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114 Agriculture Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Agriculture plays a vital role in the development and sustainability of societies around the world. From crop cultivation to animal husbandry, agriculture encompasses a wide range of practices that affect our food production, environment, and economy. If you're looking for essay topics related to agriculture, we've compiled a comprehensive list of 114 ideas and examples to inspire your writing.

• The impact of climate change on agriculture: challenges and adaptation strategies.
• The role of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in modern agriculture.
• Organic farming: benefits, challenges, and future prospects.
• The use of pesticides in agriculture: balancing productivity and environmental concerns.
• Agricultural subsidies: their impact on farmers and the economy.
• The importance of soil health for sustainable agriculture.
• Precision farming: the integration of technology in agricultural practices.
• The role of women in agriculture: empowerment and gender equality.
• Urban agriculture: promoting food security in cities.
• The impact of globalization on agriculture: opportunities and threats.
• The role of agricultural education in shaping the future of farming.
• Food waste in agriculture: causes, consequences, and solutions.
• Sustainable livestock production: balancing meat consumption and environmental impact.
• The role of small-scale farmers in global food production.
• The ethics of animal welfare in modern farming practices.
• Agricultural trade policies: implications for developing countries.
• The impact of deforestation on agricultural practices.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in feeding a growing population.
• The challenges and benefits of aquaculture in meeting global seafood demand.
• The impact of agricultural practices on water resources.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in supporting small-scale farmers.
• The future of vertical farming: opportunities and limitations.
• The impact of agricultural pollution on human health.
• Agroforestry: integrating trees into agricultural landscapes.
• The role of agricultural extension services in rural development.
• The potential of hydroponics in urban agriculture.
• The impact of industrial agriculture on biodiversity.
• The role of agricultural research and development in innovation.
• The influence of social media on consumer perceptions of agriculture.
• The challenges and opportunities of agricultural mechanization in developing countries.
• The role of agricultural insurance in mitigating risks for farmers.
• The impact of land tenure systems on agricultural productivity.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in sustainable development.
• The potential of vertical farming to reduce food miles and carbon footprint.
• The impact of agricultural subsidies on food prices for consumers.
• The role of urban agriculture in community development.
• The importance of seed banks in preserving agricultural biodiversity.
• The impact of agricultural practices on pollinators and ecosystem services.
• The role of agricultural drones in precision farming.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to regenerative agriculture.
• The impact of agricultural practices on soil erosion.
• The role of agricultural education in fostering entrepreneurship.
• The potential of agricultural waste management in bioenergy production.
• The impact of agricultural practices on rural livelihoods.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in improving market access for small-scale farmers.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to organic dairy farming.
• The impact of climate-smart agriculture on resilience and adaptation.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in improving crop yields.
• The potential of agroecology in sustainable farming.
• The impact of agricultural practices on air quality.
• The role of agricultural research in addressing food security challenges.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to sustainable palm oil production.
• The impact of agricultural practices on wildlife conservation.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in promoting fair trade.
• The potential of precision livestock farming in improving animal welfare.
• The impact of agricultural practices on rural migration patterns.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to organic vegetable farming.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in addressing malnutrition.
• The potential of urban rooftop gardens in enhancing food security.
• The impact of agricultural practices on groundwater contamination.
• The role of agricultural entrepreneurship in rural development.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to agroforestry systems.
• The impact of agricultural practices on food safety.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in empowering marginalized communities.
• The potential of hydroponics in space agriculture.
• The impact of agricultural practices on indigenous food systems.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to sustainable cotton production.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in reducing post-harvest losses.
• The potential of vertical farming in food deserts.
• The impact of agricultural practices on rural poverty alleviation.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in promoting climate-smart agriculture.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to organic wine production.
• The impact of agricultural practices on soil degradation.
• The role of agricultural education in promoting sustainable farming practices.
• The potential of aquaponics in sustainable food production.
• The impact of agricultural practices on food sovereignty.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to sustainable coffee farming.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in reducing pesticide use.
• The potential of urban agriculture in reducing food waste.
• The impact of agricultural practices on indigenous land rights.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in promoting gender equality.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to organic beekeeping.
• The impact of agricultural practices on rural resilience.
• The role of agricultural extension services in promoting climate resilience.
• The potential of rooftop farming in urban sustainability.
• The impact of agricultural practices on food culture.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to sustainable cocoa production.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in improving nutritional quality.
• The potential of vertical farming in disaster-prone areas.
• The impact of agricultural practices on food sovereignty in indigenous communities.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in promoting sustainable seafood.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to organic tea production.
• The impact of agricultural practices on rural social capital.
• The role of agricultural extension services in promoting sustainable water management.
• The potential of hydroponics in space exploration.
• The impact of agricultural practices on food justice.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to sustainable sugar production.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in reducing food waste.
• The potential of urban agriculture in promoting social cohesion.
• The impact of agricultural practices on land rights in developing countries.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in promoting sustainable palm oil.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to organic cotton farming.
• The impact of agricultural practices on rural cultural heritage.
• The role of agricultural extension services in promoting sustainable energy use.
• The potential of aquaponics in sustainable urban development.
• The impact of agricultural practices on food sovereignty in marginalized communities.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to sustainable chocolate production.
• The role of agricultural biotechnology in improving drought tolerance.
• The potential of vertical farming in post-disaster recovery.
• The impact of agricultural practices on food security in conflict zones.
• The role of agricultural cooperatives in promoting sustainable timber production.
• The challenges and benefits of transitioning to organic coffee farming.
• The impact of agricultural practices on rural cultural landscapes.
• The role of agricultural extension services in promoting sustainable waste management.

These essay topic ideas cover a wide range of aspects related to agriculture, providing a plethora of opportunities for research and critical analysis. Whether you're interested in environmental sustainability, social justice, or technological innovation, there is a topic here that will inspire your writing and contribute to the ongoing dialogue about the future of agriculture.

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130 Agriculture Research Topics To Write An Excellent Paper

The preparation of an agriculture research paper involves several nuances and complexities. The first aspect is technical requirements, such as text formatting, structure, and source list. It's also important to choose those agriculture topics that you can analyze and find expert material. Any research paper is based on theses and statements, which are supported by evidence and factual information.

This is especially important when you tend to choose agricultural controversial topics. Then you need to find studies with verified information and prepare arguments for your paper. The whole process of work requires meticulous data collection and analysis of alternative sources. Then choosing any agricultural essay topics won't seem like a heady decision.

Your academic paper may relate to environmental factors, the economic feasibility of starting a farm, or the nuances of breeding. The main plus is that you can choose any of the agricultural related topics for research preparation. Here are 130 options for you.

Fisheries And Aquaculture

Such agricultural research paper topics allow revealing the topic of fishery and agricultural procurement. Students can concentrate on many aspects of the payback of farms and fisheries. The topics are quite extensive, and you can find a lot of research on the Internet for choosing trust sources.

• Trout breeding in freshwaters.
• Effect of algae on oxygen levels in fish rates.
• Seasonal spawning of oceanic fish.
• Prohibited fishing waters in the United States.
• Exploration of the Pacific Ocean.
• The impact of cyclones on fishing.
• Poisonous fish and the reasons for their breeding in North America.
• Seasonal diseases of trout.
• Sea horse: A case study.
• Risk analysis of water quality in aquaculture.

Plant Science And Crop Production

Crop Production agricultural research topics and plant science are not the easiest, but they contain a ton of information on the Internet. It is not a problem to find research by leading scientists and create your own research paper based on their statistics. The plus is that you don't have to start from scratch.

• Innovative plant breeding.
• Reclamation as a method of increasing yields.
• Hybrid plants of Montana.
• Citrus growing methods.
• Technical cannabis and plantations in the USA.
• Analysis of the yield of leguminous crops.
• Method for creating genetically modified plants.
• Field analysis of wheat for pesticides.
• New plants and methods of growing them.
• Hybrids and cold-resistant plants.

Topics in Agricultural Science

Agriculture essay topics like this allow you to select a specific aspect to research. You can concentrate on vegetation breeding or high tech greenhouse methodology. A large amount of research is a definite plus because you can build your theses on the basis of available data, criticizing or supporting research by scientists.

• Harvesting robots.
• Methodology for improving agricultural performance.
• The influence of technology on the growth of grain crops.
• How important is the timely irrigation of fields?
• Climatic changes and impact on yield.
• Breeding earthworms.
• Hydroponic gardening.
• Genetically modified organisms and their distribution.
• Starting a garden.
• How can we make medicine from plants?

Topics in Agronomy

Agronomy agriculture projects for students allow you to consider the aspects of growing crops in conditions with a specific soil type and natural characteristics. You can base your claims on statistics with the ability to draw on facts from other research. For example, this is relevant for papers examining the fertility of the topsoil.

• Choosing the type of soil for the cornfield.
• Innovative land reclamation.
• New branches in agronomy.
• Phosphate-free fertilizers.
• Hydroponics and greenhouses.
• Hybrid yield analysis.
• Methodology for assessing agronomic losses.
• Stages of preparing a field for harvesting.
• The role of GMOs in the fight against insect pests.
• Cultivation of technical hemp and soil fertilization methods.

Topics in Animal Breeding And Genetics

Agriculture related topics are interesting because you can touch on aspects of genetics and breeding. Students can concentrate on specific aspects of species modification and animal rearing. The research paper will look more convincing when there are references to real scientific papers with statistics and experimental results.

• Breeding new types of sheep.
• Breeding bulls and genetic engineering.
• The influence of selection on the growth of the animal population.
• Proper nutrition for livestock in winter.
• Vitamin complexes for animals.
• Genetic changes in chickens for resistance to cold.
• Nuances of animal genetic modifications.
• Stages of caring for newborn kittens.
• What is a negative selection?
• Basic methods of genetic experiments on animals.

Topics in Animal Production And Health

Such agriculture research paper topics are especially interesting because you can write about farming aspects in the context of raising animals, vegetables, and various crops. It is broad enough, so you will not be limited by narrow boundaries and will be able to consider many aspects of your research paper.

• Environmental threats to the oversupply of the sheep population.
• The role of livestock in marginal areas.
• Livestock digitalization.
• Animal selection for meat preparation.
• Analysis of livestock farms.
• Animal production evaluation technique.
• Cow health during calving.
• The importance of animal vaccination.
• Technical aspects of the medical treatment of animals.
• Environmental aspects of animal husbandry.

Topics in Ecotourism And Wildlife

Ecotourism is gaining momentum all over the world. The new trend is aimed at bringing people closer to nature and exploring the beauty of different countries. This issue will be of interest to those who want to talk about wildlife and nature reserves. The topic is quite extensive, so students will not have problems with preparing a research paper.

• Minnesota and Eco-Tourism.
• The influence of wolves on the formation of the local ecosystem.
• Recreational tourism in the USA.
• Methods for preparing resorts for eco-tourism.
• Lakes and environmental factors.
• A technique for preserving wildlife in its original form.
• Classic models of eco-tourism.
• Stages of creating ecological reserves.
• The role of tourism in the restoration of the ecological environment.
• The main factors of wildlife conservation.
• The legislative framework for wildlife protection.
• The nuances of creating a farm in reserve.
• Consolidation of resources for the development of a livestock farm.

Topics in Farm Management

Managing a farm can be a complex and multifaceted process. Many students may choose this topic to talk about aspects of breeding and breeding pets or crops. The topic is quite extensive and allows you to touch on any aspect of the farmer's activities related to the production and sale of products.

• Farm methods to improve performance.
• Stages of creating a livestock farm.
• Farm success analysis forms.
• Management of the process of planting crops.
• The role of modern equipment in cow milking.
• Farm reporting and profitability analysis.
• Breeding exotic animals.
• Rabbit population management.
• Statistical methodology for farm control.
• Stages of the animal population control on the farm.

Topics in Fisheries And Aquaculture

A similar topic is associated with fish farming, introductory aquaculture, and general aquaculture. Quite a few students can prepare a good research paper if they turn to other people's research and use it as a basis to prove or disprove their own claims and theories. It is also a good opportunity to select food related research topics as you can touch upon the aspect of fish farming and marketing.

• Creation and management of a fish rate.
• Sturgeon breeding and distribution.
• Methods for improving the ecological state of water bodies.
• Planting plants in reservoirs for liquid purification.
• Fish spawning control.
• The aquaculture aspect and social trends.
• Methods for increasing fish resources.
• Breeding in the fishing industry.
• Methods for creating a fish farm.
• River resource monitoring and digitalization.

Topics in Agric Business And Financial Management

Control of a livestock or vegetable enterprise depends on many factors, so such a topic's choice will be extremely relevant. The student's most important task is to bring only proven facts and arguments of his own judgments. These agriculture topics for students include an overview of many business processes and farm management.

• The farm cost reduction methodology.
• US agricultural financing sector.
• Agricultural business practices.
• Data analysis and farming development.
• Financial management of small livestock farms.
• Impact of drought on yield.
• Cost and payback of farms.
• Selecting a region for creating a farm.
• A method for analyzing animal resources on a farm.
• Management of automated farming enterprises.
• Local farming business.
• Key factors of farm management.
• Farm reports and breeding work.

Topics in Agric Meteorology And Water Management

Meteorological aspects are very important for the management of a company or agricultural enterprises. Another aspect of this topic is water management, which may also be interesting for those who are going to reveal the nuances of fish farming in local waters. The topic will be especially interesting for those who want to connect their lives with agronomy and a similar field.

• Cattle breeding methodology.
• Pig breeding methods.
• Water management to maximize profits.
• The choice of a reservoir for growing fish.
• Analysis of the ecological situation in water bodies.
• Farm equipment management techniques.
• Water supply for farm households.
• Analysis and selection of a farm development methodology.
• Finding the right methods for creating protected reservoirs.
• Stages of development of a water farm.

Other Agric Topics

Sometimes choosing a specific topic can be difficult. This is because students are not quite sure which study to base their paper on. You can take a neutral topic that has no specific relation to breeding, meteorology, or farming aspects in such cases.

• Innovative farming methods.
• Choosing the right water farm management model.
• The nuances of trout breeding.
• Population control and livestock farm development plan.
• Financial analytics and purchase of farm animals.
• The self-sufficiency period of the fish farm.
• How to create fish spawning tanks?
• Selection of breeds of cows for farming.
• Methodology for calculating farm risks.
• Time management and selection of plants for the plantation.
• Features of the legal registration of a farm household.
• Modern agricultural drones.
• The difference between Ayn Rand's anthem and George Orwell's animal farm.
• Animal rights vs. animal welfare.

How to Write a Good Agriculture Research Paper?

One of the main life hacks for getting a high mark is choosing controversial agricultural topics. Choosing this option allows students to consider an interesting statement and back it up with real facts. A paper-based on real statistics with proof of student work is valued above all else.

But even when choosing a good topic, you still need to prepare the right outline for writing your research paper. The introduction should be of the highest quality as well as the final paragraph since these are the main parts that affect the assessment. Real facts and statistics must support all the statements above if you are talking about specific figures. Many colleges and universities have their own paper requirements as well as the nuances of the design of research work. You must consider each parameter in order to get the best result.

If it is difficult to find controversial topics in agriculture and write a high-quality research paper, we can help you with this issue. Our  best essay writing service has been in operation for many years and provides writing assistance for many types of essays, research papers, and theses. We will help you synchronize your preparation process and create an expert paper that gets high marks. You can switch to other tasks and get the opportunity to free up some time to study other disciplines.

An Inspiration List:

• Agricultural Research
• Current Agriculture Research Journal
• Agricultural Research & Technology
• Journal of Agriculture and Food Research
• Advances in Plants & Agriculture Research
• Journal of Bioscience and Agriculture Research
• Middle East Journal of Agriculture Research

Explore 118+ Agriculture Research Topics for Innovation and Possibilities.

