economics case studies market demand and supply case study #2

Pardon Our Interruption

As you were browsing something about your browser made us think you were a bot. There are a few reasons this might happen:

• You've disabled JavaScript in your web browser.
• You're a power user moving through this website with super-human speed.
• You've disabled cookies in your web browser.
• A third-party browser plugin, such as Ghostery or NoScript, is preventing JavaScript from running. Additional information is available in this support article .

To regain access, please make sure that cookies and JavaScript are enabled before reloading the page.

Want to create or adapt books like this? Learn more about how Pressbooks supports open publishing practices.

Note that the Economics 103 Case Studies are meant to supplement the course material by giving you experience applying Economic concepts to real world examples. While they are beyond the level you will be tested on, they are useful for students who want a stronger grasp of the concepts and their applications.

Note that this case study is difficult if you do not print the diagrams, or reproduce them on graph paper. If you are unable to print, we recommend reviewing the solutions to ensure you understand the general lessons presented.

In 2016 rental vacancy rates dropped to as low as 0.6% in Greater Victoria. When compared to the national average of 3.3% it is clear why many media channels and individuals were calling it a ‘housing crisis’. Students were especially hit hard by these low vacancies, with some international students at Camoson college having to return home when they couldn’t find a place to stay. Using our competitive market model, let’s examine some of the factors that played into this crisis and policies that could be used to fix it.

Read more about the Victoria Housing crisis.

Below is a representation of the Victoria Housing Market.

1. Label Figure CS3 a. with the Equilibrium price and quantity, and label supply and demand curves as either renters or landlords.

If supply is equal to demand there should be no vacancy, but we know that a 0% vacancy rate would be an extremely difficult market for renters.

2. Explain why a housing market at equilibrium could still have a vacancy rate of 4%.

One factor that has been blamed for the housing crisis is Airbnb. Airbnb describes itself as  an online marketplace and hospitality service, enabling people to list or rent short-term lodging including vacation rentals, apartment rentals, homestays, hostel beds, or hotel rooms, with the cost of lodging set by the property owner. City councillors have targeted these short term rentals, saying that many landlords have opted to Airbnb their home, rather than rent out longer term. The growth of Airbnb in Vancouver has been shown below.

3. Assume 3000 landlords decide to switch from renting to Airbnb, show the impact of the changes on Figure CS3 b. Label the new equilibrium price and quantity.

Note that Airbnb has been adamant that short-term rentals have had a neglible impact on the housing market, citing that in Vancouver only 320 hosts rent out thier properties often enough to make more money that long term rentals. That represents only 0.11% of the total housing units. In Victoria, that would mean only 25 units are affected by short-term rentals.

Tom Davidoff , a  University of B.C. business professor, said t he general public frequently looks at the fact that Airbnb is popular in expensive neighbourhoods and concludes that it is Airbnb that drives up rents there. But, he said, those neighbourhoods were expensive anyway and the impact of Airbnb taking a certain slice of the available stock is minimal.

Read more about Airbnb’s supposed impact on the market.

Another factor that has had an impact on the rental market is the inability of many young Canadians to buy homes. Not only have house prices skyrocketed, but more are burdened by student loans out of university. It is estimated that it takes 3 times longer (15 years) to save enough to have a 20% downpayment on a house than it did in 1976. This reduction in Canadians mortgaging a home has caused an increasing amount to enter the market.

Read more about the increasing squeeze on millennials.

4. Assume 9000 new renters enter the market instead of mortgaging homes, show the impact of the changes on Figure CS3 b.  Explain the impact of both the shock from Airbnb and the shock from less housing buyers on equilibrium price and quantity. Do the shocks work together or oppose one another?

In the housing market, prices are slow to adjust, landlords cannot simply raise prices immediately under the Residential Tenancy Act. Landlords can only raise prices when negotiating a new contract. This causes many unjustified evictions from landlords as they want to charge the new equilibrium price. In the short-term, prices stay relatively the same causing shortages or surplus.

5. Assume price remains at the original equilibrium , calculate the magnitude of the shortage or surplus of housing that results. Explain the impact this shortage will have the behaviour of landlords.

The British Columbia government unveiled a $500-million affordable-housing plan targeted at communities that have struggled with a shortage of low-cost housing.  Premier Christy Clark announced her government’s commitment to fund 68 new projects to help address the crisis

Read more about the governments response to the housing crisis.

6. Assume the government wants to bring price back to it’s original level, if it costs $50,000 to increase the number of rental units by one, how much will this cost the government?

Groups have criticized the government response, saying that they have ignored many other avenues that could more easily increase the supply of affordable housing.

7. Read the Executive Summary of the Alliance of BC Students White Paper on Student Housing.

What is the ABCS proposing that could help decrease price in the market? How would this affect supply and/or demand?

In this case study we have shown how microeconomic concepts of supply and demand can be used to understand current events in the news. Do you have a story you think would make a good case study? Contact [email protected] to propose your story.

Principles of Microeconomics Copyright © 2017 by University of Victoria is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Share This Book

myCBSEguide

• Class 12 Economics Case...

Class 12 Economics Case Study Questions

Table of Contents

myCBSEguide App

Download the app to get CBSE Sample Papers 2023-24, NCERT Solutions (Revised), Most Important Questions, Previous Year Question Bank, Mock Tests, and Detailed Notes.

In this article, we will discuss how to download CBSE class 12 Economics Case Study Questions from the myCBSEguide App and our Student Dashboard for free. For the students appearing for class 12 board exams from the commerce/ humanities stream, Economics is a very lucrative and important subject. It is a very high-scoring subject that aids the students to increase their percentile and excel in academics.

The exam is divided into 2 parts:

• Macro Economics
• Indian Economics Development

12 Economics Case Study Questions

CBSE introduced case-based questions for class 12 in the year 2021-22 to enhance critical thinking in students. CBSE introduced a few changes in the question paper pattern to enhance and develop analytical and reasoning skills among students. Sanyam Bharadwaj, controller of examinations, CBSE quoted that the case-based questions would be based on real-life situations encountered by students.

The purpose was to drift from rote learning to competency and situation-based learning. He emphasized the fact that it was the need of the hour to move away from the old system and formulate new policies to enhance the critical reasoning skills of students. Introducing case study questions was a step toward achieving the goals of the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020.

What is a Case Study Question?

As part of these questions, the students would be provided with a comprehensive passage, based on which analytical questions will have to be solved by them. The students will have to read the given passage thoroughly before attempting the questions. In The current examination cycle (2021-22), case-based questions have a weightage of around 20%.

Types of Case Study Questions in Economics

CBSE plans to increase the weightage of such questions in the following years, so as to enhance the intellectual and analytical abilities of the students. Case-based questions are predominantly of 3 types namely:

• Inferential

Local questions

Local questions can be easily solved as the answers are there in the given passage itself.

Global Questions

For Global questions, the students will have to read the passage in depth, analyze it and then solve it.

Inferential questions

Inferential questions are the ones that would require the student to have complete knowledge of the topic and could be answered by application of the concepts. The answers to such questions are tricky and not visible in the given passage, though the passage would highlight the concept on which the questions would be asked by CBSE.

HOTS Questions in Class 12 Economics

Personally, the concept of case-based questions is not new since CBSE has always included questions based on Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTs). Though now we will have an increased percentage of such questions in the question paper.

Advantages of Case-based Questions

Class 12 Economics has two books and CBSE can ask Case study questions from any of them. Students must prepare themselves for both the books. They must practice class 12 Economics case-based questions as much as possible.

Case study questions:

• Enhance the intellectual and analytical abilities of the students.
• Provide a complete and deeper understanding of the subject.
• Inculcate intellectual reasoning and scientific temperamental in students.
• Help students retain knowledge for a longer time.
• Would definitely help to discard the concept of memorizing insanely and cramming without a factual understanding of the content.
• The questions would help to terminate the existing system of education in India that promotes rote learning.

Sample case study questions (Economics) class 12

Here are some case study questions for CBSE class 12 Economics. If you wish to get more case study questions and other related study material, download the myCBSEguide App now. You can also access it through our Student Dashboard.

Case Study 1

Keeping in view the continuing hardships faced by banks in terms of social distancing of staff and consequent strains on reporting requirements, the Reserve Bank of India has extended the relaxation of the minimum daily maintenance of the CRR of 80% for up to September 25, 2020. Currently, CRR is 3% and SLR is 18.50%.

“As announced in the Statement of Development and Regulatory Policies of March 27, 2020, the minimum daily maintenance of CRR was reduced from 90% of the prescribed CRR to 80% effective the fortnight beginning March 28, 2020 till June 26, 2020, that has now been extended up to September 25, 2020,” said the RBI.

Q.1 The full forms of CRR and SLR are:

• Current Reserve Ratio and Statutory Legal Reserves
• Cash Reserve Ratio and Statutory Legal Reserves
• Current Required Ratio and Statutory Legal Reserves
• Cash Reserve Ratio and Statutory Liquidity Ratio (ans)

Q.2 What will be the value of the money multiplier?

• None of these

Q.3 SLR implies:

• a) Certain percentage of the total banks’ deposits has to be kept in the current account with RBI
• b) Certain percentage of net total demand and time deposits have to be kept by the bank themselves (ans)
• c) Certain percentage of net demand deposits has to be kept by the banks with RBI
• d) None of the above

Q.4 Decrease in CRR will lead to __.

• a) fall in aggregate demand in the economy
• b) rise in aggregate demand in the economy (ans)
• c) no change in aggregate demand in the economy
• d) fall in the general price level in the economy

Case Study 2

An important lesson that the COVID-19 pandemic has taught the policymakers in India is to provide greater impetus to sectors that make better allocation of resources and reduce income inequalities. COVID-19 has also taught a lesson that in crisis the population returns to rely on the farm sector. India has a large arable land, but the farm sector has its own structural problems. However, directly or indirectly, 50 percent of the households still depend on the farm sector. Greater support to MSMEs, higher public expenditure on health and education and making the labour force a formal employee in the economy are some of the milestones that the nation has to achieve.

One of the imminent reforms to be done in the country is labour reforms. Labour laws are outmoded in India, and some of these date back to the last century.

India’s complex labour laws have been blamed for keeping manufacturing businesses small and hindering job creation. Industry hires labour informally because of complex laws and that is responsible for low wages.

• Which types of structural problems are faced by the agricultural sector?
• “It is necessary to create employment in the formal sector rather than in the informal sector.’’ Defend or refute the given statement with valid argument.
• Hired labour comes in …………………. (Informal organisation / formal organisation)
• What do you mean by MSMEs?

Case Study 3

People spend to acquire information relating to the labour market and other markets like education and health. This information is necessary to make decisions w.r.t investment in human capital and its efficient utilization. Thus, expenditure incurred for acquiring information relating to the labour market and other markets is also a source of human capital formation.

Q1. Which of the following is the source of human capital formation in India?

• Acquiring information
• All of these (ans)

Q2. Education provides

• Private benefit
• Social benefit
• Both 1) and 2) (ans)

Q3. __ persons contribute more to the growth of an economy.

Q4. Training given by a company to its employees is generally__________

• Investment (ans)
• Social wastage
• Both 1) and 2)

Tips to Solve Case Study Questions in Economics

Let’s understand how you can solve case study questions in class 12 Economics. The two books are Macroeconomics and Indian Economic Development.

• Read the passage thoroughly
• Can follow a reversal pattern, especially macroeconomics questions, i.e. read questions first and then look for the answers in the passage.
• In case the question asked is about Indian Economic Development, read the passage very carefully as most of the answers would be hidden in the passage itself.
• Macro Economics questions will be more application-based and would test your conceptual clarity.
• Answer briefly and precisely.

Important Chapters – Economics Case Study Questions

Following are some of the very important topics that need to be prepared very thoroughly under CBSE class 12 Economics. We expect that CBSE will certainly ask case-based questions from these chapters.

• National income and its aggregates
• Government budget
• Current challenges faced by the Indian economy

“Stop waiting for tomorrow, Start now”

Test Generator

Create question paper PDF and online tests with your own name & logo in minutes.

Question Bank, Mock Tests, Exam Papers, NCERT Solutions, Sample Papers, Notes

Related Posts

• Competency Based Learning in CBSE Schools
• Class 11 Physical Education Case Study Questions
• Class 11 Sociology Case Study Questions
• Class 12 Applied Mathematics Case Study Questions
• Class 11 Applied Mathematics Case Study Questions
• Class 11 Mathematics Case Study Questions
• Class 11 Biology Case Study Questions
• Class 12 Physical Education Case Study Questions

3 thoughts on “Class 12 Economics Case Study Questions”

thanks for your information, dont forget to visit airlangga university website https://www.unair.ac.id/mahasiswa-unair-dan-y20-indonesia-diskusikan-isu-resesi-ekonomi/

thank you for Economics MCQs

https://mcqquestions.net/economics

Leave a Comment

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Economics Case Study - Supply and Demand (Worksheet and Article)

Also included in

Description

Economics Case Study: Supply and Demand - Food Delivery during the Pandemic and Beyond. Students will explore the dynamics of supply and demand by looking at food delivery services markets.

