essay against stereotypes

Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

How to Beat Stereotypes by Seeing People as Individuals

In 1983, a white man walked into an all-white music venue in Frederick, Maryland, and he noticed that a black man was playing in an otherwise all-white country band.

He approached the musician and told him, “I really like y’all’s music. This is the first time I ever heard a black man play piano like Jerry Lee Lewis.” The piano player, a musician named Daryl Davis, replied that Jerry Lee Lewis was inspired by black musicians.

The man didn’t believe Davis, but liked his music so much he was willing to have a drink with Davis and talk about their shared love of piano music. He told Davis he had never had a drink with a black man before. Davis wanted to know why, and that’s when the man admitted he was a member of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK).

Despite being a Klansman, the man became a regular at Davis’s performances, because he learned to see him as a great individual piano player, rather than through the lens of group stereotypes. Ultimately, Davis discovered, the man was kicked out of the local KKK chapter.

This story reveals a crucial skill for building bridges between different kinds of people: focusing on individual characteristics rather than group identity. The encounter set Davis off on a crusade—he went on to befriend and convince over 200 members of the KKK to leave the organization. The entire effort was primarily based on Davis’s ability to connect with them one on one.

It might seem hard to argue with the idea that we should focus on what individuals say and do and believe, instead of unthinkingly inferring those things from their group membership—but, in fact, we use group affiliation to evaluate individuals all the time. What psychological forces drive us to do that, even when stereotyping other people is against our values? How can we teach ourselves to overlook group stereotypes and instead listen to individual stories?

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We can find some answers in the research—and today we can see those scientific insights being put to the real-world test by bridge-building organizations around the United States.

Why we stereotype

Psychologists call our mental shortcuts “heuristics”—and we need them to help our brains navigate the world. If you see a creature with feathers sitting on a tree branch, it probably does fly and eat worms. If you are planning a trip to upstate New York in the winter, it’s not a bad idea to bring snow boots.

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But heuristics can lead us to make potentially damaging assumptions about other people. Racial stereotyping, for instance, comes from the belief that membership in a racial group defines someone on a range of characteristics, including their behavior. This idea that group membership determines innate qualities is called “essentialism.”

Racial segregation results from a widespread belief in racial essentialism. Many whites in the Jim Crow South, for instance, falsely believed that skin color and race determined someone’s character, behavior, and intelligence.

That’s why the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., famously said during his 1963 speech at the March on Washington that he dreamed that his “four little children will one day live in a world where they will be judged not by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” King was arguing that his children should be evaluated as individuals rather than as archetypes of a racial group. If we want to understand people, we need focus on individual words and actions, not their group identity.

But how? If stereotyping is so powerful that it can serve as the basis of an entire social system that required a Civil Rights movement to overturn, what can we do as individuals to see other people without prejudice?

Deflating essentialism

That’s a question social scientists have been tackling for a long time.

Recently, Skidmore College psychologist Leigh Wilton was part of a team that tested out two different approaches to tackling essentialism. In one study, they gave participants a pair of readings (in addition to a control-condition statement) promoting a diversity component of a potential university strategic plan.

One reading emphasized the distinctiveness of different groups with sentences like this one:

Each group has its own talents, as well as its own problems, and by acknowledging both these strengths and weaknesses, we validate the identity of each group and we recognize its existence and its importance to the social fabric.

The second highlighted individual characteristics: “We must look beyond skin color and understand the person within, to see each person as an individual who is part of the larger group.”

Participants were then asked to complete a survey based on the Race Essentialism Scale , which seeks to assess “participants’ agreement with the view that race is unchangeable and biologically determined.”

The results? Participants who read the passage that emphasized group differences were more likely to report beliefs in race essentialism than those who got the individual-oriented message. In other words, focusing on individuals helped the participants see people from different cultures as individuals, rather than as groups with essential characteristics.

Wilton emphasizes that this doesn’t mean that it’s never useful to think in terms of groups. However, we need to be aware that this way of thinking does lead to more essentialist beliefs. “Challenges come up when people think about people in terms of their group identity, or they make assumptions about people…based on what they look like, or what their background is,” she explains.

Imagining vegetables

Essentialism isn’t the only force that prevents us from seeing people as individuals.

Many of our social divisions stem from reacting to out-groups—people who do not belong to the social group we psychologically identify with—differently than we respond to our in-groups. Racial essentialism, for instance, can be driven by the belief that people from different racial groups have essential and categorical differences from us that make our co-existence difficult or impossible.

This reaction against out-groups is not always conscious or intentional. Research shows, for instance, that when people see someone from another group, their brains may automatically respond as if they’re confronting a physical threat. We quickly place people into a group category without even really thinking about it.

“When you simply categorize the person, you’re not attributing much of a mind to them ”

One neuroscience study performed by Princeton psychologist Susan Fiske found that when white participants saw photos of black faces and had two seconds to judge whether the people in these photographs were over the age of 21, they showed activity in the area of the brain called the amygdala, which indicates a high level of alertness and emotional arousal. In other words, they saw the face as a threat.

But the same study found that there was an easy way to maneuver around this automatic response. 

In some cases, Fiske’s team asked the white participants to judge what sort of vegetable the people in the photos would prefer to eat. In those cases—when they were prompted to see the people as individuals, with their own tastes and preferences—the amygdala activity looked the same as when the participants saw white faces, suggesting that they were able to individuate—see the faces as individuals—rather than quickly group them into a category and see them as a threat.

Fiske explains that people often tend to quickly categorize people into group categories, but that learning more about a person can help you individuate them by thinking about what goes on in their individual mind.

“When you simply categorize the person, you’re not attributing much of a mind to them,” she says. “But when you’re trying to figure out what kind of human being they are, what their dispositions are, you have to think about their mind.”

By focusing on the characteristics of individuals, rather than their group identity, we can maneuver around segregating perceptions of out-groups that drive us apart rather than bring us together.

“What’s good about the vegetable task is it creates the most minimal possible goal it would take to get you to go beyond the category,” Fiske says.

Building empathy through storytelling

Late last year, a group of kids from University Heights High School in New York City walked into a giant inflatable room and sat down to talk to a group of students sitting almost 700 miles away.

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On the other side of the screen were students from Floyd Central High School in Eastern Kentucky, a mining region that couldn’t look more different than the South Bronx.

Yet the two groups of students quickly became friends, learning that there isn’t as much separating them—despite deep demographic, cultural, and political differences—as you might expect.