Dec 20, 2023 | 0 comments

Dec 20, 2023 | Topics | 0 comments

Embarking on a journey through agriculture research topics unveils a realm of possibilities and innovation that underpin our food systems and farming practices. Have you ever wondered what areas researchers delve into to improve our agricultural landscape? Well, get ready for a glimpse into intriguing research topics in agriculture that scientists are currently exploring. From sustainable development to genetic improvement of crops and livestock, the field is diverse and crucial for tackling our planet’s challenges. So, what exactly are these agriculture research topics, and how do they contribute to making our food systems more resilient and sustainable? Let’s uncover the answers to these questions as we explore the exciting world of agricultural research.

Table of Contents

How do you select the best Agriculture Research Paper topic?

Choosing the right agriculture research paper topic is like picking the perfect crop to plant – it requires careful consideration and a bit of know-how. So, how do you select the best agriculture research paper topic that stands out in the field? Let’s break it down:

• Passion Points: Ask yourself, “What aspects of agriculture am I most passionate about?” Whether it’s sustainable farming, animal breeding, or soil health, picking a topic you’re genuinely interested in makes the research journey more exciting.
• Identify Gaps: Consider the gaps in current knowledge. Where does agriculture need more insight? Think about the questions that intrigue you – those uncharted territories where you can contribute valuable information.
• Feasibility: Assess the feasibility of your chosen topic. Are there enough resources and data available to support your research? Avoid topics that might be too complex or lack the necessary information.
• Relevance: Ask yourself, “How relevant is my chosen topic to the current issues in agriculture?” Staying up-to-date with industry trends ensures your research contributes to solving real-world problems.
• Impactful Research: Consider the potential impact of your research. Will it bring about positive changes in farming practices or contribute to sustainable agriculture? Aim for topics that have practical implications and can make a difference.
• Consult Experts: Don’t hesitate to consult with teachers, experts, or researchers in the field. They can provide valuable insights, helping refine your topic and ensure it aligns with current research priorities.
• Stay Flexible: Be open to adjusting your topic as you delve deeper into the research. The initial idea might sometimes evolve, leading to a more refined and focused research question.
• Ask for Feedback: Seek feedback from peers or mentors. Present your chosen topic and gather input – a fresh perspective can help you fine-tune your focus.

Best Agriculture Research Topics

• Integrating Sustainable Agriculture Practices for Enhanced Food Security
• Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Livestock Production Systems
• Innovations in Irrigation Techniques to Promote Sustainable Food Systems
• Enhancing Food Safety Protocols in Agricultural Supply Chains
• Conservation Strategies for Biodiversity in Agroecosystems
• Pest Management Approaches for Sustainable Crop Yield Improvement
• The Role of Ecological Practices in Mitigating Agricultural Waste
• Sustainable Livestock Farming: Balancing Productivity and Environmental Impact
• Evaluating the Ecological Impact of Pesticide Use in Modern Agriculture
• Promoting Sustainable Food Systems through Community-Based Agriculture Initiatives

Agricultural Economics Research Topics

• Market Dynamics and Price Volatility in Agricultural Commodities
• Economic Impacts of Climate Change on Agricultural Production Systems
• Policy Interventions for Promoting Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development
• Assessing the Role of Technology Adoption in Agricultural Productivity
• Economic Analysis of Precision Farming Technologies and Practices
• Income Inequality in Agricultural Communities: Causes and Remedies
• The Role of Agricultural Trade in Global Economic Development
• Economic Evaluation of Ecosystem Services in Agricultural Landscapes

Agricultural Engineering Research Topics

• Innovative Engineering Approaches for Sustainable Water Management in Agriculture
• Precision Agriculture Technologies: Advancements and Implementation Challenges
• Automated Systems for Crop Monitoring and Yield Prediction
• Energy-Efficient Solutions in Agricultural Machinery and Equipment
• Sensor Technologies for Real-time Monitoring of Soil Health and Crop Conditions
• Robotics and Automation in Agricultural Practices: Opportunities and Limitations
• Waste-to-Energy Technologies for Sustainable Agricultural Operations
• Engineering Solutions for Mitigating the Impact of Climate Change on Farming Systems

Interesting Agriculture Research Topics For Students

• Microbial Applications for Enhancing Nutrient Cycling in Agricultural Systems
• Sustainable Agricultural Practices in Rural Areas: A Case Study Analysis
• Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Urban Agriculture: Assessing Sustainability
• Innovative Agricultural Water Management Techniques for Increased Productivity
• Fertility Management Strategies for Sustainable Crop Production Systems
• Exploring the Role of Nutrient-Rich Food Products in Improving Human Health
• Assessing the Environmental Impact of Agricultural Waste in Production Systems
• Integrating NIFA Initiatives for Advancing Food and Agriculture Research
• Enhancing Agricultural Productivity through Technology-driven Production Systems
• The Intersection of Food Security and Sustainability in Modern Agricultural Practices

Agriculture-Related Research Paper Topics

• Analytical Approaches to Assessing the Environmental Sustainability of Local Food Systems
• The Impact of Bioenergy Production on Biodiversity in Agricultural Landscapes
• Intervention Strategies for Addressing Depletion of Crop Varieties in Modern Agriculture
• Exploring the Role of Agricultural Enterprises in Rural Development
• Assessing the Ecological Consequences of Invasive Species in Food Production Systems
• Local Food Initiatives and Their Influence on the Global Food Supply Chain
• Investigating the Analytical Methods for Monitoring and Improving Food Supply Chain Efficiency
• Biodiversity Conservation in Agricultural Landscapes: A Focus on Crop Varieties
• The Intersection of Rural Development and Environmental Sustainability in Agriculture
• Examining the Impact of Intervention Programs on Sustainable Food Production Practices

List of Agriculture Research Paper Topics

• Sustainable Development Strategies in High-Yielding Agriculture
• Integrated Pest Management Approaches for Crop Improvement
• Organic Farming and Its Impact on Soil Health and Fertility
• Assessing the Ecological and Economic Dimensions of Soil Degradation
• National and International Perspectives on Water Management Practices in Agriculture
• USDA Initiatives for Promoting Sustainable Agriculture in Rural Communities
• Balancing High-Yielding Crop Practices with Ecological Considerations
• Exploring the Relationship Between Soil Fertility and Agricultural Productivity

Expanded Agriculture Research Paper Topics

• Enhancing Crop Productivity through Innovative Input Strategies
• The Role of Forestry Practices in Sustainable Agriculture
• Microorganism Diversity and its Impact on Soil Health and Crop Yield
• Advancements in Horticulture Techniques for Improved Crop Management
• Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture: Challenges and Opportunities
• Physiological Mechanisms Underlying Crop Responses to Environmental Stress
• Engineering Approaches for Efficient Water Management in Agriculture
• Genomic Applications for Crop Improvement and Biotic Stress Resistance

Agricultural Research Topics in Animal Breeding And Genetics

• Genomic Selection and its Application in Animal Breeding Programs
• Genetic Improvement of Livestock for Enhanced Productivity and Disease Resistance
• Molecular Markers and their Role in Characterizing Genetic Diversity in Animal Populations
• Selective Breeding for Improved Reproductive Performance in Farm Animals
• Genomic Tools for Identifying and Managing Genetic Disorders in Livestock
• Application of Quantitative Genetics in Improving Feed Efficiency in Farm Animals
• Genetic and Genomic Approaches to Enhance Heat Tolerance in Livestock
• Advances in Marker-Assisted Selection for Traits of Economic Importance in Animal Agriculture

Agriculture Related Research Topics in Plant Science And Crop Production

• Innovative Approaches to Enhance Crop Productivity in Sustainable Agriculture
• Genetic Modification for Crop Resistance to Biotic and Abiotic Stresses
• Precision Farming Technologies for Optimal Resource Utilization in Crop Production
• Investigating the Impact of Climate Change on Crop Physiology and Yield
• Sustainable Management of Soil Health for Improved Crop Production
• Functional Genomics in Understanding Plant Responses to Environmental Challenges
• Development and Deployment of High-Yielding Crop Varieties with Desired Traits
• Exploring Novel Strategies for Integrated Pest Management in Crop Agriculture

Agriculture Research Project Topics in Fisheries And Aquaculture

• Sustainable Aquaculture Practices: Balancing Production and Environmental Conservation
• Genetic Improvement of Aquatic Species for Enhanced Aquaculture Productivity
• Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Its Impact on Fisheries Sustainability
• Innovative Technologies for Water Quality Monitoring in Aquaculture Systems
• Socio-economic Impacts of Aquaculture on Local Communities
• Development and Optimization of Feed Formulations for Aquaculture Species
• Disease Management Strategies in Aquatic Organisms: A Focus on Probiotics and Immunostimulants
• Assessing the Ecological Impact of Aquaculture Practices on Coastal and Inland Water Bodies

Topics in Agricultural Science

• Understanding the Physiology of Insect Species in Agricultural Ecosystems
• Sensitive Information Handling in Agricultural Science Research
• Addressing Water Scarcity Challenges in Agricultural Practices
• Livelihood Impact of Agricultural Practices on Local Communities
• Manure Management Strategies for Sustainable Agriculture
• Energy Production from Agricultural Waste: Biochemical Approaches
• Exploring Nutrient Composition in Plants for Improved Crop Yield
• Cover Crops and Medicinal Herbs: Contributions to Sustainable Agriculture in a Growing World Population

Agricultural Economics Research Topics in Farm Management

• Economic Analysis of Disease Management Strategies for Plant Pathogens in Crop Production
• Cost-Benefit Analysis of Precision Farming Technologies in Livestock Rearing
• Financial Viability of Integrated Pest Management Practices in Farm Management
• Evaluating the Economic Impact of Climate Change on Crop Rearing Systems
• Adoption and Economic Implications of Sustainable Agriculture Practices in Livestock Farms
• Farm-Level Decision-Making for Efficient Resource Allocation in Rearing Operations
• Economic Evaluation of Technology Adoption for Disease Control in Plant Pathogen Management
• Assessing the Profitability and Sustainability of Diversification Strategies in Farm Enterprises

Topics in Agric Meteorology And Water Management

• Climate Variability and its Impact on Agricultural Water Management
• Precision Irrigation Technologies for Efficient Water Use in Agriculture
• Modeling and Simulation of Meteorological Factors in Crop Growth
• Weather Forecasting for Optimal Decision-Making in Agriculture
• Integrated Water Resource Management for Sustainable Agriculture
• Evaluating the Impact of Climate Change on Water Availability for Agriculture
• Meteorological Approaches to Assessing Drought Risk in Agricultural Regions
• Remote Sensing Applications in Monitoring and Managing Agricultural Water Resources

Agriculture Research Paper Topics in Agronomy

• Optimizing Crop Rotation Systems for Sustainable Agronomic Practices
• Soil Health Assessment Techniques for Precision Agriculture
• Evaluating the Impact of Cover Crops on Weed Management in Agronomic Systems
• Enhancing Nitrogen Use Efficiency in Crop Production through Agronomic Practices
• Investigating the Role of Plant-Microbe Interactions in Crop Health and Yield
• Sustainable Management of Agricultural Residues for Improved Soil Quality
• Precision Farming Technologies for Efficient Resource Utilization in Agronomy
• Agronomic Approaches to Mitigate the Effects of Climate Change on Crop Production

Get Help With Your Agriculture Research Paper

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Which topic is best for research in agriculture?

Determining the best research topic in agriculture depends on your interests and the current needs of the industry, ranging from sustainable practices to genetic improvements in crops and livestock.

What are the research paper topics on organic farming?

Research paper topics on organic farming can include soil health in organic systems, the impact of organic practices on crop yield, and the economic viability of organic farming compared to conventional methods.

What are some of the projects in agriculture?

Projects in agriculture cover a broad spectrum, such as precision farming using technology, sustainable water management practices, genetic improvement of crops, and innovative approaches to pest management.

What is a research topic example?

An example of a research topic could be “Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Crop Productivity” or “Exploring Sustainable Livestock Farming Practices for Environmental Conservation.”

With a passion for helping students navigate their educational journey, I strive to create informative and relatable blog content. Whether it’s tackling exam stress, offering career guidance, or sharing effective study techniques

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Food systems innovations — including strategic adoption of crop and livestock breeding technologies, land-use optimization and food waste inhibitors — diminish the need to import protein and avoid greenhouse gas emissions.

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Impact of climate-smart agriculture practices on multidimensional poverty among coastal farmers in bangladesh.

In Bangladesh, crop vulnerability, crop income, and access to technical and educational services determine the adoption of climate-smart agriculture practices, which reduce farmers’ multidimensional poverty, according to coastal household data and statistical analysis.

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Quantification of 700 mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites of fungi and plants in grain products

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An exploration of biodiversity limits to grazing ruminant milk and meat production

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Harnessing co-evolutionary interactions between plants and Streptomyces to combat drought stress

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Strategic cropland reserves can strengthen China’s food security

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124 Farming Essay Topics

🏆 best essay topics on farming, ✍️ farming essay topics for college, 🎓 most interesting farming research titles, 💡 simple farming essay ideas, ❓ research question about farmers.

