how to write a law essay australia

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Writing for law

Writing for law requires specific skills, here you will find resources and advice on meeting expectations in the law school.

Chapters 5 - 10 of the Guide to Academic Success

These chapters include helpful advice on how to meet the expectations of your professors when writing essays and exams.

Instructions for accessing the Legal Academic Skills LMS Community

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Examples of annotated papers and exams

These annotated papers and exams include the kind of feedback you will receive from your professors. You can use them as a learning tool for establishing your own sense of the expectations of the law school.

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How To Write Law Essays & Exams

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Stacie I Strong , Associate Professor of Law, University of Sydney

Professor S I Strong is Professor of Law at Emory University in the United States. She specializes in private international law, international commercial dispute resolution and comparative law. Professor Strong's scholarly work has won numerous awards and has been cited as authority to and by various national courts and international tribunals.

Legal writing resources

Using this guide.

• Essays, exams and case notes
• Theses and dissertations
• Professional writing
• Other resources

Reusing content from this guide

Attribute our work under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.

Writing is a critical skill for law students or lawyers alike. As a law student, you will need to plan, write and revise essays, exam responses, and case notes. Higher Degree by Research (HDR) students undertake original research and publish their findings in theses or dissertations. Practising lawyers must be able to write to communicate effectively with their clients and colleagues, draft documents and undertake business development. Use this guide to find books, tools and resources about academic and professional writing for law students and lawyers.

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• Last Updated: Jun 11, 2024 1:00 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.uq.edu.au/how-to-find/legal-writing

Law: Legal Writing (IRAC Essay / Memo / Thesis)

Legal writing - irac essays.

Use IRAC to identify:

• Issue(s):  What happened? Who did it happen to? Where did it happen? What is the area of law? 
• Rules:  Identify relevant case law and legislation, focusing on legal principles
• Application:  Apply the law to the facts and develop legal arguments
• Conclusion:  Stand back and play 'judge', choose the argument that you think is strongest and justify why
• IRAC Guide - The University of Western Australia has developed a useful guide to help you apply the IRAC method when working through a hypothetical legal problem.

Yin, K., & Moore, J. (2020). Neuroplasticity, belief bias and IRAC: Old pedagogy but brand-new tools for first-year legal education?   Journal of the Australasian Law Teachers Association .

• Academic Writing - Assignment steps
• Academic Integrity at ECU - Why reference?
• Writing a legal argument (RMIT University)
• Avoiding plagiarism when conducting legal research  - Tip sheet from University of Queensland

Legal Writing - Memos

• Law research and writing skills: Writing legal memos A useful guide from Monash University.  
• Legal Memos Made Easy An interactive tutorial from University of Ottawa

Legal Writing - Statements of Claim

• Aitken, James K and Peter Butt,  Piesse: The Elements of Drafting  (Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia, 10th ed, 2004)   ( https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ecu/detail.action?docID=4985570 )  
• Rose, William M and Roger Eastman (editor),  Pleadings Without Tears : A Guide to Legal Drafting Under the Civil Procedure Rules  (Oxford University Press, 9th ed, 2017)   ( https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ecu/detail.action?docID=5891827 )  
• Corbett-Jarvis, Nicola and Brendan Grigg,  Effective Legal Writing: A Practical Approach  (LexisNexis Butterworths, 3rd ed, 2020)  Chapter 6   ( https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ecu/reader.action?docID=6463842&ppg=195 )  
• Hyams, Ross, Susan Campbell and Adrian Evans,  Practical Legal Skills : Developing your Clinical Technique  (chapter on Advocacy )   ( https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/ecu/detail.action?docID=4191361 )  
• Susan Blake,  A Practical Approach to Effective Litigation  (Oxford University Press, 8th ed, 2015)  (in print in Joondalup Law Library –  Chapter 12: Drafting Statements of Case )

Legal Writing - Developing a Legal Research Topic

• Selecting and Developing a Legal Research Topic A useful guide from the University of Melbourne, to assist students who are writing a legal research paper and need help selecting a topic and developing a thesis.
• Law research and writing skills: Graduate research A useful guide from Monash University.
• Reflections on Writing a Legal Research Thesis Nick (Survive Law, 25 September 2012) https://www.survivelaw.com/post/967-reflections-on-writing-a-legal-research-thesis

eBooks / Books - Legal Writing

Laying Down the Law

Robin Creyke, David Hamer, Patrick O'Mara, Belinda Smith and Tristan Taylor LexisNexis Butterworths, 11 th ed, 2020) [ebook]

Legal Problem Solving and Syllogistic Analysis: A Guide for Foundation Law Students

Yin, Kenneth & Anibeth Desierto (LexisNexis Butterworths, 2016) [ebook]

Effective Legal Writing: A Practical Guide

Corbett-Jarvis, N and B Grigg  (LexisNexis Butterworths, 3rd ed, 2020) [ebook]

Clear and Precise: Writing Skills for Today's Lawyer

MacDonald, Ros and D Clark-Dickson (Thomson Reuters, 3rd ed, 2010) [ebook]

Legal Writing

Webley, Lisa (Routledge, 4th ed, 2016) [ebook]

Legal Writing: Process, Analysis and Organization

Edwards, Linda H (Wolters Kluwer, 6th ed, 2014) [print] Shelf location:  808.06634 EDW ​

Plain Language for Lawyers

Asprey, Michle (Federation Press, 4th ed, 2010) [ebook] Shelf location: 808.06634 ASP [print]

Practical Legal Skills: Developing Your Clinical Technique.

Hyams, Ross, Susan Campbell, & Adrian Evans (Oxford University Press, 4th ed, 2014) [ebook]

Students' Guide to Legal Writing, Law Exams and Self Assessment

Campbell, Enid, Richard Fox and Melissa De Zwart (Federation Press, 3rd ed, 2010) [ebook]

Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage

Fowler, HW, & J Butterworth (Ed.) (Oxford University Press, 4th ed, 2015) [ebook]

Dictionaries / Encyclopedias - Legal

• Australian Legal Words and Phrases (via Lexis+) Publication Date: Continually Updated Resource
• Encyclopaedic Australian Legal Dictionary (via Lexis+) Publication Date: Continually Updated Resource

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• A Guide to Writing in Law School Steven Tudor and Stephanie Falconer, A Guide to Writing in Law School (La Trobe eBureau, 2024). This book aims to help students improve their writing by presenting various pieces of advice, tips, warnings and encouragement. It contains general chapters on planning, clear writing, and acknowledging your sources, as well as dedicated chapters on some of the specific writing tasks that law students undertake.

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Writing in Law

Like writing in other disciplines, all academic writing in Law courses should be clearly structured, persuasive, and take a position. Despite these similarities, legal writing emphasises accessibility and precision when communicating ideas and interpretation of a case or topic. This is largely due to its practical application in the legal profession.  

Being able to write persuasively and concisely are fundamental skills required of legal practitioners, so developing these communication skills at an early stage is crucial. Even if you do not go into a legal career, these written skills will be useful in other professional areas of employment, such as the public service.

Legal academic writing has its own conventions and standards that will be explored in the following topics. You will find useful strategies you can use to help refine, structure and present your position in some of the most common forms of law assessment

Using HIRAC

Most legal reasoning follows a particular convention: HIRAC. HIRAC provides a statement of the issue or concern (Issue); an explanation of the legal rules that are applicable to the issue (Rule); an application of the rule to a client's facts (Application); and a conclusion that summarises the explanation and application provided (Conclusion). HIRAC is useful as a way of organising and structuring a response to a problem question.

Typically, HIRAC is used to test your ability to analyse facts in a legal case and to apply the law to the facts to see what the possible outcome might be. They also test your ability to identify relevant legal issue(s) and to evaluate competing legal precedents. Whatever the legal problem is, a clear argument or position is required to be taken. This argument should use primary sources (legislation and cases) to persuade its audience and successfully address counterarguments relevant to each legal issue. 

How to structure a HIRAC response?

What follows is a general guide for using HIRAC. HIRAC is generally understood to be a flexible framework which can be used in multiple contexts. As you practice using HIRAC during your degree, it is important to develop a fluid framework that suits you.