The project was put together by Narrative 4 , an organization that works around the world to connect diverse groups of people through sharing their personal stories.

“We got these kids sort of hooked on each other through story exchange,” Lee Keylock, director of global programs at Narrative 4, told Greater Good . “It breaks down all these stereotypes and perceived biases.”

The foundation of libertarian-conservative billionaire Charles Koch funded part of the initiative . A classroom in Tampico, Mexico, also participated, making the project international.

What makes us unique?

Like many bridge-building organizations, Narrative 4 strategically avoids discussing issues that might trigger negative intergroup dynamics.

Keylock explains that the students at University Heights come from many different faith backgrounds, as opposed to the more homogenous Catholic school in Tampico. So Narrative 4 advises the participants to avoid starting conversations by immediately asking about their opposite’s faith background—which would lump them into a group category—but instead to ask them to tell stories about what they personally believe.

“So, they already meet each other on a very personal plane,” Keylock says, “before they start talking about some of these big issues.”

The Sisterhood of Salaam Shalom takes a similar approach, working to build bonds between women in these two faith communities: Muslim and Jewish. For instance, the organization instructs participants to avoid discussing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict—a polarizing issue that often quickly divides Muslims and Jews—until they have known each other for an entire year. This allows the women to see each other as individuals rather than as partisan representatives of one side of a conflict.

The People’s Supper applies this insight to fostering ties between many different kinds of Americans. It has hosted over 900 dinners across the country, bringing together participants from diverse social and political backgrounds to talk about themselves and build companionship with people on the other side of major divides. “For us, the starting place is to not talk about politics,” Lennon Flowers, who helped launch the project, told Greater Good last year. “So often our conversations are limited to our positions, rather than our stories, rather than who we are.”

Through both research and the experience of practitioners in the field, we know that focusing on individual characteristics rather than group identity can be a powerful bridge-building tool.

Just ask Gary Nigh, a former KKK leader who was convinced by Davis to leave the organization. In a documentary called Accidental Courtesy , which features Davis’s anti-racist work, interviewers asked Nigh to explain his transformation. He gestured at Davis and replied: “I met him.”

About the Author

Zaid Jilani

Zaid Jilani is Greater Good 's Bridging Differences Writing Fellow. A journalist originally from Atlanta, he has worked as a reporter for The Intercept and as a reporter-blogger for ThinkProgress, United Republic, the Progressive Change Campaign Committee, and Alternet .

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Women Fighting Stereotypes and Systemic Discrimination in STEM

While half the world is female, fewer than 30 percent of the world’s Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) professionals are women.

Earth Science, Engineering, Mathematics

Women in a Science Lab

While half the world is female, less than 30 percent of the world’s Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) professionals are women.

Photograph by Lightfield Studios Inc./Alamy Stock Photo

Science is the  systematic ,  evidence -based study of how the natural world works. Presumably, this  objective  pursuit would be free of  bias  and welcoming to those with the desire and talent to pursue it, but that has not always been true for women. While about half the human  population  is female, fewer than 30 percent of the world’s Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) professionals are women.

Women with research positions in academic STEM do their jobs well. They publish at a similar rate as men with their research having roughly the same impact, according to  this study by UNESCO . However, women’s STEM careers are often less productive than men’s STEM careers because women’s careers are shorter and they have higher dropout rates, according to the March 2020 paper. Each year, women have nearly a 20 percent higher chance of leaving  academia  than men do.

Gender representation in STEM differs by field. Women often outnumber men in  biological  fields. However, men far outnumber women in physics, computer science, and engineering.

Like other male-dominated jobs in the United States, science and engineering received a huge  influx  of women with the onset of World War II. With huge numbers of men away fighting, women were encouraged to enter spaces they had been excluded from. When the war ended and men returned to the  work force , women were expected to leave the lab and the office. But some women fought to remain in STEM. American women in STEM justified their positions as assets to the nation as it fought the  Cold War .

Fighting for their place in the world of STEM has been even tougher for Black and brown women. That is not to say that Black, Indigenous, and other women of color have not made their mark on science. Katherine Johnson, a Black woman, made the calculations to ensure U.S. astronaut John Glenn orbited Earth and returned safe. Sarah Al-Amiri led a team of fellow Arab women in placing an orbiter around Mars, making the United Arab Emirates just the fifth country to do so.

All too often these achievements are the  exception , not the  norm . Historically, there have been legal, social, and cultural barriers to entry and advancement in these fields. Studying and working in STEM has been traditionally marketed as men’s work. Systemic discrimination, unconscious bias , and sexual harassment can also prematurely ends women’s STEM careers.

In the United States, women are 47 percent of the employed  civilian   work force , but only 25 percent of the STEM work force . In the U.S., women of every  ethnicity  are underrepresented in STEM jobs, except for Asian women. Asian women make up 4.3 percent of STEM occupations while accounting for 2.8 percent of the employed work force . White women are about 32 percent of the work force , but about 17 percent of those working in STEM.

Those numbers are bleaker for Black and brown American women. Latinas comprise 6.7 percent of the work force , but just 1.7 percent of STEM jobs. Black women account for 6.0 percent of the work force and 2.2 percent of STEM occupations . Women who self-identified by other racial designations, such as Indigenous or Pacific Islander, were too few to be analyzed . A similar breakdown is seen with the attainment of STEM bachelor’s degrees with Black and Latina women earning fewer than their  proportion  of STEM degrees.

The U.S. is not exceptional with its lack of women in the STEM work force. Worldwide, women make up just over 29 percent of STEM researchers. There are just 17 nations where women make up the majority of STEM researchers.

As technology advances, more STEM professionals are sought out. Nations receive an economic boost with added STEM workers, making them appealing to governments. In the United States alone, STEM work accounts for 69 percent of the gross domestic product. This calculation includes many jobs that don’t require a college degree, like X-Ray technician.

The lack of women in STEM fields doesn’t just hurt society, but women themselves. STEM occupations are highly valued professions with higher salaries than other careers. Yet when compared to men, women in STEM are paid less.

The need is so high it often outpaces the ability of employers to fill them. Women of color are a huge part of the world’s people and talent pool. By underutilizing Black and brown women in these positions, their respective nations are losing out on their skills and  perspective . Research shows upping diversity improves problem solving, which is a key to any STEM job.