• City Life vs Country Life: Essay on Similarities and Differences
• Farming Business Innovations: Urban Cultivator and Tree-T-Pee
• Organic Farming: Opposition to Traditional Farming
• Conventional Farming vs Hydroponic
• The Problem of the Dog Meat Farms in South Korea
• Ethical Issues Affecting Factory Farming
• Animal Farms and Their Environmental Impact
• Case Study: Farming the Cerrado The case “Farming the Cerrado” documents the advantages and disadvantages of expansion in soybean farming in Brazil.
• Environmental Issues: Intensive Farming Intensive farming as an issue involves factors such as overgrazing, inappropriate methods during the preparation of land for farming for example slashing of bushes, etc.
• McKinsey & Company: State Farm Insurance Assessment In this paper, McKinsey & Company is to be discussed as a management consulting firm that deals in consultancy, especially at senior management levels.
• Animal Farming: Arguments Against The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the main arguments against animal farming and estimate their credibility, based on the available evidence.
• Farmer’s Market for a Diverse Community: Risk Factors The paper discusses potential risk factors for the farmer’s market for a diverse community. It includes technical, managerial, commercial, and external risk factors.
• Encouragement of Family Farms by Small Island Countries This paper discusses the importance of family farming in small island countries for achieving food security and explores the challenges and opportunities associated with gardening.
• Environmental Impact of Avocado Farming in Mexico Despite the benefits of Avocado growing in the Mexican economy, farming has some detrimental effects on the environment, which, if not checked, could lead to world disaster.
• Antibiotics Use in Factory Farms The current approach to food production has serious drawbacks and leads to unexpected health issues nationwide, as huge factory farms use large quantities of antibiotics.
• Fair Trade and Its Benefits for Local Farmers Fair trade was introduced to support the work of local farmers, whose incomes depend not only on themselves but also on various factors such as drought, crop diseases, and others.
• Urban Farming and Smart Greenhouse Scientists created a smart greenhouse that uses state-of-the-art technologies to grow the maximum number of crops, fruits, and vegetables by using the minimum resources.
• “How Factory Farms Play Chicken With Antibiotics”: A Response In his 2016 article, “How Factory Farms Play Chicken with Antibiotics,” Philpott explains the antibiotics-based approach toward preventing bacteria.
• Rebellion on the Animal Farm: Need to Rise Against Pigs The pigs’ tyranny envelops various spheres of the animals’ lives, from stolen products, such as milk and apples, to abusing the community representatives’ amount of work.
• The Shortage of Labor and Inability of European Farmers: Slave Trade The shortage of labor and the inability of European farmers to find alternative sources of it are the major factors that influenced the growth of the transatlantic slave trade.
• The Farm Bill: Description and Analysis The Farm Bill should be analyzed from different perspectives in order to identify its potential influence on the area of farming in the country.
• Organic Farming Methods: Pest Management Methods The organic farming techniques aim is providing highest nutritional foodstuffs with little effect on the natural environment.
• The Great Depression and the New Deal Farm Policies The years of the great depression were characterized by poverty, high unemployment, deflation, low profits and plunging farm incomes.
• The Current American Food Situation Influenced by the Immigrant Farmers This research paper is concerned with finding out about the States’ food system and how immigrant farmers contribute to the food situation in current American society.
• The Nature of State Farm State Farm was started in 1902 and it has fifty million members. It was set up because the founders believed there were no good roads or highways that catered for cars.
• The Agrarian Protest: Causes, Farmers Alliances, Break Up The Agrarian Protest made a distinctive feature in the history of America, the protests were largely brought about by the American farmers against the economic ills at this time.
• Issue for Farmers in Developing Countries Agriculture is a very important sector in the whole world economy since it makes available, food to every living person.
• Gender Identities Within the Farm Family The major phenomenon considered in the article is the development of gender identities within the farm family living in Northern Ireland.
• Raccoon-Proof Chicken Coop Building and Farming Adopting the idea of Novella Carpenter about farming and taking care of animals, I would like to share my experience of farming and building a raccoon-proof chicken coop.
• Genetically Modified Organisms and Future Farming There are many debates about benefits and limitations of GMOs, but so far, scientists fail to prove that the advantages of these organisms are more numerous than the disadvantages.
• Delmarva Area Farming and Hydroponics System Delmarva is a peninsula that is situated at the East Coast of the United States. It covers vast areas of Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia.
• Immokalee City Development: Farming or Gambling It is necessary to note that economy can benefit from investment into development of education and training as the population is quite young.
• Dallas Farmer’s Market Advertisement The ads of Dallas Farmer’s market conveys a message that people should purchase healthy food provided by this market. It uses a recognizable object and fills it with a new sense.
• Farm Subsidies in the USA To safeguard the survival of the important industry, most developed nations have come up with means for ensuring that farmers remain in business.
• Multi-Objective Optimization and Design of Farming Systems
• Agriculture and Organic Farming
• Farming During the Late Nineteenth Century
• Entry and Exit From Farming in North Carolina, 1978-87
• Organic Farming Can Not Feed the World
• Differences Between Conventional and Organic Farming
• Farming Safety and Production
• Cost Structure and Vertical Integration Between Farming and Processing
• Factory Farming Should Not Be Allowed in America
• Alabama’s Forestry and Farming Industries
• Exit From Farming and Land Abandonment in Northern Norway
• Land Allotment and the Decline of American Indian Farming
• Keynesian Economics and Farming
• Chinese Peasant Choices: Migration, Rural Industry, or Farming
• Ancient Egypt’s Farming System
• Hog Farming and the Dangers to the Air and Water
• Animal Rights and the Tragedies of Factory Farming
• Organic Farming and Organic Food
• Ancient Rome: Farming, Clothing, Sports, and Government
• Contract Farming: Theory and Practice
• Mussel Farming and Its Potential in the Baltic Sea
• Living With Low Inflation: Farming for Profit
• 19th Century Farming, American History
• Canada’s Forestry, Fishing, and Farming Industries
• Farming the Tambopata Reserve
• Contract Farming and Agricultural Development of Orissa
• Integrating Fish and Azolla Into Rice-Duck Farming in Asia
• Grass Conservation and Dairy Farming
• Financial and Economic Aspects of Urban Vegetable Farming
• Contract Farming and Outgrower Schemes in East and Southern Africa
• Farming and the Soil in Our State Today
• California Drought and Organic Versus Conventional Farming
• Green House Farming and the World Food Crisis
• Hill and Upland Farming in the North of England
• Difference Between Organic and Conventional Foods and Farming
• Comparing Organic Farming and Conventional Farming
• Manmade Wetlands and Hog Farming
• Land Transfers and Agrarian Changes in Individual Farming
• Fish Farming: Meeting the World´S Demand for Fish Supply
• Organic Farming and the Food Industry
• Health, Health Insurance, and Decision to Exit From Farming
• Agriculture Farming and Subsistence Farming
• Fish Farming Through Community Participation in Assam
• Farming Systems and the Common Market
• Nile Basin Farming Systems and Productivity
• Farm Size and the Organization of U.S. Crop Farming
• Farming Methods and Food Crisis
• Improvement Strategies for Farming Systems in the Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia
• Factors Influencing the Conversion to Organic Farming in Norway
• Factory Farming and Its Effects on the Environment
• Fossil Energy and Ghg Saving Potentials of Pig Farming in the EU
• Farming During the Daily Lives of Ancient Egypt
• Market Signals for Organic Farming
• Farming During the 1930s
• Information and the Adoption of Precision Farming Technologies
• Agriculture and Animal Farming
• Absolute and Comparative Sustainability of Farming Enterprises in Bulgaria
• Kenya Ameru Tribe People Crops Farming
• Factors That Affect the Use of Herbicides in Philippine Rice Farming Systems
• Free Range Farming Should Be Banned
• Are Organic Farming Practices Safer?
• Can Commercial Farming Promote Rural Dynamism in Sub-Saharan Africa?
• Why Did Deflation During the Late 1800s Hurt Farmers?
• Does Climate-Smart Village Approach Influence Gender Equality in Farming Households?
• Are Italian Farming Households Actually Poorer Than Other Non-agricultural Households?
• What Are the Barriers to Adopting Carbon Farming Practices?
• Can Organic Farming Feed the World?
• Are Farmers More Dependent on Rural Communities Than Rural Communities Are Dependent on Farmers?
• Who Are Today’s Farmers and What Are Their Educational Needs?
• Does Carbon Farming Provide a Cost‐Effective Option to Mitigate GHG Emissions?
• Can Seaweed Farming Play a Role in Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation?
• Was the Federal Government Biased Against Farmers and Workers in the Late 19th Century?
• How Does Corporate Farming Affect the Overall Health of Livestock?
• Does Contract Farming Improve Welfare?
• Can Organic Farming Reduce Vulnerabilities and Enhance the Resilience of the European Food System?
• What Motivates Farmers’ Adaptation to Climate Change?
• Are African Female Farmers Disadvantaged in the Microfinance Lending Market?
• Can Small Farmers Survive in a Globalized World?
• How Does Farming Change Between Bredon Hill and Birlingham?
• Does Certified Organic Farming Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions From Agricultural Production?
• Should Farmers Forced the Gas Exploration on Their Lands?
• How Did Railroad Development Affect Midwestern Farmers?
• Does Rice Farming Shape Individualism and Innovation?
• Are Australian and United States Farmers Using Soil Information for Soil Health Management?
• What Are the Key Constraints in the Technical Efficiency of Smallholder Farmers in Africa?
• Did China’s Tax-for-Fee Reform Improve Farmers’ Welfare in Rural Areas?
• How Does Organic Farming Affect the Environment?
• What Factors Affect the Distribution of Direct Payments Among Farmers in the EU Member States?
• Are Organic Farmers Really Better Off Than Conventional Farmers?
• Can Organic Farmers Produce Enough Food to Feed the World?

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These essay examples and topics on Farming were carefully selected by the StudyCorgi editorial team. They meet our highest standards in terms of grammar, punctuation, style, and fact accuracy. Please ensure you properly reference the materials if you’re using them to write your assignment.

This essay topic collection was updated on June 22, 2024 .

Home — Essay Samples — Science — Agriculture

Essays on Agriculture

The importance of writing an essay on agriculture cannot be overstated. Agriculture is the backbone of our society, providing us with the food and resources we need to survive. By writing an essay on agriculture, you can help raise awareness about the importance of sustainable farming practices, the impact of climate change on food production, and the need for technological advancements in the agricultural industry.

When writing an essay on agriculture, it's important to first do thorough research on the topic. This may involve reading academic journals, interviewing experts in the field, and gathering data on current agricultural practices and trends. This research will provide you with the necessary information to make strong arguments and support your claims.

Additionally, it's important to consider the audience for your essay. Are you writing for a general audience or for a specific group of people, such as policymakers or farmers? Tailoring your writing to your audience will help ensure that your essay is relevant and impactful.

Another important tip for writing an essay on agriculture is to use clear and concise language. Avoid jargon and technical terms that may be difficult for the average reader to understand. Instead, focus on communicating your ideas in a straightforward manner that is accessible to a wide range of readers.

Finally, don't forget to include evidence to support your arguments. This may include statistics, case studies, and expert opinions. Providing evidence will help strengthen your essay and make it more persuasive.

The Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture Climate change is one of the biggest challenges facing agriculture today. Write an essay exploring the various ways in which climate change is affecting agriculture, including changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and the spread of pests and diseases. Discuss potential strategies for adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change on agriculture.

The Role of Technology in Modern Agriculture Advances in technology have revolutionized the way we produce food. In this essay, discuss the impact of technology on agriculture, including the use of precision farming techniques, drones and other aerial technologies, and the development of genetically modified organisms. Explore the potential benefits and drawbacks of these technological advancements on the agricultural industry.

Sustainable Agriculture Practices Sustainability is a growing concern in agriculture, as farmers and policymakers seek to minimize the environmental impact of food production. Write an essay discussing sustainable agriculture practices, such as organic farming, crop rotation, and integrated pest management. Explore the potential benefits of these practices for both the environment and the long-term viability of the agricultural industry.

The Importance of Soil Health in Agriculture Healthy soil is essential for productive and sustainable agriculture. In this essay, explore the role of soil health in agriculture, including the importance of soil conservation, the impact of soil degradation on crop yields, and the potential benefits of regenerative agriculture practices. Discuss potential strategies for improving and maintaining soil health on farms.

The Future of Agriculture: Urban Farming and Vertical Agriculture As the global population continues to grow, the demand for food is increasing, leading to new innovations in agricultural practices. Write an essay discussing the potential of urban farming and vertical agriculture to address food security and sustainability challenges. Explore the benefits and drawbacks of these alternative farming methods and their potential impact on the agricultural industry.

The Economics of Agriculture: Farm Subsidies and Trade Policies The agricultural industry is heavily influenced by government policies and international trade agreements. In this essay, explore the economic factors that shape agriculture, including the role of farm subsidies, tariffs, and trade barriers. Discuss the potential impact of these policies on farmers, consumers, and the global food supply.

The Ethical Considerations of Animal Agriculture The treatment of animals in the agricultural industry is a topic of growing concern. Write an essay exploring the ethical considerations of animal agriculture, including the use of factory farming practices, the treatment of livestock, and the impact of animal agriculture on the environment and public health. Discuss potential strategies for promoting ethical and sustainable practices in animal agriculture.

The Impact of Biotechnology on Agriculture Biotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the agricultural industry, from the development of genetically modified crops to the use of biotechnology in food processing and preservation. In this essay, explore the potential benefits and drawbacks of biotechnology in agriculture, including its impact on food security, environmental sustainability, and public health.

The Role of Women in Agriculture Women play a crucial role in agriculture, from farm labor and management to entrepreneurship and leadership. Write an essay discussing the contributions of women to the agricultural industry, including the challenges and opportunities they face. Explore potential strategies for promoting gender equality and empowering women in agriculture.

The Future of Agriculture: Sustainable Food Systems As the world grapples with the challenges of climate change, food security, and environmental degradation, there is growing interest in developing sustainable food systems. In this essay, discuss the potential of sustainable food systems to address these challenges, including the role of regenerative agriculture, local food movements, and alternative food distribution models. Explore the potential benefits of sustainable food systems for both the environment and human health.

In , agriculture is a complex and multifaceted industry that intersects with numerous social, economic, and environmental issues. These essay topics provide a starting point for exploring the many dimensions of agriculture, from the impact of climate change and technological advancements to the ethical considerations of food production and the potential of sustainable food systems. By delving into these topics, students and researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities facing the agricultural industry and contribute to the development of innovative solutions for a more sustainable and equitable food system.

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The Need for Agricultural Biodeversity Conservation

The clean meat movement as the solution to global hunger, nano technology perspective: application of nanotechnology in insect pest management, impacts of pesticides use and its influence on pest management, sampling of soil and sediments, african history, national bank for agriculture and rural development, advancements in agriculture as factors in the emergence of industrial revolution, impact of some soil amendments and mycorrhiza on cowpea damping-off, the effects of the market revolution from 1800 through 1860, the opportuities of nigerian agriculture, analysis of biomass change using remote sensing technique, the indian agriculture system, indian food industry, structural adjustment programs (saps) in tanzania, an empirical study on financial risks in agriculture sector of bangladesh, steps of the wastewater treatment process, agricultural waste, perturbation of selected soil enzyme activities by various hydrocarbons, the pluses of using combine harvesters in farming, relevant topics.

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45 Research Project Ideas in Agriculture – Innovative Approaches to Sustainable Farming

Explore 45 research project ideas in agriculture for sustainable farming.

Agriculture is a vast and dynamic field that plays a critical role in feeding the world’s population. As the global population continues to grow, the demand for food production is also increasing, making agriculture one of the most important sectors for ensuring food security and sustainable development. However, the challenges facing the agriculture industry today are numerous, ranging from climate change, soil degradation, water scarcity, and pest infestation to biodiversity loss and food waste.

To tackle these issues and promote sustainable agriculture, researchers and professionals in the field are continuously exploring new and innovative ways to improve agricultural practices, increase productivity, and reduce environmental impact. In this article, we will present 45 research project ideas in agriculture that can help address some of the most pressing issues facing the industry today.

These research projects cover a wide range of topics, from soil health and crop yields to livestock farming, aquaculture, and food systems, providing a comprehensive overview of the latest trends and innovations in agricultural research.

Whether you are a student, researcher, or professional in the field, these research project ideas can help guide your work and contribute to a more sustainable and resilient agriculture industry.

• Evaluating the effectiveness of natural pest control methods in agriculture.
• Investigating the effects of climate change on crop yields and food security.
• Studying the impact of soil quality on plant growth and crop yields.
• Analyzing the potential of precision agriculture techniques to increase yields and reduce costs.
• Assessing the feasibility of vertical farming as a sustainable solution to food production.
• Investigating the impact of sustainable agriculture practices on soil health and ecosystem services.
• Exploring the potential of agroforestry to improve soil fertility and crop yields.
• Developing strategies to mitigate the effects of drought on crop production.
• Analyzing the impact of irrigation management techniques on crop yields and water use efficiency.
• Studying the potential of biochar as a soil amendment to improve crop productivity.
• Investigating the effects of soil compaction on crop yields and soil health.
• Evaluating the impact of soil erosion on agriculture and ecosystem services.
• Developing integrated pest management strategies for organic agriculture.
• Assessing the potential of cover crops to improve soil health and reduce erosion.
• Studying the effects of biofertilizers on crop yields and soil health.
• Investigating the potential of phytoremediation to mitigate soil pollution in agriculture.
• Developing sustainable practices for livestock farming and manure management.
• Studying the effects of climate change on animal health and productivity.
• Analyzing the impact of animal feeding practices on meat quality and safety.
• Investigating the potential of aquaponics to increase food production and reduce environmental impact.
• Developing strategies to reduce food waste and loss in agriculture.
• Studying the effects of nutrient management practices on crop yields and environmental impact.
• Evaluating the potential of organic agriculture to improve soil health and reduce environmental impact.
• Investigating the effects of land use change on agriculture and biodiversity.
• Developing strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture.
• Analyzing the impact of agricultural policies on food security and sustainability.
• Studying the potential of precision livestock farming to improve animal welfare and productivity.
• Investigating the impact of agrochemicals on soil health and biodiversity.
• Developing sustainable practices for fisheries and aquaculture.
• Studying the potential of bioremediation to mitigate pollution in aquaculture.
• Investigating the effects of climate change on fisheries and aquaculture.
• Developing strategies to reduce water pollution from agriculture and aquaculture.
• Studying the impact of land use change on water resources and aquatic ecosystems.
• Evaluating the potential of agroecology to promote sustainable agriculture and food systems.
• Investigating the impact of climate-smart agriculture practices on food security and resilience.
• Studying the potential of agrobiodiversity to improve crop productivity and resilience.
• Analyzing the impact of agricultural trade on food security and sustainability.
• Investigating the effects of urbanization on agriculture and food systems.
• Developing strategies to promote gender equity in agriculture and food systems.
• Studying the potential of agroforestry to promote biodiversity and ecosystem services.
• Analyzing the impact of food systems on public health and nutrition.
• Investigating the effects of climate change on pollination and crop yields.
• Developing strategies to promote agrotourism and rural development.
• Studying the potential of agroforestry to promote carbon sequestration and mitigate climate change.
• Analyzing the impact of agricultural subsidies on food security and sustainability.