It should be noted that HIRAC should not be used too rigidly, but it does provide a useful way to structure a response to a legal question. When you write an assessment using HIRAC, remember that some lecturers will prefer you to follow the method carefully while others won't be as rigid. You will need to clarify your expectations with them.  

Identify the legal issue and summarise it in your heading. This is usually phrased as a short question that encompasses the legal issue.  

Identify the issues that are central to the case. This can be done briefly. Ask yourself what legal question(s) the facts raise. When writing down the issue(s) you should think about questions a judge might be asked to answer. Be aware there might several issues raised. If more than one issue needs to be analysed, the following sections might need to be repeated several times. For example, HIRAC 1, HIRAC 2, HIRAC3, etc, then an overall conclusion.

Identify the law or legal principle relevant to the issue. This should consist of a brief statement of the legal principles to be applied as a way of signposting your analysis in the next section. A citation for each rule should be included. This is done by referring to a primary source of law (legislation or a case). The rule will generally need to be broken down into its component parts and stated accurately to avoid misinterpretation.

Application

Apply the law to the facts. This is the main part of your answer. This is where you match each element of the legal rule(s) you have identified in the previous section with fact. You need to consider arguments on both sides. Are the facts of your case similar to a previous case or can they be distinguished? You need to make an argument here and support that argument by reference to the law. If the law is unclear on a particular set of facts, you are expected to engage in a detailed hypothetical discussion about how the courts are likely to respond to this ambiguous area of the law. Unlike a traditional essay, your main points or conclusions should be stated at the end of each paragraph of your application.

Based on your analysis in the previous section, state a conclusion as to the most likely outcome. This is where you summarise the points of your argument and suggest an answer to the question presented as the heading. You should make a clear statement about what you think is the strongest outcome is likely to be.

Sample HIRACs

Here is a sample of a HIRAC response, focusing on one issue. Note how it addresses the issue concisely. It provides the relevant rule, with references,  and applies that rule to the scenario in question. The conclusion is a concise final sentence. 

Mitomi v Trinity Beach Life-Saving Club Inc.

Duty of care.

Mitomi must establish the Club's personal liability by proving that it owed a duty of care. The defendant will owe a duty when their actions or omissions lead to a reasonably foreseeable risk of inury to a foreseeable plaintiff or class of plaintiffs. [1] Reasonable foreseeability is that which is 'not far-fetched or fanciful'. [2] The vulnerability [3] and special characteristics of the plaintiff [4] are also relevant to duty.

In taking responsibility for the safety of the beach it is reasonably foreseeable that the Club's omission to provide a universally recognisable warning sign led to a risk of injury to a class of plaintiffs of which Mitomi is one. It is foreseeable that a tourist not understanding the sign would swim in the enclosure. Mitomi is a foreseeable plaintiff as tourists frequently visit the area. Mitomi's vulnerability is increased because she cannot read English, the club owes a duty to all foreseeable plaintiffs not just English speaking plaintiffs. Therefore, a duty of care is likely to be found.

[1] Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] AC 562.

[2] Wyong Shire Council v Shirt (1980) 146 CLR 40 at 47 per Mason J.

[3] Sullivan v Moody; Thompson v Connon [2001] HCA 59.

[4] Haley v London Electricity Board [1965] AC 778.

Here is another sample HIRAC addressing the same scenario. Again, note how it concisely and clearly analyses one issue, follows the steps of heading, rule, issue, application and conclusion. 

Mitomi v Trinity Beach Life-Saving Club Inc. ("the Club") 

[1] [1932] AC 562 at 580.

[2] (1993) 177 CLR 423.

[3] Nos CA 40737/93 and CL 1275/91. 

Essay writing in Law

The purpose of a legal essay is to advance or persuade your reader of a particular understanding, interpretation, or application of law. In order to do this, legal essay writing needs to be simple, compelling, and well-constructed. Unlike a paper that utilises HIRAC, a law essay involves detailed analysis and discussion of the law in a more abstract setting. When writing a legal essay, you are required to take up a position in response to a question. But how is this different from essays you write in other disciplines? The following information provides some suggestions about the specifics of writing a legal essay.

What distinguishes a law essay from an essay written in another discipline?

Like essays written in other disciplines, legal essays require a central argument, based on logical reasoning and critical analysis of evidence. They should have a clear structure with a strong introduction and conclusion. As Baron and Corbin (2016, p. 26) note, even though legal writing is perceived to be portrayed as logical, highly structured and formal, composition of law essays is much as the same as any other essay writing.

"The manipulation and use of language are at the heart of the common law legal tradition" (Webley 2013, p. ix).

There several features that, in one way or another, distinguish legal essays from essays written in other disciplines. Probably the most crucial difference is the use and control of language. Law essays should be written clearly, concisely and with precision. For example, a lot of emphasis is placed on the use of simple English. This is because much of the subject matter is complex and needs to be communicated clearly to a specific audience. Words should be chosen carefully and the use of clichés should be avoided. The following table summarises some of the other similarities and differences:

The best way to become familiar with the expectations of a good legal research essay is to read some articles in legal journals, taking note of style, tone and citation.

Is your essay writing clear and concise?

Clarity has been described as the most basic and paramount goal of legal writing (Baron & Corbin 2016, p. 70). Not only must your reader be able to understand the contents of your essay, they must be able to easily identify your position and follow your logic. In other words, you need to ensure that your writing makes its point efficiently and with an appropriate level of detail so as not to waste the time of your reader.

When it comes to the editing stage of your writing process, you should ask yourself the following questions:

• What information does the reader need?
• Is the work organised clearly so that the reader can find the information they need easily, and understand the points made?
• Is the language used clear and appropriate for the audience?

Like an essay written in the humanities or social sciences, it's important to make sure you take a clear position and have a clear thesis statement and signposting in the introduction (macro level). It is also important to make sure that your headings and topic sentences accurately reflects the sequence of the ideas presented in your signposting (micro level). Have you used clear and descriptive headings and subheadings? Are paragraphs and sentences connected smoothly? Do paragraphs build on each other or introduce new topics? Do your topic and concluding sentences reflect such transition?

For more information about essay argument and structure, see our page on essay writing .

Baron and Corbin (ref) recommend the following tips for achieving clarity:

• Use ordinary words and simple sentence structures. Avoid legalese (the use of Latin words; overcomplicated sentences; legal jargon) and keep sentences to no more than 22 words, although this should not be adhered to rigidly.
• Vary sentence structures, vocabulary and sentence length. This creates a more natural flow that helps maintain the reader's interest. Vary sentence length to create a rhythm and interest in your writing.
• Develop your own voice. The aim of good legal writing is to develop an authentic professional voice, one that has character and individuality. This is something that helps to engage the reader. Achieve this by using an active voice.
• Pay attention to tone. Tone, according to Baron and Corbin (p. 74), is the expression of the writer's attitude towards the subject, audience, and self. In legal writing, the tone should be clear, concise, confident and courteous. While legal writing must be sophisticated, it should not be pretentious, and while courteous, should not be overly familiar or informal.
• Presentation matters. Good presentation of your written work can make reading easier and more engaging for your reader. Things to consider include text alignment, use of headings, spacing, and fonts. Information regarding formatting can be found in the AGLC. Make sure you proof read your work, paying attention to matters of style, presentation, and citation.

Making summaries

Summaries are an important tool when studying law because they enable an efficient and effective way of preparing for assessment items and exams. They can be used to help you identify what you know and what you don't know. Creating clear and well-structured summaries saves time and helps you produce neat, tight arguments backed up by relevant cases in your answers. Your examiners will appreciate this.

It is essential for you to put in the effort to produce your own summaries. Don't rely on the summaries prepared by others. These summaries may be useful to you, but will normally only be a useful supplement to your own studies. You have to spend time reflecting and pulling apart what you have been taught and building it up into a framework that you can use to complete your assessments.

Different summaries will work for different people. Find what works best for you!

