research essay on autism

• Neurodevelopmental Disorders
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Including students with autism in schools: a whole school approach to improve outcomes for students with autism

• January 2020
• International Journal of Inclusive Education 26(1):1-18

• Griffith University

• University of Wollongong

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Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Neurology & Nervous System Diseases — Autism

Essays About Autism

What makes a good autism essay topics.

When it comes to writing an essay on autism, it's important to choose a topic that is not only interesting but also relevant and impactful. The topic you choose can make or break your essay, so it's crucial to select one that is both engaging and thought-provoking. Here are some recommendations on how to brainstorm and choose an essay topic, what to consider, and What Makes a Good essay topic.

When brainstorming for autism essay topics, it's important to consider the audience and the purpose of the essay. Think about what you want to achieve with your essay and who will be reading it. Consider the impact you want to make and the message you want to convey. It's also important to choose a topic that is manageable and can be effectively explored within the constraints of the essay.

A good autism essay topic should be relevant and timely. Consider current issues and debates surrounding autism and choose a topic that is both current and significant. It's also important to choose a topic that is unique and original. Avoid cliché topics and instead focus on something that has not been extensively explored or discussed. A good essay topic should also be specific and focused. Avoid broad and generic topics and instead narrow down your focus to a specific aspect or issue related to autism.

Best Autism Essay Topics

• The impact of early intervention on children with autism
• The role of sensory processing in autism
• The link between autism and genetics
• The portrayal of autism in popular media
• The challenges of parenting a child with autism
• The benefits of music therapy for individuals with autism
• The use of technology in autism interventions
• The importance of inclusive education for children with autism
• The impact of autism on the family dynamics
• The experiences of adults with autism in the workplace
• The connection between autism and co-occurring conditions
• The role of speech therapy in treating autism
• The challenges of accessing autism services in rural communities
• The intersection of race and autism diagnosis
• The potential of animal-assisted therapy for individuals with autism
• The link between autism and mental health
• The experiences of girls and women with autism
• The impact of autism on social relationships
• The role of advocacy in the autism community
• The potential of alternative therapies for individuals with autism

Autism essay topics Prompts

• Imagine a world where autism acceptance is the norm. How would society be different?
• Write a letter to a parent of a newly diagnosed child with autism, offering support and guidance.
• Create a fictional story that explores the experiences of a teenager with autism navigating high school.
• Imagine a future where a cure for autism is discovered. What are the potential implications and consequences?
• Write a reflective essay on your own experiences with autism, whether as an individual on the spectrum or as a caregiver or advocate.

Choosing a topic for an autism essay can be a daunting task, but with careful consideration and creativity, you can choose a topic that is not only engaging but also impactful. Whether you're exploring the latest research on autism interventions or delving into the personal experiences of individuals with autism, there are endless possibilities for compelling and thought-provoking essay topics. So, take your time, brainstorm, and choose a topic that will captivate your audience and leave a lasting impression.

Advancing Autism Inclusion: Strategies

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Autism Spectrum Disorder: Symptoms, Main Causes and Treatment

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Applied Behavioral Analysis (aba): as a Treatment for People Diagnosed with Autism

The story of a child with autism in naoki higashida's book, gluten-free and casein-free diet for children who are diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (asd), floortime model in autism spectrum disorder treatment, body awareness difficulties of individuals with autism, autism spectrum disorder and inseparability of social networking and technology use, review on the animal assisted therapy of autism spectrum disorder (asd), coming of age in "the curious incident of the dog in the night-time", social effects of christopher's perceived disability, the father's truth or lies in "the curious incident of the dog in the night-time", instructional strategies for students with disabilities, temple grandin – a woman who has not given up, the way temple grandin saw the world, temple grandin: a woman who used autism to her advantage in the agriculture industry, temple grandin – a woman with autism who has made a change, debate on vaccination and autism, perception of facts and truth in "the curious incident of the dog in the night-time", an overview of aspergers syndrome, swimming for children with autism, autism spectrum disorder and the role of vitamin d receptor polymorphism.

Autism spectrum disorder is a condition related to brain development that impacts how a person perceives and socializes with others, causing problems in social interaction and communication.

Trouble with social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication, and presence of restricted interests and repetitive behavior.

Autism spectrum disorder has no single known cause. Given the complexity of the disorder, and the fact that symptoms and severity vary, there are probably many causes. Both genetics and environment may play a role.

Autism is about 4 times more likely in boys than girls. Autism affects children of all racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups. Autism can be reliably diagnosed by age 2, but children may be diagnosed at earlier ages. ASD affects about 1 in 68 children Visit disclaimer page in the United States.

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165 Autism Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Struggle with writing a research paper topics on autism? We’ve got your back covered! Below, you will find a list of 147 topics about autism as well as autism research paper examples!

🏆 Best Research Autism Topics & Essay Examples

👍 good autism essay topics, 💡 psychology research autism topics to write about, ⭐ simple & easy autism essay titles, ❓ research questions about autism.

• Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) Autism is a serious disorder that has the potential to disrupt the success of people living with it. This is to mean that the theory of causation regarding autism is not complete as yet.
• Exploring Autism in the Drama Film Rain Man Charlie Babbitt, the brother to Raymond, is the actor who portrays Raymond’s autism on the way to Los Angeles to secure his fair share in the Babbitt’s $3 million fortunes in form of inheritance.
• Autism. Child and Family Assessment The other common disorder associated with autism is that of mutism whereby it also lies under the category of speech disorder and in many cases it is difficult to be diagnosed and at the same […]
• Autism: Characteristics, Prevalence and Interventions The symptoms of autism are noticeable in the early years of childhood. Occupational therapy is one of the non-educational interventions used to assist kids with autism.
• Bright Not Broken: Gifted Kids, ADHD, and Autism It is possible to state that the book provides rather a high-quality review of the issues about the identification, education, and upbringing of the 2e children.
• How Does Having a Child With Autism Affects Parents’ Lifestyle? The creation of a system of psychological, pedagogical and social support can reduce the risk of a complete family life dedication to a child with autism.
• “Let Me Hear Your Voice: A Family’s Triumph Over Autism” by Catherine Maurice The book was published in 1994, and it was a success as parents of autistic children were waiting for someone to prove that autism was not an incurable disorder.
• Inclusion Curriculum for Children With Autism In the given paper, the issue of children autism, the developmental issues that autism triggers and the educational prospects for children with autism are going to be considered.
• Applied Behavior Analysis and Autism The primary subject of this study is applied behavior analysis while the secondary subject is applied behavior analysis and its effects on autism in children.
• Critical Analysis of Published Articles: Autism It was therefore the goal of the research to find out if the negative attitude of people towards autistic children can be altered to the benefit of the parents.
• One-To-One Programs: Supporting Autistic Children The purpose of conducting this essay will be to examine the educational intervention of one-to-one support programs during normal school times within a mainstream classroom and also to discuss the challenges faced by teachers and […]
• Impact of Autism Disorder on Adolescents This essay discusses the impact of autism disorder on adolescents in the community and a nursing intervention that can be used to assist adolescents in becoming prominent society members.
• Progression of Reading Ability in a Child Diagnosed With Autism The battery of assessments and interviews with parents on the participant’s socialization and early reading ability indicates the study applied the Psychometric and Social Contextual approaches.
• Analysis of Behavior of Preschool Age Child With Autism The child’s behavior in the video differs from that of a mentally healthy child, and these differences lie in the child’s other emotional state and degree of interest in talking to people.
• Autism and Disability Advocacy People with autism can contribute to the diversity of disability culture by expanding understanding of what disability is and how it can be accepted.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnosis According to DSM-5, to fit the diagnostic criteria for ASD, a child must have evident deficits in three major areas of social communication as well as 2 out of the 4 restricted or repetitive behaviors.
• Thinking in Pictures: Autism and Sensory Problems The chapter “The Squeeze Machine: Sensory Problems in Autism” in Grandin’s Thinking in Pictures presents a series of life perspectives of various individuals, including her own, regarding the sensory problems they experienced. They postulated that […]
• Therapeutic Programs for Children With Autism in K-12 Institutions In the paper, the gaps in the research of effective treatments for children with ASD are explored, after which the efficacy of a multi-system aquatic therapy and standardized equine-assisted therapy program is argued.
• Societal Issue Research Project: Autism Spectrum Disorder The first factor is the significant risk that the genetics of siblings who had ASD diagnosis will increase the chance of the disorder.
• Child-Centered Play Therapy and Autism The purpose of the discussed research was to investigate the effects of CCPT on the sample of children with autism, establishing and describing the connection between CCPT and social and emotional growth.
• Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: The Training Program for Caregivers The latter means that many caregivers take care of children with ASD, hence the importance of equipping them with the necessary skills for effective and smooth parenting and coping with various difficulties.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder’s Impact on Child’s Learning In regards to the public-school setting, standardized testing demands youngsters to grasp and react to spoken as well as written communication at an anticipated pace and level.
• Laboratory Diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorders The purpose of my study is to discover which of these methods is more accurate, with the reason being the importance of early diagnosis of ASD, which leads to better treatment outcomes.
• Autism and Related Cognitive Concepts It has been suggested that children with autism show a general deficit of cognitive skills in multilevel planning and in the regulation of behavior.
• Bullying and Autism Spectrum Disorder In fact, bullying as a social phenomenon can be characterized as a social and interaction issue; therefore, it is possible to analyze the connection between autism and acts of bullying and inappropriate behavior.
• Face Emotion Recognition in Autism Phenotype One critical aspect of social communication is the capability to apprehend the emotions and intentions of another person. In conclusion, Autism Spectrum Disorder makes the interpretation of facial expressions difficult.
• Misrepresentation of Autism in the ‘Music’ Film While the film was not centered on the topic of autism as its message, the stereotype-heavy portrayal and a lack of research make it a harmful piece of media.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Prevalence and Impact in Society It has therefore been impossible to determine the level of increase in autism cases that is as a result of improved diagnostic measures and that which can be attributed to the real increase in autism […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Diagnosis, Impact, Treatment The main diagnostic element for ASD is the evidence of difficulties, either in the present or past, which are different across the age groups.
• Autism and Vaccination Refusal Management Among Somalian Parents Somalian parents in their community in Minnesota refuse from their children being vaccinated, as they believe that vaccination causes autism.
• Everyone Has the Power to Effect Positive Change Within the Autism Community This paper presents what is autism, how every one reacts to the problem, what is the difference between the rich and the poor in their response towards the problem.”Autism is one of five developmental disorders […]
• Reducing Off-Task Behaviors Using a Token Economy System in Children With Autism Token economy is a strategy of positive reinforcement that can be provided to children in the form of tokens for completing the assigned tasks.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Key Points The requirement to meet these needs is supported by the fact that the rate of students with ASD is high: according to the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, more than 83 per cent of […]
• “Theoretical Aspects of Autism” by Helen Ratajczak On the whole, it is possible to say that the standards set by Austin Hill cannot be always met, in part because the physiological aspects of this disease have not been fully investigated.
• Dr. Temple Grandin’s Argument on Visual Thinking and Autism A more in-depth analysis of visual activities can reveal the all imagery can be mentally processed and modified by children so that images are rotated and analyzed to make the brain map expand.
• Intellectual Disability: Autism In their adulthood, and because of the communication issues that most individuals with autism tend to have, they will naturally have difficulty in finding and keeping jobs.
• Hyperbaric Oxygen Therapy for Children With Autism On the positive side, it fastens the production of different types of reactive oxygen used in the body. It is arguable that the size of the samples used in the study was small.
• Analysis of Children Autism in “The Black Balloon” It is imperative to note that Charlie’s emotions are not regulated and as such, manifest in immature behaviors such as flapping of his hands.
• Occupational Therapy for Children With Autism The main reason for the appearance of autism is the disturbance of the development of the patients brain which results in the appearance of various symptoms.
• The Mitochondria and Autism – Results and Main Function The results are important in health because children with autism were more probable to have dysfunctions and abnormalities of the mitochondria such as over replication and deletion of mitochondrial DNA compared to those without the […]
• Autism Etiology, Symptoms, Beliefs, and Management To date, debate on the cause or etiology of autism still remains divided, with extant literature demonstrating that “although many hypotheses have been proposed, a singular or specific combination of causes has yet to be […]
• Quantitative Assessment of Neuromotor Function in Adolescents With High Functioning Autism: Critique The study authors did not give the benefits and/or risks associated with the study participation. The authors indicated that the ZNA was appropriate for collecting the data because it could measure the 11 parameters of […]
• Critical Appraisal on the Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on the Family: A Qualitative Study of Mothers’ Perspectives The study researchers established the significance of the study by outlining the social and financial implications of taking care of children with ASD.
• Autism: External Forces, Causes and Treatment The increasing prevalence of Autism in the United States and across the world is attracting great attention from the healthcare sector to design critical programs tailored to stem the disorder in terms of prevention, treatment, […]
• The Importance of Services for Children With Autism The plea of the majority of Americans for the reverse of healthcare budget allocation is well because it is wrong to interfere with services offered to children with autism. With childcare initiative in place, the […]
• Autism: General Information and Treatment She argues that the treatment of autism is through scientific proven medication that aids in controlling aggressive behaviors and that Trisperidone is the commonly used antipsychotic.
• The Issue of Autism: Task-Group Project The role of B.N.in the meeting can be seen as a summarizer, providing a summary of the minutes of the previous meeting.
• Concepts of Autism and Williams Syndrome The disorder manifests itself in the early years of a child’s life, with long-lasting effects that are not curable but controllable and easy to deal with on condition that, the concerned parties take the necessary […]
• Autism Programs to Enhance Students’ Outcomes In addition to social and behavioral challenges, ASD typically hinders a learner’s ability to gain and process the necessary academic information.
• Autism Program’s Impact Across Contexts In other words, a detailed overview of the issues that administrators face when designing the program and which the teachers have to deal with when addressing the needs of children with autism must be carried […]
• Autism: Teaching Plan for Taking All the Features Into Account For the first child, caregiver training was done at child’s bedroom, and for the second child it was done at living room, and for the third child with severe mental retardation it was carried out […]
• Education Considerations for Students With Autism Two articles under consideration consider the opposite views regarding the education of students with autism; on the basis of the information obtained from these articles, it can be stated that none of the perspectives is […]
• Developmental Psychology: Autism and Vaccination Vaccination of infants is widely used today as the pattern of endemic diseases can be explained in terms of interplay of social, physical and biological factors in an area that is conducive to a continuous […]
• Social Work Methods to Treat the Child Who Is Suffering From Autism This is a clear indicator that alcohol intake by the family is costing the members and it is an issue that needs to be looked into.
• Autism and Immunization: Vaccines and the Changing Epidemiology The interest and attention invoked by this paper were largely due to the fact that it appeared to provide a biological means through which MMR vaccine resulted in autism.
• The Autism-Vaccine Debate, Arguments, and Research Autism is defined by the Autism Society of America as ” a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first 3 years of life and is the result of a neurological disorder that affects […]
• Autism and False Belief in Psychology The theories are found to be covering the deficits of an individuals’ mind and factors relating to autism, research further indicates that a child’s behavior may be influenced by the executive functions this, therefore, brings […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorder and Interventions However, the negative side of it is that such an intervention is limited to those patients who are verbal and have limited vocabulary.
• Autism: Symptoms, Forms, Diagnostic Instruments Autism is basically a developmental disorder of the human brain that its first symptoms are initially manifested in infancy and it follows a steady cause without relapse.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Features in Children One of the causes for the appearance of these issues is an inborn disability that might presuppose the need for specific methods to educate a child and guarantee a chance for integration with society.
• Autism Occurrence by Measles Vaccine Status The organization of information in the text follows a logical format by introducing the background for the vaccine, incorporating the issue of ASD connection, and leading up to the primary research question.
• Parental Report of Vaccine Receipt in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder In the introduction, which is the first section, the study’s research problems and their significance to nursing are stated. The discussion section covers how the authors relate the findings to the research objective and the […]