Develop students' critical thinking skills through case studies where they explore current events or hypothetical scenarios and apply economic theory. Comes with Case Study Worksheet and Current Events article. The worksheet includes brainstorming, research, and analysis questions. Articles can be easily swapped for any other current event and worksheet can be edited. This can be done as an individual or group activity in class or given as an assignment.

Questions & Answers

Rebecca johannsen.

• We're hiring
• Help & FAQ
• Privacy policy
• Student privacy
• Terms of service
• Tell us what you think

Pardon Our Interruption

As you were browsing something about your browser made us think you were a bot. There are a few reasons this might happen:

• You've disabled JavaScript in your web browser.
• You're a power user moving through this website with super-human speed.
• You've disabled cookies in your web browser.
• A third-party browser plugin, such as Ghostery or NoScript, is preventing JavaScript from running. Additional information is available in this support article .

To regain access, please make sure that cookies and JavaScript are enabled before reloading the page.

Official websites use .gov

Secure .gov websites use HTTPS

2024 Investment Climate Statements: Finland

• EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Finland is a Nordic country situated north of the Baltic states, bordering Russia, Sweden, and Norway. It has excellent transportation links within the Nordic-Baltic region and is a member of the Schengen Zone within which internal border controls have been, for the most part, eliminated. In 2023, the population was around 5.6 million, with over 85 percent residing in cities in the country’s south. Helsinki is the capital and largest city, with a population of around 675,000 in the city and 1.5 million in the metropolitan area.

Finland is a member of the European Union and a part of the Euro area. In 2023, Finland joined NATO and concluded negotiations on a bilateral Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA) with the United States. NATO membership and the DCA should benefit the country economically by increasing regional security and stability; and investments in the defense industry will create jobs and stimulate economic growth and trade. According to Finnish Customs, the United States was Finland’s biggest trading partner for exports in 2023.

As a modern, stable economy, Finland offers a well-developed digital infrastructure with stability, functionality, and a high standard of living. The country has a highly skilled, educated, and multilingual labor force with solid expertise in Information Communications Technology (ICT) and emerging technologies, including microelectronics; quantum and supercomputing; shipbuilding; forestry; and renewable energy. Finland and the United Sates are intensifying cooperation in various fields, including cybersecurity, 6G networks, nuclear, climate, energy, health, biotechnology, space, quantum technology, artificial intelligence, and other emerging technologies through bilateral joint statements and agreements.

In 2021, emerging from the pandemic, Finland’s economy recovered swiftly from recession to moderate growth of 2.6 percent, but growth slowed after Russia’s February 2022 full-scale invasion of Ukraine. The center-right government of Prime Minister Petteri Orpo, formed in June 2023 following parliamentary elections in April 2023, aims to improve weak economic growth through changes to structural policies, including balancing public finances; spurring investment in education, research, and development; accelerating the green transition; and introducing labor market reforms. Labor unions engaged in a series of political strikes aimed at blocking the implementation of the labor market reforms during the spring of 2024.

At the same time, an aging population and a shrinking workforce are the most pressing demographic concerns for economic growth. According to the Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Barometer 2023, over three-quarters of businesses report experiencing a talent shortage, with large foreign-owned companies being most negatively affected. In response, Finland aims to increase work- and education-based immigration through the Talent Boost program, revised for the years 2023-2027. The aim is to attract and improve the employment of international specialists immigrating to Finland.

Finland has set a target of becoming carbon neutral by 2035. To accelerate the green transition, the government is prioritizing investment projects in renewable energy production, industrial electrification, hydrogen economy, carbon capture and storage, and battery production to grant quicker permit processing times. The current pipeline of green investments amounts to approximately 230 billion euros ($247 billion), including projects by domestic and multinational companies. The high share of carbon-free electricity production in the domestic energy mix, which was 94 percent in 2023, facilitates the green transition.

The European Central Bank has tightened monetary policy in the euro area in response to high inflation, which has also slowed economic growth in Finland during the past two years. Industrial production and construction are sensitive to interest rate movements, which have reduced private consumption, investment, and the demand for housing in Finland. The Bank of Finland’s interim forecast indicates Gross Domestic Product (GDP) will decrease by 0.5 percent in 2024. Economists predict the economy will bounce back towards the end of the year, and GDP will grow by 1.7 percent in 2025. Inflation is projected to decline to below one percent during 2024, improving employees’ actual earnings and consumers’ purchasing power.

Russia’s war against Ukraine has impacted Finland’s economic activity and inflation through higher energy and commodity prices, the disruption of international commerce, and weaker confidence in the economy. Finnish Customs indicates the value of Finland’s exports of goods to Russia and Central Asia amounted to 1.2 billion euros ($1.3 billion) in 2023, a decrease of 50.5 percent compared to 2022. The overall economic effects of the war on the private sector have remained relatively small as companies have replaced Russian trade with other markets.

1. Openness To, and Restrictions Upon, Foreign Investment

• Policies Towards Foreign Direct Investment

The Finnis government is open to foreign investment. As an EU member state, Finland is committed to the free movement of goods, capital, persons, and certain services. Companies benefit from trade arrangements through EU and World Trade Organization (WTO) membership, and the protection offered by Finland’s bilateral investment treaties with sixty-three countries.

Private ownership and the participation of foreign companies or individuals are unrestricted, and the government promotes trade and foreign direct investment. Business Finland helps foreign investors set up businesses and provides free services ranging from data collection and matchmaking to location management. The organization offers funding for research and development work carried out by companies, research organizations, and public sector service providers in Finland: https://www.businessfinland.com/  

• Limits on Foreign Control and Right to Private Ownership and Establishment

The Act on Monitoring Foreign Corporate Acquisitions (172/2012) governs foreign investments in Finland. The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment monitors and confirms foreign corporate acquisitions and decides whether an acquisition conflicts with securing national defense and safeguarding public order and security. If the ministry finds a critical national interest jeopardized, it must refer the matter to the Council of State, which may refuse to approve the acquisition. For more information: https://tem.fi/en/acquisitions  

In the non-military sector, Finnish companies considered critical for securing vital functions are subject to screening, which applies to foreign owners residing or domiciled outside the EU or the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment provides instructions for preparing the application/notification. The application and statement must also be accompanied by a form containing specific information required by EU regulation.

For defense acquisitions, monitoring applies to all foreign owners, who must apply for prior approval. “Defense” includes all entities that supply or have supplied goods or services to the Finnish Ministry of Defense, the Finnish Defense Forces, and the Finnish Border Guard, as well as entities dealing in dual-use goods.

Finland requires non-EU/European Economic Area (EEA) foreign individuals or entities to receive Defense Ministry permission before they purchase real estate. Companies registered in Finland with decision-making bodies of at least one-tenth non-EU/EEA origin must seek a permit. More information is available here: https://www.defmin.fi/en/licences_and_services/authorisation_to_non-eu_and_non-eea_buyers_to_buy_real_estate#a6591279  

In 2022, the European Commission published guidance for EU member states on assessing and preventing threats to EU security and public order from Russian and Belarusian investments. The direction highlights the increased risk from investments subject to Russian or Belarusian government influence in the context of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and calls for close cooperation between authorities involved in investment screening and those responsible for enforcing sanctions.

• Other Investment Policy Reviews

Finland is considered one of the most open economies in the OECD area with a stable economy and society, strong institutions, and low corruption that attracts foreign investors. Knowledge and innovation capacity are among the most critical factors bringing foreign firms to the Finnish economy, and salaries for high-skilled workers are considered relatively competitive compared to other Nordic states.

In 2021, the OECD launched the Impact of Regulation on International Investment in Finland report to analyze FDI flows toward Finland and other Nordic-Baltic countries and discuss the benefits of foreign investment for the Finnish economy. The OECD noted that several challenges may prevent Finland from exploiting its full potential as a destination for FDI.

The OECD recommended reviewing and streamlining inefficient and burdensome policies, diminishing red tape, and fostering competition to encourage new international investment and enhance the economic performance of existing players. Complex administrative procedures to recruit foreign talent and stringent labor market conditions affect growth prospects. Further policy responses that help businesses deal with skill shortages are essential to ensure attractiveness as an investment location. More information is available here: https://www.oecd.or g/publications/the-impact-of-regulation-on-international-investment-in-finland-b1bf8bee-en.htm  

Over the past three years, Finland has not undergone an investment policy review by the WTO or the United Nations Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD).

• Business Facilitation

All businesses in Finland must be publicly registered at the Finnish Trade Register. The website is: https://www.prh.fi/en/kaupparekisteri.html .

The Business Information System (BIS) is an online service enabling investors to start a business or organization, report changes, close down a business, or conduct searches: https://www.prh.fi/en/kaupparekisteri/rekisterointipalvelut/ytj.html  

All businesses must also enter the VAT, Prepayment, and Employer Registers of Tax Administration. Instructions for registering a company can be found at this website: https://www.vero.fi/en/businesses-and-corporations/business-operations/tax-administrations-registers–business/  

Entrepreneurs can apply for a residence permit in Finland. Before a permit can be issued, entrepreneurs usually need to enter their business in the Trade Register maintained by the Finnish Patent and Registration Office. https://migri.fi/en/entrepreneur  

In 2022, Finland introduced a long-term “D” visa for students, researchers, persons in managerial positions in companies, and their family members to increase the immigration of skilled labor. With a “D” visa, applicants can enter Finland immediately after receiving a favorable decision on the residence permit application, and the “D” visa sticker has been attached to the passport. For more information: https://migri.fi/en/d-visa  

• Outward Investment

International trade and external economic relations are central to Finland’s foreign and security policy. The Ministry for Foreign Affairs prepares and implements Finland’s trade policy within the framework of the EU.

Team Finland is a network of public sector bodies dedicated to helping Finnish companies grow and be successful in their dealings abroad. It also promotes the country’s image and attracts foreign investments and experts to Finland. The network offers tailor-made service packages for companies’ internationalization needs based on the services provided by the network actors. Service packages typically combine services provided by the Center for Economic Development, Transport and the Environment, Business Finland, Finnvera, and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. https://www.team-finland.fi/en/network-services-for-companies  

Business Finland is a public-sector operator and part of the Team Finland network. It helps Finnish Small- and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs) go international, encourages foreign direct investment in Finland, and promotes tourism. The organization focuses on agricultural technology, clean technology, connectivity, e-commerce, education, information and communication technology, digitalization, mining, and mobility. While many of Business Finland’s programs are export-oriented, they also seek to offer business and network opportunities within Finland that are not necessarily focused on exports. The organization employs 760 specialists at 40 foreign locations and 16 offices in Finland. https://www.businessfinland.fi/en/for-finnish-customers/home  

The government generally allows domestic investors to invest abroad, with some exceptions. The defense ministry approves arms exports for military use, the National Police Board grants permission to export civilian weapons, and the foreign ministry oversees exports of dual-use products.

• 2. Bilateral Investment and Taxation Treaties

Finland has 55 Bilateral Investment Treaties in force but does not share a BIT or Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States. As an EU member state, Finland is a signatory to any treaty or agreement signed by the EU, including free trade agreements. A complete list of Finland’s investment agreements can be found at: https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/countries/71/finland  

Finland and the United States signed a convention to avoid double taxation and prevent fiscal evasion concerning taxes on income and capital (TIAS 12101) that entered into force in 1990. In 2014, the two countries signed an intergovernmental agreement to implement the U.S. Foreign Account Tax Compliance Act (FATCA), which fights tax evasion and fraud. For more information: https://www.vero.fi/en/businesses-and-corporations/business-operations/financial-sector/fatca-crs-and-dac2/general-information/   https://home.treasury.gov/system/files/131/FATCA-Agreement-Finland-3-5-2014.pdf

Finland is a member of the OECD Inclusive Framework on Base Erosion and Profit Shifting and a party to the two-pillar plan to address the tax challenges arising from the digitalization of the economy. For a list of Finland’s bilateral tax agreements, see: https://www.vero.fi/en/detailed-guidance/guidance/49062/tax_treatie/  

3. Legal Regime

• Transparency of the Regulatory System

In Finland, competition policy aims to create and maintain an environment where enterprises have a level playing field and an opportunity to succeed due to their expertise. The Competition Act (948/2011) is the base for the national competition policy, seeking to ensure sound and effective economic competition. The Finnish Competition and Consumer Authority is responsible for applying the legislation. For more information: https://www.kkv.fi/en/competition-affairs/competition-act/  

Finland is subject to accounting, auditing, and financial reporting requirements established through EU regulations and directives as transposed into national laws and regulations. Finland has fully aligned its legal framework with the EU acquis communitaire related to accounting and auditing. For more information: https://www.ifac.org/about-ifac/membership/profile/finland#:~:text=In%20Finland%2C%20the%20Accounting%20Act,European%20Commission%20(EC)%20Regulations  

Finnish law does not require institutional investors and financial intermediaries to consider Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) factors when making investment decisions. Most institutional investors and financial intermediaries have signed the UN Principles for Responsible Investment and also consider sustainable development goals in their investment decisions. However, the Finnish Corporate Governance Code considers certain ESG factors in its recommendations, such as the composition of the company’s board of directors concerning gender. The Corporate Governance Code applies to all companies listed on Nasdaq Helsinki. https://cgfinland.fi/en/corporate-governance-code/  