There is no one way to write a summary. When you are summarising, you are collating information from lecture notes, tutorial notes, cases you have read and the textbook reading you have done. In some courses, you will be provided with reading lists. You can use these lists as a way of organise or planning your summaries. Reading lists are typically based on topics you will cover in lectures and cases relevant to these topics.

You should aim to write you summary twice. The first summary should be like the rough draft of an essay. At this stage you are gathering ideas, listing key concepts and principles, using headings to structure your notes, and potentially useful flowcharts. You should aim to do this at least 6 weeks or so before the exam. This will ensure that you:

• Give yourself plenty of time to revise;
• Know that, if there is an emergency, you will have something prepared;
• Force yourself to consider ideas more than once and refine what you have;
• Begin working on the overall conceptual framework of the subject.

Make sure you practice using your summary before the exam. One of the other good ways of preparing for an exam is to do past exams. You don't need to wait until you have completely finished your summary before trying some practice questions. As you work through the exam questions you may be able to add to your summary.

For information about preparing for exams, see our page on exam preparation .

What makes a good summary?

• A good summary is typed and clearly formatted. Organisation is key. You need to be able to glance at each page in order to find what you are looking for. If each page is well set out you can read to the point instead of around it.
• They use bullet points and avoid using full sentences. This makes finding information in an exam easier. Write in a way that makes sense to you.  
• They contain information to help you locate the original source. Provide full references, including case names and page numbers, where necessary. The additional effort required is well worthwhile since it can be used later.
• They make good use of the abbreviations and key phrases. Abbreviations are excellent shorthand because they save a great deal of time and writing space. Develop your own system and use them consistently when making notes.
• They use visual aids, colour, and highlighting effectively. Flow charts, diagrams and other visual aids, such as tables, can help you understand a concept or case. A summary which makes good use of colour is easier to read and use. Decide what is right for you and use it consistently.

Preparing case notes

A case note is similar to a summary in that both require you to summarise information that will be useful when it comes to completing an assessment or preparing for an exam. The differences between a case note and a summary is the breadth of subject matter covered and the fact that a case note requires taking a position and evaluating the value of a particular case. In terms of breadth, a case note should focus on a single case, while a summary address a wider area of the law, focusing on a collection of issues, cases, and legislation. A case note can be included as part of a summary.  

Case notes are a common method of assessment in law subjects because they are typically short and useful when constructing legal arguments. The purpose of legal case notes is to summarise and synthesise "the pertinent parts" of a legal judgment, including the facts, issue(s), and reasoning that went into court's decision making process (Corbett-Jarvis & Grigg 2017, p. 148). What they require you to do is thoroughly familiarise yourself with a notable court decision or statute and its legal context. This generally means examining the relationship between the decision and the existing case and/or statutory law, discussing important issues, cases, and legislation within that area.

Case notes tend to focus on important changes or interpretations of the law in certain cases. This is what makes them notable in some sense. When writing a case note, you should ask yourself what makes this case significant in the context of your course:

• Does it represent a significant departure from precedent?
• Does it represent a significant area of concern?
• Does it represent a first of its kind?
• Does it represent an abandonment of logical reasoning?
• Does it represent a precedent with long lasting effects?

A case note requires you to take a position (make an argument) and critically analyse the significance of the case in question. As Baron and Corbin (2016, p. 91) write, "[b]y articulating and arranging the information contained in cases... the writer can influence or persuade others to think in a more detailed way about the legal reasoning process". 

How can I structure my case notes?

When writing a case note, the emphasis should be on being as clear and concise as possible. There is no definitive structure for a case note, but the following provides a flexible guideline of the common features. As a general rule, HIRAC should be used to compile and organise case notes.

Introduction

You should begin by briefly introducing the area of law, the legal issue(s), and what was decided. Indicate your line of argument: was this a significant decision? Does the decision create legal precedent, or uphold legal precedent? Explain the significance of the case, which should also indicate the organisation (or signposting) of the case note.

Identify the important, relevant facts of the case and, if appropriate, its background. This section will generally be more descriptive rather than analytical since you are just identifying the parties to the case (e.g. buyer, seller, employer, employee), procedurally significant facts, and the arguments that were put forward on behalf of both parties. Significant conflicting evidence should also be briefly noted. Keep it as short as possible.

In this section, you should provide the reader with an outline of the court's holding (i.e. the court's decision) on each relevant issue, as well as the court's reasoning. What is the legal rule essential to the decision in this case? Were comments made by the judge that are not directly related to the decision in this case, but may be important to issues raised in other cases? Reasoning is the way in which the court applied the rules/legal principles to the particular facts in the case to reach its decision. Indicate whether there was dissenting judgement and what reasons were provided for dissent. In closing this section, relate the selected case to the prior law to illustrate how, if at all, the selected case affects prior law.

This is the most significant section of your case note: this is where you demonstrate your critical analysis and evaluation of the case in your own words. In other words, this is you provide your argument. Start by stating the existing and the major developments both supporting and opposing the decision of the court. Then critically analyse the court's reasoning and decision. The analysis should be presented logically and be signposted accordingly. If appropriate, attempt to predict the impact the case will have on future decisions. Address any ambiguous statements made by the court, and questions the court left unanswered. This section affords you the opportunity to demonstrate legal skill and prowess by dissecting the case and raising important issues involved.

These are useful questions to use when it comes to writing your analysis:

• Was the court's decision appropriate and persuasive? Was the court's decision influenced by policy issue or particular values?
• Does this decision change/conform with existing law? Was the reasoning consistent with previous reasoning in similar cases? Is it likely that the decision will significantly influence existing law?
• Did the court adequately justify its reasoning? Was its interpretation of the law appropriate? Was the reasoning logical/consistent? Did the court consider all/omit some issues and arguments? And, if there was omission, does this weaken the merit of the decision?
• What are the policy implications of the decision? Are there alternative approaches which could lead to more appropriate public policy in this area?

Your conclusion should summarise the main points of your analysis and reiterate the significance of the case. If your finding is that the decision creates legal precedent, or conversely, upholds legal precedent, what does that mean? What are the wider implications of this case? The length of the conclusion depends on the argument being made. If you reach the legal conclusion in a previous section, a brief summary is sufficient.

Reference List

Baron, Paula, and Lillian Corbin. Legal Writing: Academic and Professional Communication . South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press, 2016.

Campbell, Enid, Richard Fox, Melissa de Zwart. Students' Guide to Legal Writing, Law Exams and Self Assessment , 3 rd Ed. Annandale, NSW: Federation Press, 2010.

Corbett-Jarvis, Nichola, and Brendan Grigg. Effective Legal Writing: A Practical Guide , 2 nd Ed. Chatswood, NSW: LexisNexis Butterworths, 2016.

Macken, Claire. Law student survival guide: 9 steps to law study success, 2 nd Ed. Rozelle, NSW: Thomson Reuters (Professional) Australia Limited, 2010.

Webley, Lisa. Legal Writing , 3 rd Ed. London; New York: Routledge, 2013.

Other assessments

Writing a creative piece

Writing a critical review

Writing a policy brief

Writing an abstract

Writing an annotated bibliography

Writing in Psychology

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Throughout your law studies , you will need to complete a variety of different assignments. See below to explore four different forms of assignments ​​​​​​.

• What goes into a case note?
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• Case Note Examples

A case note is a summary or a summary and critical analysis of a case.

 A case note will usually include:

• Citations details-   include the full citation details. 
• Procedural history-   write about how the matter came to court if there is a history, e.g. is the case on appeal?
• Facts-   Explain the main points of the dispute or the reason the parties are in court. What orders or decision as they asking the court to make?
• Legal Issues-  Explain what the legal issues are and how they apply to the facts. 
• Decision summary-  What did the court decide and why? What was the ratio (the rule of law on which the decision is based) and was there any obiter (the Judge's opinion that isn't essential to the decision).  Also include and dissenting Judges where applicable. 
• Critical Analysis-  Some case   notes will also require you to critically analysis the case, this will involve looking at the case in the wider body of law and discuss the merit or importance of the points of law raised in the case.   