• Teenagers With Autism Disorder Autism is seen as a spectrum disorder since its severity and symptoms vary greatly among affected individuals – from mild and occasional to persistent and interfering with all aspects of life.
• Impact of Autism Spectrum Disorders on Life However, between the ages of two and three, his lack of verbal activity and inability to “echo” simple sounds and syllables were found to be very concerning by the family.
• Autism Should Not Be Viewed as a Disability A good example is that the treatment of autism as a mental disorder makes it possible for pharmaceutical companies and clinics to invent new health systems or procedures that will meet the needs of the […]
• Autist Student’s Behavior and Remedial Plan In the process of reading, I would pay attention to the student’s concentration and ability to integrate what she was reading. She also took long in doing this and did not want to stop the […]
• Autism Treatment, Its Methods and Results It was appropriate to focus on the use of the DSE intervention and examine if addressed most of the challenges facing many ASD patients.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder: Programs Effectiveness The purpose of this PE, therefore, is to evaluate and analyze the efficiency of the programs implemented by the Day Support Services.
• Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders The main goal of this paper is to present a review of relevant literature addressing the issue of helping college students with ASD prepare for workforce readiness and job placement.
• Association Between Vaccination and Autism The study examined whether there is a link between the toxic effects of exposure to thimerosal-containing vaccines and the risk of developing ASD.
• Olfaction and Autism Spectrum Disorder Relationship These findings reveal that the sniff test can reveal both the presence and severity of ASD in young children. The link between ASD and olfaction can be used in diagnosing young children with autism.
• Abu Dhabi Autism Center The Abu Dhabi Autism Center has to operate within the laws and regulations of the Zayed Higher Organization for Humanitarian Care and Special Needs.
• Applied Behavior Analysis Treatment for Autism It is the most commonly applied autism treatment remedy in the United States and several other countries in the world and the major method that schools and therapists embrace and use.
• Inclusive Education: Child With Autism and Spina Bifida It is worth mentioning that Ted’s mother is willing to cooperate with teachers, and her participation can be of great assistance to the teacher.
• Children With Autism’ Communication in Saudi Arabia Parents of children with autism in Saudi Arabia have complained that the government has neglected the needs of autistic children by failing to finance their education and research to detect the effectiveness of the digital […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders: Testing and Measurement It will begin with the rationale that explain why the issues are critical, followed by the reasons for unavailability of the solutions to the issues and the consequences of the issues.
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Educational Interventions From this point, this paper aims to discuss the definition of Autism Spectrum Disorders, examine the etiology and incidence of the disorder, focus on the prevalence of autism, and analyze the effectiveness of the DTT […]
• Vaccines and Autism: Separating Facts From Fiction The advocacy groups say that thimerosal, a preservative used in vaccines, is toxic to the central nervous system and responsible for an alarming rise in rates of autism among children in the United States and […]
• Lesson for Learners With Autism: Reflection Observation The essay identifies the instructional methods used by the teacher during the exercise. The teacher also guided the learners to solve the mathematical problems using different visual objects.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder Concept Besides, Temple often explores her own experiences and attempts to understand the feelings of others that are unavailable to her by visualizing herself as other creatures people and animals.
• Dubai Autism Center’ Quality Management TQM employs strategies and effective communication within the organization to incorporate the quality principles into the culture and activities of the organization to ensure that all the activities are geared towards satisfying the customers.
• Vaccination and Autism in Children The problem with this case is that while it may be true that the cause for the development of autism in children have yet to be fully determined, the fact remains that there have been […]
• Video Modeling for Individuals With Autism The video model will be developed according to the needs of autistic children, with the focus on the role of visual and auditory stimuli in the teaching process.
• The Effects of Vaccines on Autism From their study, the findings demonstrate that the presence of thimerosal is one of the causes of the disorder. It is imperative to state that they have used many studies that have indicated that there […]
• Vaccination as a Cause Autism This paper borrows on the arguments of Monica Prasad and Washington and Haydn when they argue that the belief about vaccinations as a primary cause of autism stems from emotional, psychological, and behavioral barriers, as […]
• Youth With Autism Disorder: Education and Employment This includes the communication patterns of the teenager, the extent of social relations and the unusual behavioral characteristics of the teenager in the environment.
• Autism Children Education Inclusion Policy in Private Schools: Compulsory Enrollment Policy 2011 The following are the main areas will be addressed by the policy: Prohibited Private schools will be prohibited from ignoring the needs of children suffering from autism; they will be compelled by the act to […]
• Autism: Pathogenesis and Intervention Similarly, a person with autism has to be trained on the process of communicating normally and forming a relationship with objects, events and people in their lives.
• The Real Causes of Autism However, the main problem is that this association or correlation does not imply that autism is triggered by a vaccine. This is the main argument that can be put forward.
• Autism. Sensory Integration. Tactile Desensitization The poor development that is recorded at the early stages in life is likely to affect the development of different skills by the individuals even in the adult stages The signs that are associated with […]
• Autism Effect on Children It is crucial to understand the behavior of children with autism in the school set up in order to understand how autism affects children and their social interactions. It is up to the teacher to […]
• Autism and Its Effects on Social Interaction The article “Social Impairment in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder” identifies the major challenges facing many people with autism. The authors wanted to examine the social problems and difficulties encountered by individuals with Autism Spectrum […]
• Older Dads More Likely to Have Kids With Autism The author highlights autism as one of the main outcomes of late fatherhood following the release of the results of a study involving the counting of the mutations corresponding to a father’s age at the […]
• Evidenced-Based Practice: Autism Management in Children Autism largely is connected to communication abilities of a child, a situation that later results into the child experiencing disability problems in effectively encoding and decoding communicative messages.
• Miami Dance Project for Autistic Children For me, what the Miami dance project represents is in line with what is known as the concept of confidence building wherein through the development of certain talents children with autism will begin to have […]
• Autism Spectrum Disorders and Family Impact One of the greatest fears of a parent with such a child is the fact that such a child would be taken care of until the advanced stages of their lives.
• Program Models in Autism The DTT technique has been designed in such a way as to target the individual behavior of an autistic child using the available curriculum.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Relation to Education Attending to students having ASD in the regular classrooms requires specialized teachers and supplementary staff in order to aid in the realization of the needs of the students having ASD.
• Autism in Saudi Arabia This support may come in the form of modification of the curriculum to cater for the special needs of the autistic children.
• Analysis of Autism Disorder This disorder affects the brain of the child during growth so that it does not develop in the right way thus affecting the social and communication skills of the child. This is especially to the […]
• Psychological Disorders and Their Treatment: An Overview of the Recent Progress and the Current Challenges in Treating Autism in Children In the given paper, the issue of psychological disorders is being addressed in reference to the ideas expressed in Chapter 11 “Psychological Disorders” in Carole Wade and Carol Tavris’s Invitation to Psychology.
• Early Intervention for Young Adults With Autism This is due to unavailability of information on children development stages and the importance of early detection and intervention in the case of autism.
• Different Behaviors in Children With Autism The purpose is to find out whether the co morbidity changes with the environment, and assess the influence that the environment has on the behavior of an autistic child.
• Diagnosis and Treatment for Autism Disorder Children with autism are therefore able to reason and even interpret the feelings of other people but the challenge is to communicate the response to other people.
• Autism: Qualitative Research Design Golafshani continues to argue that the use of the term “dependability” in qualitative studies is a close match to the idea of “reliability” in quantitative research.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder However, the reality is that the number of children with autism and having high intelligence is insignificant. It is apparent that, in autism, a disorder is found in the structure of the brain.
• Vaccines and Autism: A Critical Analysis of Thimerosal in Relation to Measles, Mumps, and Rubella The safety and efficacy of vaccines has been the subject of many studies in the medical field. The disorder was observed in one participant from each of the cohorts in the experiment.
• How to Recognize and Teach Students With Autism If these groups of students have to be given directions that are more than three steps, the directions have to be written down due to their inability to remember sequences.
• Autism and Visual Thought Suprisingly the quality of visual thinking according to Bogdashina is dependent on other factors like time and the state the autistic person is in.
• Autism and Educational Process Owing to these adverse effects that can stem from autism and the shear prevalence of the condition in the country’s population, a lot of research effort has been dedicated to the early diagnosis and treatment […]
• Do Vaccines Cause Autism? Thimerosal is alleged to increase the exposure of mercury in the vaccine to a substantiated high amount. In fact, the amount of antigens between children with autism and without is the same irrespective of the […]
• Language Development Problems in Children: An Indicative Characteristic of Autism This is because it is a time when it is expected that a majority of the kids should be able to talk.
• The Disease of Autism Origin The disorder is one of the new diagnoses of the autism. Other effects of the disorder are constipation and growth failures that may be a problem to the lives of the individual.
• Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Its Impact on the Family Manning, Wainwright and Bennet argue that children with autism are faced with a big challenge because of the nature of the symptoms the disorder.
• Autism’s Teaching Tips for Children and Adults The present description is concerned with the role of teacher in the better management of Autism in children. Further, assessment of the interactive and developmental skills is on of the important component in the teacher […]
• How Christopher’s Autism Affect His Life In spite of the fact that the issue of autism is not clearly explained in the story, the condition of the narrator is referred to as high-functioning autism or Aspersers Syndrome on the cover of […]
• What Are Autism Spectrum Disorders?
• How Does Autism Affect the Person With It and Those Around Them?
• What Are the Barriers of Learning for a Learner With Autism/Aspergers in Performing Arts?
• Does Gluten Effect Children With Autism?
• What Are the Causes of Autism?
• How Does Autism Affect a Child’s Educational Performance?
• What Can Autism Look Like and Things You Can Do to Spot It?
• Can Children With Autism Develop a Theory of Mind?
• Which Interventions Reduce Anxiety in Autistic People?
• What Influence Has the Development of Autism Had on a Diagnosed Individual?
• How Does Autism Affect the Development of a Child?
• Are Huddles the Missing Piece of the Puzzle in Implementing Clinical Innovation for the Eating Disorder and Autism Comorbidity?
• How Does Autism Start?
• Can Mouse Imaging Studies Bring Order to Autism Connectivity Chaos?
• How Does ‘Fake News’ Affect Autism Policy?
• Are There Any Relationships Between Latent Toxoplasma Gondii Infection, Testosterone Elevation, and Risk of Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Do People With Autism Experience the World?
• Can Robotic Systems Promote Self-Disclosure in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Did the Media Perpetuate the Autism-Vaccine Scare?
• Are There Cultural Differences in Parental Interest in Early Diagnosis and Genetic Risk Assessment for Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Can the Therapist Help Autism Children?
• Can Vaccinations Cause Autism?
• Does Autism Spectrum Disorder Affect People All Around the World?
• Is There a Correlation Between Epigenetics and Autism Spectrum Disorder?
• How Does Autism Affect Regular Brain Functions as Well as Socialization Skills?
• What Can Responses to Music in Autism Tell Us About the Nature of Musical Emotions?
• Why Has the Incidence Rate of Autism Increased?
• What Are the Most Effective Ways to Support/Provide Social Care For Autistic Adults?
• Which Interventions Are Effective in the Development of Communication/Language Skills in Autism?
• How Can Parents and Family Members Be Supported/Educated to Care For and Better Understand an Autistic Relative?
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• v.25(1); 2016 Feb

