write an essay on ovarian cancer

Ovarian Cancer: A Comprehensive Essay Sample

A wide spectrum of cancerous diseases drastically deteriorates the quality of life and considerably reduces the life span of a human. The growing incidence, increased morbidity, and mortality rates associated with various malignancies make them a serious health issue and challenge for healthcare organizations worldwide. Moreover, specific cancers can tremendously affect female reproductive and overall health, and ovarian cancer is in this category. Sufficient knowledge regarding the stated disease, its etiology, preventive care, and treatment modalities can benefit any female, particularly from the risk group.

Ovarian cancer is a serious, life-threatening cancerous disease that can largely compromise a woman’s health and cause negative implications for the one. It is characterized by excessive and uncontrollable multiplication of malignant cells, eventually becoming tumors (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2017). The discussed malignancy can be fatal without appropriate preventive strategies and therapeutic interventions.

For the reason of developing efficient preventive measures, researchers have closely scrutinized the etiology of the given pathology. It allowed the conclusion that old age, family history, genetic mutations, previous cancer-related status, and long-term estrogen replacement therapy are the major precipitating factors that increase the risk of developing ovarian cancer. Moreover, intrauterine device use, endometriosis, fertility medication, abnormal weight, excessive smoking, and no pregnancy history can ultimately facilitate the disease’s progression (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2014). All the factors above contribute to the pathophysiology of the stated malignancy to different extents. However, numerous studies have asserted a strong association of ovarian cancer with significant mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, which are responsible for providing cellular stability, securing genetic information, and fixing DNA impairments. Severe mutations in the stated genes can disturb the cellular balance and compromise DNA-repairing abilities.

Consequently, such imbalance triggers the proliferation of the mutated cells which can result in ovarian cancer. Furthermore, “mutations in the TP53 and MLN1 or MLN2 genes” prevent from production of proteins that can suppress abnormal proliferation of the malignant cells and inhibit tumor growth (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2017). Excessive weight or obesity is also responsible for harmful, malignant changes in the ovaries. The given disorder is largely associated with hormonal and physiologic alterations contributing to ovarian cancer pathogenesis.

Ovarian cancer preventive strategies can be effective by diminishing or eliminating the adverse effects of risk factors. In the case of having a family history and adverse genetic predisposition, it is highly recommended to have genetic counseling and BRCA gene testing. Furthermore, gynecologists can advise the conduction of “bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy to females with revealed BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations after having pregnancy and completing childbearing” (Green, 2018). Post-operative surveys and investigations show that such a radical strategy can be efficacious in preventing ovarian cancer progression. It is estimated that “pregnancies, lactation, and hormonal contraceptives” can ultimately suppress ovulation and minimize ovarian cancer risk (McCance & Huether, 2014, p.831). In addition, an appropriate lifestyle, regular physical training, healthy nourishment with low consumption of saturated fat and red meat, and increased intake of fruits, vegetables, and fish can significantly decrease excessive weight in high-risk women and improve their endocrine profile. Such measures can considerably reduce the risks of acquiring ovarian cancer in prospect.

Moreover, regular “vaginal examination” and transvaginal ultrasound are critical preventive measures for preventing the reviewed disease in genetically predisposed females. Both visual studies can reveal “visible abnormalities in the uterus or ovaries” that can be managed at the earliest (Nordqvist, 2016). A specific blood test that measures serum cancer antigen 125 (CA-125) levels largely assists in detecting cancer-related abnormalities.

Gynecologists are involved in various treatment options for managing ovarian cancer. The treatment regimen may include surgical interventions, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy. Simultaneously, they actively use medication to alleviate the symptoms, enhance the overall condition, and eradicate impairments caused by the disease under scrutiny. Furthermore, targeted drug therapy is also a part of the drug treatment that can effectively eradicate malignant cells, and suppress their multiplication and growth without injuring healthy cells. It may include the administration of such relatively novel drugs as “bevacizumab and olaparib” (Pietrangelo & Cafasso, 2017). The latter medication is effective for treating female patients with mutated BRCA genes.

Furthermore, prescription “protein tyrosine kinase and angiogenesis inhibitors” effectively treat tumors and ovarian cancer cases (Zhang, Tian, & Sun, 2017). Clinical trials of apatinib intake and conventional chemotherapeutics show positive therapeutic efficiency in managing ovarian cancer patients. Oncologists involve carboplatin and a taxane drug, such as paclitaxel or docetaxel, in chemotherapy sessions to cease cancerous cell proliferation and suppress their multiplication and spread.

Presently, researchers continue improving the pharmaceutical properties of existing medications and developing new ones that can efficiently combat symptoms associated with ovarian cancer. Thus, clinicians continue studying the efficacy and applicability of “small-molecular-weight inhibitors, monoclonal antibodies, epidermal growth factor receptors, and gene therapy” in managing the discussed cancer type (McCance & Huether, 2014, p. 834). Finally, the recent discovery of PARP inhibitors, in other words, “poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors with cytotoxic effects on mutated BRCA1- and BRCA2 cells,” demonstrate positive dynamics and therapeutic effects (Osman, 2014, p. 5).

Therefore, ovarian cancer is a serious cancerous disease that can significantly deteriorate a woman’s overall and reproductive health. Age, genetic mutations, strong family history, syndromes associated with genetic mutations, unhealthy lifestyle and nutrition, and inflammatory diseases increase the risk of developing ovarian cancer. However, genetic abnormalities related to mutations in certain genes and unfavorable lifestyle and dieting habits are major precipitating factors that can precede the pathology. Pharmacotherapy is one of the primary treatment modalities in combatting the discussed malignancy that can provide sufficient therapeutic effect and positive outcomes. Medication is ultimately a part of targeted drug therapy, hormone therapy, and chemotherapy that assists in eliminating cancerous cells and ceasing their multiplication. The ongoing research on novel medications can improve the efficacy of drug treatment with less detrimental consequences and side effects.