You usually have a strict word count for your case note, because of this limit the detail that you have for the background information and focus on the analysis.  

Tip:  Always read through your assignment instructions for specific information that will apply to your assessment task.  

Read advice from other law students on how to survive law school. These links come from the  Survive Law Blog .

• How to Write a Case Note
• Case note assignments This online tutorial from Monash University will take you step by step through writing a case note.
• Case Note: Betting Across Boarders This case note examines the recent High Court decision of Betfair Pty Limited v Western Australia.
• Case Note: Australian Securities and Investment Commission v MacDonald Australian Securities and Investments Commission v Macdonald [No 11] required the New South Wales Supreme Court to determine whether company directors and officers of James Hardie Industries Ltd had breached their duties.
• Case Note: Giller v Procopets This casenote deals with the claims concerning the videoing of the sexual encounters between the parties and the exhibition and/or distribution of the video to third parties.
• Essay Template
• A Visual Guide to Essay Writing
• eBooks on Legal Writing
• Reading Cases
• Tips Written by Law Students
• CDU Honors Research Papers

• AGLC Template You can use this template to help you with formatting.

This resource uses a visual approach to take students through the process of essay writing for University. Although not law specific this resource will demonstrate formulating, refining and expressing academic essay writing:

One of the best ways to develop your writing skills is to read. Reading will expose you to different styles of writing and through reading you will form your own style. Think about the reports and cases that you read that frustrated you in finding out what the main ratio was. Compare that to this recent well written coroners report: 

• Inquest into the deaths of William George Scott [2015 ] NTMC 022 & Lanh Van Tran [2015] NTMC 023

Read advice from other law students on how to survive law school. These links come from the  Survive Law Blog :

• Five Tips for Writing Awesome Assignments
• Tips from your Tutor: How to Write the Perfect Law Essay Introduction
• Writing Convincing Assignments: Critical Analysis Checklist

This is a list of CDU student papers that were submitted for the Honours Research Papers. These are excellent examples of legal writing. 

• Double Jeopardy Reform: Political Expediency of Much Needed Change?
• The Euthanasia Fallacy: Why it is time to regulate in Australia
• Everybody Knows: Snowden's NSA Leaks, Metadata And Privacy Implications For Australia
• Intellectual Disability in the Australian Criminal Justice System
• New South Wales Right To Silence Reforms: Maximum Admissions, Minimum Silence
• Same-Sex Parents: Won't Somebody Please Think Of The Children!
• Testamentary Capacity & Rational Suicide: the Law, Medicine & Safe-guarding your Intentions
• Problem Solving Questions
• eBook on Problem Solving

• Tips from your Tutor: 10 Ways to Improve your Problem Solving Assignment
• Using IRAC to Answer Problem Solving Questions
• Introduction
• Preparing for a Law Exam
• Past Exam Papers from CDU

Exams come in different formats, they can be:

• Invigilated open book exam
• Invigilated closed book exam
• Take home exam

Read advice from other law students on how to survive law school. These links come from the  Survive Law Blog : 

• Advice from your Tutor: Law Exam Preparation and Technique
• Exam Countdown: Making the most of the Last 24 Hours
• How to Make an Exam Answer Template
• How to Make a Study Timetable for Exams
• How to Study for a Closed Book Exam

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• URL: https://libguides.cdu.edu.au/lawresearch

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Using this guide

The Law research and writing guide introduces you to physical and online information, resources and tools. They have all been carefully selected to help you study or research Law at Monash.

The guide will also help you to develop your skills in researching and writing for law.

The home library for Law is the Law Library, located on the Clayton campus.

Get help from a librarian

Get help from a librarian  when you need support beyond what you can find in this guide. Bookings are available for students, educators, and researchers.

Librarians can help you with a range of tasks including:

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• understanding copyright
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How to study for Legal Studies

Study tips Published 7 Nov, 2022  ·  4-minute read

Legal Studies seems like a fairly heavy high school subject, but it’s absolutely possible to excel in – with the right mindset and study habits.

Whether you’re thinking about pursuing Year 12 Legal Studies, or you’re already in the thick of it, mastering your study style for this subject is necessary for success. It will help you secure grades that will uplift your ATAR , which in turn ensures you reach that next step – university, work experience, alternative higher education or otherwise.

Before we delve into our top study tips for high school legal studies exams and assessments, however, let’s address a few of the questions students heading into senior school might be deliberating, including the obvious ‘is Legal Studies a good subject?’ and ‘what is Legal Studies, anyway?’.

• Jump to study tips

Why study Legal Studies?

Two of the main reasons students choose Legal Studies as one of their senior school subjects is because they have an interest in law, justice and human rights and/or they want to study law at uni.

Do you need Legal Studies for law at uni?

No. At UQ, you can study the Bachelor of Laws (Honours) without having taken ATAR Legal Studies. Though having some background knowledge in law before beginning your degree will certainly be helpful!

What many students don’t realise is that Legal Studies is about much more than learning what goes on in a courtroom and can provide foundational knowledge to kickstart a wide range of career paths.

What do you learn in Legal Studies?

• Criminal investigation and trial processes
• Punishment and sentencing
• Negligence and the duty of care
• The Australian legal system
• Human rights
• International law

Is Legal Studies hard?

There’s a lot of reading and a lot of content to cover. Learning Legal Studies in high school takes time, commitment and perseverance. You may find this subject difficult if you aren’t willing to put in the time to do the readings, ensure you understand them properly and review content weekly. But if you’re serious about pursuing a career in law, criminology, politics, policy or human rights, senior school Legal Studies prepares you for your next step towards that goal – undertaking higher education (such as university).

How to study for a Legal Studies exam

Year 12 Legal Studies involves remembering plenty of legal terms, specific acts and articles, and case studies, so committing these to your long-term memory is essential for your exam.

Have you guessed what we’re going to say next? We know you’ve heard it before, but you really need to keep up consistent revision throughout Years 11 and 12 Legal Studies to help you better retain all this information.

Alongside frequent revision, these study tips will help you walk into your Legal Studies exam with confidence:

• Write down definitions of legal terms on flashcards or posters and pin them around your study space to help keep them in your long-term memory.
• Memorise important acts, dates and articles throughout history (which have been covered in the syllabus) that you believe can be used to support your arguments in your exam responses.
• Have a few key case studies up your sleeve that can be called upon as supportive evidence for a variety of arguments.
• Complete a few Legal Studies past papers to get a feel for the type of questions that may be asked, how to structure your points and how to write within the time constraints.
• Keep referring back to your syllabus when studying to ensure you’re staying on track and that you have a clear understanding of each topic . If you recognise gaps in your knowledge of any of the topics, or find certain topics challenging, spend a little more time revising these each week.

How to write a Legal Studies essay

Essays make up a significant proportion of QCAA Legal Studies . An argumentative essay accounts for 25% of your internal assessment, and in your final exam, your extended response – which is structured like an essay – is worth 27 of the total 48 marks. So, it’s pretty important that you know how to write a Legal Studies essay. Here are a few tips to help you finesse your essay writing skills in preparation for both your internal and external assessments.

• Always draft a structure for your essay before you start writing to assist with staying on track and providing succinct arguments.
• Use the TEEL method to structure your paragraphs and arguments.
• Use legislation, cases, media, documents and international articles as evidence to support your points .
• If you are able, write about the areas of law and cases that interest you . This sounds simple but can really make all the difference, especially when it comes to conducting research and doing a lot of reading in preparation for your essay.
• Ask your teacher if they’d be happy to mark and provide feedback on practice extended responses in preparation for your exam.

We hope these study tips for Legal Studies help you ace your assessments and exams and assist you in securing a final grade you’re proud of.

For advice on doing your best in all your subjects, read How to get a high ATAR . Alternatively, you can explore study guides for your other subjects .

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8 Top Law School Final Exam Tips

Last Updated: Aug 28, 2024

What to expect from your law school final exams

A full semester of taking copious notes, reading, briefing, outlining, classroom discussions, and surviving the Socratic Method culminates in one final act. Writing law school final exams.