I hope this article would help you to know the new project topics and research ideas in Agricultural.

• agriculture research
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• food systems
• livestock farming
• Project Topics
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• soil health
• sustainable farming

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Agriculture Essay Examples and Topics

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Agriculture and Food Technology Research Paper Topics

See our collection of agriculture and food technology research paper topics . This page lists 19 topics and provides an overview of agriculture and food technology development.

1. Activated Carbon

Activated carbon is made from any substance with a high carbon content, and activation refers to the development of the property of adsorption. Activated carbon is important in purification processes, in which molecules of various contaminants are concentrated on and adhere to the solid surface of the carbon. Through physical adsorption, activated carbon removes taste and odor-causing organic compounds, volatile organic compounds, and many organic compounds that do not undergo biological degradation from the atmosphere and from water, including potable supplies, process streams, and waste streams. The action can be compared to precipitation. Activated carbon is generally nonpolar, and because of this it adsorbs other nonpolar, mainly organic, substances. Extensive porosity (pore volume) and large available internal surface area of the pores are responsible for adsorption. Activated carbon also found wide application in the pharmaceutical, alcoholic beverage, and electroplating industries; in the removal of pesticides and waste of pesticide manufacture; for treatment of wastewater from petroleum refineries and textile factories; and for remediation of polluted groundwater. Although activated carbons are manufactured for specific uses, it is difficult to characterize them quantitatively. As a result, laboratory trials and pilot plant experiments on a specific waste type normally precede installation of activated carbon facilities.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 2. biological pest control.

Insect outbreaks have plagued crop production throughout human history, but the growth of commercial agriculture since the middle of the nineteenth century has increased their acuteness and brought forth the need to devise efficient methods of insect control. Methods such as the spraying of insecticides, the application of cultural methods, the breeding of insect-resistant plants, and the use of biological control have increasingly been used in the twentieth century. Traditionally limited to checking the populations of insect pests through the release of predatory or parasitic insects, biological control now refers to the regulation of agricultural or forest pests (especially insects, weeds and mammals) using living organisms. It also includes other methods such as the spraying of microbial insecticides, the release of pathogenic microorganisms (fungi, bacteria or viruses), the release of male insects sterilized by radiation, the combination of control methods in integrated pest management programs, and the insertion of toxic genes into plants through genetic engineering techniques. Biological control is also directed against invasive foreign species that threaten ecological biodiversity and landscape esthetics in nonagricultural environments.

3. Crop Protection and Spraying

Humans have controlled agricultural pests, both plants and insects, that infest crops with a variety of biological and technological methods. Modern humans developed spraying pest management techniques that were based on practical solutions to combat fungi, weeds, and insects. Ancient peoples introduced ants to orchards and fields so they could consume caterpillars preying on plants. Chinese, Sumerian, and other early farmers used chemicals such as sulfur, arsenic, and mercury as rudimentary herbicides and insecticides. These chemicals were usually applied to or dusted over roots, stems, or leaves. Seeds were often treated before being sowed. As early as 200 BC, Cato the Censor promoted application of antipest oil sprays to protect plants in the Roman Republic. The nineteenth century potato famine and other catastrophic destruction of economically significant crops including vineyard grapes emphasized the need to improve crop protection measures. People gradually combined technological advances with biological control methods to initiate modern agricultural spraying in the late nineteenth century. Such crop protection technology was crucial in the twentieth century when large-scale commercial agriculture dominated farming to meet global demands for food. Individual farms consisted of hundreds to thousands of acres cultivated in only one or two crop types. As a result, spraying was considered essential to prevent devastating economic losses from pest damage associated with specific crops or locales.

4. Dairy Farming

Throughout the world, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, milk, cheese, butter, ice cream, and other dairy products, have been central elements of food production. Over the centuries improvements in cattle breeding and nutrition, as well as new dairy techniques, led to the increased production of dairy goods. Hand-operated churns and separators were used to make butter and cream, and those close to a barnyard had access to fresh milk. By the late nineteenth century, new science and technology had begun to transform dairy production, particularly in the U.S. and Europe. Rail transportation and iced and refrigerated boxcars made it easier to transport milk to more distant markets. Successful machinery for separating milk from cream came from the DeLaval Corporation in 1879, and the Babcock butterfat tester appeared in 1890. The first practical automated milking machines and commercial pasteurization machines were in use in the decades before 1900. Louis Pasteur’s contribution to the dairy industry— discovering the sterilization process for milk— was substantial. By heating milk, pasteurization destroys bacteria that may be harmful to humans. The pasteurization process also increases the shelf life of the product by eliminating enzymes and bacteria that cause milk to spoil. Milk is pasteurized via the ‘‘batch’’ method, in which a jacketed vat is surrounded by heated coils. The vat is agitated while heated, which adds qualities to the product that also make it useful for making ice cream. With the ‘‘continuous’’ method of pasteurization, time and energy are conserved by continuously processing milk as a high temperature using a steel-plated heat exchanger, heated by steam or hot water. Ultra-high temperature pasteurization was first used in 1948.

5. Farming and Agricultural Methods

Agriculture experienced a transformation in the twentieth century that was vital in increasing food and fiber production for a rising global population. This expansion of production was due to mechanization, the application of science and technology, and the expansion of irrigation. Yet these changes also resulted in the decimation of traditional agricultural systems and an increased reliance on capital, chemicals, water, exploitative labor conditions, and the tides of global marketing. A sign of the transformation of agriculture in the twentieth century was the shift from China and India as countries often devastated by famine to societies that became exporters of food toward the end of the century. As the world’s technological leader, the U.S. was at the vanguard of agricultural change, and Americans in the twentieth century experienced the cheapest food in the history of modern civilization, as witnessed by the epidemic of obesity that emerged in the 1990s. Unfortunately, this abundance sometimes led to overproduction, surplus, and economic crisis on the American farm, which one historian has labeled ‘‘the dread of plenty.’’

6. Farming and Growth Promotion

Early in the twentieth century, most farmers fed livestock simple mixtures of grains, perhaps supplemented with various plant or animal byproducts and salt. A smaller group of scientific agriculturalists fed relatively balanced rations that included proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and fats. Questions remained, however, concerning the ideal ratio of these components, the digestibility of various feeds, the relationship between protein and energy, and more. The discoveries of various vitamins in the early twentieth century offered clear evidence that proteins, carbohydrates, and fats did not supply all the needs of a growing animal. Additional research demonstrated that trace minerals like iron, copper, calcium, zinc, and manganese are essential tools that build hemoglobin, limit disease, and speed animal growth. Industrially produced nonprotein nitrogenous compounds, especially urea, have also become important feed additives. The rapid expansion of soybean production, especially after 1930, brought additional sources of proteins and amino acids within the reach of many farmers. Meanwhile, wartime and postwar food demands, as well as a substantial interest in the finding industrial uses for farm byproducts, led to the use of wide variety of supplements—oyster shells, molasses, fish parts, alfalfa, cod liver oil, ground phosphates, and more.

7. Farming Mechanization

Mechanization of agriculture in the twentieth century helped to dramatically increase global production of food and fiber to feed and clothe a burgeoning world population. Among the significant developments in agricultural mechanization in the twentieth century were the introduction of the tractor, various mechanical harvesters and pickers, and labor-saving technologies associated with internal combustion engines, electric motors, and hydraulics. While mechanization increased output and relieved some of the drudgery and hard work of rural life, it also created unintended consequences for rural societies and the natural environment. By decreasing the need for labor, mechanization helped accelerate the population migration from rural to urban areas. For example, in 1790, 90 percent of Americans worked in agriculture, yet by 2000 only about 3 percent of the American workforce was rural. Blessed with great expanses of land and limited labor, technologically inclined Americans dominated the mechanization of agriculture during the twentieth century. Due to mechanization, irrigation, and science, the average American farmer in 1940 fed an estimated ten people, and by 2000 the number was over 100 people. Yet even as mechanization increased the speed of planting and harvesting, reduced labor costs, and increased profits, mechanization also created widespread technological unemployment in the countryside and resulted in huge losses in the rural population.

8. Fertilizers

As the twentieth century opened, fertilizers were a prominent concern for farmers, industrialists, scientists, and political leaders. In 1898, British scientist William Crookes delivered a powerful and widely reported speech that warned of a looming ‘‘famine’’ of nitrogenous fertilizers. According to Crookes, rising populations, increased demand for soil-depleting grain products, and the looming exhaustion of sodium nitrate beds in Chile threatened Britain and ‘‘all civilized nations’’ with imminent mass starvation and collapse. Yet Crookes also predicted that chemists would manage to discover new artificial fertilizers to replace natural and organic supplies, a prophecy that turned out to encapsulate the actual history of fertilizers in the twentieth century. In addition to obvious links to increased agricultural production, the modern fertilizer industry has been linked with a number of concerns beyond the farm. For example, the short-lived phosphate boom on the Pacific island of Nauru offers a telling case study of the social consequences and environmental devastation than can accompany extractive industries. Further, much of the nitrogen applied to soils does not reach farm plants; nitrates can infiltrate water supplies in ways that directly threaten human health, or indirectly do so by fostering the growth of bacteria that can choke off natural nutrient cycles. To combat such threats, the European Union Common Agricultural Policy includes restrictions on nitrogen applications, and several nations now offer tax incentives to farmers who employ alternative agricultural schemes. Nevertheless, the rapidly growing global population and its demand for inexpensive food means that artificial fertilizer inputs are likely to continue to increase.

9. Fish Farming

Controlled production, management, and harvesting of herbivorous and carnivorous fish has benefited from technology designed specifically for aquaculture. For centuries, humans have cultivated fish for dietary and economic benefits. Captive fish farming initially sustained local populations by supplementing wild fish harvests. Since the 1970s, aquaculture became a significant form of commercialized farming because wild fish populations declined due to overfishing and habitat deterioration. Growing human populations increased demand for reliable, consistent sources of fish suitable for consumption available throughout the year. Fish farming technology can be problematic. If genetically engineered fish escape and mate with wild fish, the offspring might be unable to survive. Cultivated fish live in crowded tanks that sometimes cause suffocation, diseases, and immense amounts of waste and pollutants. Antibiotic use can sometimes result in resistant microorganisms. Coastal fish farms, especially those for shrimp, can be environmentally damaging if adjacent forests are razed.

10. Foods Additives and Substitutes

Advances in food and agricultural technology have improved food safety and availability. Food technology includes techniques to preserve food and develop new products. Substances to preserve and enhance the appeal of foods are called food additives, and colorings fit into this category of additives that are intentionally included in a processed food. All coloring agents must be proven to be safe and their use in terms of permitted quantity, type of food that can have enhanced coloring, and final level is carefully controlled. Fat substitutes on the other hand are technically known as replacers in that they replace the saturated and/or unsaturated fats that would normally be found in processed food as an ingredient or that would be added in formulation of a processed food. Usually the purpose is to improve the perceived health benefit of the particular food substance. Technically speaking, substitutes are not additives but their efficacy and safety must be demonstrated.

11. Food Preparation and Cooking

Twentieth century technological developments for preparing and cooking food consisted of both objects and techniques. Food engineers’ primary objectives were to make kitchens more convenient and to reduce time and labor needed to produce meals. A variety of electric appliances were invented or their designs improved to supplement hand tools such as peelers, egg beaters, and grinders. By the close of the twentieth century, technological advancements transformed kitchens, the nucleus of many homes, into sophisticated centers of microchip-controlled devices. Cooking underwent a transition from being performed mainly for subsistence to often being an enjoyable hobby for many people. Kitchen technology altered people’s lives. The nineteenth-century Industrial Revolution had initiated the mechanization of homes. Cooks began to use precise measurements and temperatures to cook. Many people eagerly added gadgets to their kitchens, ranging from warming plates and toasters to tabletop cookers. Some architects designed kitchens with built-in cabinets, shelves, and convenient outlets to encourage appliance use. Because they usually cooked, women were the most directly affected by mechanical kitchen innovations. Their domestic roles were redefined as cooking required less time and was often accommodated by such amenities as built-in sinks and dishwashers. Ironically, machines often resulted in women receiving more demands to cook for events and activities because people no longer considered cooking to be an overwhelming chore.

12. Food Preservation by Cooling and Freezing

People have long recognized the benefits of cooling and freezing perishable foods to preserve them and prevent spoilage and deterioration. These cold storage techniques, which impede bacterial activity, are popular means to protect food and enhance food safety and hygiene. The food industry has benefited from chilled food technology advancements during the twentieth century based on earlier observations. For several centuries, humans realized that evaporating salt water removed heat from substances. As a result, food was cooled by placing it in brine. Cold storage in ice- or snow-packed spaces such as cellars and ice houses foreshadowed the invention of refrigerators and freezers. Before mechanical refrigeration became consistent, freezing was the preferred food preservation technique because ice inhibited microorganisms. Freezing technology advanced to preserve food more efficiently with several processes. Blast freezing uses high-velocity air to freeze food for several hours in a tunnel. Refrigerated plates press and freeze food for thirty to ninety minutes in plate freezing. Belt freezing quickly freezes food in five minutes with air forced through a mesh belt. Cryogenic freezing involves liquid nitrogen or Freon absorbing food heat during several seconds of immersion.

13. Food Preservation by Freeze Drying, Irradiation, and Vacuum Packing

Humans have used processes associated with freeze-drying for centuries by placing foods at cooler high altitudes with low atmospheric pressure where water content is naturally vaporized. Also called lyophilization, freeze-drying involves moisture being removed from objects through sublimation. Modern freeze-drying techniques dehydrate frozen foods in vacuum chambers, which apply low pressure and cause vaporization. Irradiation is less successful than freeze-drying. Prior to irradiation, millions of people worldwide became ill annually due to contaminated foods with several thousand being hospitalized or dying due to food-borne pathogens. By exposing food to an electron beam, irradiation enhances food safety. Irradiated human and animal feed, especially grain, can be transported over distances and stored for a long duration without spoiling or posing contamination hazards. The radura is the international food packaging symbol for irradiation. Vacuum-packing food technologies involve a process that removes empty spaces around foods being packaged. Vacuum technology uses environments artificially modified to have atmospheric pressures that are lower than natural conditions. Vacuum packing extends the shelf life of food. The U.K. Advisory Committee on the Microbiological Safety of Foods warned that anaerobic pathogens such as C. botulinum can grow in vacuum-packed foods. Because vacuum packing often results in rubbery sliced cheese, some manufacturers use the modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) system, which utilizes gases to fill spaces so that cheese can mature to become tastier inside packaging.