NOTE: While we recognize neither sex nor  gender  is a  binary , data used to study STEM and sex is limited to such. Thus, this story will be using these limited terms.

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Essay on Stereotypes

Students are often asked to write an essay on Stereotypes in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Stereotypes

What are stereotypes.

Stereotypes are fixed beliefs about a particular group of people. They are often negative and oversimplified. Stereotypes can be based on race, gender, religion, or nationality.

How Stereotypes are Formed

Stereotypes are often formed from personal experience. For example, if someone has a negative experience with a member of a particular group, they may start to believe that all members of that group are negative. Stereotypes can also be formed from the media. If people see negative images of a particular group on TV or in movies, they may start to believe that those images are true.

The Dangers of Stereotypes

Stereotypes can be dangerous because they can lead to discrimination. When people believe that a particular group of people is negative, they may be less likely to interact with them or give them opportunities. Stereotypes can also lead to violence. If people believe that a particular group of people is dangerous, they may be more likely to attack them.

Breaking Down Stereotypes

Stereotypes can be broken down by education and contact. When people learn about different cultures and meet people from different backgrounds, they start to realize that stereotypes are not true.

250 Words Essay on Stereotypes

What is Stereotype?

A stereotype is a fixed idea or belief about a particular group or person. It is often an oversimplified, inaccurate, and prejudiced generalization. Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral. They can be about a person’s age, gender, race, religion, occupation, or any other group affiliation.

How Stereotypes are Formed?

Stereotypes are often formed through socialization, the process of learning the values, beliefs, and behaviors of a particular culture or group. Children learn stereotypes from their parents, teachers, peers, and the media. They may also learn stereotypes by observing the behavior of others.

Impact of Stereotypes

Stereotypes can have a negative impact on individuals and groups. They can lead to discrimination, prejudice, and social inequality. Stereotypes can also affect the way people think about themselves and their place in society.

Challenging Stereotypes

Stereotypes can be challenged through education, awareness, and contact with diverse groups of people. It is important to teach children about the dangers of stereotypes and to help them develop critical thinking skills. It is also important to provide opportunities for people to interact with people from different backgrounds.

Stereotypes are harmful overgeneralizations that can lead to discrimination and prejudice. It is important to challenge stereotypes by learning about the dangers of prejudice and by promoting diversity and inclusion.

500 Words Essay on Stereotypes

What is a stereotype.

A stereotype is an idea about a person or a group of people that is not true for all the people in the group. It is like a label that we sometimes put on people based on their race, gender, age, religion, or other characteristics. Stereotypes can be positive or negative, but they are always harmful because they are not true.

How Do Stereotypes Form?

Stereotypes can form for many reasons. One reason is that we are all born with a tendency to categorize things. This helps us to make sense of the world around us by putting things into groups. However, sometimes we can over-categorize and start to think that everyone in a group is the same. This is where stereotypes come from.

Another reason stereotypes can form is through the media. The media often portrays people in certain ways, and these portrayals can reinforce stereotypes. For example, if we see a lot of images of women in the media who are thin and beautiful, we may start to think that all women should look that way.

Stereotypes can be very harmful. They can lead to discrimination and prejudice. When we stereotype people, we are judging them based on their group membership and not on their individual qualities. This can lead to unfair treatment and discrimination.

Stereotypes can also be harmful to the people who are stereotyped. They can make people feel like they don’t belong or that they are not good enough. This can lead to low self-esteem and depression.

How to Challenge Stereotypes

The best way to challenge stereotypes is to learn more about the people who are stereotyped. When we get to know people as individuals, we start to realize that they are not all the same. We also need to be aware of our own stereotypes and challenge them when they come up.

We can also challenge stereotypes by speaking out against them when we see or hear them. We can also support organizations that are working to break down stereotypes.

Stereotypes are harmful because they are not true and they can lead to discrimination and prejudice. We can challenge stereotypes by learning more about the people who are stereotyped and by speaking out against stereotypes when we see or hear them. We can also support organizations that are working to break down stereotypes.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Stereotypes and Their Effects Essay

Introduction, common stereotypes.

Stereotypes refer to misleading perceptions labeled against a group of people or a certain way of doing things, which are flawed, and that misrepresent reality (Stangor, 2000, p.24).

Common stereotypes include negative perceptions against certain religions, gender, ethnic groups or a certain race. Stereotypes have adverse effects on victims. They encourage hatred, irresponsible behaviors, aggressiveness, lack of self-control and diminish motivation of individuals in certain situations (Stangor, 2000, p.28). Stereotypes are unethical and should be discouraged.

Three common stereotypes include the perception that Muslims are terrorists, Christians are ignorant, and that women are less intelligent than men. These stereotypes are unjustified because they lack scientific evidence to validate them.

They result from hatred and superiority complex by individuals or groups of individuals who harbor negative attitudes towards certain individuals or social groups (Stangor, 2000, p.43). Stereotypes are either positive or negative. However, they are baseless and unethical because they lack evidence to validate them.

The stereotype that Muslims are terrorists propagates the perception that Muslims are evil people and always act to destroy the world and harm people (McGarty et al, 2002, p.73). The media has played a significant role in propagating this stereotype. Individuals who perpetuate the stereotype claim that Islam supports murder in its teachings.

This stereotype is flawed because a decision to commit a crime is motivated by personal values and character, and not an individual’s religion (McGarty et al, 2002, p.75). In addition, the teachings of Islam condemn murder and instead encourage peace. This stereotype leads to hatred and religious intolerance, which cause religious and political wars.

Another common stereotype is that Christians are ignorant. People who propagate this stereotype believe that Christians are ignorant because they ignore the validity of science (Chunnel, 2010, par3). In addition, they claim that Christians are evil because the Bible contains many stories that talk of war and violence.

This stereotype is flawed because there are so many Christians who believe in science. Christians who do not believe in science do so because they choose to believe what Christianity teaches without investigating to find the truth. Even though their Christian beliefs may contribute towards their refutation of science, not all Christians are ignorant. This stereotype causes religious intolerance and persecution.

The stereotype that women are less intelligent than men is a gender stereotype that is held by many people. People use the traditional concept of division of roles based on gender to propagate the stereotype (McGarty et al, 2002, p.79). Women were given easy tasks such as cooking, washing and taking care of children. On the other hand, men handled difficult tasks such as fending for their families and cultivation.