In September 2021, the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment released a Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) finance roadmap, called the “Finnish Roadmap for Financing a Decade of SDG Action 2021.” The roadmap aims to support Finnish stakeholders with a goal of increasing financing for solutions to reach the SDGs in Finland and globally. More information can be found here: https://tem.fi/en/developing-finlands-sustainable-finance-ecosystems  

The Act on the Openness of Public Documents establishes the openness of all records in the possession of officials of the state, municipalities, registered religious communities, and corporations that perform legally mandated public duties, such as pension funds and public utilities. Exceptions can only be made by law or by an executive order for reasons such as national security. https://oikeusministerio.fi/en/act-on-the-openness-of-government-activities  

The Ministry of Justice maintains an online Finlex Data Bank database of up-to-date legislative and judicial information. Most of the databases are only available in Finnish and Swedish, but some translations of Finnish acts and decrees are also available in English and other languages. Case law in the legal literature database is also available in English. https://finlex.fi/en/  

The Ministry of Justice provides an online service to request and give statements electronically in connection with draft regulations, legislation, and other government documents. Public administration authorities can publish draft bills and regulations for public consultation. The service is available in Finnish and Swedish: https://www.lausuntopalvelu.fi/FI  

The Parliamentary Ombudsman exercises oversight to ensure that those who perform public tasks comply with the law and fulfill their responsibilities. The Ombudsman investigates complaints, conducts on-site inspections, and makes statements on legislative proposals. The scope of the Ombudsman’s oversight includes courts, authorities, and public servants, as well as other persons and organizations that perform public tasks. The Ombudsman submits an annual report to Parliament, including observations on the state of the administration of justice and any shortcomings in legislation. https://www.oikeusasiamies.fi/en/eoa  

The status of Finland’s public finances is available at Statistics Finland, Finland’s official statistics agency: https://www.stat.fi/en/topic/national-economy  

The status of Finland’s national debt is available at the State Treasury: https://www.treasuryfinland.fi/statistics/statistics-on-central-government-debt/  

• International Regulatory Considerations

Finland follows EU internal market practices, which define Finland’s trade relations both inside the EU and with non-EU countries. As a member of the WTO, Finland reports under the Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT Agreement) all proposed technical regulations that could affect trade with other member countries. In 2021, Finland submitted two notifications of technical regulations and conformity assessment procedures to the WTO. It has submitted 105 notifications since 1995. Finland is a signatory to the WTO Trade Facilitation Agreement (TFA), which entered into force on February 22, 2017.

• Legal System and Judicial Independence

Finland has a civil law system. European Community (EC) law is directly applicable in Finland and takes precedence over national legislation. The Market Court is a special court for rulings in commercial law, competition, and public procurement cases, and may issue injunctions and penalties against the illegal restriction of competition. It also governs mergers and acquisitions, may overturn public procurement decisions, and require compensatory payments. More information about the court is available here: https://oikeus.fi/tuomioistuimet/en/index.html  

Finland has been a party to the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards since 1962. The provisions of the convention have been included in the Arbitration Act (957/1992).

The Oikeus.fi website https://oikeus.fi/en/index.html   contains information about the Finnish judicial system and links to the websites of the independent courts, the public legal aid and guardianship districts, the National Prosecution Authority, the National Enforcement Authority Finland, and the Criminal Sanctions Agency.

• Laws and Regulations on Foreign Direct Investment

The Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment monitors foreign corporate acquisitions and is a national contact point for the EU screening regulation. The purpose of the Act on the Monitoring of Foreign Corporate Acquisitions in Finland (127/2012) (hereafter the Act) is to monitor and, if vital national interests so require, to restrict the transfer of influence to foreigners and foreign organizations and foundations. More information about the Act is available here: ihttps://tem.fi/en/acquisitions.

Under the Act, corporate acquisition refers to activities in which a foreign owner gains control of at least one-tenth, at least one-third, or at least one-half of the aggregate number of votes conferred by all shares in the company or a holding that otherwise corresponds to decision-making authority in a limited liability company or other monitored entity. For more information: https://tem.fi/documents/1410877/0/Kysymyksi%C3%A4+ja+vastauksia_en.pdf/0ef51799-6c84-9251-6cfe-188bc91c6f83/Kysymyksi%C3%A4+ja+vastauksia_en.pdf?t=1636548655250  

There is no primary or “one-stop-shop” website that provides all relevant laws, rules, procedures, and reporting requirements for investors. A non-European Economic Area (EEA) resident (persons or companies) operating in Finland must obtain a license or a notification when starting a business in a regulated industry. For more information: https://tem.fi/en/regulation-of-business-operations  

• Competition and Antitrust Laws

The Finnish Competition and Consumer Authority (FCCA) protects competition by intervening in cases regarding restrictive practices, such as cartels and abuse of dominant position, and violations of the Competition Act and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). Investigations occur both on the FCCA’s initiative and based on complaints. Where necessary, the FCCA makes proposals to the Market Court regarding penalties.

The FCCA requires notification on mergers and acquisitions that exceed certain turnover thresholds. The FCCA will intervene in the transaction if it deems it to prevent effective competition in Finland. The FCCA would investigate transactions where the parties’ combined turnover generated in Finland exceeds EUR 100 million and the total turnover generated in Finland of at least two parties exceeds EUR 10 million per party.

In international competition matters, the FCCA’s key stakeholders are the European Commission (DG Competition), the OECD Competition Committee, the Nordic competition authorities, and the International Competition Network (ICN). FCCA rulings and decisions can be found in the archive in Finnish. More information is available at: https://www.kkv.fi/en/facts-and-advice/competition-affairs/

• Expropriation and Compensation

Finnish law protects private property rights. Citizen property is protected by the constitution, which includes basic provisions in the event of expropriation. Private property is only expropriated for public purposes (eminent domain), in a non-discriminatory manner, with reasonable compensation, and in accordance with established international law.

Expropriation is usually based on a permit given by the government or on a confirmed plan and is performed by the District Survey Office. An expropriation permit granted by the government may be appealed to the Supreme Administrative Court. Compensation is awarded at full market price but may exclude the rise in value due only to planning decisions.

Besides normal expropriation according to the Expropriation Act, a municipality or the state has the right to expropriate land for planning purposes. Expropriation is mainly for acquiring land for common needs, such as street areas, parks, and civic buildings. The method is rarely used: less than one percent of land acquired by the municipalities is expropriated. Credendo Group ranks Finland’s expropriation risk as low (1), on a scale from 1 to 7: https://credendo.com/en/country-risk/finland  

Dispute Settlement

• ICSID Convention and New York Convention

In 1969, Finland became a member state of the World Bank-based International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID; Washington Convention). Finland is a signatory to the Convention of the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards (1958 New York Convention).

• Investor-State Dispute Settlement

The Finnish Arbitration Act (967/1992) applies to domestic and international arbitration without distinction. Sections 1 to 50 apply to arbitration in Finland, and Sections 51 to 55 apply to arbitration agreements providing for arbitration abroad and the recognition and enforcement of foreign arbitral awards in Finland. Of 229 parties in 2021, the majority (208) were from Finland.

In 2021, a Chinese investor brought the first known investment treaty claim against Finland. He was detained and had his business center raided and shut down on suspicion it was facilitating illegal immigration. The proceedings were ultimately settled between Finland and the claimant. For more information: https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-dispute-settlement/cases/1192/wang-v-finland  

• International Commercial Arbitration and Foreign Courts

Finland has a long tradition of institutional arbitration, and its legal framework dates to 1928. Today, arbitration procedures are governed by the 1992 Arbitration Act (as amended), which largely mirrors the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration of 1985 (with amendments, as adopted in 2006). However, the UNCITRAL Model law has yet to be incorporated into Finnish law.

Finland’s Act on Mediation in Civil Disputes and Certification of Settlements by Courts (394/2011) aims to facilitate alternative dispute resolution (ADR) and promote amicable settlements by encouraging mediation and applies to settlements concluded in other EU member states: https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2011/en20110394.pdf

In June 2016, the Finland Arbitration Institute of the Chamber of Commerce (FAI) launched its Mediation Rules under which FAI will administer mediation: https://arbitration.fi/mediation/mediation_rules/  

Any dispute in a civil or commercial matter, international or domestic, which can be settled by agreement may be referred to arbitration. Arbitration is frequently used to resolve commercial disputes and is usually faster than court proceedings. An arbitration award is final and binding. FAI promotes the settlement of disputes through arbitration, commonly using the “FAI Arbitration/Expedited Arbitration Rules,” which were updated in 2020: https://arbitration.fi/en/arbitration/rules-and-guidelines/  

The Finland Arbitration Institute (FAI) appoints arbitrators both to domestic and international arbitration proceedings and administers domestic and international arbitrations governed by its rules. It also appoints arbitrators in ad hoc cases when the arbitration agreement provides and acts as appointing authority under the UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules. The Finnish Arbitration Act (967/1992) states that foreign nationals can act as arbitrators. For more information: https://arbitration.fi/en/arbitration/  

Finland signed the UN Convention on Transparency in Treaty-based Investor-State Arbitration (“Mauritius Convention”) in March 2015. Under these rules, all documents and hearings are open to the public, interested parties may submit statements, and protection for confidential information has been strengthened.

• Bankruptcy Regulations

The Bankruptcy Act (120/2004) governs bankruptcy proceedings aimed at liquidating the assets of an insolvent company to satisfy its creditors and dissolve the company. The act was amended in 2019 to simplify, digitize, and speed up bankruptcy proceedings. The amended act allows administrators to send notices and invitations to creditor addresses registered in the Trade Register. This improves accessibility for foreign companies that have established a branch in Finland. For more information: https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2004/en20040120.pdf

The Bankruptcy Ombudsman is an independent authority that supervises the administration of bankruptcy estates in Finland . The Office of Bankruptcy Ombudsman is a member of the International Association of Insolvency Regulators (IAIR). For more information: https://www.konkurssiasiamies.fi/en/index.html  

The Reorganization of Enterprises Act (1993/47) establishes a legal framework for reorganization with the aim to provide an alternative to bankruptcy proceedings. The act excludes credit and insurance institutions and certain other financial institutions. Recognition of restructuring or insolvency processes initiated outside of the EU requires an exequatur from a Finnish court. https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/kaannokset/1993/en19930047  

4. Industrial Policies

• Investment Incentives

Foreign-owned companies in Finland are eligible for government and EU incentives on an equal footing with Finnish-owned businesses. Companies receive support through grants, loans, tax benefits, equity participation, guarantees, and employee training.

The income tax rate for limited liability companies and other corporate entities is 20 percent. According to the 2023 International Tax Competitiveness Index, the Finnish tax system is the 19th best tax code among 38 OECD countries. For more information: https://www.vero.fi/en/businesses-and-corporations/business-operations/foreign-business-in-finland/taxation-in-finland/   and https://taxfoundation.org/location/finland/  

Startups, SMEs, and large companies can benefit from Business Finland’s incentives: https://www.businessfinland.fi/en/do-business-with-finland/invest-in-finland/business-environment/incentives/incentives-short   and https://www.businessfinland.fi/48d8e1/globalassets/julkaisut/invest-in-finland/business-guides-and-fact-sheets/iif_factsheet_incentives.pdf

Centers for Economic Development, Transport, and the Environment (ELY Centers) support the establishment, growth, and development of SMEs by providing advisory, training, and expert services, and by granting funding for investment and development projects. Large companies may also qualify for assistance or funding if they significantly increase employment in their region of operation. Startups can receive subsidies to establish and expand business operations during their first 24 months. For more information: http://www.ely-keskus.fi/en/web/ely-en/business-and-industry;jsessionid=0B09A1B237B74FAC485AAD7C8E068DBF  

As part of its Sustainable Growth Program, which is funded by the EU Recovery Plan, Finland is promoting energy investments and energy infrastructure projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Finland and support Finland’s target to be carbon neutral by 2035. For more information: https://tem.fi/en/-/energy-investments-of-finland-s-sustainable-growth-programme-promote-the-green-transition   and https://www.businessfinland.fi/en/for-finnish-customers/services/funding/energy-aid  

Government aid is available for the implementation of energy audits, investments that conserve energy, and investments related to the use of renewable energy, as well as for European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESCO) projects. For more information: https://www.motiva.fi/en/solutions/policy_instruments/energy_aid  

Finnvera offers loans, domestic guarantees, export credit guarantees, and other services associated with financing exports: https://www.finnvera.fi/eng  

• Foreign Trade Zones/Free Ports/Trade Facilitation

The EU Customs Code (UCC), which entered into force on May 1, 2016, harmonized free trade zone area regulations in the EU.

The Åland Islands are one of the unique fiscal territories within Finland and the EU. The tax border separates the Åland Islands from the VAT and excise territory of the EU. VAT and excise are levied on goods imported across the tax border, but no customs duty is levied. In tax border trade, goods can be sold with a tax-free invoice in accordance with the detailed taxation instructions of the Finnish Tax Administration. Trade between Åland and non-EU countries is subject to the same regulations and instructions as trade between the EU and third countries. For more information: https://tulli.fi/en/businesses/aland-businesses  

• Performance and Data Localization Requirements

As an EU member state, Finland adheres to the General Data Protection Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2016/679) (GDPR), an EU law that entered into force in 2016, and, following a two-year transition period, became law on May 25, 2018, without requiring EU member states to change national laws.