14. Irrigation Systems

Since the onset of human civilization, the manipulation of water through irrigation systems has allowed for the creation of agricultural bounty and the presence of ornamental landscaping, often in the most arid regions of the planet. These systems have undergone a widespread transformation during the twentieth century with the introduction of massive dams, canals, aqueducts, and new water delivery technology. In 1900 there were approximately 480,000 square kilometers of land under irrigation; by 2000 that total had surged to 2,710,000 square kilometers, with India and China as the world leaders in irrigated acreage. Globally, the agriculture industry uses about 69 percent of the available fresh water supplies, producing 40 percent of the world’s food on just about 18 percent of the world’s cropland. (It takes 1000 tons of water to produce 1 ton of grain.) New technologies to monitor evaporation, plant transpiration, and soil moisture levels have helped increase the efficiency of irrigation systems. The US is the world leader in irrigation technology, exporting upward of $800 million of irrigation equipment to the rest of the world each year, with the sales of drip irrigation equipment increasing 15 to 20 percent per annum in the 1990s. Golf course and landscape irrigation are also an increasing part of the irrigation technology market. Intense competition for water from cities and for environmental restoration projects might mean a reduction in irrigated agriculture in future years. At the same time, salinization of fields, infiltration of aquifers by sea water, and depleted water availability could lead to a reduction in land under irrigation worldwide.

15. Nitrogen Fixation

In 1898, the British scientist William Crookes in his presidential address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science warned of an impending fertilizer crisis. The answer lay in the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. Around 1900, industrial fixation with calcium carbide to produce cyanamide, the process of the German chemists Nikodemus Caro and Adolf Frank, was introduced. This process relied on inexpensive hydroelectricity, which is why the American Cyanamid Company was set up at Ontario, Canada, in 1907 to exploit the power of Niagara Falls. Electrochemical fixing of nitrogen as its monoxide was first realized in Norway, with the electric arc process of Kristian Birkeland and Samuel Eyde in 1903. The nitrogen monoxide formed nitrogen dioxide, which reacted with water to give nitric acid, which was then converted into the fertilizer calcium nitrate. The yield was low, and as with the Caro–Frank process, the method could be worked commercially only because of the availability of hydroelectricity.

16. Pesticides

A pesticide is any chemical designed to kill pests and includes the categories of herbicide, insecticide, fungicide, avicide, and rodenticide. Individuals, governments, and private organizations used pesticides in the twentieth century, but chemical control has been especially widespread in agriculture as farmers around the world attempted to reduce crop and livestock losses due to pest infestations, thereby maximizing returns on their investment in seed, fuel, labor, machinery expenses, animals, and land. Until the twentieth century, cultural pest control practices were more popular than chemicals. Cultural methods meant that farmers killed pests by destroying infested plant material in the fields, trapping, practicing crop rotation, cultivating, drying harvested crops, planting different crop varieties, and numerous other techniques. In the twentieth century, new chemical formulations and application equipment were the products of the growth in large-scale agriculture that simultaneously enabled that growth. Large scale and specialized farming provided ideal feeding grounds for harmful insects. Notable early efforts in insect control began in the orchards and vineyards of California. Without annual crop rotations, growers needed additional insect control techniques to prevent build-ups of pest populations. As the scale of fruit and nut production increased in the early decades of the century, so too did the insect problem.

17. Processed and Fast Food

Convenience, uniformity, predictability, affordability, and accessibility characterized twentieth-century processed and fast foods. Technology made mass-produced fast food possible by automating agricultural production and food processing. Globally, fast food provided a service for busy people who lacked time to buy groceries and cook their meals or could not afford the costs and time associated with eating traditional restaurant fare. As early as the nineteenth century, some cafeterias and restaurants, foreshadowing fast-food franchises, offered patrons self-service opportunities to select cooked and raw foods, such as meats and salads, from displays. Many modern cafeterias are affiliated with schools, businesses, and clubs to provide quick, cheap meals, often using processed foods and condiments, for students, employees, and members. Food-processing technology is designed primarily to standardize the food industry and produce food that is more flavorful and palatable for consumers and manageable and inexpensive for restaurant personnel. Food technologists develop better devices to improve the processing of food from slaughter or harvesting to presentation to diners. They are concerned with making food edible while extending the time period it can be consumed. Flavor, texture, and temperature retention of these foods when they are prepared for consumers are also sought in these processes. Microwave and radio frequency ovens process food quickly, consistently, and affordably. Microwaves are used to precook meats before they are frozen for later frying in fast-food restaurants. Nitrogen-based freezing systems have proven useful to process seafood, particularly shrimp. Mechanical and cryogenic systems also are used. The dehydrating and sterilizing of foods remove contaminants and make them easier to package. Heating and thawing eliminate bacteria to meet health codes. These processes are limited by associated expenses and occasional damage to foods. Processing techniques have been adapted to produce a greater variety of products from basic foods and have been automated to make production and packaging, such as mixing and bottling, efficient enough to meet consumer demand.

18. Synthetic Foods, Mycoprotein and Hydrogenated Fats

Food technologists developed synthetic foods to meet specific nutritional and cultural demands. Also referred to as artificial foods, synthetic foods are meat-free and are designed to provide essential fiber and nutrients such as proteins found in meats while having low saturated fat and lacking animal fat and cholesterol. These foodstuffs are manufactured completely from organic material. They have been manipulated to be tasty, nutritionally sound with major vitamins and minerals, have appealing textures, and safe for consumption. Synthetic foods offer people healthy dietary choices, variety, and convenience. Mycoprotein is created from Fusarium venenatum (also known as Fusarium graminearum), a small edible fungi related to mushrooms and truffles that was initially found in the soil of a pasture outside Marlow in Buckinghamshire, England. Concerned about possible food shortages such as those experienced in World War II Europe; as global populations swelled postwar, scientists began investigating possible applications for this organism as a widely available, affordable protein source. Scientists at one of Britain’s leading food manufacturers, Rank Hovis McDougall, focused on mycoprotein from 1964. At first, they were unable to cultivate fungus to produce mycoprotein in sufficient quantities for the envisioned scale of food production. Food technologists devoted several years to establishing procedures for growing desired amounts of mycoprotein. They chose a fermentation process involving microorganisms, somewhat like those historically used to create yogurt, wine, and beer. Food technologists create hydrogenated fats by processing vegetable oils, consisting of glycerides and fatty acids, with chemicals to achieve certain degrees of hardening. Partial hydrogenation stiffens oils, while full hydrogenation converts liquid oils into solid fat. The hydrogenation process involves moving hydrogen gas through heated oils in vats containing metals, usually copper, nickel, or zinc. When the metal reacts to the gas, it acts as a catalyst to relocate hydrogen molecules in the oil to create different, stiffer molecular shapes. This chemical reaction creates trans fats. Saturation of fats in these synthetic molecules increases according to the degree of hydrogenation achieved.

19. Transportation of Foodstuffs

Twentieth century foodstuffs were transported by land on vehicles and trains, by air on cargo planes, and by water on ships or barges. Based on innovations used in previous centuries, engineers developed agricultural technology such as refrigerated containers to ship perishable goods to distant markets. Technological advancements enabled food transportation to occur between countries and continents. International agreements outlined acceptable transportation modes and methods for shipping perishables. Such long-distance food transportation allowed people in different regions of the world to gain access to foodstuffs previously unavailable and incorporate new products they liked into their diets. Refrigerated trailers dominate road food transportation methods. This transportation mode minimizes food vulnerability to shipment damage from being harvested to placement on grocery shelves. Refrigerated transport enables fresh produce from milder climates to be shipped out-of-season to colder locations. Refrigeration is achieved by mechanical or cryogenic refrigeration or by packing or covering foods in ice. Ventilation keeps produce cool by absorbing heat created by food respiration and transferred through the walls and floor from the external air beneath and around the shipping trailer. Food technologists design packaging materials for food transportation. Most produce is shipped in corrugated and fiberboard cardboard boxes that are sometimes coated with wax. Wooden and wire-bound crates are also used in addition to bushel hampers and bins. Mesh plastic, burlap, and paper bags hold produce. Meat is often vacuum packed on plastic trays that are placed in wooden lugs. Foods are occasionally wrapped in plastic liners or packed in ice to withstand damage in transit and limit evaporation.

Agriculture and Food Technology

In late-twentieth century Western societies, food was available in abundance. Shops and supermarkets offered a wide choice in products and brands. The fast-food industry had outlets in every neighborhood and village. For those in search of something more exclusive, there were smart restaurants and classy catering services. People chose what they ate and drank with little awareness of the sources or processes involved as long as the food was tasty, nutritious, safe, and sufficient for everyone. These conditions have not always been met over the last century when food shortages caused by economic crises, drought, or armed conflicts and war, occurred in various places. During the second half of the twentieth century, food deficiency was a feature of countries outside the Western world, especially in Africa. The twentieth century also witnessed a different sort of food crisis in the form of a widespread concern over the quality and safety of food that mainly resulted from major changes in production processes, products, composition, or preferences.

Technology plays a key role in both types of crises, as both cause and cure, and it is the character of technological development in food and agriculture that will be discussed. The first section examines the roots of technological developments of modern times. The second is an overview of three patterns of agricultural technology. The final two sections cover developments according to geographical differences.

Before we can assess technological developments in agriculture and food, we must define the terms and concepts. A very broad description of agriculture is the manipulation of plants and animals in a way that is functional to a wide range of societal needs. Manipulation hints at technology in a broad sense; covering knowledge, skills, and tools applied for production and consumption of (parts or extractions of) plants and animals. Societal needs include the basic human need for food. Many agricultural products are food products or end up as such. However, crops such as rubber or flax and animals raised for their skin are only a few examples of agricultural products that do not end up in the food chain. Conversely, not all food stems from agricultural production. Some food is collected directly from natural sources, like fish, and there are borderline cases such as beekeeping. Some food products and many food ingredients are artificially made through complicated biochemical processes. This relates to a narrow segment of technology, namely science-based food technology.

Both broad and narrow descriptions of agriculture are relevant to consider. In sugar production for example, from the cultivation of cane or beets to the extraction of sugar crystals, both traditional and science-based technologies are applied. Moreover, chemical research and development resulted in sugar replacements such as saccharin and aspartame. Consequently, a randomly chosen soft drink might consist of only water, artificial sweeteners, artificial colorings and flavorings, and although no agriculture is needed to produce such products, there is still a relationship to it. One can imagine that a structural replacement of sugar by artificial sweeteners will affect world sugar prices and therewith the income of cane and beet sugar producers. Such global food chains exemplify the complex nature of technological development in food and agriculture.

The Roots of Technological Development

Science-based technologies were exceptional in agriculture until the mid-nineteenth century. Innovations in agriculture were developed and applied by the people cultivating the land, and the innovations related to the interaction between crops, soils, and cattle. Such innovation is exemplified by farmers in Northern Europe who confronted particular difficulties caused by the climate. Low temperatures meant slow decomposition of organic material, and the short growing season meant a limited production of organic material to be decomposed. Both factors resulted in slow recuperation of the soil’s natural fertility after exploitation. The short growing season also meant that farmers had to produce enough for the entire year in less than a year. Farmers therefore developed systems in which cattle and other livestock played a pivotal role as manure producers for fertilizer. Changes in the feed crop could allow an increase in livestock, which produced more manure to be used for fertilizing the arable land, resulting in higher yields. Through the ages, farmers in Northern Europe intensified this cycle. From about the 1820s the purchase of external supplies increased the productivity of farming in the temperate zones. Technological improvements made increases in productivity not only possible but also attractive, as nearby markets grew and distant markets came within reach as a result of the nineteenth century transportation revolution.

An important development at mid-nineteenth century was the growing interest in applying science to agricultural development. The two disciplines with the largest impact were chemistry and biology. The name attached to agricultural chemistry is Justus von Liebig, a German chemist who in the 1840s formulated a theory on the processes underlying soil fertility and plant growth. He propagated his organic chemistry as the key to the application of the right type and amount of fertilizer. Liebig launched his ideas at a time when farmers were organizing themselves based on a common interest in cheap supplies. The synergy of these developments resulted in the creation of many laboratories for experimentation with these products, primarily fertilizers. During the second half of the nineteenth century, agricultural experiment stations were opened all over Europe and North America.

Sometime later, experimental biology became entangled with agriculture. Inspired by the ideas of the British naturalist Charles Darwin, biologists became interested in the reproduction and growth of agricultural crops and animals. Botany and, to a lesser extent, zoology became important disciplines at the experimental stations or provided reasons to create new research laboratories. Research into the reproductive systems of different species, investigating patterns of inheritance and growth of plant and animal species, and experimentation in cross-breeding and selection by farmers and scientists together lay the foundations of genetic modification techniques in the twentieth century.

By the turn of the century, about 600 agricultural experiment stations were spread around the Western world, often operating in conjunction with universities or agricultural schools. Moreover, technologies that were not specifically developed for agriculture and food had a clear impact on the sector. Large ocean-going steamships, telegraphy, railways, and refrigeration, reduced time and increased loads between farms and markets. Key trade routes brought supplies of grain and other products to Europe from North America and the British dominions, resulting in a severe economic crisis in the 1880s for European agriculture. Heat and power from steam engines industrialized food production by taking over farm activities like cheese making or by expanding and intensifying existing industrial production such as sugar extraction. The development of synthetic dyes made crop-based colorants redundant, strongly reducing or even eliminating cultivation of the herb madder or indigo plants. These developments formed the basis of major technological changes in agriculture and food through the twentieth century.

Patterns of Technology Development

The twentieth century brought an enormous amount of technology developed for and applied to agriculture. These developments may be examined by highlighting the patterns of technology in three areas—infrastructure, public sector, and commercial factory—as if they were seen in cross section. The patterns are based on combined material and institutional forces that shaped technology.

A major development related to infrastructure concerns mechanization and transport. The combustion engine had a significant effect on agriculture and food. Not only did tractors replace animal and manual labor, but trucks and buses also connected farmers, traders, and markets. The development of cooling technology increased storage life and the distribution range for fresh products. Developments in packaging in general were very important. It was said that World War I would have been impossible without canned food. Storage and packaging is closely related to hygiene. Knowledge about sources and causes of decay and contamination initiated new methods of safe handling of food, affecting products and trade as well as initiating other innovations. In the dairy sector, for example, expanding markets led to the growth and mergers of dairy factories. That changed the logistics of milk collection, resulting in the development of on-farm storage tanks. These were mostly introduced together with compression and tube systems for machine milking, which increased milking capacity and improved hygiene conditions. A different area of infrastructure development is related to water management. Over the twentieth century, technologies for irrigation and drainage had implications for improved ‘‘carrying capacity’’ of the land, allowing the use of heavy machinery. Improved drainage also meant greater water discharge, which in turn required wider ditches and canals. Water control also had implications for shipping and for supplies of drinking water that required contractual arrangements between farmers, governing bodies, and other agencies.

During the twentieth century, most governments supported their agricultural and food sectors. The overall interest in food security and food safety moved governments to invest in technologies that increased productivity and maintained or improved quality. Public education and extension services informed farmers about the latest methods and techniques. Governments also became directly involved in technological development, most notably crop improvement. Seed is a difficult product to exploit commercially. Farmers can easily put aside part of the harvest as seed for the next season. Public institutes for plant breeding were set up to improve food crops—primarily wheat, rice, and maize—and governments looked for ways to attract private investment in this area. Regulatory and control mechanisms were introduced to protect commercial seed production, multiplication, and trade. Private companies in turn looked for methods to make seed reproduction less attractive to farmers, and they were successful in the case of so-called hybrid maize. The genetic make-up of hybrid maize is such that seeds give very high yields in the first year but much less in the following years. To maintain productivity levels, farmers have to purchase new seed every season. Developments in genetic engineering increased the options for companies to commercially exploit seed production.

Most private companies that became involved in genetic engineering and plant breeding over the last three decades of the twentieth century started as chemical companies. Genetic engineering allowed for commercially attractive combinations of crops and chemicals. A classic example is the herbicide Roundup, developed by the chemical company Monsanto. Several crops, most prominently soy, are made resistant to the powerful chemical. Buying the resistant seed in combination with the chemical makes weed control an easy job for farmers. This type of commercial development of chemical technologies and products dominated the agricultural and food sector over the twentieth century. Artificially made nitrogen fertilizers are one such development that had a worldwide impact. In 1908, Fritz Haber, chemist at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe, fixed nitrogen to hydrogen under high pressure in a laboratory setting. To exploit the process, Haber needed equipment and knowledge to deal with high pressures in a factory setting, and he approached the chemical company BASF. Haber and BASF engineer Carl Bosch built a crude version of a reactor, further developed by a range of specialists BASF assigned to the project. The result was a range of nitrogen fertilizer products made in a capital and knowledge-intensive factory environment. This type of development was also applied to creating chemicals such as DDT for control of various pests (dichloro-diphenyltrichloroethane), developed in 1939 by Geigy researcher Paul Mu¨ ller and his team. DDT may exemplify the reverse side of the generally positive large-scale application of chemicals in agricultural production—the unpredictable and detrimental effects on the environment and human health.

The commercial factory setting for technology development was omnipresent in the food sector. The combination of knowledge of chemical processes and mechanical engineering determined the introduction of entirely new products: artificial flavorings, products, and brands of products based on particular food combinations, or new processes such as drying and freezing, and storing and packaging methods.

Patterns of Technology Development in the Western World

Technological developments in agriculture and food differ with regard to geography and diverging social and economic factors. In regions with large stretches of relatively flat lands, where soil conditions are rather similar and population is low, a rise in productivity is best realized by technologies that work on the economies of scale. The introduction of mechanical technologies was most intensive in regions with these characteristics. Beginning early in the twentieth century, widespread mechanization was a common feature of Western agriculture, but it took different forms. In the Netherlands, for example, average farm size was relatively small and labor was not particularly scarce. Consequently, the use of tractors was limited for the first half of the twentieth century as emphasis was placed on improved cultivation methods. Tractors became widely used only after the 1950s when equipment became lighter and more cost-effective and labor costs rose sharply. The result was an overall increase of farm size in these regions as well. The Dutch government changed the countryside with a land policy of connecting and merging individual parcels as much as possible. This huge operation created favorable conditions for expansion; but where the land was already under cultivation, the only way to expand was to buy up neighboring farms. The effect was a considerable reduction in the number of farm units. An exception to this process was the Dutch greenhouse sector, in which improvements in construction, climate regulation, and introduction of hydroponic cultivation, increased production without considerable growth of land per farm unit.

The Dutch greenhouse sector is also an exemplary case of technological support in decision making and farm management. In Western countries a vast service sector emerged around agriculture and food. This process in fact started early in the twentieth century with the rise of extension services, set up as government agencies or private companies. Experimental methods based on multivariate statistics, developed by the British mathematician Karl Fisher, are the major tool in turning results of field experiments into general advisories. In keeping with the development of modern computers, digital models of crop growth and farming systems became more effective. Computer programs help farmers perform certain actions and monitor other equipment and machinery; yet even in the most technologically advanced greenhouses, the skilled eye of the farmer is a factor that makes a considerable difference in the quality and quantity of the final product.

The means by which agriculture in the West raised productivity have been questioned. Doubts about the safety of food products and worries over the restoration of nature’s capacity became recurrent issues in public debate. Moreover, technological advances in tandem with subsidies resulted in overproduction, confronting national and international governing bodies with problems in trade and distribution, and a public resistance against intensive agriculture, sometimes called agribusiness. Technology is neither good nor bad; much of the knowledge underlying technologies with a detrimental effect also helps detect polluting factors and health hazards. Although a substantial part of research and technological efforts are aimed at replacing and avoiding harmful factors, many such ‘‘clean’’ technologies are commercially less interesting to farmers and companies. Subsidies and other financial arrangements are again being used to steer technology development, this time in the direction of environmentally friendly and safe forms of production.

Patterns of Technology Development in Less Developed Countries

From the beginning of the twentieth century, scientific and technological developments in the agricultural and food sector were introduced to less developed countries either by Western colonizing powers or by other forms of global interaction. The search for improved farming methods and new technology were mostly institutionalized at existing botanical gardens and established in previous centuries. Plant transfer and economic botany were a major modality of twentieth century technological improvement in less developed countries.

The early decades of the century featured an emphasis on technological improvement for plantation agriculture. Plantation owners invested in scientific research for agriculture, often supported by colonial administrations. The gradual abolition of slavery during the nineteenth century, increasing labor costs, was a reason to invest in technology. Other factors were more specific to particular sectors; for example, the rise of European beet sugar production encouraging cane sugar manufacturers to invest in technological improvement. Another example was the emergence of the automobile industry, which initiated a boom in rubber production.

Most colonial administrations launched programs, based on the combination of botanical and chemical research, to improve food crop production in the first decades of the twentieth century. It was recognized that dispersion of new technologies to a small number of plantation owners was different from initiating change among a vast group of local food crop producers. The major differences concerned the ecology of farming (crop patterns and soil conditions) and the socioeconomic conditions (organization of labor or available capital). Agronomists had to be familiar with local farming systems, occasionally resulting in pleas for a technology transfer that would better meet the complexity of local production. The overall approach, however, was an emphasis on improvement of fertilization and crop varieties. Transfer of the Western model gained momentum in the decades after World War II. Food shortages in the immediate postwar years encouraged European colonial powers to open up large tropical areas for mechanized farming. Unfortunately, the result was largely either a short-lived disaster, as in the case of the British-run groundnut scheme in Tanzania, or a more enduring problem, as in case of the Dutch-run mechanized rice-farming schemes in Surinam. The 1940s also saw the beginnings of a movement that came to be known as the ‘‘green revolution.’’ Driven by the idea that hunger is a breeding ground for communism, American agencies initiated a research program for crop improvement, primarily by breeding fertilizer-responsive varieties of wheat and rice. Agencies were put together in a Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). Technological progress was realized by bringing together experts and plant material from various parts of the world. Modified breeding techniques and a wide availability of parent material resulted in high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice. Encouraged by lucrative credit facilities, farmers, especially in Asia, quickly adopted the new varieties and the required chemicals for fertilization and pest control. Research on the adoption process of these varieties made clear that many farmers modified the seed technology based on specific conditions of the farming systems. In areas where such modifications could not be achieved—primarily rice growing regions in Africa—green revolution varieties were not very successful. Based on these findings, CGIAR researchers began to readdress issues of variation in ecology and farming systems. This type of research is very similar to that done by colonial experts several decades earlier. However, because of decolonization and antiimperialist sentiments among Western nations, much of this earlier expertise has been neglected. This is just one of the opportunities for further research in the domain of agriculture and food technology.

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Agriculture Research

Ai generator.

Industrial areas are associated with concentrated pools of personal and economic opportunities. However, urban imagery is misconstrued as the sole concretization of progress. We are abandoning agricultural lands in search of greener pastures in the cement and steel wonderland. We are converting fertile fields into urban projects, gambling our food source, for one. To mitigate future more devastating losses, academic institutes have poured hard work into writing researches in agriculture.

Agriculture research can be either or both qualitative and quantitative research . Agricultural science is not a new idea. It started roughly around the time when man learned he could grow his food. The concept was simple: “Plant A is edible, Plant B is not. Let’s plant more of A.” As humans practiced growing plants and animals for general consumption, we learned better ways to generate a better yield. Soon, we developed tools for the trade: chemicals, machines, and their derivatives that make farming more systematic and efficient.

Why We Research

More than 20,000 years since man’s first attempt at cultivation , yet a lot about agriculture is still an open question. Farming is not just about sowing seeds and reaping fruits. Complex processes occur between the planting and harvesting periods. In the past, farmers rely on trial-and-error methods to find out what works for them. Not having a strong and reliable foundation for our next move could mean our families would be hungry indefinitely. Just producing food wasn’t enough.

Food security

The marriage of agriculture and education allowed better crop management. We increased the yield and nutritional value of plants while making them grow healthier. We saw development in farming methods and innovations based on research and scientific investigations. An in-depth understanding of plant biology allowed for improved food production and reduced damages from pestilence and acts of God.

It is in the genes

Rice is one of the primary agricultural commodities in the world. Rice flowers bloom at a specific period in the morning, at times for two hours, for a few days. In that short time, the plant must be able to pollinate successfully. However, favorable weather will not discount the impact of pests and infections on the plant’s normal life cycle. One of the things that agricultural research scientists in the lab have worked on is tinkering with the genes of different rice varieties to extend or shorten the flowering time and making the plant resistant to fatal infestations and conditions.

Bigger is better

Another feat in the history of agriculture is farmers transforming corn into what it is today. In the past, a starkly different-looking plant would bear small fruits, not unlike the size of our fingers. The early civilization in Mexico did not have the present knowledge and resource about corn’s biology and genetics. It took several thousands of years of selectively cultivating the desirable traits of the plant teosinte into the hearty sized corn cob that we know and love today.

But not always

Not all agriculture research has turned out desirable, however. For years, people have worked on producing a big, juicy variant of red tomatoes. Researchers have tinkered with the genes that influence the size of the fruit. By doing so, they have unintentionally affected the genes that make the tomatoes taste good. Therefore, some big tomatoes today aren’t palatable as the genetic pathway responsible for its distinct sweetness was accidentally altered.

Nevertheless, agricultural science is hard at work on its effort to keep the world fed and healthy. It is unswayed in finding better ways to produce food that meet the demands of the modern world.

Price For Progress

However, it seems that the modern world is the giant goliath of farmers and scientists. Our idea of progress and advancement left out the contribution of agriculture in the past. Not to mention, people now prefer working in offices and establishments. The rise in population, decreasing land area to grow food, and the declining number of people who see farming as a good job to get all threaten our food security.

In urban areas, indoor gardening is gaining momentum. The rising prices of commodities makes growing your food a sensible choice. However, we should note that that small space in your apartment balcony or that small strip of land beside your house can’t feed you and your family forever.

10+ Agriculture Research Examples

If we can’t regain the farm lands or provide support to the dwindling population of farmers, we will face food crisis. We need to intensify agricultural research to prevent global hunger.

1. National Agriculture Research Example

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2. Global Agriculture Research System Example

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3. Agriculture Research in Development Example

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4. Agriculture Investment Research Example

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5. Computer Application in Agriculture Research Example

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6. Standard Agriculture Research Example

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7. Printable Agricultural Research Example

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8. Long Term Agriculture Research Example

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9. Agriculture Assessment Ethics Research Example

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10. Sample Agriculture Research in Development Example

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11. Public Agriculture Research Example

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Getting Started

The following are reminders on how to make writing your agricultural research papers less arduous.

1. Define The Problem

Your first step to any research is identifying the area that you wish to work on. A literature review is a good way to start your case. Reading on updated and recent materials regarding your chosen topic will help you explore the problem and determine its place in the context of society. Is the problem urgent? Is your contribution original? By spotting the gaps in related literature, you can give new information or significantly improve current practices.

2. Write A Proposal

Drafting a research proposal requires the researcher’s familiarity with the chosen topic and thesis design. Reviewers will look into your capacity to perform the study before it is approved. The convincing pledge of skill is found in your literature review. When you are vying for a study grant, you should consider the interests of the institution that you are approaching. Their priorities should be aligned with the goals of your research.

3. The Common Good

Since you are proposing a study in agriculture, you should be aware of the goal of this community. Your expected findings should be beneficial to the farmers and the agricultural sector. The problem should be specific, clear, relevant, and timely. Even if the result will be negative, the study should still have something useful to provide the community. Don’t forget, your research must follow all the ethical guidelines for research.

4. Be Two Steps Ahead

Create a visual roadmap for your research project. Flow charts and research plans are organization tools that will help you a great deal during your entire endeavor. They keep you grounded on the things you have to perform. You can also track your progress the whole time using Gantt charts , and see to it that your goals are achieved. Cover your bases and plan a successful study ahead.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education in the Field: A Proceedings (1991)

Chapter: introduction, introduction.

Charles M. Benbrook

These proceedings are based on a workshop that brought together scientists, farmer-innovators, policymakers, and interested members of the public for a progress report on sustainable agriculture research and education efforts across the United States. The workshop, which was held on April 3 and 4, 1990, in Washington, D.C., was sponsored by the Office of Science and Education of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Board on Agriculture of the National Research Council. The encouraging new science discussed there should convince nearly everyone of two facts.

First, the natural resource, economic, and food safety problems facing U.S. agriculture are diverse, dynamic, and often complex. Second, a common set of biological and ecological principles—when systematically embodied in cropping and livestock management systems—can bring improved economic and environmental performance within the reach of innovative farmers. Some people contend that this result is not a realistic expectation for U.S. agriculture. The evidence presented here does not support such a pessimistic assessment.

The report of the Board on Agriculture entitled Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a) challenged everyone to rethink key components of conventional wisdom and contemporary scientific dogma. That report has provided encouragement and direction to those individuals and organizations striving toward more sustainable production systems, and it has provoked skeptics to articulate why they feel U.S. agriculture cannot—some even say should not—seriously contemplate the need for such change. The debate has been spirited and generally constructive.

Scholars, activists, professional critics, and analysts have participated in

this debate by writing papers and books, conducting research, and offering opinions about alternative and sustainable agriculture for over 10 years. Over the past decade, many terms and concepts have come and gone. Most people—and unfortunately, many farmers—have not gone very far beyond the confusion, frustration, and occasional demagoguery that swirls around the different definitions of alternative, low-input, organic, and sustainable agriculture.

Fortunately, though, beginning in late 1989, a broad cross-section of people has grown comfortable with the term sustainable agriculture. The May 21, 1990, issue of Time magazine, in an article on sustainable agriculture entitled “It's Ugly, But It Works” includes the following passage:

[A] growing corps of experts [are] urging farmers to adopt a new approach called sustainable agriculture. Once the term was synonymous with the dreaded O word—a farm-belt euphemism for trendy organic farming that uses no synthetic chemicals. But sustainable agriculture has blossomed into an effort to curb erosion by modifying plowing techniques and to protect water supplies by minimizing, if not eliminating, artificial fertilizers and pest controls.

Concern and ridicule in farm publications and during agribusiness meetings over the philosophical roots of low-input, sustainable, or organic farming have given way to more thoughtful appraisals of the ecological and biological foundations of practical, profitable, and sustainable farming systems. While consensus clearly does not yet exist on how to “fix” agriculture's contemporary problems, a constructive dialogue is now under way among a broad cross-section of individuals, both practitioners and technicians involved in a wide variety of specialties.

This new dialogue is powerful because of the people and ideas it is connecting. Change will come slowly, however. Critical comments in some farm magazines will persist, and research and on-farm experimentation will not always lead to the hoped for insights or breakthroughs. Some systems that now appear to be sustainable will encounter unexpected production problems. Nonetheless, progress will be made.