Men’s ability to handle difficult tasks is the foundation of this stereotype. The stereotype is unfounded because in today’s society, gender roles have changed and women are handling tasks that were considered masculine (McGarty et al, 2002, p.80). In addition, women have equal potential to success as me do. The large number of women in leadership roles is a proof that women are as intelligent as men are, and they can achieve whatever men can achieve.

Stereotypes refer to misleading perceptions labeled against a group of people or a certain way of handling responsibilities, which are flawed, and that misrepresent reality. Common stereotypes include perceptions against certain religions, gender, ethnic group or certain race. Stereotypes have lasting negative effects on victims. Common consequences of stereotyping include hatred, aggressiveness and lack of self-control.

Chunnel, A. (2010). Stereotypes in Religions . Web.

McGarty, C., Yzerbty, V., and Spears, R. (2002). Stereotypes as Explanations: The Formation of Meaningful Beliefs about Social Groups . London: Cambridge University Press.

Stangor, C. (2000). Stereotypes and Prejudice: Key Readings . New York: Psychology Press.

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July 8, 2020

Stereotypes Harm Black Lives and Livelihoods, but Research Suggests Ways to Improve Things

Management researcher Modupe Akinola explains on how stereotypes hurt Black Americans and what we can do to counter them

By Katy Milkman & Kassie Brabaw

Modupe Akinola speaks on stage at the New York Times 2015 DealBook Conference at the Whitney Museum of American Art on November 3, 2015, in New York City.

Neilson Barnard Getty Images

The Black Lives Matter protests shaking the world have thankfully brought renewed attention not just to police brutality but to the broader role of racism in our society. Research suggests some roots of racism lie in the stereotypes we hold about different groups. And those stereotypes can affect everything from the way police diagnose danger to who gets interviewed for jobs to which students get attention from professors. Negative stereotypes harm Black Americans at every turn. To reduce their pernicious effects, it’s important to first understand how stereotypes work and just how pervasive they are.

Modupe Akinola , an associate professor at Columbia Business School, studies racial bias, workforce diversity and stress. Recently, Katy Milkman , a professor at the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania, got to chat with Akinola about how stereotypes are formed, how they affect consequential decisions and how we can combat negative stereotypes .

[ An edited transcript of the interview follows. ]

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Let’s start at the beginning. What is a stereotype?

A stereotype is a snap judgment we make about a person or about a thing that can influence our decision-making. Every day we get millions and millions of bits of information in our head that associate good and bad with certain people or groups or things. And anytime we then see those people, groups or things, that association comes immediately to our mind.

Why do you think we do this?

We’re processing so much information all the time; we need these mental shortcuts to allow us to navigate the world. If not, we wouldn’t be able to function, quite frankly. We have to make quick judgments to make life easier and to simplify. But any type of shortcut can have its pros and cons.

Could you talk about some of the research connecting stereotyping with racism?

One of my favorite sets of studies examines stereotyping as it relates to policing. I grew up in New York City. And we heard a lot about Amadou Diallo, who was an unarmed Black man who was shot by police, because they thought he was carrying a gun—when in actuality, he raised his hand, and he had a wallet.

Joshua Correll, [now at the University of Colorado Boulder], and his colleagues wanted to look at whether the stereotypes associating Black people with danger could play a role in how a mistake like that could be made. The news we see regularly shows crime rates being higher for certain populations, mostly minority populations,. And so this creates an automatic stereotype that a Black man would be more linked to danger than a white man, because you don’t see those same associations for white people.

Correll came up with a computerized shooter bias exercise that showed pictures of targets, Black and white men, carrying objects, either weapons or regular objects like a Coke can or a wallet. When you saw a person and the object, you had to click on whether or not to shoot. He found that civilians were more likely to shoot unarmed Black men, relative to unarmed white men and even armed white men, which was attributed to the stereotypes associating Black people with danger.

I found that study fascinating, because it showed just how powerful these associations can be. I did some follow-up research, because I wanted to see if stress affects that decision-making process. I stressed out police officers and had them engage in the shooting exercise.

The interesting thing is: I saw that under stress, officers were more accurate. They were able to discern whether to shoot an armed Black man and did that better in terms of not shooting unarmed Black men. However, they were less likely to shoot armed white men, which I think demonstrates the power of stereotypes, because there isn’t a stereotype of white and danger.

Stereotypes work in two ways: they can harm some groups, and they can protect others.

Are there any other studies about stereotyping that you think people might find illuminating?

My favorite are audit studies, where you observe real-world behavior. There have been audit studies where people go to car dealerships to see if people are treated differently and about who gets mortgages and things like that.

One audit study was testing ads in the newspaper, which were advertising entry-level positions. [The researchers] sent candidate résumés to these job ads, which were identical, and changed the names on the résumés to signal race. “Lakisha” and “Jamal” were Black-sounding names that were tested and pretested to ensure they would signal race versus a name like “Catherine,” which would be a more white-sounding name. They waited to see who called back for which candidates. The Lakishas and Jamals received fewer callbacks for an interview than the white-sounding names.

Again, this behavior is attributed to stereotypes. We make presumptions and snap judgments about who might be more qualified for a job, who might do well in a job, even in the context of identical information.

Would you be willing to describe a little bit of the work we’ve done together on the role of stereotyping in academia?

Certainly. We—you, I and Dolly Chugh [of the Stern School of Business at New York University]—wanted to see if racial or gender stereotypes impact the pathway to academia. As you’re applying or thinking about getting a Ph.D., often you’ll reach out to a professor and ask, “Are you taking graduate students?” or “Can I learn more about your research?” We get these e-mails, all the time, asking for time on our schedule. And we wanted to see if professors would differentially respond to these requests, depending on the race and gender of the requester.

We sent e-mails to around 6,500 professors across the country, at both private and public universities. We sent these e-mails that were identical, except we varied the race and gender of the name of the applicant.

These e-mails said, “Dear professor so-and-so, I’ll be on campus on XYZ day, on a Monday or Tuesday, and was wondering if I could take some time to learn about your research.” The names on these e-mails were Chinese names, Indian names, African-American-, Latino- and white-sounding names. We pretested all these names to ensure that they did signal the race and gender we thought they would.

We expected to see more stereotyping or discrimination (i.e., fewer responses) to nonwhite males when asked to meet next week versus today. Why? Today everyone’s pretty busy, and so there’s no time for the stereotypes or snap judgments to come into your mind about who might be a more qualified student, who you might want to respond to and meet with.