Finland’s Data Protection Act (1050/2018) supplements the GDPR. The Data Protection Ombudsman is a national supervisory authority that supervises compliance with data protection legislation. The office has approximately 45 specialists, including the Data Protection Ombudsman and two Deputy Data Protection Ombudsmen. For more information: https://tietosuoja.fi/en/home   and https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2018/en20181050.pdf

5. Protection of Property Rights

• Real Property

The Finnish legal system protects and enforces property rights and secured interests in property, both movable and real. Mortgages exist in Finland and can be applied to both owned and rented real estate. In Finland, real property formation, development, land consolidation, cadastral or boundary mapping, registration of real properties, ownership and legal rights, real property valuation, and taxation are all combined within one basic cadastral system (i.e. real estate register) maintained by the National Land Survey: https://www.maanmittauslaitos.fi/en/apartments-and-real-property  

Finland is not a contracting party to the 2001 Cape Town Convention on Mobile Equipment (CTC) and the Protocol on Matters Specific to Aircraft Equipment (Aircraft Protocol).

• Intellectual Property Rights

Finland is not included on USTR’s Special 301 Report or Notorious Markets List..

USTR’s 2022 Notorious Markets List mentions Finland for reportedly hosting a Flokinet server associated with infringing activity and reportedly hosting an FLVTO web server, a platform that allows the user to download music from YouTube and convert it to an mp3.

The Finnish legal system protects intellectual property rights (IPR), and Finland adheres to numerous international agreements. Finland ranked first among 129 countries in the Property Rights Alliance 2023 International Property Rights Index (IPRI), which concentrates on a country’s legal and political environment, physical property rights, and IPR: https://www.internationalpropertyrightsindex.org/  

IPR enforcement in Finland is based on EU Regulation 608/2013. For more information, see: https://taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu/customs-4/prohibitions-and-restrictions/counterfeit-piracy-and-other-ipr-violations_en  

IPR must be registered in Finland to be enforced under local laws, such as the Copyright Act, the Registered Designs Act, and the Patents Act. Patent rights in Finland are consistent with international standards, and a granted patent is valid for 20 years. The Finnish Patent and Registration Office (PRH) website contains unofficial translations in English of the Patents Act, Patents Decree, and Patent Regulation. For more information: https://www.prh.fi/en/index.html  

The Finnish Trademarks Act was enacted in May 2019 to implement the revised EU Trademark Directive. The act includes provisions concerning collective marks and control marks. It includes amendments to related legislation such as the Finnish Company Names Act, the Criminal Code, and relevant procedural acts. Trademark applicants or proprietors not domiciled in Finland must have a representative resident in the European Economic Area. Finland is a party to the Madrid Protocol.

Finnish Customs supervises counterfeit products that are imported to, exported from, and transited via Finland and other products that violate IPR. Custom officers have the authority to seize and destroy counterfeit goods. Customs has intensified the control of counterfeit goods by conducting a risk analysis of postal traffic. The long-term trend indicates a decline in counterfeit goods detected in large-volume shipments: https://www.vero.fi/en/grey-economy-crime/prevention/preventionstatistics/  

Finland is a member of the World International Property Organization (WIPO) and party to a several other treaties, including the Berne Convention, the Paris Convention, the Patent Cooperation Treaty, the WIPO Copyright Treaty, the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty, and the International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations (Rome Convention). Finland is a party to the WTO’s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS).

For additional information about national laws and points of contact at local IP offices, please see WIPO’s country profiles at: https://www.wipo.int/directory/en/details.jsp?country_code=FI  

6. Financial Sector

• Capital Markets and Portfolio Investment

Finland is open to foreign portfolio investment and has an effective regulatory system. Credit is allocated on market terms and made available to foreign investors non-discriminately, and private sector companies have access to various credit instruments. Legal, regulatory, and accounting systems are transparent and consistent with international norms.

The Helsinki Stock Exchange is part of OMX, referred to as NASDAQ OMX Helsinki (OMXH). NASDAQ OMX Helsinki is part of the NASDAQ OMX Nordic division, together with the Stockholm, Copenhagen, Iceland, and Baltic (Tallinn, Riga, and Vilnius) stock exchanges.

Finland accepts the obligations under IMF Article VIII, Sections 2(a), 3, and 4 of the IMF Articles of Agreement. It maintains an exchange system free of restrictions on payments and transfers for current international transactions, except for those measures imposed for security reasons by the Regulations of the Council of the European Union.

• Money and Banking System

Finland has a resilient, digitally advanced, and well-capitalized banking sector characterized by cooperative banking and pan-Nordic groups. Banking is open to foreign competition, and the industry is one of Europe’s most prominent relative to the size of the national economy. Four significant banks (OP Financial Group, Nordea, Municipality Finance, and Danske Bank) dominate the banking sector, holding 80 percent of the market. The Bank of Finland is the national monetary authority and the central bank of Finland: https://www.suomenpankki.fi/en  

The Financial Supervisory Authority (FIN-FSA) supervises Finland’s financial and insurance sectors, including banks, insurance and pension companies, other companies operating in the insurance sector, investment firms, fund management companies, and the Helsinki Stock Exchange: https://www.finanssivalvonta.fi/en/  

In 2023, the financial sector’s capital position remained strong despite the gloomier economic environment. Finland’s banks met the requirements for liquid bank holdings under Basel III standards, which compare a bank’s assets with its capital to see if the bank would withstand a financial crisis. The sector’s operating environment weakened as the Finnish economy slid into a recession. Despite increased credit risks in corporate and household loans, the Finnish banking sector’s non-performing loans and loan losses were still among the lowest in Europe.

Foreign companies and nationals can, in principle, open bank accounts in the same manner as Finnish nationals. However, banks must identify customers, and this may prove more difficult for foreign nationals. In addition to personal and address data, the bank often needs to know the person’s identifier code (i.e. social security number). Several banks require a work permit, a certificate of studies, a letter of recommendation from a trustworthy bank, and details regarding the nature of transactions to be made with the account. All authorized deposit-taking banks are members of the Deposit Guarantee Fund, which guarantees customers’ deposits to a maximum of EUR 100,000 ($109,000) per depositor.

The Act on Virtual Currency Providers (572/2019) entered into force in May 2019. FIN-FSA is the registration authority for virtual currency providers. The primary objective of the act is to introduce virtual currency providers into the scope of anti-money laundering regulation. Only virtual currency providers meeting statutory requirements can carry on their activities in Finland, and only a FIN-FSA registered virtual currency provider may market its currency and services in Finland. The Finnish Tax Administration released guidelines on the taxation of cryptocurrency, available here: https://www.vero.fi/en/detailed-guidance/guidance/48411/taxation-of-virtual-currencies3/  

Foreign Exchange and Remittances

• Foreign Exchange

Finland adopted the Euro as its official currency in January 1999. Finland maintains an exchange system free of restrictions on making payments and transfers for international transactions, except for those measures imposed for security reasons. Currency transfers are protected by Article VII of the IMF Articles of Agreement: http://www.imf.org/External/Pubs/FT/AA/index.htm#art7  

• Remittance Policies

There are no legal obstacles to direct foreign investment in Finnish securities or exchange controls regarding payments into and out of Finland. Banks must identify their customers and report suspected cases of money laundering or the financing of terrorism. Banks and credit institutions must also report single payments or transfers of EUR 15,000 ($16,000) or more. If the origin of funds is suspicious, banks must immediately inform the National Bureau of Investigation. There are no restrictions on current transfers or repatriation of profits. Residents and non-residents may hold foreign exchange accounts. There is no limit on dividend distributions as long as they correspond to a company’s official earnings records. Travelers carrying more than EUR 10,000 ($11,000) must make a declaration upon entering or leaving the EU.

• Sovereign Wealth Funds

Solidium is a holding company fully owned by the Finnish government. It is a minority owner of nationally listed companies operating in clusters significant to the national economy, such as the forest industry. Solidium’s ownership stake of these companies is usually over 10 percent but rarely exceeds 20 percent. According to Solidium’s investment strategy, future investments may include companies that seek to implement green transition strategies or solutions related to the platform economy. Solidium aims to strengthen and stabilize Finnish ownership in the companies and increase the value of their holdings. In 2023, Solidium paid the Finnish government approximately $374 million as a dividend. For more information: https://www.solidium.fi/en/  

7. State-Owned Enterprises

The government of Finland owns directly or through Solidium the shares of 15 listed companies on the Helsinki stock exchange. In general, State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs) are open to competition except where they have a monopoly position, namely in alcohol retail and gambling. SOEs in Finland operate in chemicals, petrochemicals, plastics, and composites; energy and mining; environmental technologies; food processing and packaging; industrial equipment and supplies; marine technology; media and entertainment; metal manufacturing and products; services; and travel. The market value of all state direct shareholdings was approximately $24 billion as of March 2024. For more information, see: https://vnk.fi/en/government-ownership-steering/companies   https://vnk.fi/en/government-ownership-steering/value-of-state-holdings  

The Ownership Steering Department in the Prime Minister’s Office has ownership steering responsibility for Finnish SOEs, and is responsible for Solidium. The State Shareholdings and Ownership Steering Act (1368/2007) and the Act Amending the State Shareholdings and Ownership Steering Act (1315/2016) regulate the administration of state-owned companies. For more information, see: https://www.finlex.fi/en/laki/kaannokset/2007/en20071368   https://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2016/20161315  

Finnish state ownership steering complies with the OECD Principles of Corporate Governance. The Parliamentary Advisory Council in the Prime Minister’s Office serves in an advisory capacity regarding SOE policy; it does not make recommendations regarding any business in which the individual companies are engaged. The government has proposed changing its ownership levels in several companies and increasing the number of companies the Prime Minister’s Office steers. Parliament decides from which companies the state may relinquish its sole ownership (100 percent), its control of ownership (50.1 percent), or minority ownership (33.4 percent of votes). For more information: https://vnk.fi/en/government-ownership-steering/ownership-policy  

Finland opened domestic rail freight to competition in early 2007, and in July 2016, Fenniarail Oy, the first private rail operator on the Finnish market, began operations. In November 2020, Estonian-based Operail, which works in Finland’s rail freight operations, started a subsidiary in Finland as Operail Finland. In 2023, Operail Finland’s share was sold to Nurjminen Logistics. Passenger rail transport services will be opened to competition in stages, starting with local rail services in southern Finland. Based on an agreement between Finnish State Railways (VR) and the Ministry of Transport and Communications, VR has exclusive rights to provide passenger transport rail services in Finland until the end of 2030. For more information, see: https://lvm.fi/en/-/nine-year-contract-between-the-ministry-of-transport-and-communications-and-vr-for-purchasing-rail-transport-services-1643706  

The exclusive right applies to all passenger rail transport in Finland, excluding the commuter train transport services provided by the Helsinki Regional Transport Agency (HSL). In February 2020, HSL put its commuter train transport services out for tender; VR won the tender and will continue to provide passenger rail service for the next ten years. The value of southern Finland commuter train services is $67 million per year, with 200,000 daily passengers.

• Privatization Program

Parliament makes all decisions identifying the companies in which the state may relinquish sole ownership (100 percent of the votes) or control (minimum of 50.1 percent of the votes), while the government decides on the actual sale. The state has privatized companies by selling shares to Finnish and foreign institutional investors through both public offerings and directly to employees. Sales of the state’s direct holdings totaled $2.89 billion (2007 – 2018).

The government issued a new resolution on state-ownership policy in April 2020, seeking to maximize overall social and financial benefits; use corporate assets to promote domestic ownership; and diversify the economy, create innovations, and support sustainable structural change. For more information, visit https://vnk.fi/en/government-ownership-steering  

8. Responsible Business Conduct

Finland has long traditions in compliance with labor, occupational safety, health, and environmental legislation. Finnish companies recognize that their due diligence to comply with laws and regulations is central to responsible business conduct and corporate responsibility. The Finnish Business & Society (FIBS) is the largest corporate responsibility network in the Nordic countries and has more than 300 members: https://www.fibsry.fi/briefly-in-english/  

Finland is committed to implementing the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, and the ILO’s tripartite declaration of principles concerning multinational enterprises and social policy. The government promotes Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) through the Ministry of Employment and the Economy CSR Guidelines. or more information: https://tem.fi/en/key-guidelines-on-csr  

Finland ranks first in the UN’s Sustainable Development Report, which compares 193 UN member states based on 17 sustainability goals. Finland launched a new sustainable development strategy built around the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). More information is available here: https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/profiles/finland  

The Directive of the European Parliament and the Council on the disclosure of non-financial information has been implemented via amendments to the Finnish Accounting Act, requiring affected organizations to report on their CSR. The obligation to report non-financial information and corporate responsibility reports applies to significant public interest entities, i.e., listed companies, credit institutions, and insurance companies with more than 500 employees. In addition, turnover must be greater than $45.4 million, or the balance sheet must exceed more than $22.7 million. For more information: https://tem.fi/en/accounting  

Currently, there are no other mandatory human rights-related due diligence requirements apart from those set out in the Act on the Placing on the Market of Conflict Minerals and Their Ores (1196/2020) (the Conflict Minerals Act), which improved the transparency of supply chains and brought Finland’s conflict minerals regime into line with EU regulations. Businesses importing conflict minerals (tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold) from conflict-affected areas into the EU that exceed certain volume thresholds are subject to due diligence requirements. The Finnish Safety and Chemicals Agency and Finnish Customs are competent authorities in implementing the act. For more information: https://tukes.fi/en/industry/conflict-minerals  

Finland has joined the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), which supports improved governance in resource-rich countries. Finland is not a member of the Voluntary Principles on Security and Human Rights Initiative. The Human Rights Center (HRC), administratively linked to the Office of the Parliamentary Ombudsman, encourages foreign and local enterprises to follow the most important international norms: https://www.humanrightscentre.fi/  

Finland participates in the Montreux Document on pertinent international legal obligations and good practices for states related to private military and security company operations during armed conflict. However, Finland is not a member of ICoCA, the International Code of Conduct for Private Security Service Providers’ Association.