The Board on Agriculture believes that over the next several decades significant progress can and will be made toward more profitable, resource-conserving, and environmentally prudent farming systems. Rural areas of the United States could become safer, more diverse, and aesthetically pleasing places to live. Farming could, as a result, become a more rewarding profession, both economically and through stewardship of the nation's soil and water resources. Change will be made possible; and it will be driven by new scientific knowledge, novel on-farm management tools and approaches, and economic necessity. The policy reforms adopted in the 1990 farm bill, and ongoing efforts to incorporate environmental objectives

into farm policy, may also in time make a significant difference in reshaping the economic environment in which on-farm management decisions are made.

This volume presents an array of new knowledge and insight about the functioning of agricultural systems that will provide the managerial and technological foundations for improved farming practices and systems. Examples of the research projects under way around the country are described. Through exploration of the practical experiences, recent findings, and insights of these researchers, the papers and discussions presented in this volume should demonstrate the value of field- and farm-level systems-based research that is designed and conducted with ongoing input from farmer-innovators.

Some discussion of the basic concepts that guide sustainable agriculture research and education activities may be useful. Definitions of key terms, such as sustainable agriculture, alternative agriculture, and low-input sustainable agriculture, are drawn from Alternative Agriculture and a recent paper (Benbrook and Cook, 1990).

BASIC CONCEPTS AND OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

Basic concepts.

Sustainable agriculture, which is a goal rather than a distinct set of practices, is a system of food and fiber production that

improves the underlying productivity of natural resources and cropping systems so that farmers can meet increasing levels of demand in concert with population and economic growth;

produces food that is safe, wholesome, and nutritious and that promotes human well-being;

ensures an adequate net farm income to support an acceptable standard of living for farmers while also underwriting the annual investments needed to improve progressively the productivity of soil, water, and other resources; and

complies with community norms and meets social expectations.

Other similar definitions could be cited, but there is now a general consensus regarding the essential elements of sustainable agriculture. Various definitions place differing degrees of emphasis on certain aspects, but a common set of core features is now found in nearly all definitions.

While sustainable agriculture is an inherently dynamic concept, alternative agriculture is the process of on-farm innovation that strives toward the goal of sustainable agriculture. Alternative agriculture encompasses efforts by farmers to develop more efficient production systems, as well as

efforts by researchers to explore the biological and ecological foundations of agricultural productivity.

The challenges inherent in striving toward sustainability are clearly dynamic. The production of adequate food on a sustainable basis will become more difficult if demographers are correct in their estimates that the global population will not stabilize before it reaches 11 billion or 12 billion in the middle of the twenty-first century. The sustainability challenge and what must be done to meet it range in nature from a single farm field, to the scale of an individual farm as an enterprise, to the food and fiber needs of a region or country, and finally to the world as a whole.

A comprehensive definition of sustainability must include physical, biological, and socioeconomic components. The continued viability of a farming system can be threatened by problems that arise within any one of these components. Farmers are often confronted with choices and sacrifices because of seemingly unavoidable trade-offs—an investment in a conservation system may improve soil and water quality but may sacrifice near-term economic performance. Diversification may increase the efficiency of resource use and bring within reach certain biological benefits, yet it may require additional machinery and a more stable and versatile labor supply. Indeed, agricultural researchers and those who design and administer farm policy must seek ways to alleviate seemingly unwelcome trade-offs by developing new knowledge and technology and, when warranted, new policies.

Operational Definitions

Sustainable agriculture is the production of food and fiber using a system that increases the inherent productive capacity of natural and biological resources in step with demand. At the same time, it must allow farmers to earn adequate profits, provide consumers with wholesome, safe food, and minimize adverse impacts on the environment.

As defined in our report, alternative agriculture is any system of food or fiber production that systematically pursues the following goals (National Research Council, 1989a):

more thorough incorporation of natural processes such as nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation, and beneficial pest-predator relationships into the agricultural production process;

reduction in the use of off-farm inputs with the greatest potential to harm the environment or the health of farmers and consumers;

productive use of the biological and genetic potential of plant and animal species;

improvement in the match between cropping patterns and the productive potential and physical limitations of agricultural lands; and

profitable and efficient production with emphasis on improved farm management, prevention of animal disease, optimal integration of livestock and cropping enterprises, and conservation of soil, water, energy, and biological resources.

Conventional agriculture is the predominant farming practices, methods, and systems used in a region. Conventional agriculture varies over time and according to soil, climatic, and other environmental factors. Moreover, many conventional practices and methods are fully sustainable when pursued or applied properly and will continue to play integral roles in future farming systems.

Low-input sustainable agriculture (LISA) systems strive to achieve sustainability by incorporating biologically based practices that indirectly result in lessened reliance on purchased agrichemical inputs. The goal of LISA systems is improved profitability and environmental performance through systems that reduce pest pressure, efficiently manage nutrients, and comprehensively conserve resources.

Successful LISA systems are founded on practices that enhance the efficiency of resource use and limit pest pressures in a sustainable way. The operational goal of LISA should not, as a matter of first principles, be viewed as a reduction in the use of pesticides and fertilizers. Higher yields, lower per unit production costs, and lessened reliance on agrichemicals in intensive agricultural systems are, however, often among the positive outcomes of the successful adoption of LISA systems. But in much of the Third World an increased level of certain agrichemical and fertilizer inputs will be very helpful if not essential to achieve sustainability. For example, the phosphorous-starved pastures in the humid tropics will continue to suffer severe erosion and degradation in soil physical properties until soil fertility levels are restored and more vigorous plant growth provides protection from rain and sun.

Farmers are continuously modifying farming systems whenever opportunities arise for increasing productivity or profits. Management decisions are not made just in the context of one goal or concern but in the context of the overall performance of the farm and take into account many variables: prices, policy, available resources, climatic conditions, and implications for risk and uncertainty.

A necessary step in carrying out comparative assessments of conventional and alternative farming systems is to understand the differences between farming practices, farming methods, and farming systems. It is somewhat easier, then, to determine what a conventional practice, method, or system is and how an alternative or sustainable practice, method, or system might or should differ from a conventional one. The following definitions are drawn from the Glossary of Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a).

A farming practice is a way of carrying out a discrete farming task such as a tillage operation, particular pesticide application technology, or single conservation practice. Most important farming operations—preparing a seedbed, controlling weeds and erosion, or maintaining soil fertility, for example—require a combination of practices, or a method. Most farming operations can be carried out by different methods, each of which can be accomplished by several unique combinations of different practices. The manner in which a practice is carried out—the speed and depth of a tillage operation, for example—can markedly alter its consequences.

A farming method is a systematic way to accomplish a specific farming objective by integrating a number of practices. A discrete method is needed for each essential farming task, such as preparing a seedbed and planting a crop, sustaining soil fertility, managing irrigation, collecting and disposing of manure, controlling pests, and preventing animal diseases.

A farming system is the overall approach used in crop or livestock production, often derived from a farmer's goals, values, knowledge, available technologies, and economic opportunities. A farming system influences, and is in turn defined by, the choice of methods and practices used to produce a crop or care for animals.

In practice, farmers are constantly adjusting cropping systems in an effort to improve a farm's performance. Changes in management practices generally lead to a complex set of results—some positive, others negative—all of which occur over different time scales.

The transition to more sustainable agriculture systems may, for many farmers, require some short-term sacrifices in economic performance in order to prepare the physical resource and biological ecosystem base needed for long-term improvement in both economic and environmental performance. As a result, some say that practices essential to progress toward sustainable agriculture are not economically viable and are unlikely to take hold on the farm (Marten, 1989). Their contention may prove correct, given current farm policies and the contemporary inclination to accept contemporary, short-term economic challenges as inviolate. Nonetheless, one question lingers: What is the alternative to sustainable agriculture?

PUBLIC POLICY AND RESEARCH IN SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Farmers, conservationists, consumers, and political leaders share an intense interest in the sustainability of agricultural production systems. This interest is heightened by growing recognition of the successes achieved by innovative farmers across the country who are discovering alternative agriculture practices and methods that improve a farm's economic and environmental performance. Ongoing experimental efforts on the farm, by no

means universally successful, are being subjected to rigorous scientific investigation. New insights should help farmers become even more effective stewards of natural resources and produce food that is consistently free of man-made or natural contaminants that may pose health risks.

The major challenge for U.S. agriculture in the 1990s will be to strike a balance between near-term economic performance and long-term ecological and food safety imperatives. As recommended in Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a), public policies in the 1990s should, at a minimum, no longer penalize farmers who are committed to resource protection or those who are trying to make progress toward sustainability. Sustainability will always remain a goal to strive toward, and alternative agriculture systems will continuously evolve as a means to this end. Policy can and must play an integral role in this process.

If sustainability emerges as a principal farm and environmental policy goal, the design and assessment of agricultural policies will become more complex. Trade-offs, and hence choices, will become more explicit between near-term economic performance and enhancement of the long-term biological and physical factors that can contribute to soil and water resource productivity.

Drawing on expertise in several disciplines, policy analysts will be compelled to assess more insightfully the complex interactions that link a farm's economic, ecological, and environmental performance. It is hoped that political leaders will, as a result, recognize the importance of unraveling conflicts among policy goals and more aggressively seizing opportunities to advance the productivity and sustainability of U.S. agriculture.

A few examples may help clarify how adopting the concept of sustainability as a policy goal complicates the identification of cause-and-effect relationships and, hence, the design of remedial policies.

When a farmer is pushed toward bankruptcy by falling crop prices, a farm operation can become financially unsustainable. When crop losses mount because of pest pressure or a lack of soil nutrients, however, the farming system still becomes unsustainable financially, but for a different reason. In the former example, economic forces beyond any individual farmer's control are the clear cause; in the latter case the underlying cause is rooted in the biological management and performance of the farming system.

The biological and economic performance of a farming system can, in turn, unravel for several different reasons. Consider an example involving a particular farm that is enrolled each year in the U.S. Department of Agriculture's commodity price support programs. To maintain eligibility for government subsidies on a continuing basis, the farmer understands the importance of growing a certain minimum (base) acreage of the same crop each year. Hence, the cropping pattern on this farm is likely to lead to a

buildup in soilborne pathogens that attack plant roots and reduce yields. As a result, the farmer might resort to the use of a fumigant to control the pathogens, but the pesticide might become ineffective because of steadily worsening microbial degradation of the fumigant, or a pesticide-resistant pathogen may emerge.

A solution to these new problems might be to speed up the registration of another pesticide that could be used, or relax regulatory standards so more new products can get registered, or both. Consider another possibility. A regulatory agency may cancel use of a fumigant a farmer has been relying upon because of food safety, water quality, or concerns about it effect on wildlife. The farmer might then seek a change in grading standards or an increase in commodity prices or program benefits if alternative pesticides are more costly.

Each of these problems is distinctive when viewed in isolation and could be attacked through a number of changes in policy. The most cost-effective solution, however, will prove elusive unless the biology of the whole system is perceptively evaluated. For this reason, in the policy arena, just as on the farm, it is critical to know what the problem is that warrants intervention and what the root causes of the problem really are.

Research Challenges

In thinking through agricultural research priorities, it should be acknowledged that the crossroads where the sciences of agriculture and ecology meet remain largely undefined, yet clearly promising. There is too little information to specify in detail the features of a truly sustainable agriculture system, yet there is enough information to recognize the merit in striving toward sustainability in a more systematic way.

The capacity of current research programs and institutions to carry out such work is suspect (see Investing in Research [National Research Council, 1989b]). It also remains uncertain whether current policies and programs that were designed in the 1930s or earlier to serve a different set of farmer needs can effectively bring about the types of changes needed to improve ecological management on the modern farm.

In the 1980s, the research community reached consensus on the diagnosis of many of agriculture's contemporary ills; it may take most of the 1990s to agree on cures, and it will take at least another decade to get them into place. Those who are eager for a quick fix or who are just impatient are bound to be chronically frustrated by the slow rate of change.

Another important caution deserves emphasis. The “silver bullet” approach to solving agricultural production problems offers little promise for providing an understanding of the ecological and biological bases of sustainable agriculture. The one-on-one syndrome seeks to discover a new

pesticide for each pest, a new plant variety when a new strain of rust evolves, or a new nitrogen management method when nitrate contamination of drinking water becomes a pressing social concern. This reductionist approach reflects the inclination in the past to focus scientific and technological attention on products and outcomes rather than processes and on overcoming symptoms rather than eliminating causes. This must be changed if research aimed at making agriculture more sustainable is to move ahead at the rate possible given the new tools available to agricultural scientists.

One area of research in particular—biotechnology—will benefit from a shift in focus toward understanding the biology and ecology underlying agricultural systems. Biotechnology research tools make possible powerful new approaches in unraveling biological interactions and other natural processes at the molecular and cellular levels, thus shedding vital new light on ecological interactions with a degree of precision previously unimagined in the biological sciences. However, rather than using these new tools to advance knowledge about the functioning of systems as a first order of priority, emphasis is increasingly placed on discovering products to solve specific production problems or elucidating the mode of action of specific products.

This is regrettable for several reasons. A chance to decipher the physiological basis of sustainable agriculture systems is being put off. The payoff from focusing on products is also likely to be disappointing. The current widespread pattern of failure and consolidation within the agricultural biotechnology industry suggests that biotechnology is not yet mature enough as a science to reliably discover, refine, and commercialize product-based technologies. Products from biotechnology are inevitable, but a necessary first step must be to generate more in-depth understanding of biological processes, cycles, and interactions.

Perhaps the greatest potential of biotechnology lies in the design and on-farm application of more efficient, stable, and profitable cropping and livestock management systems. For farmers to use such systems successfully, they will need access to a range of new information and diagnostic and analytical techniques that can be used on a real-time basis to make agronomic and animal husbandry judgments about how to optimize the efficiencies of the processes and interactions that underlie plant and animal growth.

Knowledge, in combination with both conventional and novel inputs, will be deployed much more systematically to avoid soil nutrient or animal nutrition-related limits on growth; to ensure that diseases and pests do not become serious enough to warrant the excessive use of costly or hazardous pesticides; to increase the realistically attainable annual level of energy flows independent of purchased inputs within agroecosystems; and to maximize a range of functional symbiotic relationships between soil micro-

and macrofauna, plants, and animals. Discrete goals will include pathogen-suppressive soils, enhanced rotation effects, pest suppression by populations of plant-associated microorganisms, nutrient cycling and renewal, the optimization of general resistance mechanisms in plants by cultural practices, and much more effective soil and water conservation systems that benefit from changes in the stability of soil aggregates and the capacity of soils to absorb and hold moisture.

Because of the profound changes needed to create and instill this new knowledge and skills on the farm, the recommendations in Alternative Agriculture (National Research Council, 1989a) emphasize the need to expand systems-based applied research, on-farm experimentation utilizing farmers as research collaborators, and novel extension education strategies—the very goals of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's LISA program.

Future research efforts—and not just those funded through LISA—should place a premium on the application of ecological principles in the multidisciplinary study of farming system performance. A diversity of approaches in researching and designing innovative farming systems will ensure broad-based progress, particularly if farmers are actively engaged in the research enterprise.

Benbrook, C., and J. Cook. 1990. Striving toward sustainability: A framework to guide on-farm innovation, research, and policy analysis. Speech presented at the 1990 Pacific Northwest Symposium on Sustainable Agriculture, March 2.

Marten, J. 1989. Commentary: Will low-input rotations sustain your income? Farm Journal, Dec. 6.

National Research Council. 1989a. Alternative Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

National Research Council. 1989b. Investing in Research: A Proposal to Strengthen the Agricultural, Food, and Environmental System. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Interest is growing in sustainable agriculture, which involves the use of productive and profitable farming practices that take advantage of natural biological processes to conserve resources, reduce inputs, protect the environment, and enhance public health. Continuing research is helping to demonstrate the ways that many factors—economics, biology, policy, and tradition—interact in sustainable agriculture systems.

