better understanding of mechanisms of immunosenescence caused by stress and chronological aging that are presently unclear.

Biological and behavioral mediators of the relationship between stress and immunity

How does stress get “under the skin” to influence immunity? Immune cells have receptors for neurotransmitters and hormones such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, and cortisol, which mobilize and traffic immune cells, ideally preparing the body to mount an immune response if needed [ 25 ]. Recent evidence shows that immunological cells (e.g., lymphocytes) change their responsiveness to signaling from these neurotransmitters and hormones during stress [ 26 ]. However, immunological responses are biologically and energetically costly, and over time, chronic stress produces negative systemic changes both in immune trafficking and in target tissues [ 6 ].

The linkages between stress and immunity may be mediated by specific health behaviors, psychosocial factors, or both. For instance, stress has been linked to being in troubled relationships, having negative or competitive social interactions, and feeling lonely, which have each in turn been linked to increases in pro-inflammatory responses to stress [ 27 - 29 ]. Other potential mediators, like getting good sleep, are increasingly being recognized as important pieces of the stress-immunity puzzle [ 30 ]. Even one night of total sleep deprivation was recently found to significantly increase neutrophil counts and decrease neutrophil function in healthy men [ 31 ].

Taken together, these examples highlight a better understanding of the factors that mediate or moderate stress's influence on immunity. This direction may serve to one day develop targeted behavioral or pharmacotherapies to those at highest risk for poor health outcomes.

Ecological immunology

Over the last several years, there has been greater attention paid to the relevance of ecological immunity to the relationship between stress and immunity. Ecological immunity is based on the premise that mounting immune responses is energetically costly and that the (mal)adaptiveness of immune responses to stress is determined by cost:benefit ratios [ 32 - 34 ]. In early human history many stressors were life-threatening: being eaten by a predator, being excluded by one's peer group, or being faced with starvation, to name a few. Appropriately responding to some of these stressors (e.g., predation) required activating the energetically costly fight or flight response, including immunological changes that could protect against infection secondary to wounding. However, energetic costs of the immune system during other kinds of stressors (e.g., social exclusion) that resulted in less availability of energetic resources (e.g., shared food) might have been counterproductive. Thus, downregulating immune responses might have been evolutionarily adaptive. Research in bumblebees finds that under conditions of starvation, immune responses to an immune challenge accelerated time to death from starvation, suggesting that allocating energy to the immune system under those conditions was maladaptive [ 35 ]. Although energetic resources are abundant in the modern environment, physiological evidence of these ecological tradeoffs in the ancestral environment can still be found. For example, in contemporary humans, costly endeavors such as building and maintaining a large social network or persisting on unsolvable challenges can be associated with decreases in some immune parameters [ 36 , 37 ]. Taken together, these and other findings [for reviews, see 33 , 38 ] suggest that ecological conditions and resource availability may shape immune functioning in ways that remain relatively underexplored.

Stress, immunity, and clinical health

Psychological stress has been implicated in altered immune functioning in many diseases. Stress induces chronic immune activation and altered health outcomes that resemble those seen in chronic inflammatory diseases such as RA [ 39 , 40 ]. Altered immune function can lead to exacerbated symptoms of both physical and psychological illnesses. In irritable bowel syndrome, sustained cortisol activity during stress is associated with an increase in gastrointestinal symptoms [ 41 ]. High levels of proinflammatory cytokines resulting from stress have recently been implicated in the etiology of schizophrenia and schizophrenia-related brain alterations [ 42 ]. Chronic stress has been shown to enhance risk for developing autoimmune disease [e.g., 43 ]. Individuals with autoimmune disease also appear to have difficulty down-regulating their immune responses after exposure to stressors. In MS, neuropeptides secreted under stress (e.g., corticotropin-releasing hormone) activate glial cells in the brain to release inflammatory molecules that result in brain inflammation and worsen MS pathology [ 44 ]. Similar immune activation and symptom exacerbation is evidenced in those with other autoimmune diseases [ 40 ]. Currently, possible mechanisms by which autoimmune diseases alter individual responses to stress are being explored. This knowledge may lead to interventions that decrease stress-induced immune responses and improve outcomes in autoimmune diseases.

Conclusions and future directions

Research on the immunological effects of stress has burgeoned over the past decade following Segerstrom and Miller's meta-analysis [ 1 ]. This research has explored new avenues, including the areas reviewed here, that show particular promise for illuminating the conditions under which stress impacts the immune system. Research on stressors occurring early (i.e., childhood and adolescence) and late (i.e., aging) in the lifespan have suggested that individuals exposed to chronic stressors (e.g., abuse, caregiving) can exhibit immune dysregulation that may be persistent and severe. Stressor qualities (e.g., type, timing) as well as individual characteristics that make individuals more or less susceptible to these effects are targets for future work. Examinations of mediators and mechanisms of the stress-immune relation can also determine how and for whom exposure to stress impacts the immune response. Ecological immunology suggests that downregulating the immune response may sometimes be adaptive, and future work building from this perspective will help to further elucidate contexts in which immunosuppression may occur but progress toward superordinate goals is facilitated. Finally, research into the effects of stress on inflammation in clinical populations has demonstrated that stress exposure can increase the likelihood of developing disease, as well as exacerbating preexisting conditions. Further work in this area may help to treat or even prevent morbidity. Overall, this area of research is broad, rapidly developing, and holds promise for improving human health.

Box: Guide to some immunological parameters related to stress.

Antibodies : Proteins produced by immune cells that can bind to pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, and parasites. Bound pathogens are inactivated or marked for killing by other immune cells.

Autoimmune disease : Caused when the immune system misidentifies self tissue as foreign and mounts an attack against it. Examples include rheumatoid arthritis (RA), lupus, and multiple sclerosis (MS).

C-reactive protein (CRP): A downstream product of pro-inflammatory signaling and marker of systemic inflammation.

Cell-mediated immunity : The arm of the immune system that protects against pathogens residing inside cells (e.g., viruses) and other “sick” cells such as cancer cells.

Cortisol : A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal gland with broad metabolic effects, including suppression of some facets of the immune system.

Cytokines : Proteins that coordinate immune responses. Examples include interleukins (IL). Some cytokines, such as IL-5 and IL-10, primarily control and contain immune responses. Others, such as IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), induce inflammation.

Inflammation : Local inflammation is a part of the healing process that includes accumulation of immune cells, anti-pathogen activity, and initiation of tissue repair. Chronic, systemic inflammation, in contrast, can promote tissue damage across a number of systems.

Latent viruses : Viruses that reside in the body indefinitely after infection, often without overt disease consequences either acutely or chronically. Examples include Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV).

Neutrophils : The first cells to infiltrate damaged or infected tissue and effect an inflammatory response.

Telomeres : The protective caps on the end of chromosomes that prevent deterioration.

Highlights.

Psychological stress can dysregulate the human immune system.

Stress can impact immunity differentially across individuals and contexts.

Recent work in this area has made strides towards elucidating these differences.

Future work holds promise for reducing stress's effects on physical health.

Acknowledgement

funding from AG026307-R01 (Segerstrom), AG048692-F31 (Boggero), & AG033629-K02 (Segerstrom)

Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.

Papers of particular interest have been demarcated as:

*of special interest; **of outstanding interest

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