• Additional Resources

Department of State

• Country Reports on Human Rights Practices ;
• Trafficking in Persons Report ;
• Guidance on Implementing the “UN Guiding Principles” for Transactions Linked to Foreign Government End-Users for Products or Services with Surveillance Capabilities
• U.S. National Contact Point for the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises ; and;
• Xinjiang Supply Chain Business Advisory 

Department of the Treasury

• OFAC Recent Actions

Department of Labor

• Findings on the Worst Forms of Child Labor Report ;
• List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor ;
• Sweat & Toil: Child Labor, Forced Labor, and Human Trafficking Around the World and;
• Comply Chain .

Finland participates in international climate negotiations as an EU member state. It is firmly committed to the EU’s joint reduction target under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris Agreement. The core elements of EU climate policy are the EU Emissions Trading System (EU ETS); national targets for sectors excluded from EU ETS (effort sharing); and obligations concerning the Land Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry sector (LULUCF). The EU ETS covers more than 40 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions in the EU and just under half of the greenhouse gas emissions in Finland. For more information, see: https://tem.fi/en/emissions-trading  

The National Climate Act is another fundamental pillar of Finland’s climate policy. The act aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for 2030 (-60 percent), 2040 (-80 percent), and 2050 (-95 percent) compared to 1990 levels. According to the act, Finland must be carbon neutral by 2035. For more information, see: https://ym.fi/en/climate  

Finland reduces carbon emissions by increasing clean energy production, investing in the hydro economy, and augmenting the carbon sequestration of the industrial and land use sectors. Renewables have replaced imported fossil fuels in domestic electricity production. In 2023, the share of carbon-free electricity production was 94 percent. The primary energy sources of electricity production were nuclear power at 41 percent, hydropower at 18.8 percent, wind at 18.1 percent, and biomass at 13.3 percent, while the share of imported electricity was 2.2 percent.

In 2024, the government reserved EUR 14.1 million ($15.3 million) in national energy aid to promote the production of renewable energy, renewable hydrogen and hydrogen-refined fuels, energy saving or more efficient energy production or use, utilization of waste heat, and the transition towards a low-carbon energy system. The government will prioritize investment projects promoting new technology, its commercialization, and the capacity of the electricity system. In addition, REPowerEU aid supports investments in new energy technology and the production and storage of renewable hydrogen, funded by the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility. REPowerEU aims to reduce dependence on Russian fossil fuels by fast forwarding the clean transition and joining forces to achieve a more resilient energy system and a true Energy Union. For more information, see: https://tem.fi/en/-/ministry-of-economic-affairs-and-employment-sets-energy-aid-priorities-for-2024  

The Finnish Climate Fund is a state-owned company that focuses on combating climate change, boosting the low-carbon industry, and promoting digitalization. Companies targeted by the fund typically receive the funding in installments over several years when meeting conditions specified in the financing agreements. For more information, see: https://www.ilmastorahasto.fi/en/  

The National Forest Strategy contains the critical outlines of Finland’s forest policy. For more information, see: https://mmm.fi/en/forests/strategies-and-programmes  

Finland also aims to increase ecological public procurement. Finland’s first National Public Procurement Strategy, launched in September 2020, focuses on developing strategic management and promoting procurement expertise. For more information, see: https://vm.fi/en/-/national-public-procurement-strategy-identifies-concrete-ways-in-which-public-procurement-can-help-achieve-wider-goals-in-society  

On MIT’s Green Future Index 2023, Finland ranked second among 76 leading countries and territories. The index measures progress and commitment towards building a low-carbon future. According to the index, Finland fosters an extensive green tech R&D ecosystem with leading-edge renewables and food tech.

9. Corruption

Corruption in Finland is covered by the criminal code and penalties range from fines to imprisonment of up to four years. The bribery offenses criminalized in the criminal code are electoral bribery, bribery violation, the giving of bribes, the acceptance of a bribe, providing bribes to a Member of Parliament, accepting a bribe as a Member of Parliament, giving of bribes in a business transaction, and accepting a bribe in a business transaction. For more information, see: https://korruptiontorjunta.fi/en/national-legislation  

Finland does not have an authority specifically charged to prevent corruption. Instead, several authorities and agencies contribute to anti-corruption work. The Ministry of Justice coordinates anti-corruption matters, but Finland’s EU anti-corruption contact is the Ministry of the Interior. The National Bureau of Investigation also monitors corruption, while the tax administration has guidelines obliging tax officials to report suspected offenses, including foreign bribery, and the Ministry of Finance has guidelines on hospitality, benefits, and gifts. The Ministry of Justice describes its anti-corruption efforts at https://oikeusministerio.fi/en/anti-corruption-activities.

The EU Directive on non-financial reporting supports action against corruption. Implementation of the EU Directive in Finland led to the amendment of the Accounting Act in December 2016. Current legislation imposes obligations on large companies to report on anti-bribery and anti-corruption action policies.

The Ministry of Justice is responsible for monitoring and developing the Transparency Register legislation. The Transparency Register Guide contains a general description, key concepts, related procedures, and published actors. The guide answers questions such as who is subject to the obligation to provide information to the Transparency Register, what kind of information must be provided to the register and when, and how the Transparency Register is monitored. The guide is available in Finnish, Swedish, and English: https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/handle/10024/164813  

In 2020, the Ministry of Employment and Economy released an anti-corruption guide intended for companies, especially SMEs, to provide them with guidance and support for promoting sound business practices and corruption-free business relations both in Finland and abroad. Large companies must publish corporate responsibility reports. These reports must briefly describe their business model, explain the risks related to their policies, and describe how they manage these risks. The reporting obligation applies to public interest entities with over 500 employees and a turnover of over 40 million euros ($43 million) or an annual balance sheet of over 20 million euros ($22 million). Smaller companies can report voluntarily. The report can be part of yearly reports or reports on corporate social responsibility. For more information: https://tem.fi/en/-/guide-offers-smes-practical-anti-corruption-tips  

Finland has ratified the following anti-corruption conventions: the Convention on Laundering, Search, Seizure, and Confiscation of the Proceeds from Crime; the Council of Europe Civil Law Convention on Corruption; the Criminal Law Convention on Corruption; and the UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime. Finland has become the 32nd country to sign the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) Coalition’s Transparency Pledge, voluntarily committing to a high level of transparency and civil society inclusion in the second cycle of the UNCAC implementation review. Finland is a member of the European Partners against Corruption (EPAC).

Finland is a signatory to the OECD Convention on Anti-Bribery. In October 2020, the OECD working group on bribery said it recognizes Finland’s commitment to combat corruption but is concerned about lack of foreign bribery enforcement. For more information: https://www.oecd.org/daf/anti-bribery/finland-oecdanti-briberyconvention.htm  

• Resources to Report Corruption

Jaakko Christensen Head of Financial Crime Division National Board of Investigation P.O. Box 285, 01310 Vantaa, Finland [email protected]

Jaakko Korhonen Chairperson Transparency Finland [email protected]

• 10. Political and Security Environment

Finland acceded to NATO in April 2023 and signed a bilateral Defense Cooperation Agreement with the United States in December 2023. The Finnish Security and Intelligence Service (SUPO) estimated in the National Security Overview 2023, the most current version released, that Russia’s actions remain the greatest threat to Finland’s national security, with Russia treating Finland as an unfriendly state, and as a target for espionage and malign influence activities. According to SUPO, NATO membership protects Finland from Russia’s measures. SUPO assesses Russia’s use of irregular migration as a way for Russia to indicate its dissatisfaction with Finland’s NATO membership and generally sow the consequences of actions Russia perceives as unfriendly.

SUOP assesses that no significant changes have occurred in the threat of terrorism faced by Finland. The threat of terrorism in Finland remains at level 2, ‘Elevated’, on the four-tier scale. There are probably far-right and radical Islamist operators in Finland with the desire and capacity to carry out violent attacks. Supporters of these ideologies pose the most likely threat, either as individuals or in small groups. Attacks remain unlikely in the short term. .For more information, see: https://supo.fi/en/terrorism-overview  

While instances of political violence in Finland are rare, extremism exists, and anti-immigration and anti-Semitic incidents do occur. The Central Council of Finnish Jewish Communities has noted a rise in anti-Semitism in Finland over the past two decades, with reported instances likely underestimating the prevalence of such cases. Targeted acts of vandalism against the synagogue and property of the Israeli Embassy and random acts of vandalism featuring anti-Semitic language and images have become more common. Hate groups and far-right political parties use anti-Semitic language and Nazi iconography in both online publications and public events. SUPO considers Racially or Ethnically Motivated Violent Extremism (REMVE) online platforms a significant source of radicalization in Finland, and Jewish and Muslim community leaders have identified these websites as contributors to increases in public anti-Semitism.

In 2022, The Ministry of the Interior published the National Counterterrorism Strategy 2022–2025 to guide national and international counterterrorism activities. Finland combats terrorism, violent radicalization, and extremism to safeguard national interests and foster the safety and security of the country and its population. The Ministry of the Interior monitors the achievement of objectives and will prepare an interim report in 2024. For more information, see: https://intermin.fi/en/publication?pubid=URN:ISBN:978-952-324-578-5  

• 11. Labor Policies and Practices

According to Statistics Finland, the population was approximately 5.6 million, and the average number of employed persons aged 15 to 74 was 2,628,000 in 2023. The number of unemployed persons was 204,000. Men’s unemployment rate was 7.9 percent, while women’s unemployment rate was 6.5 percent. In January 2024, the number of unfilled vacancies was 133,400. The working-age population will decrease in the years to come due to an increasing retirement rate caused by Finland’s aging population. At the same time, the number of immigrants is growing, and people are working to a later age in life. In Finland, most job vacancies advertised are in the social healthcare services sector, the construction industry, and the service and retail sectors.

Finland has a long tradition of trade unions. The country has a 60 percent unionization rate, and approximately 90 percent of employees have participated in the collective bargaining system. Extensive tripartite cooperation between the government, employers’ groups, and trade unions characterizes the labor market system in Finland. Trade unions and employers’ associations may make collective agreements, and the ministry decides on the agreements’ validity, determining minimum wages, working hours, and working conditions. The Ministry of Employment and the Economy is responsible for drafting labor legislation, and the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health is responsible for enforcing labor laws and regulations via the Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) authorities of the OSH Divisions at the Regional State Administrative Agencies, which operate under the Ministry of Social Affairs and Health.

To increase the labor market’s flexibility, the government of Prime Minister Petteri Orpo aims to reform the labor market legislation in 2024. As part of the proposed reforms, the government intends to increase local bargaining, which refers to workplace-level agreements on working hours, annual holidays, or wages; tie all sectors’ wage increases to export industry levels; restrict the right to political strikes, including limiting political strikes to 24 hours; and cut social welfare and benefits programs, including unemployment benefits. The government’s proposed labor reforms launched a wave of political strikes in Finland.

In the March 2024 IMF Article IV consultation with Finland, the IMF commended the government’s efforts to boost employment through social benefit reforms, greater flexibility in the labor market, and lowering the labor tax wedge. According to the IMF, the government should establish robust systems to monitor the impact of these reforms on employment closely. Additionally, government policies and procedures should aim to improve higher education, lower skill mismatches, and more effectively attract and integrate international talent.

Finland adheres to most ILO conventions; and enforcement of worker rights is effective. Freedom of association and collective bargaining are guaranteed by law, providing the right to form and join independent unions, conduct legal strikes, and bargain collectively. The law prohibits anti-union discrimination and any obstruction of these rights. The National Conciliator under the Ministry of Employment and the Economy assists negotiating partners with labor disputes. The arbitration system is based on the Act on Mediation in Labor Disputes, and the Labor Court is the highest body for settlement. The ILO’s Finland Country profile can be found here: http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=1000:11110:0::NO:11110:P11110_COUNTRY_ID:102625  

• 12. U.S. International Development Finance Corporation (DFC), and Other Investment Insurance or Development Finance Programs

The U.S. International Development Finance Corporation, DFC, does not operate in Finland.