A Short Review on the Current Understanding of Autism Spectrum Disorders

Hye ran park.

1 Department of Neurosurgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Korea.

Jae Meen Lee

Hyo eun moon, dong soo lee.

2 Department of Nuclear Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.

Bung-Nyun Kim

3 Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea.

Jinhyun Kim

4 Center for Functional Connectomics, Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST), Seoul 02792, Korea.

Dong Gyu Kim

Sun ha paek.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by a deficit in social behaviors and nonverbal interactions such as reduced eye contact, facial expression, and body gestures in the first 3 years of life. It is not a single disorder, and it is broadly considered to be a multi-factorial disorder resulting from genetic and non-genetic risk factors and their interaction. Genetic studies of ASD have identified mutations that interfere with typical neurodevelopment in utero through childhood. These complexes of genes have been involved in synaptogenesis and axon motility. Recent developments in neuroimaging studies have provided many important insights into the pathological changes that occur in the brain of patients with ASD in vivo. Especially, the role of amygdala, a major component of the limbic system and the affective loop of the cortico-striatothalamo-cortical circuit, in cognition and ASD has been proved in numerous neuropathological and neuroimaging studies. Besides the amygdala, the nucleus accumbens is also considered as the key structure which is related with the social reward response in ASD. Although educational and behavioral treatments have been the mainstay of the management of ASD, pharmacological and interventional treatments have also shown some benefit in subjects with ASD. Also, there have been reports about few patients who experienced improvement after deep brain stimulation, one of the interventional treatments. The key architecture of ASD development which could be a target for treatment is still an uncharted territory. Further work is needed to broaden the horizons on the understanding of ASD.

INTRODUCTION

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a set of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by a lack of social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication in the first 3 years of life. The distinctive social behaviors include an avoidance of eye contact, problems with emotional control or understanding the emotions of others, and a markedly restricted range of activities and interests [ 1 ]. The current prevalence of ASD in the latest large-scale surveys is about 1%~2% [ 2 , 3 ]. The prevalence of ASD has increased in the past two decades [ 4 ]. Although the increase in prevalence is partially the result of changes in DSM diagnostic criteria and younger age of diagnosis, an increase in risk factors cannot be ruled out [ 5 , 6 ]. Studies have shown a male predominance; ASD affects 2~3 times more males than females [ 2 , 3 , 7 ]. This diagnostic bias towards males might result from under-recognition of females with ASD [ 8 ]. Also, some researchers have suggested the possibility that the female-specific protective effects against ASD might exist [ 9 ].

A Swiss psychiatrist, Paul Eugen Bleuler used the term "autism" to define the symptoms of schizophrenia for the first time in 1912 [ 10 ]. He derived it from the Greek word αὐτὀς (autos), which means self. Hans Asperger adopted Bleuler's terminology "autistic" in its modern sense to describe child psychology in 1938. Afterwards, he reported about four boys who did not mix with their peer group and did not understand the meaning of the terms 'respect' and 'polite', and regard for the authority of an adult. The boys also showed specific unnatural stereotypic movement and habits. Asperger describe this pattern of behaviors as "autistic psychopathy", which is now called as Asperger's Syndrome [ 11 ]. The person who first used autism in its modern sense is Leo Kanner. In 1943, he reported about 8 boys and 3 girls who had "an innate inability to form the usual, biologically provided affective contact with people", and introduced the label early infantile autism [ 12 ]. Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner have been considered as those who designed the basis of the modern study of autism.

Most recently, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) adopted the term ASD with a dyadic definition of core symptoms: early-onset of difficulties in social interaction and communication, and repetitive, restricted behaviors, interests, or activities [ 13 ]. Atypical language development, which had been included into the triad of ASD, is now regarded as a co-occurring condition.

As stated earlier, the development of the brain in individuals with ASD is complex and is mediated by many genetic and environmental factors, and their interactions. Genetic studies of ASD have identified mutations that interfere with typical neurodevelopment in utero through childhood. These complexes of genes have been involved in synaptogenesis and axon motility. Also, the resultant microstructural, macrostructural, and functional abnormalities that emerge during brain development create a pattern of dysfunctional neural networks involved in socioemotional processing. Microstructurally, an altered ratio of short- to long-diameter axons and disorganization of cortical layers are observed. Macrostructurally, MRI studies assessing brain volume in individuals with ASD have consistently shown cortical and subcortical gray matter overgrowth in early brain development. Functionally, resting-state fMRI studies show a narrative of widespread global underconnectivity in socioemotional networks, and task-based fMRI studies show decreased activation of networks involved in socioemotional processing. Moreover, electrophysiological studies demonstrate alterations in both resting-state and stimulus-induced oscillatory activities in patients with ASD [ 14 ].

The well-conserved sets of genes and genetic pathways were implicated in ASD, many of which contribute toward the formation, stabilization, and maintenance of functional synapses. Therefore, these genetic aspects coupled with an in-depth phenotypic analysis of the cellular and behavioral characteristics are essential to unraveling the pathogenesis of ASD. The number of genes already discovered in ASD holds the promise to translate the knowledge into designing new therapeutic interventions. Also, the fundamental research using animal models is providing key insights into the various facets of human ASD. However, a better understanding of the genetic, molecular, and circuit level aberrations in ASD is still needed [ 15 ].

Neuroimaging studies have provided many important insights into the pathological changes that occur in the brain of patients with ASD in vivo. Importantly, ASD is accompanied by an atypical path of brain maturation, which gives rise to differences in neuroanatomy, functioning, and connectivity. Although considerable progress has been made in the development of animal models and cellular assays, neuroimaging approaches allow us to directly examine the brain in vivo, and to probably facilitate the development of a more personalized approach to the treatment of ASD [ 16 ].

ASD is not a single disorder. It is now broadly considered to be a multi-factorial disorder resulting from genetic and non-genetic risk factors and their interaction.

Genetic causes including gene defects and chromosomal anomalies have been found in 10%~20% of individuals with ASD [ 17 , 18 ]. Siblings born in families with an ASD subject have a 50 times greater risk of ASD, with a recurrence rate of 5%~8% [ 19 ]. The concordance rate reaches up to 82%~92% in monozygotic twins, compared with 1%~10% in dizygotic twins. Genetic studies suggested that single gene mutations alter developmental pathways of neuronal and axonal structures involved in synaptogenesis [ 20 , 21 , 22 ]. In the cases of related with fragile X syndrome and tuberous sclerosis, hyperexcitability of neocortical circuits caused by alterations in the neocortical excitatory/inhibitory balance and abnormal neural synchronization is thought to be the most probable mechanisms [ 23 , 24 ]. Genome-wide linkage studies suggested linkages on chromosomes 2q, 7q, 15q, and 16p as the location of susceptibility genes, although it has not been fully elucidated [ 25 , 26 ]. These chromosomal abnormalities have been implicated in the disruption of neural connections, brain growth, and synaptic/dendritic morphology [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. Metabolic errors including phenylketonuria, creatine deficiency syndromes, adenylosuccinate lyase deficiency, and metabolic purine disorders are also account for less than 5% of individuals with ASD [ 30 ]. Recently, the correlation between cerebellar developmental patterning gene ENGRAILED 2 and autism was reported [ 31 ]. It is the first genetic allele that contributes to ASD susceptibility in as many as 40% of ASD cases. Other genes such as UBE3A locus, GABA system genes, and serotonin transporter genes have also been considered as the genetic factors for ASD [ 18 ].

Diverse environmental causative elements including pre-natal, peri-natal, and post-natal factors also contribute to ASD [ 32 ]. Prenatal factors related with ASD include exposure to teratogens such as thalidomide, certain viral infections (congenital rubella syndrome), and maternal anticonvulsants such as valproic acid [ 33 , 34 ]. Low birth weight, abnormally short gestation length, and birth asphyxia are the peri-natal factors [ 34 ]. Reported post-natal factors associated with ASD include autoimmune disease, viral infection, hypoxia, mercury toxicity, and others [ 33 , 35 , 36 ]. Table 1 summarizes the known and putative ASD-related genes and environmental factors contributing to the ASD.

In recent years, some researchers suggest that ASD is the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental risk factors [ 37 ]. Understanding the interaction between genetic and environmental factors in the pathogenesis of ASD will lead to optimal treatment strategy.

Clinical features and Diagnosis

ASD is typically noticed in the first 3 years of life, with deficits in social behaviors and nonverbal interactions such as reduced eye contact, facial expression, and body gestures [ 1 ]. Children also manifest with non-specific symptoms such as unusual sensory perception skills and experiences, motor clumsiness, and insomnia. Associated phenomena include mental retardation, emotional indifference, hyperactivity, aggression, self-injury, and repetitive behaviors such as body rocking or hand flapping. Repetitive, stereotyped behaviors are often accompanied by cognitive impairment, seizures or epilepsy, gastrointestinal complaints, disturbedd sleep, and other problems. Differential diagnosis includes childhood schizophrenia, learning disability, and deafness [ 38 , 39 ].