However, in a meeting request for next week, you might go through more scrutiny about whether the candidate is worthy of your time. We thought that’s when stereotypes would set in. Maybe for some categories, it’s “Do they have English-language proficiency?” For other categories, given the lack of minorities in academia in general, there might be the question of “Can they cut it?”

As we predicted, we did find fewer responses for all of the other categories, relative to the responses to white males, for a meeting request for next week. The question then was whether we’d see this when we matched the race and the gender of the professor with the race and the gender of the student. We still found that requests for next week, regardless of the race of the professor, are lower for candidates other than white males.

As an African-American professor, in the early days of my teaching, I’d often find myself setting up to teach a class, and somebody, usually a prospective student, would come in and say, “I’d like to sit in and learn more about this class. Where’s the professor?” They would say that to me as I was setting up, looking like the professor—on the computer, getting everything ready. That, for me, was a perfect example of how stereotypes can play a role.

The stereotype of what a professor looks like—an older white man with gray hair—is one of the factors that might make somebody come in, see a person at the podium preparing for work and wearing a suit, and ask who the professor is. I love those moments, in some ways, because one of the ways in which you change people’s stereotypes is by having counter-stereotypical exemplars.

Let’s talk more about that. How can we combat stereotypes or try to reduce the harm they cause?

I think one of the ways we can reduce the harm of stereotypes is just being aware. Sometimes you’ll be walking down the street, and you’ll make a snap judgment and not even realize it. But I think one of the critical aspects is noticing, “Oh wow, that came up for me. That’s interesting,” and thinking, “Where did that come from?” We can change our behavior when we’re more aware that our behavior is being influenced by stereotypes.

The other way is by being exposed to counter-stereotypical exemplars. As an African-American, female professor, a student’s mere exposure to me means that the next time they go into a classroom with an African-American woman setting up, or someone else who might defy the stereotype of what a professor looks like, they won’t automatically say, “Where’s the professor?”

I often tell my students they have a beautiful opportunity to be the walking, breathing and living counter-stereotypical exemplars in their work environments. I ask them to think about the stereotypes that exist about them, the stereotypes that exist about people around them, the stereotypes that exist about people on their teams— and to realize that, every day, they have the opportunity to defy those stereotypes.

Katy Milkman is a behavioral scientist and James G. Dinan Professor of Operations, Information and Decisions at the Wharton School . She is co-director of the Behavior Change for Good Initiative .

Kassie Brabaw is a journalist writing about health, relationships and astronomy. Find her work at Health, SELF.com, Women’s Health, VICE.com and Space.com.

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The Outsiders: Challenging Stereotypes

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Stereotypes in "the outsiders", consequences of stereotyping, challenging stereotypes.

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How to beat gender stereotypes: learn, speak up and react

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“Life is not fair; get used to it.” The famous first rule of Bill Gates’s “ 11 rules you will never learn in school ” resonates with everybody, but probably more with women than men. According to the Global Gender Gap Index , 108 years are needed to close the global gender gap. While classical economic models predict that discrimination on the basis of characteristics such as gender should naturally disappear thanks to competition, reality seems to tell a different story.

The lack of women in male-dominated and high-paying industries such as STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) is often cited as a critical factor behind the gender gap. Even though girls perform as well as boys in math and science standardized tests at school , fewer women consider a professional career in these fields. Women seem to face different hurdles that have little to do with their abilities. Gender stereotypes are one of them.

What are gender stereotypes?

While men are generally portrayed as having agency characteristics such as competence, achievement-orientation, inclination to take charge, autonomy and rationality, women are associated with communal characteristics such as concern for others, affiliation tendencies, deference and emotional sensitivity. These characteristics are not only different, they tend to be oppositional: lay people on average believe that men should not be excessively warm (communal) and that women should not be excessively dominant (agency). Research on these generalizations has been extensive and shows they are consistent across culture, time and context.

Stereotypes often serve as shortcuts for forming impressions of people and guide our decisions, without people being completely aware of it. Gender preconceptions have important consequences for the workplace. Here are some examples:

• No credit where credit is due

Whenever women are working with men on male gender-typed tasks, men are more likely to be credited for joint successes and women are more likely to be blamed for joint failures. These negative performance expectations can only be overturned when the woman’s individual contribution is unquestionable, or her task competence is very high.

• Men are promoted on potential, women are promoted for proven performance

Research shows that women are held to stricter standards for promotion: promoted women have higher performance ratings than promoted men, and performance ratings are more strongly related to promotions for women than for men.

• The backlash effect: competent but bossy and unlikeable

When women counter their stereotype and break expectations about how they “should” behave, they pay the cost: dominant women are perceived as less likeable and less hireable than men. A 2016 survey of more than 30,000 employees found that women who negotiated for promotions were 30% more likely than men to be labelled intimidating, bossy or aggressive.

The paradox: defy or conform?

When women conform to gender stereotypes (e.g. by showing emotional sensitivity and concern for others), they are likely to be perceived as less competent. But, if they defy these stereotypes and behave “like a man” (e.g. by showing dominance, ambition and rationality), they will be penalized by a backlash effect. Successful women in male gender-typed fields are well aware of this effect. Speaking at the American Economic Association’s annual meeting in January, Susan Athey, a world-renowned economist, said “ I spent all my time hoping that no one would remember I was female. ”

Men, too, can be penalized when they do not conform to these gender stereotypes. A recent study found that the gender of the initial role occupant (a microcredit loan manager in this case) was enough to influence the authority enjoyed by future individuals in that role. In other words, when a borrower was paired with a female manager, he/she gender-typed the role as a female-typed role and was less compliant than if he/she was initially paired with a male manager. This bias remains even after being subsequently managed by the other gender (ie a male manager in our example).

Stereotypes harm us all

Stereotypes are entrenched beliefs perpetuated by both men and women, present in our minds since childhood . Anybody can easily fall into this trap. Curious? You can test your unconscious association between gender and science/arts by taking the Gender-Career Implicit Association Test . Seventy percent of people who took this test across 34 countries associated science as being more male than female.

Unfortunately, anti-discrimination legislation, codes of conduct, diversity criteria or legal actions can’t fight this more subtle form of discrimination . You can’t sue your boss for consciously or unconsciously believing that you don’t have what it takes to succeed.