Most professors give essay exams for law school finals. Some are single-topic, short-answer questions. Others can go on for pages — known as issue-spotter exams. Some are taken in class, while others are take-home, allowing students more than the traditional amount of time to answer the essay questions. There are open-book and closed-book exams. And there are those few professors who create multiple-choice exams or (in rare cases) give oral exams.

Whatever type of exam your professor chooses to administer, you will be tested on your ability to analyze and resolve legal problems and demonstrate your grasp of the materials. Your course grade will be largely, if not exclusively, based on your final exam performance.

Here are some high-level tips to help you prepare for your law school finals.

Understand your professor preferences

The foundation for success on your law school finals is to know who is grading the exam. Your mission is to make that person’s life easier. Ultimately, different professors prefer different types of answers. Some want extreme detail — every possible interpretation of every possible fact. Some like answers straight to the point within a page count. It’s okay to ask your professor.

It’s a given that all professors expect well-organized, legible answers, no matter how brief or expansive.

Read the facts carefully

Read the entire problem through once rather quickly to get a general understanding. Focus on the question you are being asked to respond to at the end of the problem.

Then, read through the scenario again, slowly and carefully. This time, evaluate every word and phrase to identify all potential issues. Applying the law to the facts presented is critical in any law school exam. And changing the facts even slightly could result in a completely different result.

Answer the question that is being asked

Always keep in mind the specific question you are actually being asked to answer. Although you may receive credit for ancillary information provided in your answer, you will only receive maximum credit if you specifically answer the question that is presented. Therefore, you must determine what role the professor is asking you to assume before answering. Are you the defendant’s attorney, or do you represent the plaintiff? Are you a judge trying to resolve the dispute? It makes a real difference in how you answer.

Attempts to include unrelated material in your answer could backfire if your professor believes you are incapable of ruling out irrelevant information.

Organize your thoughts

Organization is critical to writing a strong essay answer on any law school finals. After all, if the professor cannot follow your analysis, how can they grade it fairly and appropriately?

Before you start writing, chart the issues in the manner in which you will resolve them. Again, make sure the issues are related to the actual question you are being asked to answer. Arrange the issues in the sequence in which you would expect a court to address them (i.e., normally jurisdictional issues first, then liability, then remedies). Capture the points you will discuss in sufficient detail to prompt you to think the problem through to a fair and practical solution.

Complete your analysis and organization before you start writing

You may find that you devote a solid one-fourth of the time allocated to reading, analyzing the problem and organizing your answer. That’s okay. A logical organization and clear expression of ideas will strengthen your answer. This purposeful approach may even bolster an answer that’s somewhat weak.

Use the IRAC format for each issue raised

As you begin to write out your answer, we recommend you analyze each dispute using the IRAC method.

First, state the issue in precise legal terms (i.e., “Did the defendant’s mistake in computing his bid prevent the formation of an enforceable contract?”). Be careful to avoid generalizations or oversimplification of the issue.

Next, state the applicable law. Be sure to define the pertinent elements of a rule as well as any terms of art.

Application

Then, apply the rules to the facts using arguments. Avoid the common error of stating a rule and then jumping straight to the conclusion. Your professor will not infer a supporting argument for you — you must spell it out. Remember to use the Issue T you created earlier to remind you to discuss which facts in the fact pattern support (or prevent) application of the rule. Discuss and weigh each fact given and the logical inference to be drawn from it. Be sure to include counterarguments where possible.

Finally, come to a straightforward conclusion on each issue. Make sure you have clearly answered the question asked, and you have not left an issue hanging. If a number of outcomes are possible, discuss the merits of each, but always select one position as your conclusion and state why. In close cases, it is generally best to select the most practical and fair conclusion. Just don’t consider yourself bound by the “general rule” or “majority view” in answering on a law school final exam unless the question clearly calls for such.

Argue both sides of legal issues you spot and remember policy concerns

Once a dispute has been framed and a legal theory has been asserted, identify any problems surrounding the theory’s application as well as arguments that each side can make in support of their position.

Also, if time allows, include just a sentence or two regarding the policy implications of your conclusions. Law is meant to provide order in society and, when imposing laws, you should always predict the impact that they will have.

Take a deep breath and try not to panic

If you find yourself panicking, not understanding the issues presented or not remembering the rules related to such issues, don’t panic. Instead, close your eyes and take a few deep breaths. Then, start working systematically through the information with these tips and do your best on your law school finals.

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Chase Bank says it is aware of viral 'glitch' inviting people to commit check fraud

Chase Bank is urging its customers not to commit check fraud.

The bank’s plea comes after this weekend a viral trend took over TikTok and X, with users being told that there was a systemwide glitch and that, if they deposited false checks in an ATM and withdrew that money soon afterward, they would be able to cheat the system and take out a large sum of cash before the check bounced.

The only problem? This is not a “glitch” — it’s a check fraud scheme and those who participate will be on the hook for all the money they withdrew once the check bounces.

Although some on TikTok called the scheme a “glitch,” Chase reminded its customers that this “glitch” is actually an invitation to commit fraud. 

“We are aware of this incident, and it has been addressed,” a spokesperson for Chase said in a statement to NBC News. “Regardless of what you see online, depositing a fraudulent check and withdrawing the funds from your account is fraud, plain and simple.”

NBC News has not verified if anyone actually committed the crime as part of the viral trend. However, videos online purported to show people successfully withdrawing cash from an ATM after depositing a fraudulent check into their own bank account — before others quickly pointed out that what they were doing was a crime.

While conversation about the “glitch” has taken over TikTok, it appears the first mention of it was on X , when a user shared an excessive balance of more than $80,000 in his account on Thursday, according to meme database Know Your Meme . 

One video appeared to show lines forming outside of a Chase branch in New York suggesting people were flocking to the bank to “get free money.” Just as quickly as the trend took off, however, people were soon posting screenshots of massive negative balances and holds on their Chase accounts as a result of allegedly trying to withdraw the money. 

“I don’t know what these people think writing bad checks is, but I don’t know why they thought this was a glitch,” one TikTok user said . “Definitely don’t do it.” 

Fake check deposits are a common form of check fraud and are not new, although the chaos of this weekend saw many online discover the tactic for the first time — and mistaking it for a money hack.

Large checks deposited digitally are often placed on hold while the bank reviews their authenticity, but some ATMs allow customers to access a portion of the newly deposited funds immediately. This allows users to quickly withdraw the money before their check clears or bounces.

Fraudsters often approach this by opening bank accounts with fake identities, creating and depositing counterfeit checks from seemingly legitimate sources, then abandoning the account and leaving it with a negative balance.

Another common trick involves a scammer pretending that they sent a check for a greater amount than they meant to, hoping that the recipient is willing to deposit the check and transfer the excess money, which would ultimately leave the victim out of their own funds after the check bounces.

But in this case, people online seem to be simply committing check fraud against themselves — making it relatively easy for a bank to catch on and hold them accountable.

In the days after the Chase “glitch” gained traction, other TikTokers began dunking on those who had tried it, with some joking about waking up with enormous negative balances and others warning users that they had no chance of outsmarting the multinational banking institution.

“Chase Bank glitch? No, that’s called fraud,” one TikTok user said in a video that accrued more than 1 million likes in one day. “You went to the bank and took $50,000 that didn’t belong to you. That’s not a life hack, that’s called robbery. You’re going to jail. Prison actually.”

Angela Yang is a culture and trends reporter for NBC News.

Kalhan Rosenblatt is a reporter covering youth and internet culture for NBC News, based in New York.

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• UTS Guide to Writing in Law A highly recommended helpful and comprehensive guide to writing law papers.
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Basic Rules

Academic and professional legal writing requires you to develop an argument and demonstrate relationships between the ideas you are expressing. 

Therefore, the ability to express yourself clearly and accurately is important.  Here you will find information to help you improve your writing for any purpose in your law degree.

Academic writing in law is:

Academic writing in law does not:   

Steps to Writing a Law Essay

Throughout your law degree, you will be expected to write a range of different texts, including research essays, responses to problem questions, and case notes.