• 13. Foreign Direct Investment Statistics

* Source for Host Country Data: Statistics Finland

• 14. Contact for More Information

[email protected]  

On This Page

U.s. department of state, the lessons of 1989: freedom and our future.

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Fungal proteins: sources, production and purification methods, industrial applications, and future perspectives.

Featured Application

1. introduction, 2. characteristics of the most important scp producers, 2.1. saccharomyces cerevisiae, 2.2. kluyveromyces marxianus, 2.3. candida utilis, 2.4. yarrowia lipolytica, 2.5. fusarium venenatum, 2.6. aspergillus oryzae, 2.7. monascus purpureus.

3. Bio-Utilization of Waste from the Agri-Food Industry during SCP Production

4. preparation of single-cell protein (scp) for use in food, 4.1. cell disruption, 4.2. protein secretion, 4.3. protein purification, 4.4. reducing the nucleic acid content, 4.5. drying of microbial protein, 5. products containing single-cell protein (scp) on the global market, 6. opportunities and challenges for the single-cell protein (scp) market, 7. conclusions, author contributions, conflicts of interest.

• Cleland, J. World Population Growth; Past, Present and Future. Environ. Resour. Econ. 2013 , 55 , 543–554. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Röös, E.; Sundberg, C.; Tidåker, P.; Strid, I.; Hansson, P.A. Can Carbon Footprint Serve as an Indicator of the Environmental Impact of Meat Production? Ecol. Indic. 2013 , 24 , 573–581. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mekonnen, M.M.; Neale, C.M.U.; Ray, C.; Erickson, G.E.; Hoekstra, A.Y. Water Productivity in Meat and Milk Production in the US from 1960 to 2016. Environ. Int. 2019 , 132 , 105084. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Nowacka, M.; Trusinska, M.; Chraniuk, P.; Drudi, F.; Lukasiewicz, J.; Nguyen, N.P.; Przybyszewska, A.; Pobiega, K.; Tappi, S.; Tylewicz, U.; et al. Developments in Plant Proteins Production for Meat and Fish Analogues. Molecules 2023 , 28 , 2966. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Nowacka, M.; Trusinska, M.; Chraniuk, P.; Piatkowska, J.; Pakulska, A.; Wisniewska, K.; Wierzbicka, A.; Rybak, K.; Pobiega, K. Plant-Based Fish Analogs—A Review. Appl. Sci. 2023 , 13 , 4509. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Appleby, P.N.; Key, T.J. The Long-Term Health of Vegetarians and Vegans. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2016 , 75 , 287–293. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Greenebaum, J. Veganism, Identity and the Quest for Authenticity. Food Cult. Soc. 2012 , 15 , 129–144. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Iguacel, I.; Huybrechts, I.; Moreno, L.A.; Michels, N. Vegetarianism and Veganism Compared with Mental Health and Cognitive Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutr. Rev. 2021 , 79 , 361–381. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Augustin, M.A.; Riley, M.; Stockmann, R.; Bennett, L.; Kahl, A.; Lockett, T.; Osmond, M.; Sanguansri, P.; Stonehouse, W.; Zajac, I.; et al. Role of Food Processing in Food and Nutrition Security. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2016 , 56 , 115–125. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kaur, N.; Singh, A. Role of Microorganisms in the Food Industry. In Food Microbial Sustainability ; Springer: Singapore, 2023; pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-981-99-4784-3. [ Google Scholar ]
• Amara, A.A.; El-Baky, N.A. Fungi as a Source of Edible Proteins and Animal Feed. J. Fungi 2023 , 9 , 73. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kelechi, M. Ukaegbu-Obi Single Cell Protein: A Resort to Global Protein Challenge and Waste Management. J. Microbiol. Microb. Technol. 2016 , 1 , 251–262. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bratosin, B.C.; Darjan, S.; Vodnar, D.C. Single Cell Protein: A Potential Substitute in Human and Animal Nutrition. Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 9284. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Narayana Saibaba, K. Applications of Microbes in Food Industry ; Springer: Singapore, 2022; pp. 323–338. ISBN 978-981-16-2225-0. [ Google Scholar ]
• Sharma, R.; Garg, P.; Kumar, P.; Bhatia, S.K.; Kulshrestha, S. Microbial Fermentation and Its Role in Quality Improvement of Fermented Foods. Fermentation 2020 , 6 , 106. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Maicas, S. The Role of Yeasts in Fermentation Processes. Microorganisms 2020 , 8 , 1142. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Galili, G.; Amir, R. Fortifying Plants with the Essential Amino Acids Lysine and Methionine to Improve Nutritional Quality. Plant Biotechnol. J. 2013 , 11 , 211–222. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Umesh, M.; Priyanka, K.; Thazeem, B.; Preethi, K. Production of Single Cell Protein and Polyhydroxyalkanoate from Carica Papaya Waste. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 2017 , 42 , 2361–2369. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Carranza-Méndez, R.C.; Chávez-González, M.L.; Sepúlveda-Torre, L.; Aguilar, C.N.; Govea-Salas, M.; Ramos-González, R. Production of Single Cell Protein from Orange Peel Residues by Candida utilis . Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2022 , 40 , 102298. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pereira, A.G.; Fraga-Corral, M.; Garcia-Oliveira, P.; Otero, P.; Soria-Lopez, A.; Cassani, L.; Cao, H.; Xiao, J.; Prieto, M.A.; Simal-Gandara, J. Single-Cell Proteins Obtained by Circular Economy Intended as a Feed Ingredient in Aquaculture. Foods 2022 , 11 , 2831. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wiebe, M.G. QuornTM Myco-Protein—Overview of a Successful Fungal Product. Mycologist 2004 , 18 , 17–20. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Koutsoumanis, K.; Allende, A.; Alvarez-Ordóñez, A.; Bolton, D.; Bover-Cid, S.; Chemaly, M.; Davies, R.; De Cesare, A.; Hilbert, F.; Lindqvist, R.; et al. Update of the List of QPS-Recommended Biological Agents Intentionally Added to Food or Feed as Notified to EFSA 10: Suitability of Taxonomic Units Notified to EFSA until March 2019. EFSA J. 2019 , 17 , e05753. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Jach, M.E.; Serefko, A.; Ziaja, M.; Kieliszek, M. Yeast Protein as an Easily Accessible Food Source. Metabolites 2022 , 12 , 63. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bertolo, A.P.; Biz, A.P.; Kempka, A.P.; Rigo, E.; Cavalheiro, D. Yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ): Evaluation of Cellular Disruption Processes, Chemical Composition, Functional Properties and Digestibility. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2019 , 56 , 3697–3706. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Dunuweera, A.N.; Nikagolla, D.N.; Ranganathan, K. Fruit Waste Substrates to Produce Single-Cell Proteins as Alternative Human Food Supplements and Animal Feeds Using Baker’s Yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ). J. Food Qual. 2021 , 2021 , 9932762. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gervasi, T.; Pellizzeri, V.; Calabrese, G.; Di Bella, G.; Cicero, N.; Dugo, G. Production of Single Cell Protein (SCP) from Food and Agricultural Waste by Using Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Nat. Prod. Res. 2018 , 32 , 648–653. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Razzaq, Z.U.; Khan, M.K.I.; Maan, A.A.; Rahman, S.U. Characterization of Single Cell Protein from Saccharomyces cerevisiae for Nutritional, Functional and Antioxidant Properties. J. Food Meas. Charact. 2020 , 14 , 2520–2528. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ullah, M.; Rizwan, M.; Raza, A.; Xia, Y.; Han, J.; Ma, Y.; Chen, H. Snapshot of the Probiotic Potential of Kluveromyces marxianus DMKU-1042 Using a Comparative Probiogenomics Approach. Foods 2023 , 12 , 4329. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Koukoumaki, D.I.; Papanikolaou, S.; Ioannou, Z.; Gkatzionis, K.; Sarris, D. The Development of Novel Edible Films from Single-Cell Protein Produced by the Biotechnological Valorization of Cheese Whey. Appl. Microbiol. 2024 , 4 , 1030–1041. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ruan, R.; Ioanna Koukoumaki, D.; Papanikolaou, S.; Ioannou, Z.; Mourtzinos, I.; Sarris, D. Single-Cell Protein and Ethanol Production of a Newly Isolated Kluyveromyces marxianus Strain through Cheese Whey Valorization. Foods 2024 , 13 , 1892. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ribeiro, A.A.P.; Lafia, A.T.; de Sousa, C.C.; Falleiros, L.N.S.S.; Guidini, C.Z.; Zotarelli, M.F. An Approach for Using Non-Purified β-Galactosidase: The Potential of β-Galactosidase in Kluyveromyces marxianus Cell Microparticles with Different Wall Materials. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2024 , 1–16. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• González-Orozco, B.D.; McGovern, C.J.; Barringer, S.A.; Simons, C.; Jiménez-Flores, R.; Alvarez, V.B. Development of Probiotic Yogurt Products Incorporated with Lactobacillus Kefiranofaciens OSU-BSGOA1 in Mono- and Co-Culture with Kluyveromyces marxianus . J. Dairy Sci. 2024 , in press . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Centomo, A.M.; Diaz Vergara, L.I.; Rossi, Y.E.; Vanden Braber, N.L.; Bodoira, R.; Maestri, D.; Cavaglieri, L.R.; Montenegro, M.A. Co-Encapsulated of Potential Probiotic Yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus and Peanut Skin Polyphenolic Extract as a Functional Ingredient. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2024 , 59 , 3918–3928. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kieliszek, M.; Kot, A.M.; Bzducha-Wróbel, A.; BŁażejak, S.; Gientka, I.; Kurcz, A. Biotechnological Use of Candida Yeasts in the Food Industry: A Review. Fungal Biol. Rev. 2017 , 31 , 185–198. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ding, H.; Li, J.; Deng, F.; Huang, S.; Zhou, P.; Liu, X.; Li, Z.; Li, D. Ammonia Nitrogen Recovery from Biogas Slurry by SCP Production Using Candida utilis . J. Environ. Manag. 2023 , 325 , 116657. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Jalasutram, V.; Kataram, S.; Gandu, B.; Anupoju, G.R. Single Cell Protein Production from Digested and Undigested Poultry Litter by Candida utilis : Optimization of Process Parameters Using Response Surface Methodology. Clean. Technol. Environ. Policy 2013 , 15 , 265–273. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kurcz, A.; Błażejak, S.; Kot, A.M.; Bzducha-Wróbel, A.; Kieliszek, M. Application of Industrial Wastes for the Production of Microbial Single-Cell Protein by Fodder Yeast Candida utilis . Waste Biomass Valorization 2018 , 9 , 57–64. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhou, X.; Hu, W.; Ran, C.; Chen, J.; Xie, T.; Zhang, Y. Nutrient Removal in Sludge Extracts and Protein Production by Cultivation of Candida utilis . J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2021 , 96 , 990–998. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jach, M.E.; Malm, A. Yarrowia lipolytica as an Alternative and Valuable Source of Nutritional and Bioactive Compounds for Humans. Molecules 2022 , 27 , 2300. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ben Tahar, I.; Kus-Liśkiewicz, M.; Lara, Y.; Javaux, E.; Fickers, P. Characterization of a Nontoxic Pyomelanin Pigment Produced by the Yeast Yarrowia lipolytica . Biotechnol. Prog. 2020 , 36 , e2912. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Petra de Oliveira Barros, V.; Macedo Silva, J.R.; Maciel Melo, V.M.; Terceiro, P.S.; Nunes de Oliveira, I.; Duarte de Freitas, J.; Francisco da Silva Moura, O.; Xavier de Araújo-Júnior, J.; Erlanny da Silva Rodrigues, E.; Maraschin, M.; et al. Biosurfactants Production by Marine Yeasts Isolated from Zoanthids and Characterization of an Emulsifier Produced by Yarrowia lipolytica LMS 24B. Chemosphere 2024 , 355 , 141807. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Kamzolova, S.V.; Samoilenko, V.A.; Lunina, J.N.; Morgunov, I.G. Large-Scale Production of Isocitric Acid Using Yarrowia lipolytica Yeast with Further Down-Stream Purification. BioTech 2023 , 12 , 22. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Li, X.; Ren, J.N.; Fan, G.; Zhang, L.L.; Pan, S.Y. Isolation, Purification, and Mass Spectrometry Identification of the Enzyme Involved in Citrus Flavor (+)-Valencene Biotransformation to (+)-Nootkatone by Yarrowia lipolytica . J. Sci. Food Agric. 2023 , 103 , 4792–4802. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sánchez-Rojas, T.; Espinoza-Culupú, A.; Ramírez, P.; Iwai, L.K.; Montoni, F.; Macedo-Prada, D.; Sulca-López, M.; Durán, Y.; Farfán-López, M.; Herencia, J. Proteomic Study of Response to Copper, Cadmium, and Chrome Ion Stress in Yarrowia lipolytica Strains Isolated from Andean Mine Tailings in Peru. Microorganisms 2022 , 10 , 2002. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Whittaker, J.A.; Johnson, R.I.; Finnigan, T.J.A.; Avery, S.V.; Dyer, P.S. The Biotechnology of Quorn Mycoprotein: Past, Present and Future Challenges. In Grand Challenges in Fungal Biotechnology ; Grand Challenges in Biology and Biotechnology Series; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 59–79. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahmad, M.I.; Farooq, S.; Alhamoud, Y.; Li, C.; Zhang, H. A Review on Mycoprotein: History, Nutritional Composition, Production Methods, and Health Benefits. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2022 , 121 , 14–29. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hashempour-Baltork, F.; Hosseini, S.M.; Assarehzadegan, M.A.; Khosravi-Darani, K.; Hosseini, H. Safety Assays and Nutritional Values of Mycoprotein Produced by Fusarium venenatum IR372C from Date Waste as Substrate. J. Sci. Food Agric. 2020 , 100 , 4433–4441. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Lee, D.; Pan, J.H.; Kim, D.; Heo, W.; Shin, E.C.; Kim, Y.J.; Shim, Y.Y.; Reaney, M.J.T.; Ko, S.G.; Hong, S.B.; et al. Mycoproteins and Their Health-Promoting Properties: Fusarium Species and Beyond. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2024 , 23 , e13365. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wiebe, M. Myco-Protein from Fusarium venenatum : A Well-Established Product for Human Consumption. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2002 , 58 , 421–427. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Fatemeh, S.; Reihani, S.; Khosravi-Darani, K. Mycoprotein Production from Date Waste Using Fusarium venenatum in a Submerged Culture. Appl. Food Biotechnol. 2018 , 5 , 243–352. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Karimi, S.; Soofiani, N.M.; Lundh, T.; Mahboubi, A.; Kiessling, A.; Taherzadeh, M.J. Evaluation of Filamentous Fungal Biomass Cultivated on Vinasse as an Alternative Nutrient Source of Fish Feed: Protein, Lipid, and Mineral Composition. Fermentation 2019 , 5 , 99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Uwineza, C.; Sar, T.; Mahboubi, A.; Taherzadeh, M.J. Evaluation of the Cultivation of Aspergillus oryzae on Organic Waste-Derived VFA Effluents and Its Potential Application as Alternative Sustainable Nutrient Source for Animal Feed. Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 12489. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mahboubi, A.; Ferreira, J.A.; Taherzadeh, M.J.; Lennartsson, P.R. Production of Fungal Biomass for Feed, Fatty Acids, and Glycerol by Aspergillus oryzae from Fat-Rich Dairy Substrates. Fermentation 2017 , 3 , 48. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Parchami, M.; Mahboubi, A.; Agnihotri, S.; Taherzadeh, M.J. Biovalorization of Brewer’s Spent Grain as Single-Cell Protein through Coupling Organosolv Pretreatment and Fungal Cultivation. Waste Manag. 2023 , 169 , 382–391. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Souza Filho, P.F.; Nair, R.B.; Andersson, D.; Lennartsson, P.R.; Taherzadeh, M.J. Vegan-Mycoprotein Concentrate from Pea-Processing Industry Byproduct Using Edible Filamentous Fungi. Fungal Biol. Biotechnol. 2018 , 5 , 5. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ma, J.; Zhu, X.; Shi, L.; Ni, C.; Hou, J.; Cheng, J. Enhancement of Soluble Protein, Polypeptide Production and Functional Properties of Heat-Denatured Soybean Meal by Fermentation of Monascus purpureus 04093. CyTA—J. Food 2019 , 17 , 1014–1022. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yudiarti, T.; Sugiharto, S.; Isroli, I.; Widiastuti, E.; Wahyuni, H.I.; Sartono, T.A. Effect of Fermentation Using Chrysonillia Crassa and Monascus purpureus on Nutritional Quality, Antioxidant, and Antimicrobial Activities of Used Rice as a Poultry Feed Ingredient. J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res. 2019 , 6 , 168. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Somda, M.K.; Nikiema, M.; Keita, I.; Mogmenga, I.; Kouhounde, S.H.S.; Dabire, Y.; Coulibaly, W.H.; Taale, E.; Traore, A.S.; Pr, O.; et al. Production of Single Cell Protein (SCP) and Essentials Amino Acids from Candida utilis FMJ12 by Solid State Fermentation Using Mango Waste Supplemented with Nitrogen Sources. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 2018 , 17 , 716–723. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Onofre, S.B.; Bertoldo, I.C.; Abatti, D.; Refosco, D. Chemical Composition of the Biomass of Saccharomyces cerevisiae —(Meyen Ex E. C. Hansen, 1883) Yeast Obtained from the Beer Manufacturing Process. Int. J. Environ. Agric. Biotechnol. 2017 , 2 , 558–562. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Marcišauskas, S.; Ji, B.; Nielsen, J. Reconstruction and Analysis of a Kluyveromyces marxianus Genome-Scale Metabolic Model. BMC Bioinform. 2019 , 20 , 551. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, R.; Chen, Z.; Hu, P.; Zhang, S.; Luo, G. Two-Stage Fermentation Enhanced Single-Cell Protein Production by Yarrowia lipolytica from Food Waste. Bioresour. Technol. 2022 , 361 , 127677. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zeng, D.; Jiang, Y.; Su, Y.; Zhang, Y. Upcycling Waste Organic Acids and Nitrogen into Single Cell Protein via Brewer’s Yeast. J. Clean. Prod. 2022 , 369 , 133279. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dubey, P.; Tripathi, G.; Mir, S.S.; Yousuf, O. Current Scenario and Global Perspectives of Citrus Fruit Waste as a Valuable Resource for the Development of Food Packaging Film. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2023 , 141 , 104190. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rages, A.A.; Haider, M.M.; Aydin, M. Alkaline Hydrolysis of Olive Fruits Wastes for the Production of Single Cell Protein by Candida lipolytica . Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2021 , 33 , 101999. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Khan, M.K.I.; Asif, M.; Razzaq, Z.U.; Nazir, A.; Maan, A.A. Sustainable Food Industrial Waste Management through Single Cell Protein Production and Characterization of Protein Enriched Bread. Food Biosci. 2022 , 46 , 101406. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Saleem, M.; Saeed, M.T. Potential Application of Waste Fruit Peels (Orange, Yellow Lemon and Banana) as Wide Range Natural Antimicrobial Agent. J. King Saud. Univ. Sci. 2020 , 32 , 805–810. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bacha, U.; Nasir, M.; Khalique, A.; Anjum, A.A.; Jabbar, M.A. Comparative Assessment of Various Agro-Industrial Wastes for Saccharomyces cerevisiae Biomass Production and Its Quality Evaluation as Single Cell Protein. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 2011 , 21 , 844–849. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mensah, J.K.M.; Twumasi, P. Use of Pineapple Waste for Single Cell Protein (SCP) Production and the Effect of Substrate Concentration on the Yield. J. Food Process Eng. 2017 , 40 , e12478. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Al-Farsi, M.; Al Bakir, A.; Al Marzouqi, H.; Thomas, R. Production of Single Cell Protein from Date Waste. Mater. Res. Proc. 2019 , 11 , 303–312. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• García Martínez, J.B.; Egbejimba, J.; Throup, J.; Matassa, S.; Pearce, J.M.; Denkenberger, D.C. Potential of Microbial Protein from Hydrogen for Preventing Mass Starvation in Catastrophic Scenarios. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2021 , 25 , 234–247. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Pikaar, I.; Matassa, S.; Rabaey, K.; Bodirsky, B.L.; Popp, A.; Herrero, M.; Verstraete, W. Microbes and the Next Nitrogen Revolution. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2017 , 51 , 7297–7303. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Aggelopoulos, T.; Katsieris, K.; Bekatorou, A.; Pandey, A.; Banat, I.M.; Koutinas, A.A. Solid State Fermentation of Food Waste Mixtures for Single Cell Protein, Aroma Volatiles and Fat Production. Food Chem. 2014 , 145 , 710–716. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Muniz, C.E.S.; Santiago, Â.M.; Gusmão, T.A.S.; Oliveira, H.M.L.; Conrado, L.d.S.; Gusmão, R.P.D. Solid-State Fermentation for Single-Cell Protein Enrichment of Guava and Cashew by-Products and Inclusion on Cereal Bars. Biocatal. Agric. Biotechnol. 2020 , 25 , 101576. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shahzad, H.M.A.; Asim, Z.; Mahmoud, K.A.; Abdelhadi, O.M.A.; Almomani, F.; Rasool, K. Optimizing Cultural Conditions and Pretreatment for High-Value Single-Cell Protein from Vegetable Waste. Process Saf. Environ. 2024 , 189 , 685–692. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Goldberg, I. The SCP Product ; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1985; pp. 129–152. ISBN 978-3-642-46540-6. [ Google Scholar ]
• Łebkowska, M.; Załęska-Radziwiłł, M. Usable Products from Sewage and Solid Waste. Arch. Environ. Prot. 2011 , 37 , 15–19. [ Google Scholar ]
• Pacheco, M.T.B.; Caballero-Cordoba1, M.; Sgarbieri1, V.C. Composition and Nutritive Value of Yeast Biomass and Yeast Protein Concentrates. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 1997 , 43 , 601–612. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hurraß, J.; Teubel, R.; Fischer, G.; Heinzow, B.; Wiesmüller, G.A. What Effect Do Mycotoxins, Cell Wall Components, Enzymes and Other Mold Components and Metabolites Have on Our Health? Allergo J. Int. 2024 , 33 , 124–132. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cardoso Alves, S.; Díaz-Ruiz, E.; Lisboa, B.; Sharma, M.; Mussatto, S.I.; Thakur, V.K.; Kalaskar, D.M.; Gupta, V.K.; Chandel, A.K. Microbial Meat: A Sustainable Vegan Protein Source Produced from Agri-Waste to Feed the World. Food Res. Int. 2023 , 166 , 112596. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• García-Garibay, M.; Gómez-Ruiz, L.; Cruz-Guerrero, A.E.; Bárzana, E. Single Cell Protein | Yeasts and Bacteria. In Encyclopedia of Food Microbiology , 2nd ed.; Batt, C.A., Robinson, R.K., Eds.; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2014; pp. 431–438. ISBN 9780123847331. [ Google Scholar ]
• Hadi, J.; Brightwell, G. Safety of Alternative Proteins: Technological, Environmental and Regulatory Aspects of Cultured Meat, Plant-Based Meat, Insect Protein and Single-Cell Protein. Foods 2021 , 10 , 1226. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Gautério, G.V.; da Silva, R.M.; Karraz, F.C.; Coelho, M.A.Z.; Ribeiro, B.D.; Lemes, A.C. Cell Disruption and Permeabilization Methods for Obtaining Yeast Bioproducts. Clean. Chem. Eng. 2023 , 6 , 100112. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Oliveira, A.S.; Ferreira, C.; Pereira, J.O.; Pintado, M.E.; Carvalho, A.P. Valorisation of Protein-Rich Extracts from Spent Brewer’s Yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ): An Overview. Biomass Convers. Biorefin. 2022 , 1 , 1–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chew, K.W.; Chia, S.R.; Lee, S.Y.; Zhu, L.; Show, P.L. Enhanced Microalgal Protein Extraction and Purification Using Sustainable Microwave-Assisted Multiphase Partitioning Technique. Chem. Eng. J. 2019 , 367 , 1–8. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gomes, T.A.; Zanette, C.M.; Spier, M.R. An Overview of Cell Disruption Methods for Intracellular Biomolecules Recovery. Prep. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2020 , 50 , 635–654. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Phong, W.N.; Show, P.L.; Ling, T.C.; Juan, J.C.; Ng, E.P.; Chang, J.S. Mild Cell Disruption Methods for Bio-Functional Proteins Recovery from Microalgae—Recent Developments and Future Perspectives. Algal Res. 2018 , 31 , 506–516. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Coustets, M.; Joubert-Durigneux, V.; Hérault, J.; Schoefs, B.; Blanckaert, V.; Garnier, J.P.; Teissié, J. Optimization of Protein Electroextraction from Microalgae by a Flow Process. Bioelectrochemistry 2015 , 103 , 74–81. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Martínez, J.M.; Cebrián, G.; Álvarez, I.; Raso, J. Release of Mannoproteins during Saccharomyces cerevisiae Autolysis Induced by Pulsed Electric Field. Front. Microbiol. 2016 , 7 , 216549. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ganeva, V.; Angelova, B.; Galutzov, B.; Goltsev, V.; Zhiponova, M. Extraction of Proteins and Other Intracellular Bioactive Compounds From Baker’s Yeasts by Pulsed Electric Field Treatment. Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol. 2020 , 8 , 552335. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Roselló-Soto, E.; Barba, F.J.; Parniakov, O.; Galanakis, C.M.; Lebovka, N.; Grimi, N.; Vorobiev, E. High Voltage Electrical Discharges, Pulsed Electric Field, and Ultrasound Assisted Extraction of Protein and Phenolic Compounds from Olive Kernel. Food Bioprocess Technol. 2015 , 8 , 885–894. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Parniakov, O.; Barba, F.J.; Grimi, N.; Lebovka, N.; Vorobiev, E. Extraction Assisted by Pulsed Electric Energy as a Potential Tool for Green and Sustainable Recovery of Nutritionally Valuable Compounds from Mango Peels. Food Chem. 2016 , 192 , 842–848. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sarkis, J.R.; Boussetta, N.; Tessaro, I.C.; Marczak, L.D.F.; Vorobiev, E. Application of Pulsed Electric Fields and High Voltage Electrical Discharges for Oil Extraction from Sesame Seeds. J. Food Eng. 2015 , 153 , 20–27. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Boussetta, N.; Grimi, N.; Vorobiev, E. Pulsed Electrical Technologies Assisted Polyphenols Extraction from Agricultural Plants and Bioresources: A Review. Int. J. Food Process. Technol. 