The ball is in our court

Raising awareness of these challenges alone is insufficient. To change mindsets, women should do three things:

1. Learn – because knowledge is power

Have you ever had the feeling of having been ripped off by your repair shop? If yes, you are not alone. A research paper found that auto-repair shops alter their price quotes depending on how informed callers appear to be about prices. When callers signaled that they had no idea about what the repair should cost, women were quoted a higher price than men. But these gender differences disappeared when a benchmark price was indicated.

This example illustrates how a single piece of information could help reduce any gender-related price discrimination (and might also start changing car mechanics’ expectations about women). Interestingly, the study also found that repair shops were more likely to offer a lower price if asked by a woman than by a man. So, informed women ended up having an advantage over men.

The #SheCANics movement is a powerful example of empowering women through awareness, education and support.

2. Move confidently into male-dominated areas and speak up

Let’s be honest: stereotypes won’t disappear unless people understand they are harmful. Women in male-dominated environments can help raise awareness. Role models play a crucial role in promoting gender equality and fighting gender stereotypes (e.g. Billie Jean King in sport, Sheryl Sandberg’s Lean In initiative and the #banbossy campaign ). Even advertisers are moving into this space and are starting to actively address women (eg Gillette’s ad “ The Best Men Can Be ” or Serena Williams’ Bumble commercial ).

3. Prepare to react

Women should anticipate and prepare to react to inappropriate or discriminating comments. For example, when the American celebrity Lauren Conrad was asked on radio “What is your favorite position?”, she briefly paused and replied “CEO”.

While such questions or comments were acceptable in the past, it is our role today to make sure they will no longer be tolerated. Those perpetuating gender stereotypes should bear the consequences of such behaviour. A recent example is Martin Solveig’s apology after making a sexist comment during the Ballon d’Or ceremony . We must accept that biases exist, own them and retrain our brains to overcome them . Life might not be fair, but we can do something about it.

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How Gender Stereotypes Kill a Woman’s Self-Confidence

Women make up more than half of the labor force in the United States and earn almost 60 percent of advanced degrees, yet they bring home less pay and fill fewer seats in the C-suite than men, particularly in male-dominated professions like finance and technology.

This gender gap is due in part to “occupational sorting,” with men choosing careers that pay higher wages than women do, labor economists say. For example, women represent only 26 percent of US workers employed in computer and math jobs, according to the Department of Labor.

New research identifies one reason women might be shying away from certain professions: They lack confidence in their ability to compete in fields that men are stereotypically believed to perform more strongly in, such as science, math, and technology.

Women are also more reluctant to share their ideas in group discussions on these subjects. And even when they have talent—and are actually told they are high-achievers in these subjects—women are more likely than men to shrug off the praise and lowball their own abilities.

This weak self-confidence may hold some women back as they count themselves out of pursuing prestigious roles in professions they believe they won’t excel in, despite having the skills to succeed, says Harvard Business School Assistant Professor Katherine B. Coffman .

“Our beliefs about ourselves are important in shaping all kinds of important decisions, such as what colleges we apply to, which career paths we choose, and whether we are willing to contribute ideas in the workplace or try to compete for a promotion,” Coffman says. “If talented women in STEM aren’t confident, they might not even look at those fields in the first place. It’s all about how good we think we are, especially when we ask ourselves, ‘What does it make sense for me to pursue?’”

Coffman has recently co-written an article in the American Economic Review as well as two working papers, all aimed at studying men’s and women’s beliefs about their own abilities.

“Women are more likely than men to shrug off the praise and lowball their own abilities.”

What she found, in essence, is that gender stereotypes distort our views of both ourselves and others—and that may be especially troubling for women, since buying into those stereotypes could be creating a bleak self-image that is setting them back professionally.

Here’s a snapshot of findings from all three research studies:

Women are less confident than men in certain subjects, like math

In a study for the journal article Beliefs about Gender , Coffman and her colleagues asked participants to answer multiple-choice trivia questions in several categories that women are perceived to have a better handle on, like the Kardashians, Disney movies, cooking, art and literature, and verbal skills. Then they were quizzed in categories considered favorable for men, such as business, math, videogames, cars, and sports.

Respondents were asked to estimate how many questions they answered correctly on tests, and to guess the performance of a random partner whose gender was revealed. Both men and women exaggerated the actual gender performance gaps on average, overstating the male advantage in male-typed domains as well as overstating the female advantage in female-typed questions. And in predicting their own abilities, women had much less confidence in their scores on the tests they believed men had an advantage in.

“Gender stereotypes determine people’s beliefs about themselves and others,” Coffman says. “If I take a woman who has the exact same ability in two different categories—verbal and math—just the fact that there’s an average male advantage in math shapes her belief that her own ability in math is lower.”

Women discount positive feedback about their abilities

In an experiment for Coffman’s working paper Stereotypes and Belief Updating , participants completed a timed test of cognitive ability in five areas: general science, arithmetic reasoning, math knowledge, mechanical comprehension, and assembling objects. They were asked to guess their total number of correct answers, as well as how their performance compared to others. A woman who actually had the same score as a man estimated her score to be 0.58 points lower, a statistically significant gap. Even more surprising, even after participants were provided with feedback about how they performed, this gender gap in how well they perceived they did continued.

In a second study participants were asked to guess how they performed on a test in a randomly assigned subject matter and to predict their own rank relative to others completing the same test. The researchers then provided participants with feedback about their performance. They found that both men and women discounted good news about their scores in subjects that their gender was perceived to have more trouble with.

Stereotypes play on our minds so strongly that it becomes tougher to convince people of their talent in fields where they believe their gender is weak, Coffman says.

“A policy prescription to correct a confidence gap in women might be: Let’s find talented women and tell them, ‘Hey, you’re good at math. You got a really good score on this math test,'" she says. “But our results suggest that this feedback is less effective in closing the gender gap than we might hope. It’s harder than we thought to convince women in male-typed fields that they’ve performed well in these fields.”

It’s unclear whether women would feel better about their abilities if they received repeated rounds of positive feedback, rather than one piece of good news. “I’d be interested to find out if the gender bias gets smaller over time, once a woman has heard that she’s good at math over and over again,” Coffman says. “You might have to encourage women a few times if you want to close these gaps.”

"Our work suggests a need for structuring group decision-making in a way that assures the most talented members both volunteer and are recognized for their contributions, despite gender stereotypes.”