Not matter the type of text you are asked to produce for an assignment, make sure you follow these steps:

• Plan :  read the questions carefully and think about how you will answer it
• Research :  read, read and read! Make use of everything available to you - don't forget the library!
• Make thorough notes : include all important (and relevant) details and quotes and take note of the source. Make sure you organise your notes so as to make the writing task easier
• Write the first draft :  before you start writing your first draft, refer back to your initial plan and make any necessary changes now you have done your research and gathered your notes. 
• Review and edit :  remember to proofread your work!

The IRAC Method

IRAC is an acronym that stands for: Issue, Rule, Application, and Conclusion. It functions as a methodology for legal analysis and is used as a framework for organising your answer to an essay question in law school.

[ Open All | Close All ]

In legal writing, issues are the core of the essay.

This part of the essay should:

• Identify and state the issue
• Name those involved (plaintiff and defendant) and briefly describe their individual issues
• Work out what body of law may govern the resolution of the issue (e.g. Contract Law)

The rule describes which law applies to the issue. The rule should be stated as a general principle, and not a conclusion to the particular case being briefed.

• Outline the legal principles that will be used to address to the issue
• Source legal principles from cases and legislation

The application is the most important and longest part of your answer. It involves applying the Rule to the facts of the issue and demonstrating how those facts do or do not meet the requirements laid down by the rules. Discuss both sides of the case when possible.

• Explain why the plaintiff's claims are or are not justified
• Identify how the law will be used by the plaintiff and defendant to argue their case
• Use relevant cases and legal principles to support your writing
• Do not try to strengthen your argument by leaving out elements or facts that will hurt it

As with all essays, the conclusion is a statement that identifies your answer to the issue.

• Identify what the result of your argument ir, or what it should be
• State who is liable for what and to what extent
• Consider how the plaintiff and defendant could have acted to avoid this legal issue

Useful Links:

• UWA IRAC Guide This guide from the University of Western Australia offers examples of how the IRAC method can be applied to different cases.
• Law School Survival: The IRAC Method A useful site that presents a detailed outline of the IRAC method as well as skeleton outlines.

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Write Your Essay

Write a first draft.

Your first draft will help you work out:

• the structure and framework of your essay
• how you will answer the question
• which evidence and examples you will use
• how your argument will be logically structured.

Your first draft will not be your final essay; think of it as raw material you will refine through editing and redrafting . Once you have a draft, you can work on writing well.

Structure your essay in the most effective way to communicate your ideas and answer the question.

All essays should include the following structure.

1. Introduction

The introduction moves from general to specific. This is where you:

• open with a short orientation (introduce the topic area(s) with a general, broad opening sentence (or two);
• answer the question with a thesis statement; and
• provide a summary or 'road map' of your essay (keep it brief, but mention all the main ideas).

The body of your essay consists of paragraphs. Each is a building block in the construction of your argument. The body is where you:

• answer the question by developing a discussion.
• show your knowledge and grasp of material you have read.
• offer exposition and evidence to develop your argument.
• use relevant examples and authoritative quotes.

If your question has more than one part, structure the body into sections that deal with each part of the question.

The conclusion moves from specific to general. It should:

• restate your answer to the question;
• re-summaries the main points and;
• include a final, broad statement (about possible implications, future directions for research, to qualify the conclusion etc).

However, NEVER introduce new information or ideas in the conclusion - its purpose is to round-off your essay by summing up.

Essay paragraphs

A paragraph is a related group of sentences that develops one main idea. Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain:

• a  topic sentence that states the main or controlling idea
• supporting sentences to explain and develop the point you’re making
• evidence from your reading or an example from the subject area that supports your point
• analysis of the implication/significance/impact of the evidence finished off with a critical conclusion you have drawn from the evidence
• a concluding sentence that restates your point, analyses the evidence, or acts as a transition to the next paragraph.

Tips for effective writing

• Start writing early —the earlier the better. Starting cuts down on anxiety, beats procrastination, and gives you time to develop your ideas.
• Keep the essay question in mind. Don’t lose track of the question or task. Keep a copy in front of you as you draft, edit and work out your argument.
• Don’t try to write an essay from beginning to end,  especially not in a single sitting. Begin with what you are ready to write—a plan, a few sentences or bullet points. Start with the body and work paragraph by paragraph.
• Write the introduction and conclusion after the body. Once you know what your essay is about, then write the introduction and conclusion.
• Use 'signpost' words in your writing. Transition signals can help the reader follow the order and flow of your ideas.
• Integrate your evidence carefully. Introduce quotations and paraphrases with introductory phrases.
• Revise your first draft extensively. Make sure the entire essay flows and that the paragraphs are in a logical order.
• Put the essay aside for a few days. This allows you to consider your essay and edit it with a fresh eye.

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Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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Money blog: PrettyLittleThing U-turns on controversial returns policy

The Money blog is your place for personal finance and consumer news. Scroll down to read about new research on how families with twins or triplets face at least a £20,000 financial hit, and about PrettyLittleThing U-turning on its controversial returns policy.

Wednesday 11 September 2024 09:53, UK

• UK economy flatlines for second month in a row  
• 'I gave birth to triplets and it pushed me to brink of bankruptcy'
• PrettyLittleThing U-turns on controversial returns policy

Essential reads

• Top chef shares cheap pasta recipe - and favourite budget eats in North East
• How to get ridiculously cheap flights - by someone who does it professionally
• Student finance special: Best paying jobs after uni, cheapest cities for students, top discounts and freebies
• How your pension could be taxed

Tips and advice

• Data roaming charges compared by network
• Should I consider an annuity - whatever that is?
• Free school meals guide

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Heathrow has set a new monthly record for passenger numbers - and one billionaire pop star has been credited with helping. 

Nearly eight million people passed through the terminal last August, with its busiest day seeing 269,000 passengers on the 18th of the month. 

The airport said Taylor Swift concerts brought in an additional 40,000 passengers this summer, with fans passing through its terminals for the European leg of her Eras Tour.

The star performed eight nights at Wembley and appeared in other cities on the continent. 

Heathrow said that more than 950,000 Pret coffees were sold at the airport across July and August.

It is on course to serve 30 million passengers between June and September, which would be the most for that period in the airport's history.

Spain, Greece, Italy and Turkey were popular summer holiday destinations last month.

Every Wednesday we ask top chefs to pick their favourite Cheap Eats where they live and when they cook at home. This week we speak to Nick Grieves, chef-owner of Ophelia  in Gosforth, Newcastle.

Hi Nick, can you tell us your favourite places around Newcastle where you can get a meal for two for less than £40?

Barrio Comida in Durham - I've been a long-time fan, the food there is incredible and worth the short train journey out of Newcastle. 

It's all class but I'd seriously recommend the birria tacos (with the consommé), camaron tacos and pollo quesadillas. Time it right for Taco Tuesday or for Happy Hour and you'll be well fed and watered for an absolute bargain.

Master Wang's in Newcastle - excellent, authentic and incredibly reasonable Chinese food just down from Haymarket in the centre of town. 

A friend of mine recently told me about it and now I'm there whenever I get a free afternoon. 

The pork dumplings in hot and sour soup, braised lamb noodles and their pork burger are all incredible and my go-to when ordering. I'd definitely recommend just ordering lots and sharing it between you.

What is your go-to cheap eat to cook at home when you have a night in?

It would most likely be a pasta dish, something fast and cheap with sausage, fresh tomatoes and a crumbly cheese such as Wensleydale.

During lockdown I posted a few at-home cooking videos on The Patricia's Instagram account - this was one of them and it's still up there on the highlights for a slightly more detailed walk-through.

You'll need some pasta (a small shape like fusilli, macaroni or orecchiette is ideal), a herby sausage like Lincolnshire, fresh cherry tomatoes, chilli flakes, garlic, Wensleydale and some fresh basil.

Start by crushing the garlic, halving the tomatoes, and removing the sausage from its casing and tearing it into small pieces. 

Fry the sausage pieces in oil until you get a light colour on one side, then stir and move it over to half the pan. 

In the other half of the pan, add the tomatoes, a bit of salt and some chilli flakes and fry it all for another five minutes or so.