ASD is diagnosed clinically based on the presence of core symptoms. However, caution is required when diagnosing ASD because of non-specific manifestations in different age groups and individual abilities in intelligence and verbal domains. The earliest nonspecific signs recognized in infancy or toddlers include irritability, passivity, and difficulties with sleeping and eating, followed by delays in language and social engagement. In the first year of age, infants later diagnosed with ASD cannot be easily distinguished from control infants. However, some authors report that about 50% of infants show behavioral abnormalities including extremes of temperament, poor eye contact, and lack of response to parental voices or interaction. At 12 months of age, individuals with ASD show atypical behaviors, across the domains of visual attention, imitation, social responses, motor control, and reactivity [ 40 ]. There is also report about atypical language trajectories, with mild delays at 12 months progressing to more severe delays by 24 months [ 40 ]. By 3 years of age, the typical core symptoms such as lack of social communication and restricted/repetitive behaviors and interests are manifested. ASD can be easily differentiated from other psychosocial disorders in late preschool and early school years.

Amygdala and ASD

The frontal and temporal lobes are the markedly affected brain areas in the individuals with ASD. In particular, the role of amygdala in cognition and ASD has been proved in numerous neuropathological and neuroimaging studies. The amygdala located the medial temporal lobe anterior to the hippocampal formation has been thought to have a strong association with social and aggressive behaviors in patients with ASD [ 41 , 42 ]. The amygdala is a major component of the limbic system and affective loop of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuit [ 43 ].

The amygdala has 2 specific functions including eye gaze and face processing [ 44 ]. The lesion of the amygdala results in fear-processing, modulation of memory with emotional content, and eye gaze when looking at human face [ 45 , 46 , 47 ]. The findings in individuals with amygdala lesion are similar to the phenomena in ASD. The amygdala receives highly processed somatosensory, visual, auditory, and all types of visceral inputs. It sends efferents through two major pathways, the stria terminalis and the ventral amygdalofugal pathway.

The amygdala comprises a collection of 13 nuclei. Based on histochemical analyses, these 13 nuclei are divided into three primary subgroups: the basolateral (BL), centromedial (CM), and superficial groups [ 42 ]. The BL group attributes amygdala to have a role as a node connecting sensory stimuli to higher social cognition level. It links the CM and superficial groups, and it has reciprocal connection with the orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) [ 48 ]. The BL group contains neurons responsive to faces and actions of others, which is not found in the other two groups of amygdala [ 49 , 50 ]. The CM group consists of the central, medial, cortical nuclei, and the periamygdaloid complex. It innervates many of the visceral and autonomic effector regions of the brain stem, and provides a major output to the hypothalamus, thalamus, ventral tegmental area, and reticular formation [ 51 ]. The superficial group includes the nucleus of the lateral olfactory tract [ 42 ].

Neurochemistrial studies revealed high density of benzodiazepine/GABAa receptors and a substantial set of opiate receptors in the amygdala. It also includes serotonergic, dopaminergic, cholinergic, and noradrenergic cell bodies and pathways [ 52 ]. Since some patients with temporal epilepsy and aggressive behavior experienced improvement in aggressiveness after bilateral stereotactic ablation of basal and corticomedial amygdaloid nuclei, the role of amygdala in emotional processing, especially rage processing has been investigated [ 53 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. Some evidences for the amygdala deficit in patients with ASD have been suggested. Post-mortem studies found the pathology in the amygdala of individuals with ASD compared to age- and sex-matched controls [ 57 , 58 , 59 ]. Small neuronal size and increased cell density in the cortical, medial, and central nuclei of the amygdala were detected in ASD patients.

Several studies proposed the use of an animal model to confirm the evidence for the association between amygdala and ASD [ 60 , 61 ]. Despite the limitation which stems from the need to prove higher order cognitive disorder, the studies suggested that disease-associated alterations in the temporal lobes during experimental manipulations of the amygdala in animals have produced some symptoms of ASD [ 62 ]. Especially, the Kluver-Bucy syndrome, which is caused by bilateral damage to the anterior temporal lobes in monkeys, has characteristic manifestations similar to ASD [ 63 , 64 ]. Monkeys with the Kluver-Bucy syndrome shows absence of social chattering, lack of facial expression, absence of emotional reactions, repetitive abnormal movement patterns, and increased aggression. Sajdyk et al. performed experiments on rats and discovered that physiological activation of the BL nucleus of the amygdala by blocking tonic GABAergic inhibition or enhancing glutamate or the stress-associated peptide corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)-mediated excitation caused reduction in social behaviors [ 65 ]. On the contrary, lesioning of the amygdala or blocking amygdala excitability with glutamate antagonist increased dyadic social interactions [ 60 ]. Besides animals, humans who underwent lesioning of the amygdala showed impairments in social judgment. This phenomenon is called acquired ASD [ 66 , 67 , 68 ]. The pattern of social deficits was similar in idiopathic and acquired ASD [ 69 ]. Felix-Ortiz and Tye sought to understand the role of projections from the BL amygdala to the ventral hippocampus in relation to behavior. Their study using mice showed that the BLS-ventral hippocampus pathway involved in anxiety plays a role in the mediation of social behavior as well [ 70 ].

The individuals with temporal lobe tumors involving the amygdala and hippocampus provide another evidence of the correlation between the amygdala and ASD. Some authors reported that patients experienced autistic symptoms after temporal lobe was damaged by a tumor [ 71 , 72 ]. Also, individuals with tuberous sclerosis experienced similar symptoms including facial expression due to a temporal lobe hamartoma [ 73 ].

Although other researchers failed to find structural abnormalities in the mesial temporal lobe of autistic subjects by performing magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies [ 74 , 75 , 76 ], recent development in neuroimaging has facilitated the investigation of amygdala pathology in ASD. Studies using structural MRI estimated volumes of the amygdala and related structures in individuals with ASD and age-, gender, and verbal IQ-matched healthy controls [ 77 ]. Increase in bilateral amygdala volume and reduction in hippocampal and parahippocampal gyrus volumes were noted in individuals with ASD. Also, the lateral ventricles and intracranial volumes were significantly increased in the autistic subjects; however, overall temporal lobe volumes were similar between the ASD and control groups.

There was a significant difference in the whole brain voxel-based scans of individuals with ASD and control groups [ 78 ]. Individuals with ASD showed decreased gray matter volume in the right paracingulate sulcus, the left occipito-temporal cortex, and the left inferior frontal sulcus. On the contrary, the gray matter volume in the bilateral cerebellum was increased. Otherwise, they showed increased volume in the left amygdala/periamygdaloid cortex, the right inferior temporal gyrus, and the middle temporal gyrus.

Recently, the development of functional neuroimaging also provided some evidence for the correlation between amygdala deficit and ASD. A study using Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) found that regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was decreased in the bilateral insula, superior temporal gyri, and left prefrontal cortices in individuals with ASD compared to age- and gender-matched controls with mental retardation [ 79 ]. Also, the authors found that rCBF in both the right hippocampus and amygdala was correlated with a behavioral rating subscale.

On proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) in the right hippocampal-amygdala region and the left cerebellar hemisphere, autistic subjects showed decreased level of N-acetyl aspartate (NAA) in both areas [ 80 ]. There was no difference in the level of the other metabolites, such as creatine and choline. This study implies that a decreased level of NAA might be associated with neuronal hypofunction or immature neurons.

These findings support the claim that amygdala might be a key structure in the development of ASD and a target for the management of the disease.

Prefrontal cortex and ASD

Frontal lobe has been considered as playing an important role in higher-level control and a key structure associated with autism. Individuals with frontal lobe deficit demonstrate higher-order cognitive, language, social, and emotion dysfunction, which is deficient in autism [ 81 ]. Recently, neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies have attempted to delineate distinct regions of prefrontal cortex supporting different aspects of executive function. Some authors have reported that the excessive rates of brain growth in infants with ASD, which is mainly contributed by the increase of frontal cortex volume [ 82 , 83 ]. Especially, the PFC including Brodmann areas 8, 9, 10, 11, 44, 45, 46, and 47 has been noted for the structure related with ASD [ 84 ]. The PFC is cytoarchitectonically defined as the presence of a cortical granular layer IV [ 85 ], and anatomically refers to the regions of the cerebral cortex that are anterior to premotor cortex and the supplementary motor area [ 86 ]. The PFC has extensive connections with other cortical, subcortical and brain stem sites [ 87 ]. It receives inputs from the brainstem arousal systems, and its function is particularly dependent on its neurochemical environment [ 88 ].

The PFC is broadly divided into the medial PFC (mPFC) and the lateral PFC (lPFC). The mPFC is further divided into four distinct regions: medial precentral cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, prelimbic and infralimbic prefrontal cortex [ 89 ]. While the lPFC is thought to support cognitive control process [ 90 ], the mPFC has reciprocal connections with brain regions involved in emotional processing (amygdala), memory (hippocampus) and higher-order sensory regions (within temporal cortex) [ 91 ]. This involvement of mPFC in social cognition and interaction implies that mPFC might be a key region in understanding self and others [ 92 ].

The mPFC involves in fear learning and extinction by reciprocal synaptic connections with the basolateral amygdala [ 93 , 94 ]. It is believed that the mPFC regulates and controls amygdala output and the accompanying behavioral phenomena [ 95 , 96 ]. Previous authors investigated how memory processing is regulated by interactions between BLA and mPFC by means of functional disconnection [ 97 , 98 ]. Disturbed communication within amygdala-mPFC circuitry caused deficits in memory processing. These informations provide support for a role of the mPFC in the development of ASD.