It's important to note, Coffman says, that these studies also show that men have less confidence than women in their ability to shine in fields dominated by women. “It’s not that women are simply less confident; what we find consistently is that individuals are less confident in fields that are more stereotypically outside of their gender’s domain,” Coffman says.

Women hold back on expressing ideas on ‘male topics’

In a third paper, Gender Stereotypes in Deliberation and Team Decisions, Coffman and colleagues studied how teams discuss, decide on, and reward ideas in a group.

The research team compared the behavior of two groups that had free-form discussions in response to questions that varied in the amount of “maleness” of the topic. In one group, the gender of each participant was known, and in the other group, the gender of speakers was not identifiable. They found that men and women had the same ability to answer the questions, yet once again, gender stereotypes warped people’s responses.

As the “maleness” of the question increased, women were significantly less likely than men to self-promote their ideas within the group when their gender was known, particularly in cases where only one woman was talking with a bunch of men. But in the groups where gender was unknown, no gender differences were found in terms of how much women and men talked up their ideas or were recognized by others for their input.

The researchers even found that stereotypes seemed to play a role in the way outside evaluators rated the contributions of each group member after reading transcripts of the conversations. Without knowing the gender of speakers, these evaluators were significantly more likely to guess that participants who came across in the transcripts as “warm,” or friendly, were female and that a negative or critical participant was male—even though researchers found no actual differences in how men and women in the group communicated. Male raters also were significantly less likely to believe that speakers who were judged as “competent” were female. In addition, warmer participants, particularly warmer women, were less likely to be rewarded for their input in the discussions.

Speak up for success

To achieve professional success, people must voice opinions and advocate for their ideas while working in decision-making teams, so it’s a problem if women are staying quiet when it comes to male-typed subjects—and if their ideas are appreciated less when they do express them, Coffman says.

“Our work suggests a need for structuring group decision-making in a way that assures the most talented members both volunteer and are recognized for their contributions, despite gender stereotypes,” the paper says.

It’s also important for managers to be aware of how confidence gaps may impact the workplace, particularly in professions long dominated by men, and to realize that women may need extra encouragement to express their ideas or to throw their hat in the ring for a promotion, Coffman says.

“I would encourage business leaders to think about how [workers’ confidence levels] impact the processes in their organizations,” Coffman says. “I would say providing extra feedback is a good start. If you as an employer see talent somewhere, reaching out to make sure the person is encouraged, recognized, and rewarded—not just once, but repeatedly—could be a helpful thing to do.”

With this new data on gender stereotyping, Coffman and her colleagues hope their work will help inform future research to piece together answers to some puzzling questions, like why men and women alike believe that men will perform better than women in some domains and what interventions can be considered to close this gender gap in self-confidence.

“Stereotypes are pervasive, widely-held views that shape beliefs about our own and others’ abilities, likely from a very young age,” Coffman says. “Until we can change these stereotypes, it’s essential to think about how we can better inoculate individuals from biases induced by stereotypes, helping people to pursue fulfilling careers in the areas where their passions and talents lie.”

Dina Gerdeman is senior editor at Harvard Business School Working Knowledge.

Image: Willbrasil21

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Age Discrimination In The Workplace Essay

Ageism was spotted in 1866 and it is seen today with multiple stereotypes and prejudice of the elderly and it is especially observed in the workplace. Our aged population with limited income, yet bearers of a number of bills, including rising cost in utilities, medical care, and medications are faced with the stress and suffering of age discrimination in the workforce. This paper will review the history of age discrimination and discuss cases in which employees favor the young and terminate the old.

Pride And Prejudice Analytical Essay Argumentative Essay

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My name is John, and I am an alcoholic. This is the declaration made by members of Alcoholics Anonymous. Alcoholics Anonymous also claims to be the only effective means of recovering from alcoholism. Declaring to be the only effective source for recovery from alcoholism is like claiming there is only one drug to treat an illness. Alcoholics Anonymous is not an effective form of treatment for all person’s dependent upon alcohol. Studies, statistics, modern science, and rational thought have proven that Alcoholics is not effective.

ABOUT ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS

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- Abstract This paper provides a detailed account of the theoretical issues that have existed with the researches on terrorism and also provides a clear view of the critical perspectives on terrorism researches. The study identifies extensive literature on terrorism based studies and offers a critical analysis of the approaches used and segregates between the strengths and weaknesses of the approaches that exist. The results reveal that mixed methodologies with epistemological design are adequate for terrorism researches and it is beneficial to avoid a judgmental attitude however the proposed system also provides a technique for customized selection of methodology.

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Pay attention on theoretical part, so you will need to provide some theories that you will use on this essay, e.g. institutalism, constructivism, realism etc. It will evaluate that you can study terrorism from different theoretical perspectives.

It is important to mention, that probably key book for this essay will be Robson, Colin, Real World Research (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993).

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The United States traditionally has been one of the most popular world destinations for those seeking a new start and a better life away from their home country, primarily due to the perceived affluent economy with opportunities for those prepared to integrate and to work hard. However, immigration to the USA is not without problems, even for legal immigrants. Obstacles in the way of settling in may arise from a number of social factors, viz:

Education – the type/quality available to new citizens and their children, especially if they have little English;

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Women have been involved in combat for longer than many individuals realize. For centuries they have been the backbone and the support behind the troops of many nations. Women have undergone dangerous missions and been placed into life-threatening circumstances quite often. Unfortunately their role has always been seen as supportive, never as combatants. The role of women in combat is changing from passive support to active participant.

There are concerns that go beyond the leaderships qualities that may or may not have

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According to Jeannette Krebs, patriotism has lost most of its original meaning and use. In fact, it has been misused by the people leading to loss of its initial meaning. The author presents the topic as internal feelings which are personal and strong binding a person to his/her country. This makes the name to express the overall love for a country and being ready to do virtually anything for the country (Jeanette, 2010).

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Free Argumentative Essay About Feeling And Thinking In The Activation And Application Of Stereotypes

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Gender: Stereotypes and Prejudice

This essay will discuss gender stereotypes and prejudice. It will explore how societal norms and expectations shape perceptions of masculinity and femininity, often leading to discrimination and inequality. The piece will examine the impact of gender stereotypes on individuals and society, and the importance of challenging these preconceived notions. PapersOwl showcases more free essays that are examples of Gender.

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Throughout history, gender stereotypes have made themselves prominent in the lives of individuals of all cultures. A stereotype is a common biased of a certain group that is defined by oversimplistic ideas usually taught at a young age. Gender stereotypes reflect the prescriptive notions of men and women that have been predetermined by society for centuries. While many have fought for the pursuit of equality and have become liberated in their beliefs and attitudes, many of our actions can be traced back to the influence of gender stereotyping and the common illusion of men and women that have been passed down through the generations.

In spite of their headstrong battle for their values, a significant number of people today relate to individuals on a gender stereotype bias.

From the birth of gender equality movements such as the Seneca Falls Convention of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott(1848) to the perilous fights against gender discrimination today, gender stereotypes have been an issue affecting everyone. At a women’s rights convention in Ohio in 1851, Sojourner Truth gave one of her most famous speeches, called “”Ain’t I a Woman.”” Truth asserts, “”That man over there says that women need to be helped into carriages, and lifted over ditches, and to have the best place everywhere. Nobody ever helps me into carriages, or over mud-puddles, or gives me nay best place! And ain’t I a woman?”” Truth calls for people to realize that no matter the skin color or gender, all people deserve equal treatment. The fight for equality can be seen in all parts of history being led by powerful leaders such as Sojourner Truth. Women’s rights activists like Stanton and Mott created the gateway for more individuals in society to aid in movements threatening genderstereotypes and breaking the boundaries that limit equality for all.

Prejudicial attitudes are taught at an early age from observing the stereotypical roles that people in our families assume. The deeper understanding of how certain things are able to influence ideas and self-understanding at a young age is discussed in “”Breaking Gender Stereotypes in the Toy Box.””. A new study is introduced by Lauren Spinner suggests a hypothetical ordeal that “”the potential power of words and images are able to battle gender stereotypes and open up interests and activities for children to explore without barriers”” (Perri). These choices are significant because they can influence the skills children learn and the possibilities they see for themselves. The images children see can reinforce stereotypes and limit their horizons, but they can also open up possibilities and lead kids to believe that they have more choices. As we progress through school, these attitudes are reinforced by our classmates and peers. Today, gender is viewed as a merely defined of misconceptions, judgments, and assumptions that are the fuel that runs in the veins of society today. In today’s society, the definition of gender is everchanging.

Despite the various roles played by men and women in today’s society, people are still prone to judge individuals based on their idea of how males and females are expected to behave. Articles such as “”Gender Stereotypes””elaborate on the idea that preconceived ways of life where the sexes are assigned characteristics and roles that are determined and limited by their gender. Eige explains that Gender stereotyping “”limits the development of the natural talents and abilities of women and men””(Eige). Stereotypes about women both result from and are the cause of, deeply ingrained attitudes, values, norms and prejudices against women (Eige).

Gender stereotypes are used to justify and maintain the historical relations of power of men over women as well as sexist attitudes that hold back the advancement of women. Gender stereotypes are studied to have known powerful effects on cognition and behavior, as well as increasing the gap between men and Women. In this gap, gender stereotypes include portraying feminine and masculine characteristics as complete opposites. The social pressure created by ideals based on gender stereotypes is studied to be damaging from childhood to adult years, as well as relationships. Although American society has prospered in recognizing and protecting human rights, these distortions of the sexes caused by gender stereotypes are known to isolate and interfere with levels of intimacy and compassion in relationships. Due to recent efforts to establish equality between the sexes, society can be seen straying away from ideas that support discrimination and inequality between men and women but is seen lacking when battling the everlasting fight agasint gender stereotypes in today’s society.

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PapersOwl.com. (2019). Gender: Stereotypes and Prejudice . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/gender-stereotypes-and-prejudice/ [Accessed: 25-Oct-2024]

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Essay on Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are enacted from an early age. Boys are expected to wear dull, ‘masculine’ colours and faced with parental outrage if they want to dress up as a princess. Girls are told to ‘play nicely’ and steered towards ‘suitable’ games, rather than climbing trees. Toys are generally divided into what is seen as appropriate for each gender, with rare exceptions such as American store Target, who recently decided to cease separating ‘boys’ toys’ and ‘girls’ toys’.

Such stereotypes persist into adulthood. In an age of supposed equality, women still bear the greater share of responsibility for childcare, housework, and caring for aging parents, even when they work as many hours or more as their male partner. This is because such issues are seen as ‘women’s work’ – something that is quite shocking in the 21st century. They are also underrepresented in politics and business, and are often castigated if they behave in a way that is seen as unbecoming for females – even in supposedly liberated countries.

Gender stereotypes are even more marked in some societies where religion governs behaviour. Women are seen as inferior, deserving of fewer legal and moral rights, and may even be considered their husbands’ property. They have fewer job opportunities and are often expected to follow much harsher standards than men, for example in the wearing of concealing garments. To western eyes, it seems extraordinary that Saudi Arabia, the only country in the world where women are banned from driving, has only recently decided to lift that ban in the near future.

But what are the consequences of forcing or expecting people to conform to gender stereotypes? Both genders stand to lose from the imposition of stereotypes. Being denied the chance to experiment or express oneself is likely to lead to unhappiness. Inequality, whether in the home or the workplace, breeds resentment. A great deal of potential is lost, both on a personal and societal level. Resentment may lead to rebellion against the expectations of society, even if it is at a personal cost.

Indeed, in some ways, it is men who lose the most. They are expected to suppress their feelings; a tragic event such as the loss of a child is seen as greater for the mother, and the father is not allowed to mourn in the same way. Men are expected to be less emotional, and that can be very damaging. They are also mocked if they choose to go into professions that are traditionally seen as suitable only for women, or if they avoid more ‘manly’ pursuits such as sports.

Women, on the other hand, have indeed made gains and now have greater, if not equal, access to many job opportunities that were once considered only suitable for men. The battle is not over, however. There is still a significant pay gap and many professions continue to be male-dominated, especially at higher levels.

While some gender differences are inescapable – whatever the headlines say, a ‘pregnant man’ is still a biological impossibility – everyone should be able to avoid conforming to stereotypes. There is little harm in allowing boys to wear skirts when they are young; indeed, it is only social expectations that prevent them from wearing a dress when they grow up. Of course, most may not wish to do so. But if women want to be treated as equals to men, it follows that men should also be able to do anything that women do. It seems ridiculous that men are effectively prohibited from experimenting with makeup and wearing skirts or dresses, simply because it is seen as effeminate. Equality goes both ways.

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