Then lightly squash the tomatoes and combine them all, adding in your cooked pasta at the same time with a little pasta water to emulsify the sauce. Plate it up and top it with a good amount of torn fresh basil, thinly grated cheese and a drizzle of olive oil.

Super tasty, fast and cheap.

How did you get into cheffing?

I only started cooking seriously when I was 27 and took over The Garden House in Durham. 

Before that, I was in construction and although I always cooked at home I never thought it would turn into a profession. It all happened by accident. 

During the recession, the construction company I was working for in Qatar went bust. I came back to the North East and took on shared ownership of The Garden House with family and friends, just to make a bit of money.

We were pretty naive in the beginning and were short on kitchen staff, so I ended up helping with all the food and just fell in love with it. 

From there I taught myself a lot, watching and reading everything I could, including a lot of Ruth Rogers and Rose Gray.

After leaving the pub I headed to London and worked in both Fera and The River Cafe where I learnt a great deal, especially about discipline, attention to detail, the importance of good produce and how proper kitchens work. 

I loved my time there, but I'd always wanted to be my own boss and was desperate to open somewhere off my own back home in Newcastle. 

Fortunately, backed by my gran Pat, I was able to open The Patricia in Jesmond shortly after that - she's the reason I am where I am today. 

And then following on from the success of The Patricia I was then able to open my current restaurant, Ophelia, a French-inspired bistro in south Gosforth in Newcastle.

We've spoken to lots of top chefs - check out their cheap eats from around the country here...

The UK economy recorded no growth in July, according to official figures.

It's the second consecutive month of stagnation, the Office for National Statistics (ONS) said.

GDP - the measure of everything produced in the UK - flatlined in the weeks after the election of the Labour government.

But there's "longer-term strength" in the services sector, meaning there was growth over the last three months as a whole and 0.5% expansion in the three months up to July.

Commenting on the GDP figures, Liz McKeown, ONS director of economic statistics, says: "The economy recorded no growth for the second month running, though longer term strength in the services sector meant there was growth over the last three months as a whole.

"July's monthly services growth was led by computer programmers and health, which recovered from strike action in June. These gains were partially offset by falls for advertising companies, architects and engineers.

"Manufacturing fell, overall, with a particularly poor month for car and machinery firms, while construction also declined."

Chancellor Rachel Reeves says: "I am under no illusion about the scale of the challenge we face and I will be honest with the British people that change will not happen overnight.

"Two quarters of positive economic growth does not make up for fourteen years of stagnation.

"That is why we are taking the long-term decisions now to fix the foundations of our economy."

PrettyLittleThing will stop charging "royalty" customers to make returns, its founder has announced.

The online fashion giant made headlines in June for scrapping its free returns policy, with all customers having to pay £1.99 to send back items.

It also started closing accounts for having a high returns rate. 

Royalty holders, who pay a £9.99 subscription fee for unlimited free deliveries and returns, were angered by the move.

In a post on Instagram, the company's founder Umar Kamani announced his return to the business and apologised for any "negative experiences" in his absence. 

"Over the past few years, I've watched from the sidelines as the brand we built together has, at times, lost touch with make it so special - you, our loyal customers," he wrote. 

"This has driven me to step back in and take on the responsibility of steering PrettyLittleThing forward, putting your needs and desires at the forefront of every decision we make." 

He added: "As part of this renewed commitment, one of my first changes will be to reintroduce free returns for our royalty customers, a step I believe is vital to making your shopping experience more seamless and enjoyable."

He also hinted that there might be more changes to come, saying the retailer was moving into its "next exciting chapter". 

Fans were quick to react to the news, with some saying they were glad Mr Kamani had returned. 

"Thank you for coming back. PLT hasn't been the same without you," one person said on X. 

"Thank you for coming back. The company was in shambles," said another. 

Others asked him if their blocked accounts would be reinstated, or if they would get a refund for the returns they were charged for. 

Mr Kamani stepped down last April after 12 years as PLT's chief executive. 

Under his leadership, the brand collaborated with huge stars including Kylie Jenner, Naomi Campbell and Jennifer Lopez. 

In recent years, the company has seen its profits wane, with its revenue falling from £712.2m to £634.1m in February 2023. 

By Megan Harwood-Baynes , cost of living specialist

When Monique Bertrand found out she was carrying triplets at eight weeks pregnant, she had no idea the unexpected arrivals would push her family to the brink of bankruptcy.

New research has found families with twins or triplets face at least a £20,000 financial hit in the first year after birth, compared with those who have two babies in succession.

Having been told she could never carry children, Monique had been considering foster care when she unexpectedly fell pregnant - but a bigger surprise was in store when she found out she had naturally conceived triplets.

After a difficult pregnancy, at 31 weeks and surrounded by a team of 35 doctors, nurses and midwives, she gave birth to Macho and Lylah, weighing a tiny 2lb 8oz, and Trinity, 2lb 1oz.

Research, commissioned by the charity Twins Trust and carried out by Per Capita, found raising multiples is more difficult in the UK than in almost any other advanced OECD economy, due to the lack of additional support.

"Triplet mums just need extra hands," said Monique, 39, from Lewisham.

The triplets spent 50 days in the hospital (Monique herself was admitted for 34) and by the time they returned home, her partner had already used up his two weeks of paternity leave. With him working lengthy night shifts, she was left to care for three infants alone.

"I felt I could not do it. I felt I wanted to run away. There was no support in any way," she says.

"I wish the government realised there is a huge difference between having multiples and having singletons."

Families of twins and triplets experience a 15% decline in household income (around £12,500), with 72% having to buy a new car to accommodate their children. Twins and triplets are often born premature, requiring families to take more time off work to care for their children.

"People don't realise, I have to pay for everything three times," said Monique, who works as an assistant director of education. "A twenty-pound baby outfit, for me that costs sixty. We go through nappies like they are tap water, formula... the costs just mount up.

"There is no passing things down between children, you have to have everything at once. It almost bankrupted us."

She said she knew of some multiple mums who had to transition their children onto cow's milk early, simply because they could not afford the cost of formula.

Families she had previously supported would send Monique clothes, food, formula and baby items to help the family survive: "The doorbell would ring, and it would be Amazon delivering three high chairs."

'I had to work while my twins were in hospital'

When Frank Fallon and Frankie Wakefield's twins, Ezra and Theo, arrived a day before their wedding, it was just the latest surprise of an unexpected pregnancy.

The couple had gone through IVF but only implanted one embryo, to try to mitigate the risk of multiples - but their eight-week scan showed two healthy heartbeats. 

Born three months early, Frank had to continue working while the twins spent seven weeks in hospital, to avoid rinsing through his paternity leave: "I would go visit them at 6am before work and we had to rely on friends and family to drive Frankie to hospital to see them."

Now the twins are energetic two-year-olds, and the couple are finally having their much-delayed wedding on Saturday, but they are calling for more support for multiple families. 

"Everything just adds up," said Frank. "Extra nappies [the family orders approximately 240 every four to six weeks], high energy bills because they are having more baths.

"I think I am at Tesco every day because they now go through litres of milk."

He added: "Even children's classes that Frankie goes to so she can socialise, you have to pay double for the extra baby."

' Childcare would have cost £5k a month'

Almost 90% of the 1,800 families surveyed said current childcare provisions are inadequate.

As Monique prepared to return to work, she sat down and wrote her resignation letter, after realising the cost of childcare for her triplets would be more than £5,000 a month.

"It broke my heart because I have never not worked," she said.

On learning this, her family held a meeting, volunteering to look after the children on different days so she could return to work. Now the twins are 21 months old, she qualifies for 15 hours free childcare, but the bill still stands at an additional £3,500 a month, and she relies heavily on her family to help.

At one point, Frank considered putting his children in on different days, to try and lower the cost of their £4,000 a month childcare bill (the boys go two days a week). 

"We are lucky we have both been promoted, but in our old jobs we would never have been able to afford it," he said. 