This book contains the proceedings of a workshop on the findings of a broad range of research projects funded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The areas of study, such as integrated pest management, alternative cropping and tillage systems, and comparisons with more conventional approaches, are essential to developing and adopting profitable and sustainable farming systems.

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Intelligent rice field weed control in precision agriculture: from weed recognition to variable rate spraying, 1. introduction, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. experiment design, 2.1.1. collection of rice field remote sensing image data, 2.1.2. design of variable application experiment for plant protection drones, 2.2. dataset generation, 2.3. yolov8n-dt network structure, 2.4. distillation loss function, 2.5. generation of variable rate application maps, 2.6. model training, 2.7. evaluation metrics, 2.7.1. model evaluation metrics, 2.7.2. evaluation metrics for the unmanned aerial vehicle spraying effect, 2.8. experimental platform configuration, 3. experimental results, 3.1. ablation study, 3.2. visualization, 3.3. comparison with other classic algorithms, 3.4. results of rice field weed distribution, 3.5. formulation of the spraying strategy.

• Consideration of the quantity of weeds: The amount of spraying in the experimental plots is adjusted based on the total number of weeds. Specifically, for plots with weed counts greater than 400, the spray amount is set at 1.5 L/hm 2 , which is the normal spraying amount for local farmers, corresponding to the red area in Figure 10. For plots with weed counts between 400 and 300, the amount of spraying is 85% of the normal amount, which is 1.27 L/hm 2 , corresponding to the blue area in Figure 10. When the weed count is between 300 and 200, the spraying amount is adjusted to 70% of the normal amount, which is 1.05 L/hm 2 , corresponding to the yellow area in Figure 10. If the weed count is between 200 and 100, the spray amount is reduced to 50% of the normal amount, which is 0.75 L/hm 2 , corresponding to the green area in Figure 10.
• Consideration of the proportion of continuous patches of barnyard grass: Since the category of continuous patches of barnyard grass has a relatively large number of barnyard grasses, the number of continuous patches of barnyard grass must be considered in a comprehensive way. This study counted the proportion of continuous patches of barnyard grass in the total of weeds for each experimental plot, and the results are shown in Figure 9 . The results show that 10% is a relatively obvious boundary. Therefore, for the experimental plots where the proportion of continuous patches of barnyard grass exceeds 10%, regardless of the total number of weeds, they should be treated according to the normal spraying amount of 1.5 L/hm 2 in the Haicheng area. For plots where the proportion of continuous patches of barnyard grass is less than 10%, the spraying rules based on the number of weeds mentioned above should be followed.

3.6. Evaluation of the Spraying Effect

4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Guo, Z.; Cai, D.; Bai, J.; Xu, T.; Yu, F. Intelligent Rice Field Weed Control in Precision Agriculture: From Weed Recognition to Variable Rate Spraying. Agronomy 2024 , 14 , 1702. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081702

Guo Z, Cai D, Bai J, Xu T, Yu F. Intelligent Rice Field Weed Control in Precision Agriculture: From Weed Recognition to Variable Rate Spraying. Agronomy . 2024; 14(8):1702. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081702

Guo, Zhonghui, Dongdong Cai, Juchi Bai, Tongyu Xu, and Fenghua Yu. 2024. "Intelligent Rice Field Weed Control in Precision Agriculture: From Weed Recognition to Variable Rate Spraying" Agronomy 14, no. 8: 1702. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081702

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Research Topics in Agricultural and Applied Economics

Editor(s) : anthony n. rezitis.

DOI: 10.2174/97816080526391120301 eISBN: 978-1-60805-263-9, 2012 ISBN: 978-1-60805-699-6 ISSN: 2589-1472 (Print) ISSN: 1879-7415 (Online)

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Book Volume 3

Page: i-i (1) Author: Trevor Young DOI: 10.2174/97816080526391120301000i

Page: ii-iii (2) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis DOI: 10.2174/9781608052639112030100ii

List of Contributors

Page: iv-vi (3) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis DOI: 10.2174/9781608052639112030100iv

Full text available.

Milk Production Forecasting by a Neuro-Fuzzy Model

Page: 3-11 (9) Author: Atsalakis S. George, Parasyri G. Maria and Zopounidis D. Constantinos DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010003 PDF Price: $15

Many fields are increasingly applying Neuro-fuzzy techniques such as in model identification and forecasting of linear and non-linear systems. This chapter presents a neuro-fuzzy model for forecasting milk production of two producers. The model utilizes a time series of daily data. The milk forecasting model is based on Adaptive Neural Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). ANFIS uses a hybrid learning technique that combines the least-squares method and the back propagation gradient descent method to estimate the optimal milk forecast parameters. The results indicate the superiority of ANFIS model when compared with two conventional models: an Autoregressive (AR) and an Autoregressive Moving Average model (ARMA).

The Role of Production Contracts in the Coordination of Agri-Food Chain: Evidence and Future Issues for the Durum Wheat Chain in Italy

Page: 12-22 (11) Author: Davide Viaggi and Giacomo Zanni DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010012 PDF Price: $15

The economics of contracts has undergone major developments in the recent decades. At the same time, the issue of co-ordination among actors in the same product chain through contractual instruments has attracted significant attention. In addition, the recent volatility of agricultural prices has made the role of contracts in risk allocation more important across different stages of the production chain. The paper explores the role of production contracts in the co-ordination of agri-food chain, considering evidence from the particular case of the durum wheat chain in Italy. After a review of the literature and brief examination of the sector and institutional context of Italian wheat production, the paper considers the present and potential role of production contracts, through a Delphi exercise. Based on this, proposals for action priorities (policy) are discussed along with an agenda for future research. The outcome of the Delphi exercise confirms the perceived need of improving the use of contracts in the Italian wheat sector. It also confirms the difficulties in addressing this issue. Solutions and needs for further research are identified at two main levels: a) detailed contract design; and b) wider chain governance.

Effects of the European Union Farm Credit Programs on Efficiency and Productivity of the Greek Agricultural Sector: A Stochastic DEA Application

Page: 23-46 (24) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis, Kostas Tsiboukas and Stavros Tsoukalas DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010023 PDF Price: $15

This study examines technical efficiency and productivity growth of Greek farms participating in the 1994 European Union Farm Credit Programs (1994-EU-FCP), i.e. regulation 2328/91. In this paper, two farm-level economic data sets are used, i.e. the crop and the livestock data set, where each one consists of two different groups of farms: one group contains farms participating in the 1994-EU-FCP while the other one contains non-participating farms. The data sets are observed over the 1993 and 1997 years. The paper uses the approach developed by Simar and Wilson (1998a, b) to bootstrapping both DEA efficiency measures and Malmquist productivity indices. Furthermore, the present paper uses the Malmquist index decomposition proposed by Simar and Wilson (1998b) and Zofio and Lovell (1997) to investigate the sources of productivity change. The technical efficiency score results indicate that, in terms of the crop oriented farms, the program failed to increase the efficiency of the participated farms even though the most efficient farms entered the 1994-EU-FCP. In contrast, in terms of the livestock oriented farms, the program managed to increase the efficiency of the participated farms though less efficient farms entered the program. The total factor productivity growth results, in terms of crop-oriented farms, show statistically significant decline of productivity for the group of program farms but a statistically significant increase for the group of non-program farms. The total factor productivity growth results, in terms of livestock oriented farms, show a statistically significant increase of productivity for the group of program farms but no change for the group of non-program farms.

Institutional Innovations in the Common Agricultural Policy: A Theoretical Approach based on Legitimacy

Page: 47-56 (10) Author: Melania Salazar-Ordóñez and Gabriel Pérez-Alcalá DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010047 PDF Price: $15

The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) of the European Union (EU) has been highly political and social controversy, within the EU as well as at international level. However, the reforms on the institutional structure have not been frequently analysed. This paper, based on the Institutional Innovation Theory, examines the role of different exogenous and endogenous factors which have been boosted or slowed down, the five CAP reforms. According to these factors we analyse three key issues in the EU general political system, two topics in the EU domestic-economic system and the external pressures. Later, these factors are considered on a theoretical approach applying investment theory and expected utility maximization by means of the net present value model and dependency relations. The main results show that role played by the EU institutional structure is fundamental as a limited factor, and the external pressures and citizen’s acceptance of this policy are an important boost factor.

Agricultural Externalities and Environmental Regulation: The Case of Manure Management and Spreading Land Allocation

Page: 57-69 (13) Author: Isabelle Piot-Lepetit DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010057 PDF Price: $15

The aim of this paper is firstly to show how the measures introduced by the European regulation on manure management are incorporated into the theoretical analysis framework for studying the issue of nonpoint externality and especially, agricultural runoff. The model is extended because only some of the polluting emissions at the origin of diffuse pollution are regulated by the Nitrates Directive. More specifically, the model represents the standard that limits the spreading of organic manure to 170 kg/ha as a production right assigned to each farm. Secondly, this paper proposes an empirical model in which the theoretical assumption that productive abilities are fully exploited is relaxed. In order to describe the disparity that exists between individual situations, an empirical model represents the production technology by means of a directional distance function. Finally, the aggregation properties of the directional distance function are used to simulate the practice of looking for off-farm lands as a means of complying with the standard. We look at how land can be allocated among producers in such a way as to combine the disposal of manure in accordance with the limit of the Nitrates Directive with an improvement in the productive and environmental efficiency of all farms. Using a sample of French pig farms, results indicate only a low potential for a reduction in nitrogen pollution based on the reduction in productive inefficiencies and the allocation of spreading lands among farmers in a same area.

Energy Crops Situation in Castile and Leon: Incentives and Barriers to Success

Page: 70-93 (24) Author: Rita Robles and Luigi Vannini DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010070 PDF Price: $15

Over the last few years, a number of events have produced deep change in Spanish agriculture. The agreements ensuring from the negotiations within the World Trade Organization (WTO), the new exigencies of the demand for reducing the surpluses of certain food and feed crops (cereals, oil-seeds, sugar beet…) and the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) expenses, the reform of CAP and the different Common Markets Organizations (CMO’s), along with the vocation to produce (greatly influenced by geo-climatic factors), have led to a deep and long-lasting crisis of the sector in many important agricultural regions in Spain, as is the case in Castile and Leon. This crisis implies depopulation and alteration of the population structure and the rural environment, with subsequent environmental, socio-cultural and territorial consequences. Within this framework, energy crops are one of the scarce local productive orientations which could allow Castile and Leon farmers to produce an output demanded by the markets. This paper examines the current situation and the possibilities of development for this sector, using the Rural Rapid Appraisal (RRA) and Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) methods, in order to identify and assess the profitability of the main energy crops as well as the technical, socio-cultural, political and economic barriers for introducing these crops in the local productive farming sector. The study also provides an evaluation of the last energy and CAP measures and an outlook for future market developments and policy recommendations.

Governing of Agro-Ecosystem Services in Bulgaria

Page: 94-129 (36) Author: Hrabrin Bachev DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010094 PDF Price: $15

This paper incorporates interdisciplinary New Institutional and Transaction Costs Economics and analyzes the governance of agro-ecosystem services in Bulgaria. Firstly, it presents a comprehensive framework of analyses of environmental governance including: definition of agroecosystem services and governance; specification of governance needs and spectrum of governing modes (formal and informal institutions, market, private, public and hybrid forms); assessment of efficiency of different modes of governance in terms of their potential to protect diverse eco-rights and investments, assure a socially desirable level of agro-ecosystem services, minimize overall costs, coordinate and stimulate eco-activities, meet individual and social preferences and reconcile conflicts of related agents etc. Secondly, it identifies and assesses the governance of agro-ecosystem services in Bulgaria. It proves that post-communist transition and EU integration brought about significant changes in the state and the governance of agro-ecosystems services. Newly evolved market, private and public governance has led to a significant improvement of the part of agro-ecosystems services introducing modern eco-standards and public support, enhancing environmental stewardship, disintensifying production, recovering landscape and traditional productions, diversifying quality, products and services. At the same time, the novel governance is associated with new challenges such as unsustainable exploitation, lost biodiversity, land degradation, water and air contamination etc. Moreover, it demonstrates that implementation of the EU common policies would have no desired impact on agro-ecosystem services unless special measures are taken to improve management of public programs, extend public support to dominating small-scale and subsistence farms.

Ex Post Liability for Loss vs. Ex Ante Liability Insurance as Solutions to Reversal Risk in Carbon Offset Projects

Page: 130-144 (15) Author: Joshua Anyangah DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010130 PDF Price: $15

When included as part of a larger emissions rights trading system, carbon offset projects can automatically achieve a given reduction of emissions in a cost-effective manner. One major concern with this system, however, is the risk of emissions reversal-the deliberate or accidental release of carbon back to the atmosphere long after carbon credits have changed hands. This downside risk may adversely affect the market value of offset credits and undermine the integrity of the carbon trading system. To address this weakness, at least two financial responsibility rules have been proposed. One calls for the imposition of liability, ex post, upon project developers. The other alternative, an ex ante measure, requires that project developers have adequate liability insurance coverage prior to undertaking any offset projects. Taking the view that project developers can control the severity of financial losses arising from reversal and assuming a negligence rule of liability for harm, this paper employs the methods of mechanism design to examine the impact of ex-post liability rules and ex ante liability insurance requirements on incentives to reduce risk. We find that the relative ranking of these two rules crucially depends on the extent of uncertainty regarding the legal standard under liability rules: if uncertainty regarding the legal standard is sufficiently large, then incentives are more pronounced under insurance rules than under liability rules; if the uncertainty regarding the legal standard is sufficiently small, however, then the converse is true.

A Choice Experiments Application in Transport Infrastructure: A Case Study on Travel Time Savings, Accidents and Pollution Reduction

Page: 145-155 (11) Author: Phoebe Koundouri, Yiannis Kountouris and Mavra Stithou DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010145 PDF Price: $15

This paper presents the results of a Choice Experiment (CE) conducted to estimate the values derived from a highway construction project in Greece. To account for preference heterogeneity conditional logit with interactions and random parameter logit models are estimated. The results indicate that individuals have significant values for travel time savings, percentage decrease in traffic accidents, percentage decrease in traffic related emissions and landscape modifications. Models where the attributes are interacted with socioeconomic variables perform better and produce lower welfare estimates compared to models without interactions with important implications for cost benefit analysis.

Page: 156-157 (2) Author: Anthony N. Rezitis DOI: 10.2174/978160805263911203010156

Introduction

The aim of this e-book series is to publish high quality economic research in agricultural and applied economics. It particularly fosters quantitative studies which make original contribution on important economic issues, the results of which help to understand and solve real economic problems. This volume contains research papers focusing on the areas of agricultural policy, agricultural price volatility, agricultural finance and cooperatives, consumption economics, firm production and organization, human capital convergence, international economics and multinational business, investment decisions in organic agriculture, market structure and industry studies. The research papers of this volume make use of recent methodological approaches and provide conclusions which are useful to both private sector participants and policy-makers.

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Abstract: The Segment Anything Model (SAM), introduced by Meta AI Research as a generic object segmentation model, quickly garnered widespread attention and significantly influenced the academic community. To extend its application to video, Meta further develops Segment Anything Model 2 (SAM2), a unified model capable of both video and image segmentation. SAM2 shows notable improvements over its predecessor in terms of applicable domains, promptable segmentation accuracy, and running speed. However, this report reveals a decline in SAM2's ability to perceive different objects in images without prompts in its auto mode, compared to SAM. Specifically, we employ the challenging task of camouflaged object detection to assess this performance decrease, hoping to inspire further exploration of the SAM model family by researchers. The results of this paper are provided in \url{ this https URL }.

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