2015 , 2 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, T.; Lei, J.; Yang, H.; Xu, K.; Wang, R.; Zhang, Z. An Improved Method for Whole Protein Extraction from Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae . Yeast 2011 , 28 , 795–798. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ge, L.; Wang, X.T.; Tan, S.N.; Tsai, H.H.; Yong, J.W.H.; Hua, L. A Novel Method of Protein Extraction from Yeast Using Ionic Liquid Solution. Talanta 2010 , 81 , 1861–1864. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Phong, W.N.; Show, P.L.; Le, C.F.; Tao, Y.; Chang, J.S.; Ling, T.C. Improving Cell Disruption Efficiency to Facilitate Protein Release from Microalgae Using Chemical and Mechanical Integrated Method. Biochem. Eng. J. 2018 , 135 , 83–90. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, D.; Ding, L.; Sun, J.; Boussetta, N.; Vorobiev, E. Yeast Cell Disruption Strategies for Recovery of Intracellular Bio-Active Compounds—A Review. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2016 , 36 , 181–192. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Alavijeh, R.S.; Karimi, K.; Wijffels, R.H.; van den Berg, C.; Eppink, M. Combined Bead Milling and Enzymatic Hydrolysis for Efficient Fractionation of Lipids, Proteins, and Carbohydrates of Chlorella vulgaris Microalgae. Bioresour. Technol. 2020 , 309 , 123321. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rahman, M.M.; Hosano, N.; Hosano, H. Recovering Microalgal Bioresources: A Review of Cell Disruption Methods and Extraction Technologies. Molecules 2022 , 27 , 2786. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Awad, D.; Brueck, T. Optimization of Protein Isolation by Proteomic Qualification from Cutaneotrichosporon Oleaginosus. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2020 , 412 , 449–462. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Tovar Jiménez, X.; Arana Cuenca, A.; Téllez Jurado, A.; Abreu Corona, A.; Muro Urista, C.R. Traditional Methods for Whey Protein Isolation and Concentration: Effects on Nutritional Properties and Biological Activity. J. Mex. Chem. Soc. 2012 , 56 , 369–377. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jacob, F.F.; Hutzler, M.; Methner, F.J. Comparison of Various Industrially Applicable Disruption Methods to Produce Yeast Extract Using Spent Yeast from Top-Fermenting Beer Production: Influence on Amino Acid and Protein Content. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2019 , 245 , 95–109. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jacob, F.F.; Striegel, L.; Rychlik, M.; Hutzler, M.; Methner, F.J. Yeast Extract Production Using Spent Yeast from Beer Manufacture: Influence of Industrially Applicable Disruption Methods on Selected Substance Groups with Biotechnological Relevance. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2019 , 245 , 1169–1182. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yadav, J.S.S.; Bezawada, J.; Ajila, C.M.; Yan, S.; Tyagi, R.D.; Surampalli, R.Y. Mixed Culture of Kluyveromyces marxianus and Candida Krusei for Single-Cell Protein Production and Organic Load Removal from Whey. Bioresour. Technol. 2014 , 164 , 119–127. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ma, J.; Sun, Y.; Meng, D.; Zhou, Z.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, R. Yeast Proteins: The Novel and Sustainable Alternative Protein in Food Applications. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2023 , 135 , 190–201. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bonnaillie, L.M.; Qi, P.; Wickham, E.; Tomasula, P.M. Enrichment and Purification of Casein Glycomacropeptide from Whey Protein Isolate Using Supercritical Carbon Dioxide Processing and Membrane Ultrafiltration. Foods 2014 , 3 , 94–109. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Marson, G.V.; Lacour, S.; Hubinger, M.D.; Belleville, M.P. Serial Fractionation of Spent Brewer’s Yeast Protein Hydrolysate by Ultrafiltration: A Peptide-Rich Product with Low RNA Content. J. Food Eng. 2022 , 312 , 110737. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Marson, G.V.; Belleville, M.P.; Lacour, S.; Hubinger, M.D. Membrane Fractionation of Protein Hydrolysates from By-Products: Recovery of Valuable Compounds from Spent Yeasts. Membranes 2020 , 11 , 23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Nadar, C.G.; Fletcher, A.; Moreira, B.R.d.A.; Hine, D.; Yadav, S. Waste to Protein: A Systematic Review of a Century of Advancement in Microbial Fermentation of Agro-Industrial Byproducts. Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. 2024 , 23 , e13375. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ritala, A.; Häkkinen, S.T.; Toivari, M.; Wiebe, M.G. Single Cell Protein-State-of-the-Art, Industrial Landscape and Patents 2001–2016. Front. Microbiol. 2017 , 8 , 300587. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Trinci, A.P.J. Myco-Protein: A Twenty-Year Overnight Success Story. Mycol. Res. 1992 , 96 , 1–13. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Maul, S.B.; Sinskey, A.J.; Tannenbaum, S.R. New Process for Reducing the Nucleic Acid Content of Yeast. Nature 1970 , 228 , 181. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Alvarez, R.; Enriquez, A. Nucleic Acid Reduction in Yeast. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1988 , 29 , 208–210. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zee, J.A.; Simard, R.E. Simple Process for the Reduction in the Nucleic Acid Content in Yeast. Appl. Microbiol. 1975 , 29 , 62. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Jankojć, A.; Lesiów, T.; Biazik, E. QUORN TM Meat Substitutes On Polish Market. Part 1. Eng. Sci. Technol. 2016 , 3 , 36–50. [ Google Scholar ]
• Kurek, M.A.; Onopiuk, A.; Pogorzelska-Nowicka, E.; Szpicer, A.; Zalewska, M.; Półtorak, A. Novel Protein Sources for Applications in Meat-Alternative Products—Insight and Challenges. Foods 2022 , 11 , 957. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sadler, M.J. Meat Alternatives—Market Developments and Health Benefits. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2004 , 15 , 250–260. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gottardi, D.; Siroli, L.; Vannini, L.; Patrignani, F.; Lanciotti, R. Recovery and Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and by-Products Using the Non-Conventional Yeast Yarrowia lipolytica . Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2021 , 115 , 74–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elghandour, M.M.Y.; Tan, Z.L.; Abu Hafsa, S.H.; Adegbeye, M.J.; Greiner, R.; Ugbogu, E.A.; Cedillo Monroy, J.; Salem, A.Z.M. Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a Probiotic Feed Additive to Non and Pseudo-Ruminant Feeding: A Review. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2020 , 128 , 658–674. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rout, S.; Sowmya, R.S.; Srivastav, P.P. A Review on Development of Plant-Based Meat Analogues as Future Sustainable Food. Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 2024 , 59 , 481–487. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Quorn Vegetarian Chicken Pieces|Quorn. Available online: https://www.quorn.co.uk/products/chicken-style-pieces (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Quorn Vegan Fishless Fingers|Quorn. Available online: https://www.quorn.co.uk/products/vegan-fishless-fingers (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Ekstrakt z Drożdży Vegemite 220 g—J. Cook. Available online: https://jcook.pl/ekstrakt-z-drozdzy-vegemite-220g (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Marmite Yeast Extract—125 g e. Available online: https://pl.openfoodfacts.org/product/50184385/marmite-yeast-extract (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Marmite Yeast Extract Dynamite Chilli Limited Edition 250 g BritishShopInWarsaw. Available online: https://britishshop.pl/pl/p/Marmite-Yeast-Extract-Dynamite-Chilli-Limited-Edition-250g/6589 (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Marmite Flatbreads 140 g BritishShopInWarsaw. Available online: https://britishshop.pl/pl/p/Marmite-Flatbreads-140g/6141 (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Marmite Crunchy Peanut Butter 225 g BritishShopInWarsaw. Available online: https://britishshop.pl/pl/p/Marmite-Crunchy-Peanut-Butter-225g/5920 (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Yeast Protein 500 g—ALLNUTRITION. 49 Zł. Przebadane|Allnutrition.Pl. Available online: https://allnutrition.pl/ALLNUTRITION_Yeast_Protein-opis41988.html (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Enkioo Białko Drożdżowe, Wegańskie 700 g|Produkty Enkioo Suplementy Diety\Białko Dla Sportowców\Odżywki Białkowe. Available online: https://enkioo.com/pl/products/enkioo-bialko-drozdzowe-weganskie-700g-10.html?country=1143020003&utm_source=iai_ads&utm_medium=google_shopping&gad_source=1&gclid=CjwKCAiA0PuuBhBsEiwAS7fsNZHLEStUkauNtB6qEg2x8ynN2XhAQrDe04LB1LsOACYDgk6__j_8fhoCDUYQAvD_BwE (accessed on 26 May 2024).
• Sillman, J.; Uusitalo, V.; Ruuskanen, V.; Ojala, L.; Kahiluoto, H.; Soukka, R.; Ahola, J. A Life Cycle Environmental Sustainability Analysis of Microbial Protein Production via Power-to-Food Approaches. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 2020 , 25 , 2190–2203. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kalmykova, Y.; Sadagopan, M.; Rosado, L. Circular Economy—From Review of Theories and Practices to Development of Implementation Tools. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2018 , 135 , 190–201. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Koukoumaki, D.I.; Tsouko, E.; Papanikolaou, S.; Ioannou, Z.; Diamantopoulou, P.; Sarris, D. Recent Advances in the Production of Single Cell Protein from Renewable Resources and Applications. Carbon. Resour. Convers. 2024 , 7 , 100195. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Aidoo, R.; Kwofie, E.M.; Adewale, P.; Lam, E.; Ngadi, M. Overview of Single Cell Protein: Production Pathway, Sustainability Outlook, and Digital Twin Potentials. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2023 , 138 , 577–598. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Khoshnevisan, B.; Tabatabaei, M.; Tsapekos, P.; Rafiee, S.; Aghbashlo, M.; Lindeneg, S.; Angelidaki, I. Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Different Biorefinery Platforms Valorizing Municipal Solid Waste to Bioenergy, Microbial Protein, Lactic and Succinic Acid. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020 , 117 , 109493. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lappi, J.; Silventoinen-Veijalainen, P.; Vanhatalo, S.; Rosa-Sibakov, N.; Sozer, N. The Nutritional Quality of Animal-Alternative Processed Foods Based on Plant or Microbial Proteins and the Role of the Food Matrix. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2022 , 129 , 144–154. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bakaloudi, D.R.; Halloran, A.; Rippin, H.L.; Oikonomidou, A.C.; Dardavesis, T.I.; Williams, J.; Wickramasinghe, K.; Breda, J.; Chourdakis, M. Intake and Adequacy of the Vegan Diet. A Systematic Review of the Evidence. Clin. Nutr. 2021 , 40 , 3503–3521. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Sharif, M.; Zafar, M.H.; Aqib, A.I.; Saeed, M.; Farag, M.R.; Alagawany, M. Single Cell Protein: Sources, Mechanism of Production, Nutritional Value and Its Uses in Aquaculture Nutrition. Aquaculture 2021 , 531 , 735885. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rzymski, P.; Niedzielski, P.; Kaczmarek, N.; Jurczak, T.; Klimaszyk, P. The Multidisciplinary Approach to Safety and Toxicity Assessment of Microalgae-Based Food Supplements Following Clinical Cases of Poisoning. Harmful Algae 2015 , 46 , 34–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jones, S.W.; Karpol, A.; Friedman, S.; Maru, B.T.; Tracy, B.P. Recent Advances in Single Cell Protein Use as a Feed Ingredient in Aquaculture. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2020 , 61 , 189–197. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Pobiega, K.; Sękul, J.; Pakulska, A.; Latoszewska, M.; Michońska, A.; Korzeniowska, Z.; Macherzyńska, Z.; Pląder, M.; Duda, W.; Szafraniuk, J.; et al. Fungal Proteins: Sources, Production and Purification Methods, Industrial Applications, and Future Perspectives. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 6259. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146259

Pobiega K, Sękul J, Pakulska A, Latoszewska M, Michońska A, Korzeniowska Z, Macherzyńska Z, Pląder M, Duda W, Szafraniuk J, et al. Fungal Proteins: Sources, Production and Purification Methods, Industrial Applications, and Future Perspectives. Applied Sciences . 2024; 14(14):6259. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146259

Pobiega, Katarzyna, Joanna Sękul, Anna Pakulska, Małgorzata Latoszewska, Aleksandra Michońska, Zuzanna Korzeniowska, Zuzanna Macherzyńska, Michał Pląder, Wiktoria Duda, Jakub Szafraniuk, and et al. 2024. "Fungal Proteins: Sources, Production and Purification Methods, Industrial Applications, and Future Perspectives" Applied Sciences 14, no. 14: 6259. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14146259

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals