difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells essay

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Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells – Similarities and Differences

Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are the basic units of life on Earth. The basic distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. Instead, genetic material and processes occur within prokaryotic cytoplasm. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells contain cytoplasm that is enclosed by a cell membrane. Both perform protein synthesis using ribosomes.

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound structures, including the nucleus and other organelles. Usually, prokaryotic cells are small and relatively simple in structure compared with eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes have a single, often circular chromosome that occupies the nucleoid region of the cell. Plasmids carry additional DNA .

Here are key prokaryote features:

• Capsule : layer of carbohydrates that surrounds the cell wall of some bacteria and helps them attach to surfaces
• Cell wall : consists of peptidoglycans that give the cell structure and protection
• Cell membrane : also known as the plasma membrane, which encloses the cytoplasm and separates the cell from the environment
• Cytoplasm : region enclosed by the cell membrane
• Nucleoid : region that contains DNA
• Plasmids : independently reproducing DNA
• Ribosome : performs protein synthesis
• Flagella : thin, tail-like structures that aid movement
• Pili : short, rod-shaped structures involves in attachment to surfaces and DNA transfer
• Fimbriae : thin, hair-like structures used for attachment
• Vesicles : sacs released by the membrane that perform a variety of functions
• Vacuoles : storage sacs found in some bacterial cells

A eukaryotic cell has a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles . Plant and animal cells are examples of eukaryotic cells. Here are key eukaryote features.

• Nucleus : contains DNA and oversees all cell processes
• Nucleolus : site of ribosome biogenesis; plays role in cell stress response
• Plasma membrane : encloses the cell
• Cytoplasm : region between the nuclear membrane and the plasma membrane
• Cell wall : supports and protects plant, algae, and and fungi cells
• Mitochondria : provide chemical energy to the cell in the form of ATP
• Chloroplasts : traps energy for photosynthesis in some eukaryotic cells
• Ribosomes : perform protein synthesis
• Endoplasmic reticulum : makes and modifies proteins (rough); expresses lipids (smooth)
• Golgi apparatus : sorts, packages, and processes proteins
• Vesicles and vacuoles : membrane-bound storage and transportation sacs

Similarities Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

The most important similarity between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is that they both consist of cells. The lipid bilayer that forms the cell membrane separates the molecular machinery of life from the outside environment, while allowing for transport into and out of the cell. Also, both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells use 2′-deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to code for genes.

• Have cell or plasma membrane
• Contain cytoplasm
• Have ribosomes
• Have vesicles
• Have vacuoles

Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

The identifying difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the absence or presence of a membrane-bound nucleus and organelles. However, they also differ in size, complexity, reproduction, and means of locomotion.

• Prokaryote cells lack a membrane-bound nucleus or organelles.
• Prokaryotic cells generally are smaller than eukaryotic cells.
• Eukaryotic cells are more complex.
• Prokaryotic cells are unicellular, while eukaryotic cells may be multicellular.
• A prokaryotic cell has a single haploid (n) chromosome, while eukaryotes have multiple, paired, diploid (2n) chromosomes.
• Both types of cells have ribosomes, but eukaryotic ribosomes are larger.
• Prokaryotic chromosomes are circular or linear. Eukaryotic chromosomes are linear and associated with histone proteins.
• Both types of cells may use flagella, but the composition and structure differs between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Both types of cells use asexual and sexual reproduction, but sexual reproduction is more common in eukaryotes.
• Plants and fungi are eukaryotes that have cell walls, but they are chemically simpler than prokaryotic cell walls.

Kingdoms of Life

Learn how prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells relate to the kingdoms of life.

Which Came First?

Cells started forming on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago. These cells were prokaryotes, but much simpler than prokaryotic cells today. Scientists believe eukaryotes arose from symbiosis between prokaryotic cells. Eventually, an ancestral prokaryote endosymbiosed other cells, which became mitochondria and chloroplasts, The origin of other organelles is less clear.

Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes Worksheet

This worksheets tests whether you recognize the differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, including properties of the cells and representative organisms.

Worksheet [ PDF ][ PNG ]

Answer Key [ PDF ][ PNG ]

• Campbell, N.A.; Williamson B,; Heyden, R.J. (2006). Biology: Exploring Life . Boston, Massachusetts: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780132508827.
• Gribaldo, S.; Brochier-Armanet, C. (January 2020). “Evolutionary relationships between archaea and eukaryotes”. Nature Ecology & Evolution . 4 (1): 20–21. doi: 10.1038/s41559-019-1073-1
• Maton, A. (1997). Cells: Building Blocks of Life . New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780134234762.
• Nelson, D.L.; Cox, M.M. (2005). Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry (4th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-4339-2.
• Raven, P.H.; Johnson, G.B. (2002). Biology . McGraw-Hill Education. ISBN 9780071122610.

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Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells: Key Differences Essay

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Introduction

Differences between the different kingdoms of species might seem obvious at the surface level, yet, inspecting the subject matter closer, one will realize that the line between the two can be drawn at the cellular level. Furthermore, upon the analysis of the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, one can develop a proper understanding of the environment that is required for the correct functioning of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Thus, a comparison between the two is required to show that there are two distinct groups of organisms that require different environments and conditions.

The presence of a nucleus is the core difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells, which is even coded in the names thereof. In addition, unlike a eukaryotic cell, a prokaryotic one does not have chromosomes but, instead, contains a substitute called plasmids (Kelly and Callegari 4977). Unlike a chromosome, a plasmid does not have a protein membrane and typically takes a linear shape (Kelly and Callegari 4979). Therefore, the complexity of prokaryotic cells is significantly lower than the one of prokaryotic ones.

In addition, the cellular structure of the two types of cells serves as an important distinction. Prokaryotic cells are typically unicellular, whereas eukaryotic ones are multicellular. The described difference leads to another point of comparison, which is the kingdom that the identified types of cells represent. While prokaryotes typically occur in Bacteria and Archaea, eukaryotic cells can be found in Animals and Plants (“Chapter 4 – Cell Structure”). Thus, a prokaryotic cell can be defined as a simpler life form compared to a more complex eukaryotic one.

Finally, the components that constitute each type of cell are very different, both in their functions and form. It should be noted that there are several organelles that are common for both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. However, eukaryotic cells, as more complex mechanisms, contain the organelles that cannot be found in simpler prokaryotic structures. For example, prokaryotic cells do not have lysosomes and peroxisomes, which play the role of conserving and transporting energy and are an important component of eukaryotic cells (“Chapter 4 – Cell Structure”). Similarly, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum are not found in prokaryotic cells. Overall, the structure of a prokaryotic cell is less complex than the one of a eukaryotic one.

The DNA as a crucial element in the composition of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells also deserves a more detailed analysis as another critical point of difference between the two cell types. In contrast to eukaryotic cells, in prokaryotic ones, the DNA structure is linear due to the arrangement of organelles and, consequently, chromosomes (Kelly and Callegari 4978). At this point, it should be noted that the process of DNA replication is a crucial similarity between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Although the two cell types are distinctively different from each other, the replication of DNA occurs in both cell types according to the same scheme and set of principles.

However, there are some differences in the replication process that allow distinguishing between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell based on the DNA replication characteristics. For example, unlike eukaryotic cells, prokaryotic ones have only one point of origin of their replication, which, in turn, occurs only in two directions (Kelly and Callegari 4978). In addition, the entire replication process occurs at a much faster pace than the one in eukaryotic cells and takes approximately 40 minutes (compared to several hours in a complex eukaryotic cell) (Kelly and Callegari 4977).

The described characteristic allows prokaryotic cells to undergo the replication process in an endless cycle, which is impossible in eukaryotic cells due to the presence of telomeres in their chromosomes (“Chapter 4 – Cell Structure”). Thus, the DNA replication process can be regarded as one of the crucial differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

The presence of mitochondria in eukaryotic cells as their distinctive feature is the subject of particular interest since the current theories of mitochondria origin allow tracking down the evolution of a prokaryotic cell to a eukaryotic one. According to the theory of endosymbiotic hypothesis, mitochondria were initially prokaryotic cells (). Moreover, like cells, mitochondria could perform the functions of which eukaryotic cells were incapable (“Chapter 4 – Cell Structure”).

However, since the oxidative processes that mitochondria performed were also essential for the proper functioning of eukaryotic cells, the latter acquired mitochondria via endosymbiosis (). As a result, mitochondria are a crucial component of eukaryotic cells nowadays, yet they are completely absent from prokaryotic ones. Providing opportunities for energy conversion, mitochondria in eukaryotes primarily serve to produce ATP, although it also has several other important functions.

Comparing eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is necessary since it provides insightful results that may prompt a more nuanced understanding of the functioning of cells and tissues, as well as the factors that lead to the disruption in the processes of them. Thus, an improved approach toward treating patients will become possible. While the key distinction between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is the nucleus, which is absent in the latter, there are also numerous nuances that allow differentiating between the two cell types.

“Chapter 4 – Cell Structure.” Georgia Highlands College , n.d. Web.

Kelly, Thomas, and A. John Callegari. “Dynamics of DNA Replication in a Eukaryotic Cell.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , vol. 116, no. 11, 2019, pp. 4973-4982.

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• Biology Article
• Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells

Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Introduction: prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

Biotic components of the environment include all forms of life from minute bacteria to towering giant Sequoias. However, at the microscopic level, all living organisms are made up of the same basic unit – the cell.

Prokaryotic Cell

Eukaryotic cell.

As a result, the cell is referred to as the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.  The word cell has its origins in Latin, and when translated, it means “small room” and was first observed by Robert Hooke – an English natural philosopher in the year 1665.

He also compared his discovery to the cells in a honeycomb, as they showcase a similar structure.

An image illustrating the difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells. Note that the prokaryotic cell is a complete individual organism

Eventual advancements in science and technology shed more light into the cell, with new findings and discoveries about its structure and cellular components.  During the 1950s, scientists postulated the concept of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, with earlier groundwork being laid by Edouard Chatton, a French Biologist in 1925.

Anatomically, cells vary with respect to their classification, therefore, prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differ from each other quite drastically. Read on to explore how they differ from each other.

The term “ prokaryote ” is derived from the Greek word “ pro “, (meaning: before) and “ karyon ” (meaning: kernel). It translates to “ before nuclei. “

Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups of living organisms on earth, with fossil records dating back to almost 3.5 billion years ago.

These prokaryotes  thrived in the earth’s ancient environment, some using up chemical energy and others using the sun’s energy. These extremophiles thrived for millions of years, evolving and adapting. Scientists speculate that these organisms gave rise to the eukaryotes.

Prokaryotic cells are comparatively smaller and much simpler than eukaryotic cells. The other defining characteristic of prokaryotic cells is that it does not possess membrane-bound cell organelles such as a nucleus. Reproduction happens  through the process of binary fission.

Structurally, prokaryotes have a capsule enveloping their entire body, and it functions as a protective coat. This is crucial for preventing the process of phagocytosis (where the bacteria gets engulfed by other eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages) The pilus is a hair-like appendage found on the external surface of most prokaryotes and it helps the organism to attach itself to various environments. The pilus essentially resists being flushed, hence, it is also called attachment pili. It is commonly observed in bacteria.

Right below the protective coating lies the cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to the cell. Further down lies the cytoplasm that helps in cellular growth, and this is contained within the plasma membrane, which separates the interior contents of the cell from the outside environment.  Within the cytoplasm, ribosomes exist and it plays an important role in protein synthesis. It is also one of the smallest components within the cell. 

Some prokaryotic cells contain special structures called mesosomes which assist in cellular respiration . Most prokaryotes also contain plasmids, which contain small, circular pieces of DNA. To help with locomotion,  flagella are present, though, pilus can also serve as an aid for locomotion.  Common examples of Prokaryotic organisms are bacteria and archaea. Also, all members of Kingdom Monera are prokaryotes.

Main Article:   Prokaryotic Cells

The term “ Eukaryotes ” is derived from the Greek word “ eu “, (meaning: good) and “ karyon ” (meaning: kernel), therefore, translating to “ good or true nuclei .” Eukaryotes are more complex and much larger than prokaryotes.   They include almost all the major kingdoms except kingdom monera.

Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane and it controls the entry and exit of certain substances.

The nucleus contains DNA, which is responsible for storing all genetic information. The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. Within the nucleus exists the nucleolus, and it plays a crucial role in synthesising proteins. Eukaryotic cells also contain mitochondria, which are responsible for the creation of energy, which is then utilized by the cell.

Present in only plant cells, chloroplasts are the subcellular sites of photosynthesis. The endoplasmic reticulum helps in the transportation of materials. Besides these, there are also other cell organelles that perform various other functions and these include  ribosomes, lysosomes, Golgi bodies, cytoplasm, chromosomes, vacuoles and centrosomes.

Examples of eukaryotes include almost every unicellular organism with a nucleus and all multicellular organisms.

Main Article:  Eukaryotic Cells

Though these two classes of cells are quite different, they do possess some common characteristics. For instance, both possess cell membranes and ribosomes, but the similarities end there. The complete list of differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is summarized as follows:

Learn more about prokaryotic cell and eukaryotic cell, their differences and other related topics at BYJU’S Biology

Frequently Asked Questions

What is a prokaryotic cell.

A prokaryotic cell is a primitive type of cell that is characterized by the absence of a nucleus. Furthermore, prokaryotes do not possess membrane-bound cellular organelles. Prokaryotes are exclusively unicellular.

What is a Eukaryotic cell?

Eukaryotic cells are cells that possess a true nucleus along with membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes can either be unicellular or multicellular.

What is the difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells?

The defining characteristic feature that distinguishes between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell is the nucleus. In prokaryotic cells, the true nucleus is absent, moreover, membrane-bound organelles are present only in eukaryotic cells. Another major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is that prokaryotic cells are exclusively unicellular, while the same does not apply to eukaryotic cells.

Define Cell?

The cell is the basic functional and structural unit of life. Cell plays a vital role in all biological activities and include membrane-bound organelles, which perform several individual functions to keep the cell alive and active.

What is Ribosome?

The ribosome is a multi-component cell organelle consisting of RNA and protein. Therefore, it is called the site of protein synthesis. Ribosomes are present both in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Compared to prokaryotes, eukaryotes have larger ribosomes in their cells.

List out the unique features of Animal and Plant Cells.

Both animal and plant cells have several unique features. Listed below are some important features:

• In structure, both animal and plant cells are quite similar.
• Both possess nucleus and plasma membrane, a selectively permeable membrane of the cell.
• Both animal and plant cells include membrane-bound organelles with their specialized functions.
• Animal and plant cells have vacuoles, which serve as the storage unit and maintain the shape of the cell.
• Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell. It stores and provide energy for different cellular activities and is found both in both animal and plant cells.

List out the functions of Chloroplasts.

Chloroplasts are the plastids found in all plant cells. These cell organelles comprise the photosynthetic pigment called chlorophyll and are involved in synthesizing food by the process of photosynthesis.

Who discovered Cell and Cell Theory?

The cell was first discovered in the year 1665 by an English natural philosopher Robert Hooke. The Cell Theory was explained by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Jakob Schleiden in the year 1830.

Further Reading:

• Competent Cells
• Difference Between Plasmid DNA And Chromosomal DNA

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What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

Discover the structural and functional difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

• Common features
• Major differences

Additional resources

Bibliography.

The main difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells lies in their structure.

Prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells are the two types of cells that exist on Earth . There are several differences between the two, but the biggest distinction between them is that eukaryotic cells have a distinct nucleus containing the cell's genetic material, while prokaryotic cells don't have a nucleus and have free-floating genetic material instead. 

What are prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?

All living things can be divided into three basic domains: Bacteria , Archaea and Eukarya. The primarily single-celled organisms found in the Bacteria and Archaea domains are known as prokaryotes. These organisms are made of prokaryotic cells — the smallest, simplest and most ancient cells.

Organisms in the Eukarya domain are made of the more complex eukaryotic cells. These organisms, called eukaryotes, can be unicellular or multicellular and include animals, plants, fungi and protists . Many people are unclear on whether yeasts or fungi are prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Both are eukaryotes and share similar cell structure to all other eukaryotes.

There is evidence to suggest that eukaryotes are the descendants of separate prokaryotic cells, according to Berkeley University of California.  

Eukaryotes developed at least 2.7 billion years ago, following 1 to 1.5 billion years of prokaryotic evolution , according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) . Scientists hypothesize that the nucleus and other eukaryotic features may have first formed after a prokaryotic organism swallowed up another, according to the University of Texas . 

It’s also been suggested that tiny organelles in eukaryotic cells – called mitochondria – may also be the descends of prokaryotic living-bacterium which were engulfed by other cells and remained in the cell as a permanent guest, according to Berkeley University. 

What do prokaryotes and eukaryotes have in common?

Although prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have many differences, they share some common features, including the following:

• DNA : Genetic coding that determines all the characteristics of living things.
• Cell (or plasma) membrane: Outer layer that separates the cell from the surrounding environment and acts as a selective barrier for incoming and outgoing materials.
• Cytoplasm: Jelly-like fluid within a cell that is composed primarily of water, salts and proteins.
• Ribosomes: Organelles that make proteins.

How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ?

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus surrounded by a nuclear envelope that consists of two lipid membranes, according to Nature E d ucation . The nucleus holds the eukaryotic cell's DNA. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus; rather, they have a membraneless nucleoid region (open part of the cell) that holds free-floating DNA, according to Washington University .

The entire DNA in a cell can be found in individual pieces known as chromosomes . Eukaryotic cells have many chromosomes which undergo meiosis and mitosis during cell division, while most prokaryotic cells consist of just one circular chromosome. However, recent studies have shown that some prokaryotes have as many as four linear or circular chromosomes, according to Nature Education . For example, Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that causes cholera , has two circular chromosomes.

Eukaryotic cells have several other membrane-bound organelles not found in prokaryotic cells. These include the mitochondria (convert food energy into adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, to power biochemical reactions); rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (an interconnected network of membrane-enclosed tubules that transport synthesized proteins); golgi complex (sorts and packages proteins for secretion); and in the case of plant cells, chloroplasts (conduct photosynthesis ). All of these organelles are located in the eukaryotic cell's cytoplasm.

Although only eukaryotes carry membrane-bound organelles, recent evidence suggests that both eukaryotes and prokaryotes can produce organelle-like structures that lack membranes, according to a 2020 report published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS).

For instance, in the bacterium Escherichia coli , molecules and proteins cluster together to form liquid "compartments" within the cytoplasm, according to the PNAS study. These compartments form similarly to how oil forms droplets when mixed with water, according to a statement from the University of Michigan . Such membraneless structures have been reported in many bacterial species, including Mycobacterium tuberculosis , which causes tuberculosis, and cyanobacteria, a type of photosynthetic bacteria that can also cause disease.

In eukaryotic cells, the ribosomes are bigger, more complex and bound by a membrane. They can be found in various places: Sometimes in the cytoplasm; on the endoplasmic reticulum; or attached to the nuclear membrane (covering on the nucleus).

In prokaryotic cells, the ribosomes are scattered and floating freely throughout the cytoplasm. The ribosomes in prokaryotic cells also have smaller subunits. All ribosomes (in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells) are made of two subunits — one larger and one smaller. In eukaryotes, these pieces are identified by scientists as the 60-S and 40-S subunits. In prokaryotes, the ribosomes are made of slightly smaller subunits, called 50-S and 30-S.

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The difference in types of subunits has allowed scientists to develop antibiotic drugs , such as streptomycin, that attack certain types of infectious bacteria, according to the British Society for Cell Biology . On the downside, some bacterial toxins and the polio virus use the ribosome differences to their advantage; they're able to identify and attack eukaryotic cells' translation mechanism, or the process by which messenger RNA is translated into proteins.

Most eukaryotes also reproduce sexually (although some protists and single-celled fungi may reproduce through mitosis, which is functionally similar to asexual reproduction). Prokaryotes reproduce asexually, resulting in the offspring being an exact clone of the parent. Some prokaryotic cells also have pili, which are adhesive hair-like projections used to exchange genetic material during a type of sexual process called conjugation, according to Concepts of Biology . Conjugation can occur in bacteria, protozoans and some algae and fungi.

Most prokaryotic cells have a rigid cell wall that surrounds the plasma membrane and gives shape to the organism. In eukaryotes, vertebrates don't have a cell wall but plants do. The cell walls of prokaryotes differ chemically from the eukaryotic cell walls of plant cells, which are primarily made of cellulose. In bacteria, for example, the cell walls are composed of peptidoglycans (sugars and amino acids), according to Washington University .

Check out this animated video by the Amoeba Sisters that explains the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. To take a more indepth look into all the cells in the world take a look at Looking Inside Cells: Life Science by Kimerberly Fekany Lee. 

Lesli J Favor, “ How Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells Differ (Britannica Guide to Cell Biology) ,” Rosen Publishing, 2014.

Frantisek Baluska et al, “Eukaryotic Cells and their Cell Bodies: Cell Theory Revised”, Annals of Botany, Volume 94, Jukly 2004, https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mch109  

James Wagstaff & Jan Lowe, “Prokaryotic cytoskeletons: protein filaments organizing small cells”, Nature Reviews Microbiology, Volume 16, January 2018, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro.2017.153  

Avadhesha Surolia & Abhijit Chakrabarti, “ Biochemical Roles of Eukaryotic Cell Surface Macromolecules ”, Springer International Publishing, 2014.

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Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells: Similarities and Differences

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Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells possess a nucleus enclosed within a cell membrane, making up one of the three domains of life, Eukaryota. They include multicellular organisms such as plants, animals, and fungi.

Bacteria and Archaea, the other two domains of life, are prokaryotic cells. They do not possess membrane-bound cellular compartments, such as nuclei.

Similarities between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Cell membrane.

Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells bear a lipid bilayer, which is an arrangement of phospholipids and proteins that acts as a selective barrier between the internal and external environment of the cell.

Genetic Material

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells both use deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as the basis for their genetic information. This genetic material is needed to regulate and inform cell function through the creation of RNA by transcription, followed by the generation of proteins through translation.

Ribosomes facilitate RNA translation and the creation of protein, which is essential to the functioning of both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.

The cytoplasm is the medium in which the biochemical reactions of the cell take place, of which the primary component is cytosol.

In eukaryotic cells, the cytoplasm comprises everything between the plasma membrane and the nuclear envelope, including the organelles; the material within the nucleus is termed the nucleoplasm. In prokaryotes the cytoplasm encompasses everything within the plasma membrane, including the cytoskeleton and genetic material.

Differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

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Eukaryotic cells are ordinarily larger (10 – 100um) than prokaryotic cells (1 – 10um).

Cell arrangement

Eukaryotes are often multicellular whereas prokaryotes are unicellular. There are however some exceptions –unicellular eukaryotes include amoebas, paramecium, yeast.

True membrane-bound nucleus

Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus bound by a double membrane. It contains the DNA-related functions of the large cell in a smaller enclosure to ensure close proximity of materials and increased efficiency for cellular communication and functions.

In contrast, the smaller prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. The materials are already fairly close to each other and there is only a "nucleoid" which is the central open region of the cell where the DNA is located.

DNA structure

Eukaryotic DNA is linear and complexed with packaging proteins called "histones," before organization into a number of chromosomes

Prokaryotic DNA is circular and is neither associated with histones nor organized into chromosomes. A prokaryotic cell is simpler and requires far fewer genes to function than the eukaryotic cell. Therefore, it contains only one circular DNA molecule and various smaller DNA circlets (plasmids).

Membrane-bound organelles

Eukaryotic cells contain many membrane-enclosed, large, complex organelles in the cytoplasm whereas prokaryotic cells do not contain these membrane-bound organelles.

This is a key difference because it allows a high level of intracellular division of labor and contributes to the greater complexity characteristic of eukaryotic cells.

Due to the larger size of the eukaryotic cells, confining certain cellular process to a smaller area also increases the efficiency of functions by improving communication and movement within the cell.

Only eukaryotes possess a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-bound organelles such as the mitochondria, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes and ER.

Ribosome size

Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells contain many ribosomes; however the ribosomes of the eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic ribosomes i.e. 80S compared to 70S.

Eukaryotic ribosomes also show more complexity than prokaryotic – they are constructed of five kinds of ribosomal RNA and about eighty kinds of proteins. In contrast, prokaryotic ribosomes are composed of only three kinds of rRNA and about fifty kinds of protein.

Cytoskeleton

This is a multicomponent system in eukaryotes composed of microtubules, actin filaments and intermediate filaments. It is required for maintaining cell shape, providing internal organization and mechanical support. It is also paramount in movement and cell division.

Sexual reproduction

Most eukaryotes undergo sexual reproduction whilst prokaryotes reproduce asexually. Sexual reproduction in eukaryotes results in offspring with genetic material which is a mixture of the parents’ genome and during this process, genetic variation is generated via sexual recombination.

On the other hand, a prokaryote will reproduce clones of itself via binary fission and relies more on horizontal genetic transfer for variation.

Cell division

This occurs by mitosis for eukaryotic cells and binary fission for prokaryotic cells.

Eukaryotic cells undergo mitosis then cytokinesis. This involves numerous stages - the nuclear membrane disintegrates then the chromosomes are sorted and separated to ensure that each daughter cell receives two sets (a diploid number) of chromosomes. Following this, the cytoplasm divides to form two genetically identical daughter cells i.e. cytokinesis.

In contrast, prokaryotes undergo a simpler process of binary fission. This is faster than mitosis and involves DNA (nucleoid) replication, chromosomal segregation, and ultimately cell separation into two daughter cells genetically identical to the parent cell. Unlike mitosis, this process does not involve the nuclear envelope and centromere and spindle formation.

• http://www.diffen.com/difference/Eukaryotic_Cell_vs_Prokaryotic_Cell
• www.life.umd.edu/.../ProkaryoticvsEukaryotic.htm
• http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/eukaryotic-cells-14023963
• bscb.org/.../
• http://www.nature.com/scitable/content/mitosis-6656772

Further Reading

• All Cell Content
• Structure and Function of the Cell Nucleus
• What Are Organelles?
• Cilia and Flagella in Eukaryotes
• Mitosis vs Meiosis

Last Updated: Jul 19, 2023

Michael Greenwood

Michael graduated from the University of Salford with a Ph.D. in Biochemistry in 2023, and has keen research interests towards nanotechnology and its application to biological systems. Michael has written on a wide range of science communication and news topics within the life sciences and related fields since 2019, and engages extensively with current developments in journal publications.  

Please use one of the following formats to cite this article in your essay, paper or report:

Greenwood, Michael. (2023, July 19). Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells: Similarities and Differences. News-Medical. Retrieved on September 15, 2024 from https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Eukaryotic-and-Prokaryotic-Cells-Similarities-and-Differences.aspx.

Greenwood, Michael. "Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells: Similarities and Differences". News-Medical . 15 September 2024. <https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Eukaryotic-and-Prokaryotic-Cells-Similarities-and-Differences.aspx>.

Greenwood, Michael. "Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells: Similarities and Differences". News-Medical. https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Eukaryotic-and-Prokaryotic-Cells-Similarities-and-Differences.aspx. (accessed September 15, 2024).

Greenwood, Michael. 2023. Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells: Similarities and Differences . News-Medical, viewed 15 September 2024, https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/Eukaryotic-and-Prokaryotic-Cells-Similarities-and-Differences.aspx.

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• Cell (Biology): An Overview of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells: Similarities & Differences

Cells are the basic building block of life.

The smallest living organisms only need one of these building blocks and others only need a handful.

More complex life forms on the evolutionary tree, such as moss, saguaro cacti and black bears, are made up of millions or trillions of cells that cooperate to form an individual organism.

All of these cells , whether they operate as a solitary bacterial cell or as part of a complex system such as the human body, can be sorted into two main categories: eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells .

Most of the organisms in the world are made of prokaryotic cells, and these are usually unicellular. Prokaryotes are bacteria and archaea .

TL;DR (Too Long; Didn't Read)

Most prokaryotes are unicellular and are either archaea or bacteria. Their cells are smaller than eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes include larger, more complex organisms such as plants and animals. Only eukaryotes have membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus. Prokaryotes divide via using binary fission, while eukaryotic cells divide via mitosis.

Eukaryotes reproduce sexually through meiosis , which allows for genetic variance.

Prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually, copying themselves. Despite this, gene transfer processes still allow for genetic variance. One of these is transduction in which viruses move DNA from one bacterium to another.

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: The Basics

All of known life on Earth is sorted into a classification system that begins with three categories called domains and spreads out with each descending rank. This is what is commonly known as the tree of life.

The three domains are:

The organisms in Archaea and Bacteria are prokaryotes, while the organisms in Eukarya have eukaryotic cells.

The Archaea domain has subcategories, but scientific sources differ on whether these categories are phyla or kingdoms. They are:

• Crenarchaeota
• Euryarchaeota
• Korarchaeota

The Bacteria domain used to continue directly down the tree into the single Monera kingdom . However, newer classification systems eliminate Monera and divide the Bacteria domain into the two kingdoms of Eubacteria and Archaebacteria, which is sometimes written as Archaea but should not be confused with the domain of Archaea.

The Eukarya domain is divided into four kingdoms. These are:

All plant, protist, fungal and animal cells are eukaryotes. Most of them are multicellular, although there are some exceptions. In contrast, prokaryotes – bacteria and archaea – are single-celled organisms, with only a few exceptions. Prokaryotes tend to have smaller cell sizes than eukaryotes.

Major Differences in Cell Structure

The reason for the difference in cell sizes between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells belongs to the different structure and organization between the two types of cells.

The lack of membrane-bound organelles in prokaryotes might be the most noticeable difference. While eukaryotic cells contain organelles enclosed in membranes – two examples would be the Golgi body and the endoplasmic reticulum – prokaryotes do not.

Prokaryotes also lack a membrane-bound nucleus, which is another organelle. Without a nucleus or any other organelles, prokaryotic cells are incapable of the kinds of specialized functions that eukaryotic cells engage in.

They cannot perform the advanced functions that cells with many supportive organelles can do.

Eukaryotes store their DNA as chromosomes within the nucleus, but prokaryotes lack the nucleus .

Instead, most of their DNA is in one chromosome-like structure that sits in an area of the cytoplasm called the nucleoid . This nucleoid does not have a membrane of its own. Additional bits of DNA called plasmids are shaped like rings and exist in the cytoplasm outside the nucleoid.

Differences in Organization

Prokaryotic cells engage in reproduction through a process of cell division called binary fission .

Eukaryotic cells use a different process of cell division called mitosis , which involves a constant cycle of cell growth and development.

There are frequent checkpoints for the cell to go through, monitoring the cell’s external and internal conditions, and redirecting the cell’s resources and functions when necessary.

A fundamental part of all life on Earth is the transfer of genetic material to future generations.

Eukaryotes reproduce sexually through a process called meiosis , which randomly sorts the genes from two parents to form the DNA of the offspring.

Sexual reproduction maximizes the genetic variability of the offspring of two parents, strengthening the genetic line and minimizing the risk of a random mutation wiping out most of a population.

Prokaryotes reproduce asexually, which creates a precise copy of the original cell. Genetic variance comes in the form of less complex processes of gene transfer than eukaryotes, such as transduction . In this process, genes are transferred from one bacterial cell to another by means of viral cells.

The viruses grab the plasmids from one bacterium and transfer it to another bacterial cell. The DNA in the plasmid becomes integrated with the other DNA of the recipient cell.

Similarities Between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

For all the differences between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells, they have some features in common, too.

Both cells have a plasma membrane, which serves as a barrier between the inside of the cell and the outside.

The plasma membrane uses certain molecules embedded within it to allow foreign bodies to pass into the cell or to allow matter within the cell to pass out of the cell.

Proteins embedded in the membrane do something similar, as well: they act as pumps that push matter into or out of the cell, rather than allowing it to pass through.

Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have ribosomes .

Ribosomes are small organelles used to synthesize proteins as the cell needs them. They can either float freely in the cell or sit on the surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic cells, (giving it the designation of "rough," in comparison to its smooth sibling that lacks ribosomes).

They receive messages from messenger RNA molecules , telling them what proteins the cell needs.

They translate these messages into protein molecules by assembling amino acids . Although the process of protein synthesis works differently in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, it is is closely related and involves ribosomes in both cases.

Related cell biology topics:

• Cell Wall: Definition, Structure & Function (with Diagram)
• Cell Membrane: Definition, Function, Structure & Facts
• Animal vs Plant Cells: Similarities & Differences (with Chart)
• Nucleus: Definition, Structure & Function (with Diagram)
• Golgi Apparatus: Function, Structure (with Analogy & Diagram)
• What Happens to the Nuclear Membrane During Cytokinesis?

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• Arizona State University: Ask a Biologist: Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
• Napa Valley College: Introduction to Cells: Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
• Biology LibreTexts: Prokaryotes
• Palomar College: Major Divisions of Life
• Florida State University: Molecular Expressions: Bacterial Cell Structure
• Western Washington University: Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
• British Society for Cell Biology: Ribosome

About the Author

Rebecca E. received a degree in human development before attending graduate school in writing. She has an extensive background in cognition and behavior research, particularly the neurological bases for personality traits and psychological illness. As a freelance writer, her specialty is science and medical writing. She's written for Autostraddle, The Griffith Review and The Sycamore Review.

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Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: What's the Difference?

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You know when you hear somebody start a sentence with, "There are two kinds of people..." and you think to yourself "Oh boy, here it comes."

But what if I were to tell you that there are just two kinds of organisms?

According to scientists, the world is split into two kinds of organisms — prokaryotic vs. eukaryotic — which have two different types of cells . An organism can be made up of either one type or the other. Some organisms consist of only one measly cell, but even so, that cell will either be either prokaryotic or eukaryotic. It's just the way things are.

Organelles in Complex Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic efficiency apartment vs. eukaryotic mansion, the evolution of eukaryotes.

The difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells has to do with the little stuff-doing parts of the cell, called organelles.

Prokaryotic cells are simpler and lack the eukaryote's membrane-bound organelles and nucleus, which encapsulate the cell's DNA . Though more primitive than eukaryotes, prokaryotic bacteria are the most diverse and abundant group of organisms on Earth . We humans are literally covered in prokaryotes, inside and out.

On the other hand, all humans, animals, plants, fungi and protists are made up of eukaryotic cells. And though some eukaryotes are single-celled — think amoebas and paramecium — there are no prokaryotes that have more than one cell.

"I think of a prokaryote as a one-room efficiency apartment and a eukaryote as a $6 million mansion," says Erin Shanle, a professor in the Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences at Longwood University, in an email interview. "The size and separation of functional 'rooms,' or organelles, in eukaryotes is similar to the many rooms and complex organization of a mansion. Prokaryotes have to get similar jobs done in a single room without the luxury of organelles."

One reason this analogy is helpful is because all cells, both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, are surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane which allows only certain molecules to get in and out — much like the windows and doors of our home.

You can lock your doors and windows to keep out stray cats and burglars (the cellular equivalent to viruses or foreign materials), but you unlock the doors to bring in groceries and to take out the trash. In this way, all cells maintain internal homeostasis , or stability.

"Prokaryotes are much simpler with respect to structure," says Shanle. "They have a single 'room' to perform all the necessary functions of life, namely producing proteins from the instructions stored in DNA, which is the complete set of instructions for building a cell. Prokaryotes don't have separate compartments for energy production, protein packaging, waste processing or other key functions."

In contrast, eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles that are used to separate all these processes, which means the kitchen is separate from the master bathroom — there are dozens of walled-off rooms, all of which serve a different function in the cell.

For example, DNA is stored, replicated and processed in the eukaryotic cell's nucleus, which is itself surrounded by a selectively permeable membrane. This protects the DNA and allows the cell to fine-tune the production of proteins necessary to do its job and keep the cell alive.

Other key organelles include:

• Mitochondria : Processes sugars to generate energy
• Lysosome : Processes waste
• Endoplasmic reticulum : Helps organize proteins for distribution around the cell.

Prokaryotic cells have to do a lot of this same stuff, but they just don't have separate rooms to do it in. They're more of a two-bit operation in this sense.

"Many eukaryotic organisms are made up of multiple cell types, each containing the same set of DNA blueprints, but which perform different functions," says Shanle. "By separating the large DNA blueprints in the nucleus, certain parts of the blueprint can be utilized to create different cell types from the same set of instructions."

You might be wondering how organisms got to be divided in this way. Well, according to endosymbiotic theory, it all started about 2 billion years ago, when some large prokaryote managed to create a nucleus by folding its cell membrane in on itself.

"Over time, a smaller prokaryotic cell was engulfed by this larger cell," says Shanle. "The smaller prokaryote could perform aerobic respiration, or process sugars into energy using oxygen, similar to the mitochondria we see in eukaryotes that are living today. This smaller cell was maintained within the larger host cell, where it replicated and was passed on to subsequent generations. This endosymbiotic relationship ultimately led to the smaller cell becoming a part of the larger cell, eventually losing its autonomy and much of its original DNA."

However, the mitochondria of today's eukaryotes have their own DNA blueprints that replicate independently from the DNA in the nucleus, and mitochondrial DNA has some similarity to prokaryotic DNA, which supports the endosymbiotic theory.

A similar model is thought to have led to the evolution of chloroplasts in plants, but the story begins with a eukaryotic cell containing a mitochondria engulfing a photosynthetic prokaryote.

Eukaryotes and prokaryotes — they're different! But even though it can be hard to see the similarities between humans and bacteria, we are all made of the same stuff: DNA, proteins, sugars and lipids.

Although endosymbiotic theory is just "a theory," it's the best explanation of the evolution of eukaryotes. Though it may one day be disproven, it's supported by lots of facts.

Prokaryotic Cell FAQ

What is a prokaryotic cell, what is the structure of a prokaryotic cell, what is the difference between a prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell, what is an example of a prokaryotic cell, what is the main function of a prokaryotic cell.

Please copy/paste the following text to properly cite this HowStuffWorks.com article:

Difference Between Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic Cells

To gain a stronghold in biology, students must understand the difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Furthermore, all the living organisms belong to one of the cell groups- prokaryotes vs eukaryotes. Moreover, cellular structure is the main factor in determining which group an organism belongs to.

Definition of Prokaryotic Cells

One way of certainly ascertaining the difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells is because of their definitions. Prokaryotic cells are defined as those that do not possess a true nucleus or membrane-bound organelles. Furthermore, organisms within the domains of Archaea and Bacteria involve prokaryotic cells.

Definitions of Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells refer to those cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, and their enclosing is due to a plasma membrane. Furthermore, organisms that have eukaryotic cells include fungi , animals, plants, and protozoa. Also, the grouping of these organisms takes place into the biological domain Eukaryota.

Difference between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells

Important difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells

More Details About Prokaryotic Cells

Going into the details of prokaryotic cells will bring out the difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells in a better way. Furthermore, organisms possessing prokaryotic cells are unicellular in nature.  Moreover, a significant difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells is that the latter are more complex.

Furthermore,  a prokaryotic cell contains only a single membrane and it surrounds the cell as an outer membrane. In contrast, eukaryotic cells have a nuclear membrane that surrounds a nucleus.

More Details About Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells contain a variety of structures that are known as organelles. Furthermore, organelles perform multiple functions within the cell. Moreover, examples of organelles are ribosomes, the endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria.

Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus and this is surrounded by a nucleus envelope. Moreover, it has the genetic material DNA. Furthermore, all of the organelles receive physical support and stabilization through the cytoskeleton, which also facilitates sending of signals from one cell part to another.

In eukaryotic cells, the cytoskeleton comprises mainly of three types of filaments: microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Furthermore, cytosol is a gel-like substance that envelopes every organelle in the cell.

FAQs About Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells

Question 1: Explain about the main difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

Answer 1: The main difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is with regards to a membrane-bound nucleus. Most noteworthy, eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus while the prokaryotes are without it.

Question 2: What is the DNA form in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells?

Answer 2: The DNA form of prokaryotic cells is of a circular form. In contrast, the DNA form pf eukaryotic cells is of a linear form. This is also a difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.

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Difference Between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells

March 24, 2017 by Rachna C 22 Comments

Prokaryotic cells are the smallest living entities on the planet. They are small, simple cells with uncomplicated living mechanisms. This simplicity is due to the absence of multiple organelles with complex structures and more complex mechanisms of action. On the other hand, the eukaryotic cells have a larger framework and an intricate mechanism of living. This complexity is due to the presence of well defined, membrane-bound cellular organelles.

The prokaryotes are lower organisms that are unicellular whereas the eukaryotes can be unicellular (amoeba) or can be multicellular (higher organisms like plants, animals, fungi etc). The prokaryotic cell lacks the membrane-bound nucleus and thus the genetic material remains scattered in the form of the nucleoid. Contrarily, the eukaryotic cell has a precisely distinct nucleus to store the genetic material.

In the following content, we will discuss the general difference between these two types of cells with the help of a comparison chart along with a brief description of their respective components.

Content: Prokaryotic cells Vs Eukaryotic cells

Comparison chart, what are prokaryotic cells, what are eukaryotic cells.

• Key Differences

The term prokaryotic has arisen from Greek words “Pro” and “Karyon” ( Pro: ancient/primitive; karyon: nut/nucleus). As the name suggests, the evolution of prokaryotic cells is at least 3.5 billion years old . But even today they are a substantial part of human life.

These are basically cells with simple configuration, orientation and mechanism. This is because they lack membrane-bound, well-structured organelles and are not advanced as eukaryotes. Most of the microbial fauna like bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic in nature.

Even with their very tiny framework and unorganised system , they are an integral part of our lives. Not only in our surroundings, some of them even exist inside us . They have a crucial role in the agricultural and industrial sectors too. Apart from this, they might also be harmful in several circumstances, leading to diseases.

Characteristics of Prokaryotic Cells

• They are considered to be the most ancient form of life on the planet.
• Enormously small (can be 1/2 to 1/1000 times smaller than eukaryotic cell) with uncomplicated structure.
• No specified membrane-bound organelles.
• DNA of these cells are closely and densely packed together, termed as “ nucleoid “. Not considered as true nucleus due to lack of nuclear membrane.
• Mostly consist of whip-like projections on the surface known as flagella for locomotion.
• Have external protrusions- pilli and fimbriae . They help the cell to adhere to the surface of other cells.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

• Cell Wall: Provides rigidity and support for the cell.
• Cell membrane: Thin layer of protein and lipids that surrounds the cytoplasm and regulate the flow of materials inside and outside the cells.
• Ribosomes: Tiny particles on the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum(RER). They help in protein synthesis.
• Glycocalyx:  This layer functions as a receptor, aids the adhesion, and provides protection to the cell wall.
• Nucleoid: It is the location where genetic material is condensed into a small packet.
• Pilus: Hair like hollow attachment present on the surface of bacteria, and is used to transfer DNA to other cells during cell-cell adhesion.
• Mesosomes: It is the extension of the cell membrane that is unfolded into the cytoplasm. Their play part in cellular respiration.
• Flagellum:  Helps in movement, attached to the basal body of the cell.
• Fimbriae: Helps in attachment to the surface and other bacteria while mating. These are small hair-like structures.
• Inclusion : They are small granule like structures that facilitate the storage of carbohydrates, glycogen, phosphate, fats that can be used when needed.

Note: The prokaryotes have the special ability to go into the dormant stage for surviving in the harsh unsuitable environment. For this the generates the endospores which can bear all kinds of stresses. 

Role in our lives

• The prokaryotes are prime contributors to the oxygen production process(example: cyanobacteria).
• Used in food tech industries for providing texture and flavour to different food items(Example: Streptococcus, lactobacillus etc.).
• Help in waste management by recycling the waste and reducing the organic debris into simpler inorganic components.
• Facilitate the action of digestion , peristalsis and many other metabolic activities.

The term eukaryote has also been elicited from the Greek language. It comprises the combination of two words” Eu “(means true/real) and “ karyon “(nut/nucleus). They are named so due to the presence well-defined, membrane-bound nucleus. They are the advanced and modernized type of cells found in higher organisms like plants, animals, and fungi.

Unlike prokaryotes, these cells have specified organelles that are assigned to perform specialized functions. For this reason, they have a bit complex level of organization .  These calls can be present in the singular, colonial or multi-cellular configuration as per the complexity of the organism.

Characteristics of Eukaryotic Cells

• They are comparatively larger in size(10-100 µm diameter). Due to this, are easy to visualize under a light microscope.
• Are of different shapes and structures based on their location as well as the function they perform (RBC are spherical, muscle cells are elongated, nerve cells are branched and so on).
• Their shape might be rigid or flexible . For example, the amoeba has a pleomorphic(changeable) structure while the structure of animals and cells is rigid.
• Mostly, DNA is found as the genetic material. This DNA has a linear fashion with multiple ori sites for replication.
• The chromatin material inside the nucleus floats in the gel-like, semi-liquid known as nucleoplasm .

Components of Eukaryotic Cells

The eukaryotic cell can be studied under the following headings:

• Cell Wall : It provides shapes, rigidity, and support to the cell. Compositions of the cell wall may vary of different organisms but mainly constitutes cellulose, pectin, chitin or peptidoglycan. Present in plant cells
• Cell Membrane : It is a thin semipermeable membrane surrounding the cytoplasm. It acts as the barrier of the cell that regulates the entry and exit of the substances in and out of the cell. This layer is made up of two layers of phospholipids embedded with proteins. In the plant cells, this layer is present below the cell wall whereas in the animal cell it is the outermost layer.
• Nucleus : Eukaryotic cells have a well-defined nucleus where DNA (genetic material) is stored, it helps in the production of protein synthesis and ribosomes also. The chromosome is present inside the nucleus, which is surrounded by the nuclear envelope . It is a bi-lipid layer and controls the passage of ions and molecules.

• Cytoplasm : The cytoplasm is a gel-like fluid that is filled inside the cell. All the cellular organelles are submerged inside it. Its major functions are to provide a platform for the conduction of several crucial metabolic activities. Some of the major cytoplasmic organelles are:

Mitochondria : It is called the powerhouse of the cell. Its major function is the generation of energy in the form of ATP. It possesses its personalized DNA that remains floating in the matrix inside.

Golgi Apparatus : It consists of a stack of many flattened, disc-shaped sacs known as cisternae. The major role of the Golgi body is packaging and transporting the cellular component within and/or outside the cell.  Also sometimes, they are responsible for storing these materials.

Endoplasmic Reticulum : They generate a pipeline network in the cell. This conducts the cellular metabolites to the different parts and locations of the cell. It transport lipids, proteins, and other materials through the cell. They are of two types of smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough endoplasmic reticulum.

Chloroplast : These are only found in algae and plants. Their prime role is to store the chlorophyll that is essential to perform a photosynthesis reaction. Also stores various other pigments like carotenoids, xanthophylls etc that are responsible for providing multiple colours to the plants.

Ribosomes : Tiny but significant organelle. Generally present over the surface of the endoplasmic reticulum. They aid the protein synthesis mechanism in the cell. Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes which are further divided into two subunits which are 40S and 60S (S stands for Sedverg unit).

• Cytoskeleton : It is the supporting framework of the cells. it consists of two types of arrangements- Microtubules and Microfilaments.
• Microtubules are large filaments having a diameter of about 24 nanometers (nm), made up of a protein called tubulin.
• Microfilaments the smaller ones have a diameter of 6nm, They are made up of the protein called actin.
• Cellular Projections : There are cellular outgrowths on the outer surface for movements and adhesion. Two main types of appendages are-
• Cilia: These are small, thin thread-like structures. A single might possess thousands of cilia. Some of the cells such as ciliated epithelium, cells of bronchi, oviduct etc bear cilia over their surface.
• Flagella: They are comparatively longer threads. They generally look like the tail of the cell. The sperm cell is the best example of flagella bearing cell.
• Cellular surface : The surface of the cells contains several receptors for sending and receiving signals. The glycocalyx is a kind of polysaccharide on the outermost surface of the cell. These structures on the surface help in cell adherence, protection and receiving signals from other cells .
• Other components:  There are several other organelles that perform various functions. Some of them are:

Lysosomes –  Lysosomes are manufactured by the endoplasmic reticulum and golgi bodies. They are recognized as the suicide bags that digest every unnecessary element including old organelles, cellular debris, foreign bodies such as pathogens etc.

Vacuoles -Vacuoles are the big-sized storage bags of the cell. They not only store the necessary components.

Key Difference Between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cells

Following are the substantial difference between Prokaryotic Cells and Eukaryotic Cell:

• Prokaryotic cells are the primitive kind of cell, whose size varies from 0.5-3µm, they are generally found in single-cell organisms. While eukaryotic cells have a modernized cell structure containing different components in it, their size varies from 2-100µm, they are found in multicellular organisms.
• Organelles like mitochondria, ribosomes, Golgi body, endoplasmic reticulum, cell wall, chloroplast, etc. lack in prokaryotic cells, while these organelles are present in eukaryotic organisms. Though cell wall and chloroplast are not found in the animal cell, it is present in the green plant cell, a few bacteria, and algae.
• The main element of distinction between the prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the presence of a nucleus. The prokaryotes do not possess a well-defined structure to store the genetic material. Genetic material remains tightly wounded in a place called the nucleoid. In contrast, the eukaryotic cell has a definite nucleus to store the genetic matter.
• In prokaryotes, the cell division takes place through conjugation, transformation, transduction but in eukaryotes, it is through the process of cell division.
• The process of transcription and translation occurs together, and there is a single origin of replication in the prokaryotic cell. On the other hand, there are multiple origins of replication and transcription that occur in the nucleus and translation in the eukaryotes.
• Genetic Material is circular and double-stranded in prokaryotes, but in eukaryotes, it is mostly linear and double-stranded.
• Prokaryotes reproduce asexually; commonly Eukaryotes have a sexual mode of reproduction.
• Prokaryotes are the simplest, smallest, and most abundantly found cells on earth; Eukaryotes are larger and complex cells.

The cell is the basic unit of life, responsible for all biological activities of the living being whether its prokaryote or eukaryote. Both of these cells vary in their role, like prokaryotes are the old type of cells hence they lack a proper nucleus and other organelles too, which are very well present in eukaryotes, as these are the evolved and advanced cells.

More Comparisons:

• Difference Between Cytoplasm and Protoplasm
• Difference Between Bacteria and Fungi
• Difference Between Smooth and Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Difference Between Plant Cell and Animal Cell
• Difference Between Monera and Protista

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Microbe Notes

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes (47 Key Differences)

Table of Contents

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Prokaryotes Definition

Prokaryotes are single-celled entities that are primitive in structure and function as they lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other organelles. The term “prokaryote” is derived from two Greek words, ‘pro’ meaning ‘before’ and ‘karyon’ meaning ‘nucleus’. Prokaryotes are considered to be the first living organisms of the earth as they are the simplest form of life.

Image created using biorender.com

Characteristics of Prokaryotes

The general characteristics of prokaryotic cells are listed below:

• In general, Prokaryotes range in size from 0.1 to 5.0 µm and are considerably smaller than eukaryotic cells.
• The shape of Prokaryotes ranges from cocci, bacilli, spirilla, and vibrio. However, prokaryotic cells with modifications of these shapes are also found in nature.
• The cellular organization of prokaryotic cells is primitive as they lack a membrane-bound nucleus and other membrane-bound cell organelles.
• The genetic material of prokaryotic cells in a single chromosome is made up of a single strand of DNA.
• A critical protein, histone protein, that is found bound in the chromosomes of eukaryotes is absent in prokaryotic cells.
• Prokaryotic cells also lack the nucleolus and the mitotic apparatus.
• The cell wall of prokaryotic cells is non-cellulosic and is made up of carbohydrates and lipids.
• Prokaryotic cells are asexual and thus, reproduce via asexual means without the formation of gametes.

Prokaryotes Structure (Components/ Parts)

The structure of a prokaryote is not as complex as eukaryotic cells as they have primitive cell organelles. Generally, most prokaryotic cells have the following components/ parts:

• This is an additional outer covering in some prokaryotic cells that serve to protect the cell against foreign invaders.
• The capsule is made up of polysaccharides, that allows the cells to cling to various surfaces and preserves the moisture in the cell.
• The cell wall is a tough coring of prokaryotic cells present inside the capsule.
• The cell wall of most prokaryotes is made up of polymer of carbohydrates and lipids termed, peptidoglycan.
• In Archaeal cells, however, the cell wall doesn’t contain peptidoglycan but some other structure called pseudopeptidoglycan. It Is made up of proteins and other polymers.
• The cell wall provides shape to the cell while protecting the cell organelles present in the cytoplasm of the cell.

Cell membrane/ Plasma membrane/ Cytoplasmic membrane

• Underneath the cell wall is a cell membrane that is made up of phospholipid.
• The phospholipid forms a bilayer consisting of lipid composed of glycerol attached to a hydrophobic phosphate head and two hydrophilic fatty acid tails.
• In archaea, the phospholipid tails are usually connected, forming a monolayer instead of the bilayer structure.
• The plasma membrane in prokaryotic cells provides protection to the cell while allowing the transport of essential molecules in and out of the cell.
• The cytoplasm is the entire space of cells present inside of the cell membrane.
• It contains a gel-like cytosol and water-based solution that contains minerals and other ions essential for the cell.
• Besides, the cytoplasm also contains other cellular structures like the chromosomes and ribosomes.
• All prokaryotic cells have 70S ribosomes. The 70S ribosomes are made up of two subunits, 30S, and 50S.
• Here, the 50S subunit contains 23S, and 5S rRNA and the 30S subunit contains 16S rRNA.
• The ribosome is the most commonly observed internal structure in prokaryotic cells.
• The size and number of ribosomes differ in different prokaryotic cells.
• The ribosome is responsible for the formation of polypeptides and in turn, proteins.
• Nucleoid region
• The nucleoid region of cytoplasm in prokaryotic cells contains a single circular chromosome and small rings of extrachromosomal DNA called plasmids .
• The single circular chromosome is present as a single copy of genetic material in contrast to the two copies of DNA in eukaryotes.
• The prokaryotic genomes are also smaller in size than the eukaryotic genomes.
• The plasmids, in turn, are copied independently copied outside of the chromosomes. These plasmids might carry some non-essential genes.
• Many prokaryotic cells have cell appendages that protrude out from the cell surface as flagella , pili, and fimbriae.
• Flagella are the most common appendages in many prokaryotic cells.
• These are tail-like structures that assist the cell in moving around.
• Fimbriae are thin filamentous structures that are used to stick the cells to various surfaces.
• Pilli, in turn, are longer filaments that have different roles in different cells. One example of this is the sex pilli that holds two cells together as they transfer the DNA molecules by the process of conjugation .

Division of Prokaryotes (Reproduction)

As mentioned earlier, prokaryotic cells reproduce asexually without the formation of gametes. Some asexual modes of reproduction in prokaryotes are:

Binary fission

• Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction where a single living cell or an organelle grows twice its size and then splits into two identical daughter cells, where each of these daughter cells has the potential to grow into the size of the original cell or organelle.
• Binary fission is the mode of reproduction in many prokaryotes including, archaea, cyanobacteria, and eubacteria.
• During this process, the genetic material of the parent cell is equally divided into two daughter cells. As a result, no genetic variation is observed in the newly formed prokaryotic cells.

Steps of binary fission

• The DNA of the cell divides to form two identical DNA molecules, both of which are moved towards the cell membrane.
• The cell then doubles its size, and the cell membrane slowly starts to divide with each having a copy of the DNA.
• Once the division of the cell membrane is completed, the cell wall is formed between the two strands of DNA dividing the parent cell into two identical daughter cells.

Recombination

• Another asexual mode of reproduction in prokaryotic cells is via recombination.
• In this case, the genetic material of one cell is incorporated into the cell of another prokaryote via transduction, transformation, and conjugation.
• In conjugation, two cells are connected via sex pilli where genes are transferred through the pilli.
• In transformation, the prokaryotic cell takes up the genetic material from the environment and incorporates it into the bacterial chromosome.
• In transduction, the exchange of genes occurs via viral infection. The bacteriophage first infects one bacterium and takes up the targeted gene and transfers it to another cell.

Prokaryotes Examples

Bacterial cells.

• Bacteria are the single-celled organisms that are found in all ecosystems throughout the world.
• The cell wall of the bacterial cell is formed of peptidoglycan that makes it tough and thick.
• Capsules are unique to some bacteria and thus might not be present in other prokaryotic cells.
• The genetic material of bacteria is present in the form of circular coils of chromosomes.
• Examples of bacterial cells are E. coli , Streptomyces spp, Pseudomonas spp, etc.

Archaeal cell (Archaea)

• Archaeal cells are similar to bacterial cells as they too are primitive unicellular organisms.
• Archaeal cells are mostly found in extreme environments like hot springs, oceans, and marshlands.
• The capsule is not present in archaeal cells, and the cell wall is made up of pseudopeptidoglycan, composed of proteins.
• Similarly, the cell membrane of archaeal cells has a monolayer of phospholipid that protects the cell against harsh environments.
• Examples of archaeal cells are Halobacterium spp, Thermoplasma spp, Sulfolobus spp, etc.

FAQs on Prokaryotes

What are three examples of prokaryotes .

Any three examples of Prokaryotes are blue-green algae, E. coli, and mycoplasma.

Do Prokaryotes have ribosomes?

Yes, Prokaryotes have ribosomes. The ribosome is of 70S type.

Do Prokaryotes have a nucleus?

No, Prokaryotes do not have a membrane-bound nucleus, but they do have a nucleoid region in the cytoplasm that contains the genetic material.

Do Prokaryotes have mitochondria?

No, Prokaryotes do not have mitochondria.

Is DNA found in Prokaryotes ?

Yes, DNA is found as genetic material and extrachromosomal plastids in Prokaryotes .

How do Prokaryotes divide?

Prokaryotes divide through asexual methods like binary fission and conjugation.

Eukaryotes Definition

Eukaryotes are cells that are complex in structure and function as they have a membrane-bound well-defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

• The term “eukaryote” is derived from Greek words, “eu” meaning ‘true’ and “karyon’ meaning ‘nucleus.’
• Eukaryotic cells have a more advanced structural composition when compared to prokaryotes.
• By virtue of these advancements, eukaryotic cells are capable of performing more complex functions than prokaryotic cells.

Characteristics of Eukaryotes

The general characteristics of eukaryotic cells are listed below:

• The size of Eukaryotes is significantly larger than prokaryotic cells as the size ranges from 10-100 µm in diameter.
• The shape of Eukaryotes varies significantly with the type of cell. Some cells are pleiomorphic like Amoeba, whereas some have a defined shape like plant cells. The shape of the cells is highly influenced by environmental factors as well as other functional adaptations.
• Eukaryotic cells have a more advanced cellular organization with multiple membrane-bound organelles and well-defined nucleus.
• The genetic material of Eukaryotes is DNA, and it is linear and has multiple origins of replication.
• The nucleus of eukaryotic cells is surrounded by a complex nuclear membrane. The chromosomes in the nucleus are complexed with histone protein to form linear chromosomes as opposed to circular chromosomes of prokaryotes.
• The cell wall that is present in some Eukaryotes is made up of cellulose or other carbohydrates.
• Some eukaryotic cells like yeast cells reproduce asexually via mitosis or fission, whereas other cells reproduce sexually.

Eukaryotes Structure (components/ parts)

Eukaryotes are much larger in size when compared with prokaryotic cells, having a volume about 10,000 times higher than prokaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are formed of a number of membrane-bound and membrane-less organelles that all perform together to support the cell’s organization and function. The common component/ parts in eukaryotic cells are as follows:

• The cell wall is present in some eukaryotic cells like some protists, fungal and plant cells.
• The cell wall in plants and some protists is made up of cellulose microfibrils and a network of glycans embedded in the matrix of pectin polysaccharides.
• The composition of the cell wall in fungal cells is different as in fungal cells, the cell wall is composed of a different polysaccharide, chitin.
• The function of the cell wall, however, is similar in eukaryotic cells. The cell wall provides support and shape to the eukaryotic cells.
• The cell membrane in eukaryotic cells is present inside the cell wall.
• In cells without the cell wall, the cell membrane functions as the outermost covering that separates the internal contents of the cell from the outside environment.
• The plasma membrane is made up of phospholipid bilayer with integral proteins embedded between the two layers.
• The composition of the cell membrane is similar in eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
• The cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell is a fluid-filled space that accommodates all internal cell organelles and other molecules.
• The cytoplasm consists of a jelly-like cytosol and a water-soluble solution containing minerals, ions and other molecules.
• The amount of cytoplasm is higher in eukaryotic cells as compared to prokaryotic cells as the cell volume is more abundant in eukaryotic cells.
• The nucleus is an organelle present in the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell.
• It is more complicated than the prokaryotic nucleus as the nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane having a composition similar to the plasma membrane.
• The genome of a eukaryotic cell is present inside the nucleus where it remains coupled with various proteins like the histone protein.
• Inside the nucleus, the DNA molecules are arranged in chromosomes which are linear and more organized.
• Additionally, the nucleus also houses a nucleolus that is not surrounded by a membrane but has proteins that make up the ribosomes and rRNA.
• In eukaryotic cells, the ribosomes are 80S type containing 60S and 40S subunits.
• The larger subunit is further composed of 5S RNA, 28S RNA, and proteins, whereas the smaller subunit is composed of 18S RNA and 33 proteins.
• The ribosomes in eukaryotic cells are found either attached to the endoplasmic reticulum or are found free in the cytoplasm.

Mitochondria and Plastids

• Mitochondria and plastids are membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells.
• Both mitochondria and plastids have an extrachromosomal DNA that regulates the functions of the organelles.
• In mitochondria, the outer membrane is made up of phospholipid bilayer, whereas the inner layer is folded into cristae where the major physiological function of the cell takes place.
• Plastids are found in eukaryotic cells of plants and algae that provide color to the cell. Additionally, plastids also have a green pigment, chlorophyll, which is required for photosynthesis.

Cytoskeletal structures

• Many eukaryotic cells have cytoplasmic projections like flagella and cilia that are involved in movement, feeding, and sensation of these cells.
• These structures are mainly composed of tubulin proteins supported by microfilaments and microtubules.
• Cytoskeletal structures are also present in the cytoplasm that provides shape and support to the cell.

Division of Eukaryotes (Reproduction)

Some eukaryotic cells can divide only by asexual means while other eukaryotic cells divide both sexually as well as asexually.

Asexual reproduction

• Asexual reproduction is common in all eukaryotic cells except for reproductive cells that form the male and female gamete.
• The most common mode of asexual reproduction is mitosis, where the cell grows double its size and then divided to form two identical daughter cells.
• Unicellular fungal cells and protists divide by budding where new cells arise on the surface of dividing cells in the form of a chain.
• Processes like binary fission and multiple fission are also observed in cells of primitive eukaryotes.
• Some fungi are also known to divide/ reproduce asexually via sporulation.

Sexual reproduction

• The cells of the reproductive system in plants and animals are divided by the sexual method.
• In this method, the cell divided meiotically to form four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes to their parent cell.
• The sexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells is responsible for the variation in different cells.

Eukaryotes Examples

• Plant cells are examples of Eukaryotes where there is a thick cell wall made up of cellulose that provides the shape and structure to the cell.
• Each plant cell has a larger vacuole in the cytoplasm that maintains the turgor pressure of the cell.
• Additionally, plant cells are unique among eukaryotic cells as they have chloroplasts containing chlorophyll that plays an essential role during the process of photosynthesis.

Animal cell

• Animal cells are another group of Eukaryotes that do not have a rigid cell wall.
• The lack of cell wall in animals allows the cells to acquire different shapes and assists the process of phagocytosis and pinocytosis.
• Animal cells are different from plant cells as they have a smaller vacuole, and they don’t have chloroplasts.
• Animal cells have additional organelles, centriole, that generates the mitotic apparatus required during cell division.

Fungal cells

• Fungal cells are similar to plant cells in that they also have a rigid cell wall.
• However, the cell wall is made up of chitin and not cellulose.
• Some fungi are unicellular like yeasts, which have tiny holes in their cell membrane that allows the cells to exchange cytoplasm and other organelles.
• Protists are the unicellular eukaryotes that are primitive when compared to plant or animal cells.
• Most protists don’t have a cell wall while some might.
• Many protists are known to have chloroplast containing chlorophyll while others might have other photosynthetic pigments.
• Protists are known to have cilia and flagella that assist in the movement of the cells.
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8 thoughts on “Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes (47 Key Differences)”

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The Differences and Similarities between Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

This essay is about comparing and contrasting eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. It highlights the structural and functional differences, such as eukaryotic cells having a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells lack these features and have a simpler organization. The essay also discusses similarities, including the presence of a plasma membrane, DNA, and ribosomes in both cell types. It touches on the evolutionary relationship between the two, suggesting that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic ancestors through endosymbiosis. Understanding these distinctions and similarities is essential for fields like microbiology, genetics, and medicine.

How it works

Eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells epitomize the two cardinal configurations of cellular architecture observed in the biological realm. These cellular variants are delineated by their morphological and functional attributes, reflective of their evolutionary trajectories and ecological roles. Despite their disparities, both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells partake in vital life processes, rendering them compelling subjects for juxtaposition.

Eukaryotic cells typically manifest greater intricacy compared to prokaryotic cells. They harbor a distinct nucleus ensheathed within a nuclear envelope, housing their genomic material. This compartmentalization affords heightened regulation and oversight over genetic mechanisms.

Moreover, eukaryotic cells harbor a plethora of membrane-bound organelles, including mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. These organelles execute specialized functions that augment the cellular efficacy and intricacy. For instance, mitochondria are lauded as the cellular powerhouses, facilitating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) synthesis through cellular respiration. Conversely, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are implicated in protein and lipid biosynthesis and conveyance.

Prokaryotic cells, exemplified by bacteria and archaea, lack a well-defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Their genomic material resides in a nucleoid region devoid of a membrane enclosure. This rudimentary organizational schema bespeaks their primordial evolutionary lineage and facilitates rapid proliferation and reproduction. Prokaryotes typically exhibit diminutive proportions compared to eukaryotes, augmenting their favorable surface-area-to-volume ratio. This ratio bestows advantages in nutrient assimilation and waste expulsion. Additionally, prokaryotic cells often possess cell walls comprised of peptidoglycan, providing structural reinforcement and protection. Certain prokaryotes also feature external appendages such as flagella and pili, which facilitate motility and adherence to substrates.

One of the most conspicuous disparities between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells pertains to their dimensions. Eukaryotic cells typically exhibit substantially larger dimensions, ranging from 10 to 100 micrometers in diameter, whereas prokaryotic cells typically measure between 0.1 and 5 micrometers. This pronounced size differential exerts profound influences on cellular intricacy and functionality. Larger eukaryotic cells can accommodate a myriad of organelles and internal structures, fostering intricate life processes. Conversely, the diminutive dimensions of prokaryotic cells expedite rapid molecular diffusion across the cellular membrane, bolstering their rapid growth rates and adaptability.

Despite these disparities, eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells share several fundamental attributes. Both cell types are ensconced by a plasma membrane, which orchestrates the ingress and egress of substances. Moreover, they both utilize deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as their hereditary blueprint and rely on ribosomes for protein synthesis. Foundational metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are conserved across both cell types, underscoring their shared evolutionary lineage. Additionally, both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells exhibit a panoply of forms and functions, adapting to diverse environmental exigencies.

The evolutionary nexus between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells presents another intriguing facet. It is widely posited that eukaryotic cells originated from prokaryotic antecedents via endosymbiosis. As per this hypothesis, select prokaryotic cells were engulfed by larger host cells, eventually evolving into organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts. This symbiotic alliance conferred a discernible selective advantage, catalyzing the evolution of intricate eukaryotic cells. Substantiating evidence includes the presence of double membranes surrounding these organelles and their circular DNA akin to bacterial genomes.

Comprehending the dichotomies and parallels between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells is indispensable across diverse scientific domains, encompassing microbiology, genetics, and evolutionary biology. These insights enrich our understanding of cellular functionalities, the origins of life, and the evolution of complex organisms. Moreover, this comprehension engenders practical ramifications in medicine and biotechnology. For instance, discerning the distinctions between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is pivotal in devising antibiotics efficacious against bacteria whilst sparing human cells.

In conclusion, while eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells diverge significantly in their morphological, functional, and dimensional attributes, they converge on fundamental biological processes and evolutionary origins. Eukaryotic cells are characterized by their compartmentalized nucleus and organelles, whereas prokaryotic cells exhibit a simpler, archaic morphology. Notwithstanding these disparities, both cellular variants execute indispensable life functions and contribute to terrestrial biodiversity. Recognizing these congruities and divergences amplifies our comprehension of biology and informs a spectrum of scientific and medical breakthroughs.

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An Essay on the Differences between Prokaryote & Eukaryote cells.

An Essay on the Differences between

 Prokaryote & Eukaryote cells

All cellular organism fall into two natural groups, known as prokaryotes and eukaryotes. These two groups are fundamentally different. The terms prokaryote  and eukaryote refer to the differences in the location of the DNA. In prokaryotes the DNA is not enclosed by nuclear membranes and lies free in the cytoplasm. The cells therefore lack true nuclei . The cells of eukaryotes , however, do contain true nuclei.

Eukaryotes arose around 1.2 thousand million years ago, and they evolved from prokaryotes which began around 3.5 thousand million years ago.

Although the location of the DNA in the cells is the major difference between the cell types, there are many more differences, which are explored below.

The sizes of the cells are vastly different, in prokaryotes the average diameter of the cell is 0.5-10μm. However, eukaryote cells are much larger in comparison, they are typically 1000-10000 times the volume of prokaryote cells, and their common diameter is 10-100μm.

Prokaryotes mainly arise in unicellular forms and examples of organisms that are prokaryotic is bacteria. Eukaryotes on the other hand arise in multicellular form and examples of eukaryotic celled organisms are fungi, plants, animals and the exception which are protoctist as many of them are unicellular.

This is a preview of the whole essay

As mentioned above the DNA lies free in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes, and lies linear and in a nucleus in eukaryotes. However, in prokaryotes the DNA is ‘naked’ and therefore is not associated with proteins or RNA to form chromosomes. While in eukaryotes the DNA is not naked and is associated with protein & RNA to form chromosomes.

In the two types of cells the ribosomes which are used in protein synthesis are slightly different, in prokaryotic cells the ribosome are 70S and smaller than the 80S larger ribosomes in eukaryotic cells.

In eukaryotic cells the ribosomes may be attached to the endoplasmic reticulum, while in prokaryotic cells there is no endoplasmic reticulum.

When it comes to organelles prokaryotes have relatively few, and the ones present have no envelope surrounding them. Furthermore, prokaryotes have few internal membranes, and if present they are usually only used for respiration or photosynthesis.

On the other hand eukaryotes have many organelles, and many are envelope bounded such as the nucleus or mitochondria. In addition, eukaryotes have a great number and diversity of organelles bounded by single membranes for example Golgi apparatus or lysosomes.

When it comes to respiration, prokaryotes like bacteria use mesosomes, the exceptions being cytoplasmic membranes in blue-green bacteria. While eukaryotes use the organelle- mitochondria, which combines glucose and oxygen in the process of aerobic respiration to give energy.

Eukaryotes in addition have the capabilities to photosynthesize due to organelles such as chloroplast in its cells. While prokaryotes also can photosynthesize but have no chloroplast they create food from membranes which show no stacking in it cells.

Nitrogen fixation is the ability to change the form of nitrogen. Eukaryotic cells do not have the ability to carry out nitrogen fixation, while on the other hand prokaryotic cells do.

The structures of the cell walls and compositions of them are greatly different in the cells. In eukaryotes the cell walls of green plants and fungi are rigid and contain polysaccharides; cellulose is the main strengthening compound in plant walls and chitin in fungal walls, however, there are none in animal cells.

However, prokaryotes cell walls are rigid and contain polysaccharides with amino acids, and murein is the main strengthening compound.

Finally when it comes to movement of the cells, flagellum is used in cells; however the flagellum in prokaryotes and eukaryotes are slightly different. In prokaryote cells the flagella is simple and lacking in microtubules, it is also extra cellular, and it has an average diameter of 20nm.

On the other hand in eukaryotes the structure is complex with ‘9+2’ arrangement of microtubules, it is also intracellular, and the eukaryote flagella also have a diameter of around 200nm.

In conclusion, as seen there are many differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes, in functions, structure and processes.

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            The similarities and differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.              Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells are the two main types of cell found in living organisms. They share many similarities and also many differences. These differences are key to how they function and which jobs they are suitable to perform. Prokaryotic cells are cells that contain a very primitive nucleus as pro- means before and karyon is a Greek word, meaning nucleus. Prokaryotic cells are found in organisms such as bacteria, most commonly eubacteria and archae bacteria. Eukaryotic cells are therefore are found in all other living organisms, the name implying that there is a proper nucleus present. As there is no nucleus present in prokaryotic cells the DNA helix is a single coiled chromosome that is unsupported and so can float freely around the cell, however in a eukaryotic cell the DNA helix is made up of linear chromosomes supported by the histone protein. In Eukaryotic cells there is also a distinct nuclear membrane.              Prokaryotic cells are smaller than Eukaryotic cells, according to "Pharmaceutical Microbiology" the majority of bacteria fall within the general dimensions of 0.75 to 4mm compared to the size of common eukaryotic cells which can be up to 40 times larger than Prokaryotic cells and measure between 50 and 150mm.              Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells both can contain a cell wall however in prokaryotic cells the cell wall is peptidoglycan (a mixture of sugar and protein) if the organism is a eubacteria, or pseudomurein if the organism is a archae bacteria whereas in eukarotic cells a cell wall is only present if the organism is a plant or a fungi and the cell wall is constructed of cellulose in plants or chitin if the organism is a fungi.              Prokaryotic cells and Eukaryotic cells can both contain cytoplasm. That cytoplasm is made of fatty acids joined to glycerol by an ether linkage in both eubacteria, which is a type of prokaryotic cell and in eukaryotic cells.

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• Published: 11 September 2024

The emerging view on the origin and early evolution of eukaryotic cells

• Julian Vosseberg   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3105-9414 1 ,
• Jolien J. E. van Hooff   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8754-1894 1 ,
• Stephan Köstlbacher   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6710-7572 1 ,
• Kassiani Panagiotou   ORCID: orcid.org/0009-0006-1191-7326 1 ,
• Daniel Tamarit   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4940-719X 2 &
• Thijs J. G. Ettema   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6898-6377 1  

Nature volume  633 ,  pages 295–305 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Archaeal evolution
• Molecular evolution

The origin of the eukaryotic cell, with its compartmentalized nature and generally large size compared with bacterial and archaeal cells, represents a cornerstone event in the evolution of complex life on Earth. In a process referred to as eukaryogenesis, the eukaryotic cell is believed to have evolved between approximately 1.8 and 2.7 billion years ago from its archaeal ancestors, with a symbiosis with a bacterial (proto-mitochondrial) partner being a key event. In the tree of life, the branch separating the first from the last common ancestor of all eukaryotes is long and lacks evolutionary intermediates. As a result, the timing and driving forces of the emergence of complex eukaryotic features remain poorly understood. During the past decade, environmental and comparative genomic studies have revealed vital details about the identity and nature of the host cell and the proto-mitochondrial endosymbiont, enabling a critical reappraisal of hypotheses underlying the symbiotic origin of the eukaryotic cell. Here we outline our current understanding of the key players and events underlying the emergence of cellular complexity during the prokaryote-to-eukaryote transition and discuss potential avenues of future research that might provide new insights into the enigmatic origin of the eukaryotic cell.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank B. Snel for helpful advice. This work was supported by the Dutch Research Council (VI.C.192.016 to T.J.G.E. and VI.Veni.212.099 to J.J.E.v.H.), the European Research Council (ERC Consolidator grant 817834 to T.J.G.E.), Volkswagen Foundation (‘Life’ grant 96725 to T.J.G.E.) and the Moore-Simons Project on the Origin of the Eukaryotic Cell (Simons Foundation 73592LPI to T.J.G.E.).

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Vosseberg, J., van Hooff, J.J.E., Köstlbacher, S. et al. The emerging view on the origin and early evolution of eukaryotic cells. Nature 633 , 295–305 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07677-6

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