📎 References:

1. Green, A. (2018, January 5). Ovarian cancer treatment and management. Retrieved from https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/255771-treatment#d29?form=fpf 2. Mayo Clinic Staff. (2014a, June 12). Ovarian cancer. Risk factors. Retrieved from https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/ovarian-cancer/symptoms-causes/syc-20375941 3. McCance, K. L., & Huether, S. E. (Eds.). (2014). Pathophysiology: The biologic basis for disease in adults and children (7th ed.). St Louis, MO: Mosby. 4. Nordqvist, C. (2016, August 11). Ovarian cancer: Causes, symptoms, and treatment. Medical News Today. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/159675 5. Osman, M. A. (2014, December). Genetic cancer ovary. Clinical Ovarian and Other Gynecologic Cancer, 7(1/2), 1-7. 6. Pietrangelo, A., & Cafasso, J. (2017, July 3). Ovarian cancer: Early symptoms, detection, and treatment. Healthline. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/cancer/ovarian-cancer-early-signs#overview1 7. Stöppler, M. C., & Davis, C. P. (2018, January 24). Ovarian cancer (Cancer of the ovaries). Retrieved from https://www.medicinenet.com/ovarian_cancer/article.htm 8. Zhang, M., Tian, Z., & Sun, Y. (2017). Successful treatment of ovarian cancer with apatinib combined with chemotherapy. Medicine, 96(45). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5690771/pdf/medi-96-e8570.pdf 9. U.S. National Library of Medicine. (2017). Ovarian cancer. Retrieved from https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/ovarian-cancer/#genes

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Ovarian Cancer Overview and Analysis Report

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Introduction

Description of pathology, diagnostic methods, treatment and prognosis, reference list.

Ovarian cancer is a disease that starts in and affects the female reproductive organs, the ovaries. It is a very dangerous disease and common cancer among women that claims a lot of lives as compared to other kinds of cancer that affect the female reproductive system. This is especially due to the fact that in its early stages, it either shows minimal nonspecific signs or none at all making it difficult for its early diagnosis and intervention which worsens the condition (Buist et al., 1994).

This report gives an in-depth discussion of ovarian cancer including a description of its pathology, the methods used in its diagnosis especially the imaging methods, how the pathology looks like on images, the effects of the pathology on procedures, and finally its treatment and prognosis.

Pathology entails a study of disease including everything that pertains to it for instance the causes, its development path, symptoms, and the effects, what affects its spread or curing process among other manifestations of the disease. It is also termed pathobiology. Here is the pathology of ovarian cancer. Although the effect of ovarian cancer especially in terms of the deaths caused is well known, the exact cause is not known.

However, several factors have been deemed to contribute to the risk of developing ovarian cancer, for instance, the lesser children a woman has and the later in life she bears children, the higher the chances of developing ovarian cancer. Bearing children reduces the risk of developing ovarian cancer. BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes are also responsible for causing this disease though they contribute a small percentage.

An individual’s or family history may also boost ovarian cancer occurrences. Age is also an issue of concern as ovarian cancer tends to be suffered much by older women who are 55 years of age and above as opposed to the rate in the younger women. Its existence in women below the age of 40 years is minimal. Pills administered for birth control also reduce the risk of developing ovarian cancer (National Comprehensive Cancer Network, 2009).

According to Fayed (2010), there are common known factors that tend to increase the risk of ovarian cancer. It is for example a disease that is common in women who have reached menopause, have a family history of either breast cancer, ovarian cancer, or colon cancer, or those who had suffered from breast cancer sometimes back, have not borne any children, suffer from obesity, have undergone a therapy that entails estrogen replacement, have used some fertility drugs for long periods among other factors. Although ovarian cancer originates from the ovary, it affects other parts of the body as it spreads out for instance to the pelvic region, the intestines, and the lower part of the back.

The symptoms of ovarian cancer are usually hard to be identified during the first stages of the disease and even when they appear they are not specific. They are only notable at the advanced stages of the disease when its effects have caused a lot of damage to the body. This usually makes it hard to recover from the ordeal as compared to when it could be detected in its initial stages.

Some of the signs associated with ovarian cancer include abdominal discomfort, high rates of bloating, pain in the reproductive system especially around the pelvis, low appetite, virginal bleeding, unexpected weight loss, and gains, excessive fatigue is caused by the disease’s tendency of draining the body’s energy, pains, and discomfort during sexual intercourse, pressure, and pains in body parts for instance the stomach, legs, backaches, and irregular menses among others (Morch, 2009).

There exist numerous methods that could be applied in the diagnosis of ovarian cancer. The initial steps that a doctor may take in the event of suspecting the existence of ovarian cancer include some pelvic examination, CA-125 test, and ultrasound. Physical examination, CT scan, a transvaginal ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), biopsy, and laparotomy could also be applied.

Surgery could also be part of diagnosis apart from being a treatment option. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a medical test that helps in the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases ovarian cancer is one of them. It produces pictures of various body structures through the use of a strong magnetic field displayed on a computer. The images are then scrutinized and a conclusion is made from the observation.

It is a very effective method and allows for the identification of the presence of certain diseases that could otherwise not be detected using other imaging methods for instance computed tomography (CT) and X-ray. Although MRI has various benefits for instance the fact that it does not entail any exposure to ionizing radiation, it also has some risks like allergic reactions and nephrogenic systemic fibrosis especially in patients with kidney problems. Some medical devices in a patient’s body may interfere with the effectiveness of the MRI procedure (Anonymous 2010).

Computed tomography (CT) or CAT scanning is an imaging method that can produce images of bone, blood vessels, and tissues at a go. It works on the same principle that is applied on X-rays but instead of the images being presented on a film, a detector which is in a banana shape is used to present and measure the profile. The physician then makes conclusions based on the images in regard to the presence of ovarian cancer and the extent to which it has spread. CT has the following advantages over other imaging methods; it is relatively cheap, it is relatively fast, and widely available.

Prognosis entails the prediction of the possible course and outcome of a particular disease including the chances of recovery or survival that exist. The option to be chosen in the treatment of ovarian cancer is highly dependent on the extent to which cancer has spread which is gauged by the stage and grade of cancer. Treatment of the disease mostly involves surgical treatment and also through the use of chemicals. As another method of treatment, medical doctors expose the affected area to radiation.

Ovarian cancer is a disease that is treatable especially in the event that it is detected early enough hence avoiding further damages. Surgery works by removing the tumors and growth that could have been caused by ovarian cancer. Some organs of the body could also be removed to avoid further infections which may cause more complications. The surgery also entails some relocation of body parts for instance the pancreas and the liver. Surgery too enhances the success of chemotherapy through the removal of the body parts.

Chemotherapy, on the other hand, works by preventing the further spread of the disease. This is done through administering some drugs for instance carboplatin, paclitaxel, that suppress cancer through elimination or killing of the cancer cells that could have survived the surgery process. It is done either prior to all after the surgery but the latter is more common. The frequency and duration of the chemotherapy depend on an individual patient for instance in regard to the health status like resistance or reaction to some medications or even the stage of the disease in the individual.

Radiation therapy is rarely used in the treatment of ovarian cancer and in most cases it is applied with the main aim of reducing the symptoms associated with the disease (Hayat, 2009). Some of the images that show the conditions of ovarian cancer are shown below.

Peritoneal and ovarian cancer, CT scan: this shows a CT scan series of the lower abdomen showing ovarian cancer that has spread to the peritoneum.

Ovarian cancer is a critical disease that affects a large percentage of women worldwide. The problem is that there are no explicit measures that can be taken to prevent its occurrence. All in all, there are some factors that could be considered by women in an effort of reducing the chances of suffering from the disease. Some of them can however not apply to all women and cannot just be done for the major aim of reducing the risk. They include bearing children as research shows that giving birth even though it is to one child reduces the risk of ovarian cancer, use of oral contraceptives, and tubal ligation among other measures.

Anonymous, (2010). MRI of the Body (Chest, Abdomen, Pelvis). New York: Radiology Society of North America.

Buist, R.M et al. (1994). Comparative Evaluation of Diagnostic Methods in Ovarian Carcinoma with Emphasis on CT and MRI. Gynecologic Oncology Volume 52, Issue 2, pp 191-198.

Fayed, L. (2010). The Causes, Symptoms, Treatment and Prevention of Ovarian Cancer . Web.

Hayat, A.M. (2009). Methods of Cancer Diagnosis, Therapy, and Prognosis: Ovarian Cancer, Renal Cancer, Urogenitary Tract Cancer, Urinary Bladder Cancer, Cervical Uterine Cancer, Skin Cancer, Leukemia, Multiple Myeloma and Sarcoma . USA: Springer.

Morch LS, Lokkegaard E, Andreasen, AH, Krüger-Kjaer S, & Lidegaard, O. (2009). Hormone Therapy and Ovarian Cancer. JAMA, 302:298-305 .

National Comprehensive Cancer Network (2009). National Comprehensive Cancer Network Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Ovarian Cancer, vol. 2.

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Ovarian Cancer

Introduction.

Ovarian cancer is one of the main deadliest cancers in women; this is because it is frequently identified at an advanced phase. It occurs most commonly in women who are around 50 and 65 years of age. The duration risk of formation of ovarian growth is 1.4 to 1.8 percent only in women staying in U.S.

Ovarian cancer is the fifth most frequent tumor in women, after lung bowel, breast, and uterine tumors. Each year approximately 6,800 women in the United Kingdom are found affected with the sickness. If the infection is found in its premature stages, around 90% of women will endure at least for more than five years. Unfortunately, most women are not found with ovarian tumors at early age up to when it has already widen up and this makes successful cure difficult, and survival rate of Cancer . Thus cancer is an illness caused by an irregular development of cells, also called tumor. It is among a 100 different diseases, and is not infectious.

The ovaries are one the parts of a female’s reproductive organisms. They are located at pelvis. And each ovary is almost the mass of an almond. The ovaries make women’s hormones known as progesterone and estrogen. They also discharge eggs. An egg moves from an ovary via fallopian tube to the uterus (womb).

When a woman starts going through her menopause (change of life), her ovaries stops releasing eggs and creates lesser levels of hormones. Cancer or tumors starts in cells, and these are the building block that composes tissues. A tissue forms the organ systems of the body. Usually, a cell develops and separates to structure new cells which are needed by the body. When a cell matures, they die, and the new cells take their place.

Occasionally, this arranged development goes wrong. And the new cells are formed when the body does not require them, and the mature cell delay to die on time. These additional cells can form a lump of tissue known as tumor or growth.

Pathophysiology: Symptoms and causes of the ovarian cancer

Symptoms includes:

Early ovarian growth cannot cause apparent symptoms. Although, as the cancer develops symptoms may include

• Pressure or tenderness  in the abdomen, legs pelvis, or back,
• Inflamed  or stuffed abdomen
• Vomiting , indigestion, gas,  diarrhea, or constipation
• abdominal stuffing
• throbbing during sexual intercourse
• persistent tiredness
• abdominal weight increase
• rapid unexplained weight loss or weight increase
• Vulva or Vaginal discomforts

Less common symptoms include:

• squatness of breath
•  Feeling the urge to urinate regularly
•  abnormal vaginal bleeding (bleeding after menopause or heavy periods)
•  alteration in bowel tendencies like diarrhea or constipation
•  pelvic soreness or anxiety

Mainly the above indications are not because of tumor, thus doctor’s advice in essential in order be sure. Any woman with these symptoms should tell her doctor.

Causes and risk factors

Its cause is not yet known. But only approximately 5% of ovarian tumor cases are linked to the inherited genetic materials which are called BRCA gene.

Risk factors:

• Age: Most ovarian growth occurs after change of life. Half of the affected are women of 63 years of age.
• Having children: A woman who has capacity to bear children has a lower threat of ovarian tumor than those women cannot give children. This threat begins and continues with each stage pregnancy. A woman who breast feed lowers the chances of getting the ovarian cancer. Also the usage of birth control pills (the pills) also reduces the threat of the tumor if they are used for more than five years.
• Female surgery: Those women who have their “tubes tied” (tubal ligation) may lower the risk of developing ovarian cancer. Also the removal of the womb without removing the ovaries (a hysterectomy) is most likely, to lower the chances of developing ovarian cancer.
• Fertility drugs: Some writers have found that usage of fertility drug like citrate clomiphene (Clomid) in more than one year, most likely when pregnancy has not taken place, may increase the chances ovarian tumors.
• Male hormones: Males have hormones known as androgens. According to the research, women were found to taking androgens having   higher chances of ovarian tumors.
• Estrogen treatment and hormone treatment:  Recent studies points out those women who use estrogens after menopause has high rates of getting ovarian cancer. In the study it indicated that women using estrogen alone are at high risk (without progesterone).
• Family background of ovarian cancer, colorectal cancer or breast cancer:
•   Ovarian tumors have occurrence in families. There are high chances to get the tumor if in the generation there is someone who had the disease. Increased chances for ovarian tumor does do not follow the descent one comes from whether the partilenial or matrilineal it can be either your father’s or your mothers side. Having a family relative with breast tumors can also increase the chances of getting ovarian cancer. Many familial ovarian tumors are caused by inherited gene alterations that can be found if genetic testing is done.
• Genetic changes and condition : Some of inherited gene alterations (mutations) can increase the chances of developing ovarian cancer. This involves changes in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 genes. During birth one can   inherit alteration of the genes from the parent, chances of getting ovarian and breast tumors are high.
• Diet: Some researchers on the women study who studied on a low-calorie diet for less than 4 years pointed out that there is a lower chance of ovarian cancer in women who took a diet rich in vegetables.

Heath problem with other diseases

Sometimes the patient may want to know how therapy may change there regular activities. The patient and doctor can have unity and develop a treatment procedure that meets patient’s medical and personal desires. Because curing of cancer often destroys healthy cells and ligaments, and side effects are usual. The side effects depend mostly on the type and level of the treatment. Side effects are different in women and they may change from one session of treatment to the other.

A patient has ovarian tumor undergoes radiation treatment which is also known radiotherapy. This therapy uses high amount of energy rays to destroy cancer cells. A large machine is used to direct energy on the body. Radiation treatment is not often used in the initial stage therapy or remedy of ovarian cancer, but mostly is used to reduce pain and other problems caused by the illness and this treatment is only done at the hospital prescribed by the doctors.

The side effects can only be detected mainly due to the amount of radiation prescribed and the organ of your body that is being treated. Radiation treatment to your pelvis and abdomen may cause vomiting, diarrhea or bloody stools and nausea, Also, skin area treated may become red, dehydrated, and tender. Even though the side effects can be painful, doctor can habitually treat or control them. Besides, they slowly go away after cure ends.

Related Treatment methods

Doctor can illustrate your treatment options and the anticipated results. Most women undergo operation and chemotherapy. Rarely, radiation treatment is used to heal cancer and can affect cancer cells in the abdomen, and cells in the pelvis, in the entire the body:

• Local treatment: Surgery and radiation treatment are referred to as local therapies. They destroy ovarian tumor in the pelvis. When ovarian tumor has multiplied to other organ of the body, local treatment can be used to control the illness in those particular areas
• Intra-peritoneal chemotherapy: Chemotherapy is administered directly into the   abdomen and pelvis using a thin tube and the drugs or control tumor in the and pelvis and abdomen
• Total chemotherapy: If chemotherapy is taken by mouth or introduced into a vein, the drugs enter the arteries and system of the blood and destroy or control or destroy cancer in the whole body.

Nursing Physical assessment and intervention

A nursing evaluation includes a physical inspection: the examination or quantity of signs, which can be considered, or symptoms like vomiting or vertigo, which can be experienced by the patient. The method used may involve Inspection, Auscultation, Palpation, and Percussion and also to the “important signs” of respiratory rate, blood pressure, temperature, pulse and further assessment of the body coordination e.g. the cardiovascular system.

Nursing care plan

A nursing care procedure shows the nursing care to be given to an individual or family or the community at large. It is a set of behaviors the nurse will establish to hold nursing diagnoses recognized by nursing assessment. The development of the procedure is an intermediate period of the nursing course. It directs in the ongoing stipulation of nursing care and supports in the assessment of that care.

Evaluation (Following Patients for Disease Recurrence) the nurses and doctors take a proactive method to following patients strictly for recurrent illness. This is because doctor and nurses believe in making a difference in having longer life and securing quality of life if they find recurrent growth earlier and they treat them efficiently and effectively. Follow-up schedules are made at every three months for around the first five years and also at every six months of the 5 years following diagnosis and yearly afterward

Recommendations

Ovarian cancer is a deadly disease therefore women are advised to go for check up at an early stage and they should contact the doctors and if found to be affected they should be treated on time and the patients and nurses should look for the recurrent of the disease for treatment.

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Ovarian Cancer

What Is Ovarian Cancer?

• Key Statistics for Ovarian Cancer
• What's New in Ovarian Cancer Research?
• Ovarian Cancer Risk Factors
• What Causes Ovarian Cancer?
• Can Ovarian Cancer Be Prevented?
• Can Ovarian Cancer Be Found Early?
• Signs and Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer
• Tests for Ovarian Cancer
• Ovarian Cancer Stages
• Survival Rates for Ovarian Cancer
• What Should You Ask Your Doctor About Ovarian Cancer?
• Surgery for Ovarian Cancer
• Radiation Therapy for Ovarian Cancer
• Chemotherapy for Ovarian Cancer
• Hormone Therapy for Ovarian Cancer
• Targeted Drug Therapy for Ovarian Cancer
• Immunotherapy for Ovarian Cancer
• Treatment of Invasive Epithelial Ovarian Cancers, by Stage
• Treatment for Epithelial Tumors of Low Malignant Potential
• Treatment for Germ Cell Tumors of the Ovary
• Treatment for Stromal Tumors of the Ovary, by Stage
• Living as an Ovarian Cancer Survivor
• Second Cancers After Ovarian Cancer
• If You Have Ovarian Cancer

What are the ovaries?

Epithelial ovarian tumors, ovarian germ cell tumors, ovarian stromal tumors, ovarian cysts.

Cancer starts when cells in the body begin to grow out of control. Cells in nearly any part of the body can become cancer and can spread. To learn more about how cancers start and spread, see What Is Cancer?

Ovarian cancers were previously believed to begin only in the ovaries, but recent evidence suggests that many ovarian cancers may actually start in the cells in the far (distal) end of the fallopian tubes.

Ovaries are reproductive glands found only in females (women). The ovaries produce eggs (ova) for reproduction. The eggs travel from the ovaries through the fallopian tubes into the uterus where the fertilized egg settles in and develops into a fetus. The ovaries are also the main source of the female hormones estrogen and progesterone. One ovary is on each side of the uterus.

The ovaries are mainly made up of 3 kinds of cells. Each type of cell can develop into a different type of tumor:

• Epithelial tumors start from the cells that cover the outer surface of the ovary. Most ovarian tumors are epithelial cell tumors.
• Germ cell tumors start from the cells that produce the eggs (ova).
• Stromal tumors start from structural tissue cells that hold the ovary together and produce the female hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Some of these tumors are benign (non-cancerous) and never spread beyond the ovary. Malignant (cancerous) or borderline (low malignant potential) ovarian tumors can spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body and can be fatal.

Epithelial ovarian tumors start in the outer surface of the ovaries. These tumors can be benign (not cancer), borderline (low malignant potential), or malignant (cancer).

Benign epithelial ovarian tumors

Epithelial ovarian tumors that are benign don’t spread and usually don’t lead to serious illness. There are several types of benign epithelial tumors including serous cystadenomas, mucinous cystadenomas, and Brenner tumors.

Borderline Epithelial Tumors

When looked at in the lab, some ovarian epithelial tumors don’t clearly appear to be cancerous and are known as borderline epithelial ovarian cancer . The two most common types are atypical proliferative serous carcinoma and atypical proliferative mucinous carcinoma. These tumors were previously called tumors of low malignant potential (LMP tumors) . These are different from typical ovarian cancers because they don’t grow into the supporting tissue of the ovary (called the ovarian stroma ). If they do spread outside the ovary, for example, into the abdominal cavity (belly), they might grow on the lining of the abdomen but not into it.

Borderline tumors tend to affect younger women than the typical ovarian cancers. These tumors grow slowly and are less life-threatening than most ovarian cancers.

Malignant epithelial ovarian tumors

Cancerous epithelial tumors are called carcinomas . About 85% to 90% of malignant ovarian cancers are epithelial ovarian carcinomas. These tumor cells have several features (when looked at in the lab) that can be used to classify epithelial ovarian carcinomas into different types. The serous type is by far the most common, and can include high grade and low grade tumors. The other main types include mucinous , endometrioid , and clear cell .

• Serous carcinomas (52%)
• Clear cell carcinoma (6%)
• Mucinous carcinoma (6%)
• Endometrioid carcinoma (10%)

Each ovarian cancer is given a grade, based on how much the tumor cells look like normal tissue:

• Grade 1 epithelial ovarian carcinomas look more like normal tissue and tend to have a better prognosis (outlook).
• Grade 3 epithelial ovarian carcinomas look less like normal tissue and usually have a worse outlook.

Other traits are also taken into account, such as how fast the cancer cells grow and how well they respond to chemotherapy, to come up with the tumor's type:

• Type I tumors tend to grow slowly and cause fewer symptoms. These tumors also seem not to respond well to chemotherapy. Low grade (grade 1) serous carcinoma, clear cell carcinoma, mucinous carcinoma and endometrioid carcinoma are examples of type I tumors.
• Type II tumors grow fast and tend to spread sooner. These tumors tend to respond better to chemotherapy. High grade (grade 3) serous carcinoma is an example of a type II tumor.

Other cancers that are similar to epithelial ovarian cancer

Primary peritoneal carcinoma.

Primary peritoneal carcinoma (PPC) is a rare cancer closely related to epithelial ovarian cancer. At surgery, it looks the same as an epithelial ovarian cancer that has spread through the abdomen. In the lab, PPC also looks just like epithelial ovarian cancer. Other names for this cancer include extra-ovarian (meaning outside the ovary) primary peritoneal carcinoma (EOPPC) and serous surface papillary carcinoma .

PPC appears to start in the cells lining the inside of the fallopian tubes.

Like ovarian cancer, PPC tends to spread along the surfaces of the pelvis and abdomen, so it is often difficult to tell exactly where the cancer first started. This type of cancer can occur in women who still have their ovaries, but it is of more concern for women who have had their ovaries removed to prevent ovarian cancer. This cancer does rarely occur in men.

Symptoms of PPC are similar to those of ovarian cancer, including abdominal pain or bloating, nausea, vomiting, indigestion, and a change in bowel habits. Also, like ovarian cancer, PPC may elevate the blood level of a tumor marker called CA-125.

Women with PPC usually get the same treatment as those with widespread ovarian cancer. This could include surgery to remove as much of the cancer as possible (a process called debulking that is discussed in the section about surgery ), followed by chemotherapy like that given for ovarian cancer. Its outlook is likely to be similar to widespread ovarian cancer.

Fallopian tube cancer

This is another rare cancer that is similar to epithelial ovarian cancer. It begins in the tube that carries an egg from the ovary to the uterus (the fallopian tube). Like PPC, fallopian tube cancer and ovarian cancer have similar symptoms. The treatment for fallopian tube cancer is much like that for ovarian cancer, but the outlook (prognosis) is slightly better.

Germ cells usually form the ova or eggs in females and the sperm in males. Most ovarian germ cell tumors are benign, but some are cancerous and may be life threatening. Less than 2% of ovarian cancers are germ cell tumors. Overall, they have a good outlook, with more than 9 out of 10 patients surviving at least 5 years after diagnosis. There are several subtypes of germ cell tumors. The most common germ cell tumors are teratomas , dysgerminomas , endodermal sinus tumors , and choriocarcinomas . Germ cell tumors can also be a mix of more than a single subtype.

Teratomas are germ cell tumors with areas that, when seen under the microscope, look like each of the 3 layers of a developing embryo: the endoderm (innermost layer), mesoderm (middle layer), and ectoderm (outer layer). This germ cell tumor has a benign form called mature teratoma and a cancerous form called immature teratoma.

The mature teratoma is by far the most common ovarian germ cell tumor. It is a benign tumor that usually affects women of reproductive age (teens through forties). It is often called a dermoid cyst because its lining is made up of tissue similar to skin (dermis). These tumors or cysts can contain different kinds of benign tissues including, bone, hair, and teeth. The patient is cured by surgical removal of the cyst, but sometimes a new cyst develops later in the other ovary.

Immature teratomas are a type of cancer. They occur in girls and young women, usually younger than 18. These are rare cancers that contain cells that look like those from embryonic or fetal tissues such as connective tissue, respiratory passages, and brain. Tumors that are relatively more mature (called grade 1 immature teratoma ) and haven’t spread beyond the ovary are treated by surgical removal of the ovary. When they have spread beyond the ovary and/or much of the tumor has a very immature appearance (grade 2 or 3 immature teratomas), chemotherapy is recommended in addition to surgery.

Dysgerminoma

This type of cancer is rare, but it is the most common ovarian germ cell cancer . It usually affects women in their teens and twenties. Dysgerminomas are considered malignant (cancerous), but most don’t grow or spread very rapidly. When they are limited to the ovary, more than 75% of patients are cured by surgically removing the ovary, without any further treatment. Even when the tumor has spread further (or if it comes back later), surgery, radiation therapy, and/or chemotherapy are effective in controlling or curing the disease in about 90% of patients.

Endodermal sinus tumor (yolk sac tumor) and choriocarcinoma

These very rare tumors typically affect girls and young women. They tend to grow and spread rapidly but are usually very sensitive to chemotherapy. Choriocarcinoma that starts in the placenta (during pregnancy) is more common than the kind that starts in the ovary. Placental choriocarcinomas usually respond better to chemotherapy than ovarian choriocarcinomas do.

About 1% of ovarian cancers are ovarian stromal cell tumors. More than half of stromal tumors are found in women older than 50, but about 5% of stromal tumors occur in young girls.

The most common symptom of these tumors is abnormal vaginal bleeding. This happens because many of these tumors produce female hormones (estrogen). These hormones can cause vaginal bleeding (like a period) to start again after menopause. In young girls, these tumors can also cause menstrual periods and breast development to occur before puberty.

Less often, stromal tumors make male hormones (like testosterone). If male hormones are produced, the tumors can cause normal menstrual periods to stop. They can also make facial and body hair grow. If the stromal tumor starts to bleed, it can cause sudden, severe abdominal pain.

Types of malignant (cancerous) stromal tumors include granulosa cell tumors (the most common type), granulosa-theca tumors, and Sertoli-Leydig cell tumors, which are usually considered low-grade cancers. Thecomas and fibromas are benign stromal tumors. Cancerous stromal tumors are often found at an early stage and have a good outlook, with more than 75% of patients surviving long-term.

An ovarian cyst is a collection of fluid inside an ovary. Most ovarian cysts occur as a normal part of the process of ovulation (egg release) -- these are called functional cysts . These cysts usually go away within a few months without any treatment. If you develop a cyst, your doctor may want to check it again after your next menstrual cycle (period) to see if it has gotten smaller.

An ovarian cyst can be more concerning in a female who isn't ovulating (like a woman after menopause or a girl who hasn't started her periods), and the doctor may want to do more tests. The doctor may also order other tests if the cyst is large or if it does not go away in a few months. Even though most of these cysts are benign (not cancer), a small number of them could be cancer. Sometimes the only way to know for sure if the cyst is cancer is to take it out with surgery. Cysts that appear to be benign (based on how they look on imaging tests ) can be observed (with repeated physical exams and imaging tests), or removed with surgery.

The American Cancer Society medical and editorial content team

Our team is made up of doctors and oncology certified nurses with deep knowledge of cancer care as well as editors and translators with extensive experience in medical writing.

American Cancer Society.  Cancer Facts and Figures 2018 . Atlanta, GA: American Cancer Society; 2018.

Cannistra SA, Gershenson DM, Recht A. Ch 76 - Ovarian cancer, fallopian tube carcinoma, and peritoneal carcinoma. In: DeVita VT, Hellman S, Rosenberg SA, eds.  Cancer: Principles and Practice of Oncology . 10th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2015.

Doherty JA, Jensen A, Kelemen LE et al. Current Gaps in Ovarian Cancer Epidemiology: The Need for New Population-Based Research. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute . 2017; 109 (10).  https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djx144.

Fleming GF, Seidman JD, Yemelyanova A and Lengyel E. (2017). Chapter 23: Epithelial Ovarian Cancer. In D. S. Chi, A. Berchuck, D. S. Dizon, & C. M. Yashar (Authors), Principles and practice of gynecologic oncology (7 th ed) . Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health.

Goodman MT, Shvetsov YB. Incidence of ovarian, peritoneal, and fallopian tube carcinomas in the United States, 1995-2004. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev . 2009;18(1):132-139.

Hauptmann S, Friedrich K, Redline R, Avril S. Ovarian borderline tumors in the 2014 WHO classification: evolving concepts and diagnostic criteria. Virchows Archiv . 2017;470(2):125-142. doi:10.1007/s00428-016-2040-8.

Jonathan S. Berek, Michael L. Friedlander, Neville F. Hacker (2015) Chapter 11: Epithelial Ovarian, Fallopian Tube, and Peritoneal Cancer. In Jonathan Berek (Author), Berek & Hacker's Gynecologic Oncology (6th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health.

Morgan M, Boyd J, Drapkin R, Seiden MV. Ch 89 – Cancers Arising in the Ovary. In: Abeloff MD, Armitage JO, Lichter AS, Niederhuber JE, Kastan MB, McKenna WG, eds.  Clinical Oncology . 5th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2014: 1592.

Ramalingam P. Morphologic, Immunophenotypic, and Molecular Features of Epithelial Ovarian Cancer. Oncology (Williston Park). 2016 Feb;30(2):166-76.

Salvador S, Gilks B, Köbel M, Huntsman D, Rosen B, Miller D. The fallopian tube: primary site of most pelvic high-grade serous carcinomas. Int J Gynecol Cancer . 2009;19(1):58-64.

Sundar S, Neal RD, Kehoe S. Diagnosis of ovarian cancer BMJ 2015; 351:h4443.

Last Revised: April 11, 2018

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• Ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer is a type of cancer that begins in the ovaries. The ovaries are each about the size of an almond. They produce eggs, called ova, as well as the hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Ovarian cancer is a growth of cells that forms in the ovaries. The cells multiply quickly and can invade and destroy healthy body tissue.

The female reproductive system contains two ovaries, one on each side of the uterus. The ovaries — each about the size of an almond — produce eggs (ova) as well as the hormones estrogen and progesterone.

Ovarian cancer treatment usually involves surgery and chemotherapy.

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Female reproductive system

The ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix and vagina (vaginal canal) make up the female reproductive system.

When ovarian cancer first develops, it might not cause any noticeable symptoms. When ovarian cancer symptoms happen, they're usually attributed to other, more common conditions.

Signs and symptoms of ovarian cancer may include:

• Abdominal bloating or swelling
• Quickly feeling full when eating
• Weight loss
• Discomfort in the pelvic area
• Changes in bowel habits, such as constipation
• A frequent need to urinate

When to see a doctor

Make an appointment with your doctor if you have any signs or symptoms that worry you.

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Ovarian cancer care at Mayo Clinic

• CA 125 test: A screening test for ovarian cancer?

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It's not clear what causes ovarian cancer, though doctors have identified things that can increase the risk of the disease.

Doctors know that ovarian cancer begins when cells in or near the ovaries develop changes (mutations) in their DNA. A cell's DNA contains the instructions that tell the cell what to do. The changes tell the cells to grow and multiply quickly, creating a mass (tumor) of cancer cells. The cancer cells continue living when healthy cells would die. They can invade nearby tissues and break off from an initial tumor to spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body.

Types of ovarian cancer

The type of cell where the cancer begins determines the type of ovarian cancer you have and helps your doctor determine which treatments are best for you. Ovarian cancer types include:

• Epithelial ovarian cancer. This type is the most common. It includes several subtypes, including serous carcinoma and mucinous carcinoma.
• Stromal tumors. These rare tumors are usually diagnosed at an earlier stage than other ovarian cancers.
• Germ cell tumors. These rare ovarian cancers tend to occur at a younger age.

Risk factors

Factors that can increase your risk of ovarian cancer include:

• Older age. The risk of ovarian cancer increases as you age. It's most often diagnosed in older adults.

Inherited gene changes. A small percentage of ovarian cancers are caused by genes changes you inherit from your parents. The genes that increase the risk of ovarian cancer include BRCA1 and BRCA2 . These genes also increase the risk of breast cancer.

Several other gene changes are known to increase the risk of ovarian cancer, including gene changes associated with Lynch syndrome and the genes BRIP1 , RAD51C and RAD51D .

• Family history of ovarian cancer. If you have blood relatives who have been diagnosed with ovarian cancer, you may have an increased risk of the disease.
• Being overweight or obese. Being overweight or obese increases the risk of ovarian cancer.
• Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy. Taking hormone replacement therapy to control menopause signs and symptoms may increase the risk of ovarian cancer.
• Endometriosis. Endometriosis is an often painful disorder in which tissue similar to the tissue that lines the inside of your uterus grows outside your uterus.
• Age when menstruation started and ended. Beginning menstruation at an early age or starting menopause at a later age, or both, may increase the risk of ovarian cancer.
• Never having been pregnant. If you've never been pregnant, you may have an increased risk of ovarian cancer.

There's no sure way to prevent ovarian cancer. But there may be ways to reduce your risk:

• Consider taking birth control pills. Ask your doctor whether birth control pills (oral contraceptives) may be right for you. Taking birth control pills reduces the risk of ovarian cancer. But these medications do have risks, so discuss whether the benefits outweigh those risks based on your situation.
• Discuss your risk factors with your doctor. If you have a family history of breast and ovarian cancers, bring this up with your doctor. Your doctor can determine what this may mean for your own risk of cancer. You may be referred to a genetic counselor who can help you decide whether genetic testing may be right for you. If you're found to have a gene change that increases your risk of ovarian cancer, you may consider surgery to remove your ovaries to prevent cancer.
• Hoffman BL, et al. Epithelial ovarian cancer. In: Williams Gynecology. 4th ed. McGraw Hill; 2020. https://accessmedicine.mhmedical.com. Accessed May 5, 2021.
• Niederhuber JE, et al., eds. Carcinoma of the ovaries and fallopian tubes. In: Abeloff's Clinical Oncology. 6th ed. Elsevier; 2020. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed May 5, 2021.
• Ovarian cancer including fallopian tube cancer and primary peritoneal cancer. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. https://www.nccn.org/guidelines/guidelines-detail?category=1&id=1453. Accessed May 5, 2021.
• Ovarian, fallopian tube and primary peritoneal cancer prevention (PDQ) — Patient version. National Cancer Institute. https://www.cancer.gov/types/ovarian/patient/ovarian-prevention-pdq. Accessed May 5, 2021.
• Van Stein RM, et al. Hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy for ovarian and colorectal cancer. JAMA Oncology. 2021; doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2021.0580.
• Palliative care. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. https://www.nccn.org/guidelines/guidelines-detail?category=3&id=1454. Accessed May 5, 2021.
• Ovarian SPOREs. National Cancer Institute. https://trp.cancer.gov/spores/ovarian.htm. Accessed May 5, 2021.
• Warner KJ. Allscripts EPSi. Mayo Clinic. Feb. 26, 2021.
• Member institutions. Alliance for Clinical Trials in Oncology. https://www.allianceforclinicaltrialsinoncology.org/main/public/standard.xhtml?path=%2FPublic%2FInstitutions. Accessed May 5, 2021.
• Genetic/familial high-risk assessment: Breast, ovarian and pancreatic. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. https://www.nccn.org/guidelines/guidelines-detail?category=2&id=1503. Accessed June 24, 2021.
• Gershenson DM, et al. Management of low-grade, serous carcinoma of the ovary. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed June 25, 2021.
• Beating Ovarian Cancer
• Ovarian cancer: Still possible after hysterectomy?
• Pap test: Can it detect ovarian cancer?

Associated Procedures

• Abdominal hysterectomy
• BRCA gene test
• CA 125 test
• Chemotherapy
• Oophorectomy (ovary removal surgery)
• Pelvic exam
• Vaginal hysterectomy

News from Mayo Clinic

• Ovarian cancer: New treatments and research May 05, 2024, 11:00 a.m. CDT
• New surgical method for ovarian cancer lights up lesions Aug. 30, 2023, 02:43 p.m. CDT
• Mayo Clinic researchers link ovarian cancer to bacteria colonization in microbiome  Jan. 16, 2023, 04:00 p.m. CDT
• Mayo Clinic Q and A: Genetic counseling after cancer diagnosis Nov. 14, 2022, 01:37 p.m. CDT

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Health Encyclopedia

Ovarian cancer: introduction, what is cancer.

Cancer is when cells in the body change and grow out of control. To help you understand what happens when you have cancer, let's look at how your body works normally. Your body is made up of tiny building blocks called cells. Normal cells grow when your body needs them and die when your body does not need them any longer.

Cancer is made up of abnormal cells that grow even though your body doesn't need them. In most cancers, the abnormal cells grow to form a lump or mass called a tumor. If cancer cells are in the body long enough, they can grow into (invade) nearby areas. They can even spread to other parts of the body (metastasis).

Understanding the ovaries

To understand where the tumor is, it may help to know more about how your ovaries work in your reproductive system:

Ovaries. There are 2 of these. They produce hormones and eggs.

Fallopian tubes. These are the tubes through which an egg travels from the ovaries to the uterus. There are 2 tubes, 1 leading from each ovary to the uterus.

Uterus. This is the hollow, pear-shaped organ that holds a growing baby. It's also called the womb.

Vagina. This is the passage that connects the uterus to the outside of your body. It's also called the birth canal.

Your ovaries are located on either side of the uterus, in your pelvis. Each month, one of the ovaries releases an egg. After the egg leaves the ovary, it goes down the fallopian tube. If the egg connects with a sperm, it’s fertilized and attaches to the wall of the uterus. There it grows to become a baby. If the egg isn’t fertilized, it leaves the body through the vagina along with the menstrual flow. The ovaries also make the hormones estrogen and progesterone. These control the development of certain parts of your body. These include the breasts, body shape, and body hair. These hormones also control your menstrual cycle.

At menopause, the ovaries stop releasing eggs. They also stop making certain hormones.

What is ovarian cancer?

Ovarian cancer is cancer that starts in your ovaries or at the end of the fallopian tubes next to an ovary. Only people with ovaries get this kind of cancer.

Many types of tumors can start growing in the ovaries. Some are benign. This means that they're not cancer. Benign tumors don’t spread but they can grow quite large and cause symptoms. They can usually be treated by removing 1 ovary or part of the ovary. Ovarian cancer is a malignant (cancerous) tumor. If a cancerous tumor isn’t treated, it can grow and spread to other parts of your body.

The ovary is made up of many layers of cells. Cancer can affect any one or all of these layers. These are the main types of ovarian cancer.

Epithelial ovarian cancer

This is by far the most common type of ovarian cancer. It starts in cells on the outer surface of the ovary. Many epithelial ovarian cancers start in the fallopian tube epithelial cells near the ovary or the lining of the inside of the belly (peritoneal) epithelial cells. Then they go to the surface of the ovary. There are several types of epithelial ovarian cancer. High-grade serous carcinoma is the most common subtype of epithelial ovarian cancer.

Germ cell ovarian cancer

This cancer starts in the cells that form eggs in the ovary. These rare tumors are most common in people with ovaries ages 10 to 29. There are different sub-types of germ cell tumors.

Stromal cell cancer

This cancer forms in the tissue that makes certain female hormones and holds the ovaries in place. This is also a very rare form of ovarian cancer.

Talk with your healthcare provider

If you have questions about ovarian cancer, talk with your healthcare provider. Your healthcare provider can help you understand more about this cancer.

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Ovarian Cancer Essay Examples

The role of epigenetics and brca genes in ovarian cancer.

Ovarian cancer is amongst the deadliest cancers. It is the most widely recognized gynecological malignancy, third driving after cervical and uterine disease. Momenimovahed et al. (2018) states that it has the most elevated death rate and worst prognosis. While ovarian disease has the lowest prevalence...

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