Nucleus Accumbens and ASD

Besides amygdala, nucleus accumbens (NAc) is also considered as the key structure which is related with the social reward response in ASD. NAc borders ventrally on the anterior limb of the internal capsule, and the lateral subventricular fundus of the NAc is permeated in rostral sections by internal capsule fiber bundles. The rationale for NAc to be considered as the potential target of DBS for ASD is its predominant role in modulating the processing of reward and pleasure [ 99 ]. Anticipation of rewarding stimuli recruits the NAc as well as other limbic structures, and the experience of pleasure activates the NAc as well as the caudate, putamen, amygdala, and VMPFC [ 100 , 101 , 102 ]. It is well known that dysfunction of NAc regarding rewarding stimuli in subjects with depression. Bewernick et al. demonstrated antidepressant effects of NAc-DBS in 5 of the 10 patients suffering from severe treatment-resistant depression [ 103 ].

Two groups reported about the neural basis of social reward processing in ASD. Schmitz et al. examined responses to a task that involved monetary reward. They investigated the neural substrates of reward feedback in the context of a sustained attention task, and found increased activation in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and left mid-frontal gyrus on rewarded trials in ASD [ 104 ]. Scott-Van Zeeland et al. investigated the neural correlates of rewarded implicit learning in children with ASD using both social and monetary rewards. They found diminished ventral striatal response during social, but not monetary, rewarded learning [ 105 ]. According to them, activity within the ventral striatum predicted social reciprocity within the control group, but not within the ASD group.

Anticipation of pleasurable stimuli recruits the NAc, whereas the experience of pleasure activates VMPFC [ 106 ]. NAc is activated by incentive motivation to reach salient goals [ 106 ]. Increased activation in the left anterior cingulate gyrus and left mid-frontal gyrus was noted during both the anticipatory and consummatory phase of the reward response [ 104 , 107 , 108 ]. However, the activity within the ventral striatum was decreased in autistic subjects, which caused impairment in social reciprocity [ 105 ].

These findings indicate that reward network function in ASD is contingent on both the temporal phase of the response and the type of reward processed, suggesting that it is critical to assess the temporal chronometry of responses in a study of reward processing in ASD. NAc might be one of the candidates as a target of DBS which is introduced as below.

Various educational and behavioral treatments have been the mainstay of the management of ASD. Most experts agree that the treatment for ASD should be individualized. Treatment of disabling symptoms such as aggression, agitation, hyperactivity, inattention, irritability, repetitive and self-injurious behavior may allow educational and behavioral interventions to proceed more effectively [ 109 ].

Increasing interest is being shown in the role of various pharmacological treatments. Medical management includes typical antipsychotics, atypical antipsychotics, antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, α2-adrenergic agonists, β-adrenergic antagonist, mood stabilizers, and anticonvulsants [ 110 , 111 ]. So far, there has been no agent which has been proved effective in social communication [ 112 ]. A major factor in the choice of pharmacologic treatment is awareness of specific individual physical, behavioral or psychiatric conditions comorbid with ASD, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, schizophrenia, mood disorder, and intellectual disability [ 113 ]. Antidepressants were the most commonly used agents followed by stimulants and antipsychotics. The high prevalence of comorbidities is reflected in the rates of psychotropic medication use in people with ASD. Antipsychotics were effective in treating the repetitive behaviors in children with ASD; however, there was not sufficient evidence on the efficacy and safety in adolescents and adults [ 114 ]. There are also alternative options including opiate antagonist, immunotherapy, hormonal agents, megavitamins and other dietary supplements [ 109 , 113 ].

However, the autistic symptoms remain refractory to medication therapy in some patients [ 115 ]. These individuals have severely progressed disease and multiple comorbidities causing decreased quality of life [ 44 , 110 ]. Interventional therapy such as deep brain stimulation (DBS) may be an alternative therapeutic option for these patients.

Two kinds of interventions have been used for treating ASD; focused intervention practices and comprehensive treatments [ 116 ]. The focused intervention practices include prompting, reinforcement, discrete trial teaching, social stories, or peer-mediated interventions. These are designed to produce specific behavioral or developmental outcomes for individual children with ASD, and used for a limited time period with the intent of demonstrating a change in the targeted behaviors. The comprehensive treatment models are a set of practices performed over an extended period of time and are intense in their application, and usually have multiple components [ 116 ].

Since it was approved by the FDA in 1997, DBS has been used to send electrical impulses to specific parts of the brain [ 117 , 118 ]. In recent years, the spectrum for which therapeutic benefit is provided by DBS has widely been expanded from movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, essential tremor, and dystonia to psychiatric disorders. Some authors have demonstrated the efficacy of DBS for psychiatric disorders including refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder, depression, Tourette syndrome, and others for the past few years [ 119 , 120 , 121 ].

To the best of our knowledge, there have been 2 published articles of 3 patients who underwent DBS for ASD accompanied by life-threatening self-injurious behaviors not alleviated by antipsychotic medication [ 122 , 123 ]. The targets were anterior limb of the internal capsule and globus pallidus internus, only globus pallidus, and BL nucleus of the amygdala, respectively. All patients obtained some benefit from DBS. Although the first patient showed gradual re-deterioration after temporary improvement, the patient who underwent DBS of the BL nucleus experienced substantial improvement in self-injurious behavior and social communication. These experiences suggested the possibility of DBS for the treatment of ASD. For patients who did not obtain benefit from other treatments, DBS may be a viable therapeutic option. Understanding the structures which contribute to the occurrence of ASD might open a new horizon for management of ASD, particularly DBS. Accompanying development of neuroimaging technique enables more accurate targeting and heightens the efficacy of DBS. However, the optimal DBS target and stimulation parameters are still unknown, and prospective controlled trials of DBS for various possible targets are required to determine optimal target and stimulation parameters for the safety and efficacy of DBS.

ASD should be considered as a complex disorder. It has many etiologies involving genetic and environmental factors, and further evidence for the role of amygdala and NA in the pathophysiology of ASD has been obtained from numerous studies. However, the key architecture of ASD development which could be a target for treatment is still an uncharted territory. Further work is needed to broaden the horizons on the understanding of ASD.

Acknowledgements

This study was partly supported by the Korea Institute of Planning & Evaluation for Technology in Food, Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Republic of Korea (311011-05-3-SB020), by the Korea Healthcare Technology R&D Project (HI11C21100200) funded by Ministry of Health & Welfare, Republic of Korea, by the Technology Innovation Program (10050154, Business Model Development for Personalized Medicine Based on Integrated Genome and Clinical Information) funded by the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MI, Korea), and by the Bio & Medical Technology Development Program of the NRF funded by the Korean government, MSIP (2015M3C7A1028926).

Who Autism Research Leaves Out

G rowing up, I had always wondered if I had received the correct autism diagnosis. I was diagnosed with autism and ADHD at age 3, and for the amount of “evidence-based therapy for autism” that has consumed my entire childhood, I should have been able to navigate it many times over by now. Why was I not benefiting from the vast amount of research that is being done in the name of understanding autism better? After all, autism has been an official diagnosis since 1980.

My autism is still very visible as an adult, and my disability challenges do present significant obstacles in navigating everyday living. I am often described as a minimal speaking autistic with high support needs. But that does not even begin to describe my autism. I’ll admit that even I have not fully understood my own disability issues.

Read More: We Don't Need a Cure for Autism. We Need to Make Living With It Easier

For instance, my ability to speak can fluctuate on a daily basis. I have a lot of somatosensory and sensorimotor dysregulation challenges, OCD, mood regulation issues, social anxiety, and allergies—with of course a good dollop of that official ADHD on the side. But if I have not fully understood my own disability, it is, in part, because there has been little research to help autistics like me understand the full scope of it, as well as targeted education, medical, or therapeutic interventions that can help us navigate it.

This reality became glaringly evident during my recent attendance at meetings as a PhD neuroscience student and aspiring autism researcher. At a research meeting on autism that involved both autism researchers and stakeholders, an adult autistic individual shared her involvement in numerous autism studies throughout her life. This, in itself, contrasts with many autistics like me who are excluded from autism research due to the complexity of our issues, or because of the research methods used.  

Just as psychology research had its WEIRD (“western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic”) sampling bias, autism research has not only a WEIRD sampling bias, but also has essentially oversampled the same, narrow band of what are considered the easily “researchable autistics,” and expected those findings (as well as the applications and interventions that resulted from them) to apply to everyone.

But the spectrum is far more diverse and heterogeneous than we realize. Sure enough, even as I review past autism research as part of my studies, I look at the autistic participant profiles and the truth is that a majority don’t represent autistics like me. Autism research participant selection is filled with implicit and explicit exclusionary criteria, such as IQ cut-offs , ability to be able to sit still, to perform tasks and engage, to respond orally and not have co-occurring or complex conditions. But why should IQ be an exclusionary criterion when it is mutable and has been historically problematic for marginalized groups ? I have to then wonder how findings from studies with so many exclusionary criteria would benefit autistics like me.

Research participant selection bias is especially problematic in a disability like autism because the primary goal of research is to provide explanations. Studies also influence policy priorities, interventions, treatments, who gets access to funding, access to spaces, and even societal attitudes. Most importantly, research leads us to applications and solutions. If we are left out of research, we are left out of the solutions as well. 

It reminds me of a high school speech therapist who insisted I must be a literal thinker—as are apparently all autistics, her opinions being shaped by the research she had consumed. But how did this line up with my love of philosophy, for instance, which is very much abstract and heavily nuanced? Or of all the autistics who are poets and painters, for surely art involves a lot of imagination and abstraction. Inevitably, the teaching strategies and therapy for a literal thinker autistic would be different from the needs of a non-literal autistic. Of course, as a child you don’t have the power to challenge the “expert,” and you are left with a feeling of cognitive dissonance and mismatch that this is not quite right. 

Yet, willy-nilly, existing autism research findings, and the resultant therapies and educational strategies, have been applied across the board to all autistics. Unfortunately, a lack of success in therapies not suited for you in the first place, leads to negative downstream impacts such as being placed in low expectations classrooms, the closure of opportunities, and less than positive lifetime outcomes. I find that despite all the careers, promotions, and profits being made by thousands of autism-experts, the state of autism interventions right now is one hot mess. In reality, there still are no real “experts” in autism because there is no one-size fits all model.

While there is now acknowledgement of this narrow research bias, it has not permeated the practices of educators, service providers, and medical professionals on the ground. They continue to rely on outdated information with autistics bearing the consequences. However acknowledgement alone is insufficient; we must take action to expand the zone of researchable autistics. Only if we are all represented can we get to all the benefits and solutions of that research.

In order to increase representation of a wider profile of autistics in research, it is crucial to reconsider research methodologies and the tasks involved. Can we devise research tasks and measures that do not depend on good motor skills, the ability to sit perfectly still, fluent oral communication, or lightning-fast reaction times?

Furthermore, we should leverage advancements in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning to develop new technologies or repurpose existing ones used in other fields. For instance, why not explore technology that allows for movement for those with autism, similar to neuroimaging equipment used in sports injuries or movement-disorders such as Parkinson's? Could we borrow and adapt from spacesuit technology, which is durable enough to withstand gravitational reentry even while it is able to collect sophisticated biometric data and create sensory modulated environments for its wearer? Brain computer interface is already on its way to becoming  non-invasive , and could be adapted for use in autistics with limited speaking ability. Additionally, given that many research tasks require binary yes or no responses, low-tech adaptations like using joysticks instead of a full, distracting keyboard or even 3D-printed covers that hide everything on the keyboard except the two or three keys, can enhance task-oriented studies and minimize distractions.

In addition to rethinking research methodologies and technology, we should explore innovative approaches like mobile labs which increase geographic reach, diversity and accessibility. Think of the participant reach we will have if the research study tasks can be done at or near the autistic participant’s home, instead of someone having to travel to a sterile lab in a university setting. By making research more accessible and accommodating, we also bridge the gap between research and the real-life experiences of autistics, leading to a more comprehensive and culturally sensitive understanding of its diverse forms.

It’s time for researchers and technologists to rethink their methodologies and technologies, and explore other innovative approaches to give all members of the autistic community the care we need. If genuine progress in autism research and the development of real solutions are to be achieved, we must expand the zone of the researchable autistic. With such a shift in mindset, we can tap into the full potential of autism research and unlock the benefits and solutions that have eluded us thus far.

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Research Studies

Currently Recruiting or Active Research Studies

Please download the document below for our current recruiting studies organized by age range. 

 Study Title

Study description, spark (simons powering autism research) study.

Available in English and Spanish.

If you or your child has a professional diagnosis of autism, Stanford University invites you to learn more about SPARK, a new online research study sponsored by the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative. The mission of SPARK is clear: speed up research and advance understanding of autism by creating the nation’s largest autism study. Joining SPARK is simple – register online and provide a DNA sample via a saliva collection kit in the comfort of your own home. Together, we can help spark a better future for all individuals and families affected by autism.

Register  by contacting us at [email protected] or online at www.sparkforautism.org/stanford .

SPARK está trabajando para fomentar la investigación y mejorar nuestra comprensión del autismo. Stanford y más de 30 de las principales escuelas de medicina y centros de investigación del autismo del país forman parte de este esfuerzo.

• Participar en SPARK es gratis y se puede hacer completamente desde casa.
• Muchas de las encuestas de SPARK aportan informes personalizados.
• Los participantes serán notificados en caso de haber otras oportunidades de investigación.
• Los individuos con autismo podrán recibir códigos de regalo de Amazon por un valor de hasta 50 dólares (uno por familia) después de la recepción de sus muestras de saliva.

Para inscribirse en SPARK:  https://sparkforautism.org/Stanford/ES

La inscripción suele llevar unos 20 minutos y puede empezar y parar si lo necesita. Una vez que se registre y complete unos cuestionarios en línea, le enviaremos un kit para recolectar saliva a su domicilio. Para obtener más información, envíe un correo electrónico a [email protected]

Language Treatment Trial for Children with Autism

Researchers at Stanford University are currently recruiting children with autism spectrum disorder to identify MRI-based markers of response to treatment with Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) targeting language abilities. Children with autism spectrum disorder between the ages of 2 and 4 years 11 months are invited to participate. This study involves up to a 5 month time commitment. The participant must be willing to complete cognitive and behavioral assessments (such as IQ and language testing) and be able to either sleep (young children) or lie still in the scanner during an MRI. After a successful MRI, the participant will be randomized into the PRT trial or DTG (Delayed Treatment Group). PRT will consist of 16 weekly, 60-90 minute sessions of parent training in PRT over a 16 week time period. DTG will consist of your child’s treatments as usual in the community and measurements and questionnaires will need to be filled out on three study visits over the course of the 16 weeks. After completion of the DTG, the participant will be offered PRT parent training sessions similar to the PRT group. There is no cost to participate in the study. If you would like to participate or if you have any questions please call (650) 736-1235 or email:  [email protected]  to discuss the study in more detail. 

2 and 4 years,11 months

Targeting the Neurobiology of Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors in Children with Autism Using N-acetylcysteine Randomized Control Trial

We are recruiting children autism to participate in a study examining the treatment effects of an over-the-counter dietary supplement on the brain.   

Eligibility:  Children with autism spectrum disorder who -

·    are aged between 3 and 12 years old

·    exhibit restricted and repetitive behaviors

·    will drink N-acetyl cysteine dissolved in water

·    will undergo brain scanning (asleep or awake) with magnetic resonance  imaging (MRI)

·    will undergo brain scanning with electroencephalography (EEG)

The study will take place over 3 to 6 visits (some remotely over Zoom) and the approximate time required is about 10 to 12 hours. Individuals that are able to complete both of the MRI/EEG sessions will be compensated $50.

You can find more information about our NAC studies at   https://redcap.link/NACforAutism .

If you have any questions  please call 650-736-1235 or email:  [email protected] .

3 to 12 years

Autism Center of Excellence Sleep Study

Dear Parents,

We are excited to tell you about a new research study for children. We are looking to partner with parents who have children that are between the ages of 4 and 17 years old,  with and without  an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) diagnosis.

What is involved?

• In-person cognitive and behavioral assessments
• Day-time Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• In-home, 2 night sleep monitoring session
• Collection of saliva to measure cortisol and melatonin levels
• Wearing a watch device that tracks sleep and daily activity

What will I receive if I participate?

• Research sleep report and behavioral testing summary upon request
• $50 for each in-person visit to Stanford and $100 for the 2 night in-home sleep assessment

Treatment extension study:

• If your child has ASD, sleep difficulties, and ages 8-17, they may also qualify for sleep medication trials

Interested in participating or want to learn more?  Click Here!

If you would like to reach out to our team directly with any questions, please contact our team below!

Email:  [email protected]

650-498-7215

4 to 17 years

Pregnenolone Randomized Controlled Trial

Neurosteroid Pregnenolone Treatment for Irritability in Adolescents with Autism

Medication treatments for core symptoms of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) continue to be unmet medical needs. The only medications approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of individuals with ASD are effective in treating irritability and associated aggressive behaviors, but these medications can also cause severe long-term side effects such as diabetes and involuntary motor movements. Therefore, effective medications with more tolerable side effect profiles are highly desirable. This profile is consistent with pregnenolone (PREG). PREG belongs to a new class of hormones known as neurosteroids, which have been shown to be effective in treating various psychiatric conditions including bipolar depression and schizophrenia. As compared to currently FDA-approved medications, our preliminary data suggested that PREG may represent a potentially effective and well-tolerated agent for treating irritability in individuals with ASD. In addition, our experience suggests that PREG might be helpful in improving selected core symptoms such as social deficits and sensory abnormalities of ASD. This study provides the opportunity to further explore the usefulness of PREG in the treatment of irritability and some core symptoms of ASD. We are performing a 12-week randomized double-blind controlled pilot trial to examine the effectiveness of orally administered PREG in reducing irritability and associated behaviors in adolescents with ASD. In this study, we also aim to examine the usefulness of biomarkers (blood levels of neurosteroids, eyetracking and brain wave recording) in predicting treatment response and assessing biologic changes with PREG treatment.

Link to study in Stanford's Clinical Trials Directory

14 to 25 years

Trial of Center-Based vs. In-Home Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) in Autism (PRT-HvC)

Do you have a child (2-5 years old) with autism and want an intensive center-based or in-home intervention?

Stanford University researchers are recruiting children with autism and their parents to participate in a study examining the effectiveness of a center-based vs. in-home Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) program in targeting social communication abilities in young children with autism.

Participants must:

• Be diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Be between the ages of 2 years and 5 years 11 months
• Be able to attend 3-hour research treatment sessions 4 days per week and participate in parent training

Based on behavioral screening assessments, children who are eligible will be randomly assigned to either center-based intervention, in-home intervention, or treatment as usual. Those assigned to the treatment-as-usual group will receive treatment after the 16–week period is completed.

Call 650-736-1235 or email [email protected] to learn more.

https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04899544 

2 to 5 years

Improving Access to Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) via Telehealth Parent Training

There is an urgent need for improved access to effective autism treatments. With advances in technology, distance learning models have particular promise for families who cannot access evidence-based parent training locally or may be on long wait-lists for behavioral treatments. Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) is an established treatment for autism spectrum disorder (ASD); however, a telehealth PRT model has not yet been evaluated in a controlled trial. This study will examine the effects of training parents in PRT via secure video conferencing and investigate 1) whether parents can learn via telehealth to deliver PRT in the home setting (PRT-T) and 2) whether their children will show greater improvement in functional communication skills compared to children in a waitlist control group. Participants will include 40 children age 2 to 5 years with ASD and significant language delay. Eligible children will be randomly assigned to either PRT-T or waiting list. Weekly 60-minute parent training sessions will be delivered for 12 weeks via secure video conferencing software by a PRT-trained study therapist. Link:  https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04042337

Note: Participants must live at least 200 miles away from Stanford University (i.e., this study is geared towards out-of-state families or families living at a distance)

A Center Based Randomized Controlled Trial of Pivotal Response Treatment for Preschoolers With Autism

Researchers at Stanford University are currently recruiting children with autism and their parents to participate in a study examining the effectiveness of a center-based Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) program in targeting social communication abilities in young children with autism. We are currently recruiting children diagnosed with ASD and social communication deficits, aged 2:0 to 3:11 years. Children who are eligible based on behavioral screening assessments will be randomly assigned to either an immediate treatment (PRT) group or a delayed treatment group (DTG). If randomized into the PRT group, the 12-week treatment will consist of a combination of one weekly 60-minute individual parent training session and 12 weekly hours (approximately 3 hours per day for 4 days per week) with your child in a center-based group preschool environment at Stanford University. If randomized into the delayed treatment group, the children will wait 12 weeks to receive the PRT treatment and continue any treatment they are receiving as usual in the community. The cost of clinic-based services varies based on individual family health insurance plans.

For more information, please call (650) 736-1235 or email  [email protected]  to discuss the study in more detail. 

2 and 3 years,11 months

Natural History Study of Individuals with Autism and Germline Heterozygous PTEN Mutations

The goal of this study is to gain a better understanding of PTEN mutation syndromes to identify early markers and ultimately effective interventions for autism spectrum disorder. Individuals 18 months or older are eligible to participate if they have been diagnosed with PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome. The study involves five visits over a two year period. Three of the visits occur on-site at a study location. The other two visits occur as phone calls. The on-site visits include a blood draw, physical/neurological exams and behavioral testing.

Study Webpage    

18 months and older

Active Studies, not Recruiting

An open-label pilot study of esomeprazole in children with autism.

Researchers at Stanford University are currently examining the effectiveness of esomeprazole in improving social communication deficits in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Esomeprazole is currently FDA-approved for children ages 1 and up for gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and has been identified as a potential treatment for improving social communication in children with ASD. Children with ASD ages 2 through 6 years are invited to participate. The child must be willing to take esomeprazole orally for at least 8 weeks, complete diagnostic and behavioral assessments, and be free of serious medical problems. There is also an optional research blood draw. The study will require visits to Stanford University and the parent/caregiver will be required to complete questionnaires for each visit.

For more information, please go to  https://is.gd/ASDstudy ,  call (650) 736-1235, or email  [email protected] .

2 to 6 years

Vasopressin Treatment Trial for Children with Autism

The purpose of this clinical trial is to investigate the effectiveness of vasopressin nasal spray for treating symptoms associated with autism. Vasopressin is a hormone that is produced naturally within the body and has been implicated in regulating social behaviors. It has been proposed that administration of the hormone may also help improve social functioning in individuals with autism.

Link to study at clinicaltrials.gov

6 to 17 years

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• Systematic Review
• Published: 11 August 2024

Examining the association between autism spectrum disorder and atopic eczema: meta-analysis of current evidence

• Anas Elgenidy 1 ,
• Eman F. Gad 2 ,
• Islam Shabaan 3 ,
• Hasnaa Abdelrhem 4 ,
• Paula Gamal Wassef 1 ,
• Taher Elmozugi 5 ,
• Mohanad Abdelfattah 1 ,
• Hisham Mousa 1 ,
• Mohamed Nasr 6 ,
• Mostafa Salah-Eldin 7 ,
• Ahmed Altaweel 8 ,
• Abdelrahman Hussein 1 ,
• Mohammad Bazzazeh 8 ,
• Mohamed Atef Elganainy 8 ,
• Ahmed M. Ali 2 ,
• Mohamed Ezzat 9 ,
• Amira Elhoufey 10 , 11 ,
• Abdulrahman A. Alatram 12 ,
• Ahmed Hammour 9 &
• Khaled Saad   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8473-6116 2  

Pediatric Research ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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8 Altmetric

Metrics details

This study aims to investigate the association between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and atopic eczema (AE), shedding light on potential associations and underlying mechanisms.

A comprehensive review of literature was conducted to identify relevant studies published up to August 2023. Various electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, Scopus, Web of Science, and Cochrane, were searched using specific keywords related to ASD and AE.

The meta-analysis covered a total of 30 studies. The first analysis included 23 studies with a combined total of 147430 eczema patients in the ASD group and 8895446 eczema patients in non-ASD group. We calculated the risk ratio of eczema in ASD and non-ASD groups, which revealed a significantly higher risk of eczema in patients with ASD (RR 1.34; 95% CI 1.03, 1.76). The second analysis included seven studies with a combined total of 3570449 ASD patients in the AE group and 3253973 in the non-Eczema group. The risk ratio of ASD in the Eczema and Non-Eczema groups showed a significantly increased risk of ASD in patients with eczema (RR 1.67; 95% CI 0.91, 3.06).

This study underscores the possible link between ASD and atopic eczema, shedding light on their potential association.

Our study conducted a meta-analysis on the association between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and atopic eczema (AE), shedding light on potential associations and underlying mechanisms.

The review we conducted covered a total of 30 studies.

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Data availability.

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author.

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Authors and affiliations.

Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

Anas Elgenidy, Paula Gamal Wassef, Mohanad Abdelfattah, Hisham Mousa & Abdelrahman Hussein

Pediatric Department, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut, 71516, Egypt

Eman F. Gad, Ahmed M. Ali & Khaled Saad

Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Al Azhar University, Assiut, Egypt

Islam Shabaan

Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt

Hasnaa Abdelrhem

Faculty of Medicine, Benghazi University, Benghazi, Libya

Taher Elmozugi

Faculty of Medicine, Al-Azhar University, New Damietta, Egypt

Mohamed Nasr

Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt

Mostafa Salah-Eldin

Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt

Ahmed Altaweel, Mohammad Bazzazeh & Mohamed Atef Elganainy

Faculty of Medicine, Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt

Mohamed Ezzat & Ahmed Hammour

Department of Community Health Nursing, Alddrab University College, Jazan University, Jazan, 45142, Saudi Arabia

Amira Elhoufey

Department of Community Health Nursing, Faculty of Nursing, Assiut University, Assiut, Egypt

Department of Psychiatry, College of Medicine, Majmaah University, Al Majmaah, Saudi Arabia

Abdulrahman A. Alatram

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Contributions

AE, KS, EFG, IS, HAHA, PGW, TE, MA, HM, MN, MSE, MB, Ahmed M Ali, BAE, Ahmed Altaweel and Abdelrahman Hussein designed the study and analyzed the data. ME, KHM, AAA, and Ahmed Hammour. drafted the manuscript. All authors were involved in the critical analysis of the final version of the manuscript. All authors approved the manuscript as submitted and agreed to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Khaled Saad .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

The present study received approval from Al-Azhar University Ethical Committee (IRB NO. 1022-2023), adhering to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. The study's execution did not need informed consent requirements.

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Elgenidy, A., Gad, E.F., Shabaan, I. et al. Examining the association between autism spectrum disorder and atopic eczema: meta-analysis of current evidence. Pediatr Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-024-03456-1

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Received : 21 November 2023

Revised : 03 July 2024

Accepted : 18 July 2024

Published : 11 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-024-03456-1

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