The Twins Trust report is calling for maternity pay to be allocated per baby, rather than per pregnancy, as well as an expansion of the Sure Start Maternity Grant and additional mental health support for families of multiples.

Shauna Leven, chief executive of Twins Trust, said: "This report lays bare the grim reality facing families with multiples - the financial burden, mental health toll and lack of support.

"Raising multiples is harder in the UK than almost any other nation. We will continue to campaign tirelessly to tackle the issues highlighted here, so our families can access the support they desperately need and deserve.

"With one set of multiples born every hour across the UK, it's critical that our society steps up and provides adequate support, rather than sending our families to the back of the queue."

By  Megan Harwood-Baynes , cost of living specialist

When James* was followed by an Instagram account offering an investment opportunity he thought it would be a quick way to supplement his apprentice salary.

Two weeks later, all his bank accounts were closed, he had a fraud marker against his name and now he cannot even take out a new mobile phone contract.

He is one of thousands of "money mules" identified by Lloyds Bank - this is someone who transfers or moves illegally acquired money on behalf of someone else.

Scammers often use social media to find their victims, and many do not realise what they are doing is illegal. It is sometimes framed as a legitimate job or investment - some victims are drawn in by loved ones, who are also unaware they are acting as money mules.

The Lloyds bank mule-hunting team has uncovered more than 160,000 mule accounts and stopped more than £114m from getting into the hands of fraudsters since it was set up in 2018. There has been a 44% increase in money mules identified in the past year alone. 

James was told he could make large profits by buying Bitcoin, and after being contacted by an unfamiliar account he agreed to invest £200 through an app.

James was then told to invest a further amount, which would give him an access code for withdrawing profits from the account, which had grown to £3,900. But he was told the access code would be available once he invested a further £900.

James didn't have that sort of money, so asked for his initial investment back. His mentor said he could instead pay £200 for the access code and that the mentor himself would pay James £700 to cover the rest of the total needed for the access code - meaning James received £700 from his mentor which he in turn then transferred on.

James continued to follow instructions sent to him via Instagram, sending and receiving more funds over the next few days. When he asked to release the so-called profits from his "investment" he was again told he would need to transfer more money to do so.

At this point, James began to realise he may have fallen victim to a scam - but didn't know how serious the consequences would be.

Within two weeks of that first payment, he received a letter from his main banking provider (not Lloyds Bank), saying his account had been frozen while it reviewed his recent activity.

A few weeks later, he was told that his main account had been closed with immediate effect.

Then, Lloyds Bank also got in touch to say his account would be closed.

He had been flagged as a third-party fraud facilitator - or a "money mule".

But age is no limit

Young people, like James, are often short on cash, so it's no surprise to find they may be targeted by fraudsters. Nearly a quarter (24%) of money mule accounts belong to customers between 19 and 30, with over half (58%) belonging to those under 40.

But there has been an increase in older people falling prey - the latest Lloyds Bank data shows 19% of money mule accounts are held by customers over 40, a growth of an astonishing 73% over the last year.

Liz Ziegler, fraud prevention director at Lloyds Bank, said it is vital to realise how easily people can be lured in.

"Criminals are very good at making their illegal activities look like a real job opportunity and at tricking people into unknowingly recruiting family members and friends into becoming money mules," she said.

"Fraudsters will keep the illusion of legitimacy up until the mule gets caught, then disappear, leaving the mule to deal with the fallout of unintentionally laundering money."

And the fallout can be severe - with up to 14 years in prison, being prevented from opening a bank account for six years, being listed on the national fraud database and being unable to take out a mortgage, loan or even a mobile phone contact.

"While the realisation that you've mistakenly helped a fraudster clean their dirty money would be devastating for anyone when it comes to mules, it won't save them from the consequences, which can be extremely serious," she said.

"Always remember - no legitimate company or person will ever ask you to use your bank account to receive and transfer their money. Do not do it under any circumstances, it’s not worth risking your own future by doing so."

*Name has been changed

A man has been charged with running a network of illegal crypto ATMs in the first-ever criminal prosecution of its kind. 

Crypto ATMs are standalone electronic kiosks that allow users to buy and sell cryptocurrency in exchange for cash. All sell Bitcoin, while some offer other cryptocurrencies but not all ATMs allow the sale of crypto, as some are limited to just purchases.

Olumide Osunkoya, who is 45 and resides in London, has been charged with running a network of crypto ATMs that processed £2.6 million in transactions over almost two years, without the required registration.

These are also the first charges brought against a person accused of operating crypto ATMs in the UK.

Mr Osunkoya will appear before Westminster Magistrates' Court on 30 September.

There are no legal crypto ATM operators in the UK.

Therese Chambers, from the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA), said: "Our message today is clear. If you're illegally operating a crypto ATM, we will stop you.

"If you’re using a crypto ATM, you are handing your money directly to criminals. Criminals can exploit crypto ATMs to launder money globally."

The FCA warns people that if you buy crypto, you should be prepared to lose all your money as the currency remains largely unregulated in the UK and is "high-risk".

JD Sports is set to cut nearly 200 jobs by closing its distribution centre in Derby.

Staff at the Derby Commercial Park were informed of their job losses on Friday, following a six-week consultation, the BBC has reported.  The company is now trying to find them alternative roles within the company. 

A spokesperson for the company said it was "working with those affected to ensure they are fully supported during this challenging period."

Legislation to strengthen a  public finances watchdog  is set to become law after clearing the House of Lords. 

It would mean any major tax or spending announcements would be subject to an independent assessment by the Office for Budget Responsibility.

The legislation, classified as a Money bill, will provide information but the government will not be forced to comply with what it advises.

Viral chicken chain Dave's Hot Chicken has reportedly eyed up London's Piccadilly for its first UK site.

Backed by rapper Drake, its spiced-to-order chicken has seven levels, with the highest (Reaper) requiring a signed waiver from guests.

The group has submitted planning proposals to display a series of illuminated signs at Vernon House, 40 Shaftesbury Avenue.

As hundreds of thousands of teenagers head to university for the first time this month, many will be facing financial independence for the first time. 

In our first ever Money blog spin-off, we put together some essential reads that will hopefully help stand them in good stead...

The iPhone 16 was announced last night to much fanfare across the tech world.

As well as coming in a range of new colours and having a fancy new camera button, it is also capable of running the company's new AI, Apple Intelligence.

But despite the fact it is all over the news, today is actually probably the worst day to buy an iPhone.

If you're looking for the latest tech, you are better off waiting for the release, as otherwise, you'll find yourself with a year-old processor in a matter of months. This is particularly true if you want to make the most of Apple Intelligence, which will only be available on the iPhone 16, 16 Pro and existing iPhone 15 Pro and Pro Max.

Buying a new iPhone right before the next model launches is not a wise move, even if you aren't looking to upgrade to the flagship phone. Waiting until the new phone hits the shelves will not only give you time to decide whether you want to upgrade, but when a new model comes out it usually means its predecessors bump down in price.

Lisa Barber, tech editor at Which?, said: "Apple's latest launch event hitting the headlines this week might mean consumers are immediately tempted to upgrade to a newer iPhone model. However, in terms of price, today is usually one of the worst days to do this. 

"To save money, we'd encourage consumers to wait until the iPhone 16 has actually been released later this month and then look out for the discounts which are likely to emerge on older models. 

"For example, we wouldn't be surprised to see the iPhone 14 drop to around £300 below its original price once the 16 range hits the market.  

"Another tip is to check the second-hand market, particularly as we could see a flood of iPhone 15s appearing when people start replacing them with iPhone 16s."

So even if you are looking for an iPhone 14, you can expect a price drop - in September 2023, Apple dropped the price of the iPhone 13 after it announced the 15 would shortly go on sale.

The possible exceptions

As with everything, there are a few exceptions to the rule: if you are looking for an iPhone 13, or SE. Apple is likely to stop selling these entirely (although they may be available on the secondary market for a while yet, while retailers clear out old stock), so you may want to get that while you still can.

However, as Macworld says, "bear in mind that soon the iPhone 14 will have a similar price", so you may be better off waiting anyway to get more bang for your buck. 

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